Matter and Interaction Chapter 03 Solutions

1
3.X.1 According to the Principle of Reciprocity,

~

Fon planet by star

~

Fon star by planet =
=
4e25 N
3.X.2 According to Newtons gravitational force law, the magnitude of the gravitational force on a planet by a star is directly
proportional to the product of the mass of the star and the mass of the planet. Thus, increasing the mass of the planet by a
factor of 2 will increase the gravitational force on the planet by a factor of 2. Thus,

~
Fon planet by star
(2)(4e25 N)
= 8e5 N
3-X-3 According to Newtons law of gravitation, the magnitude of the gravitational force on a planet by a star is inversely
proportional to the distance between them squared. Tripling the distance will decrease the magnitude of the force by a factor
of 32 . In other words, the gravitational force is smaller by a factor of (1/3)2 = 1/9.

~
Fgrav, on planet by star =

1
(8e20 N)
9
8.89e19 N
3.X.4 According to Newtons law of gravitation, the gravitational force on M by m is directly proportional to the product
of their masses and inversely proportional to the distance between them squared.
Tripling the mass of m will increase the force by a factor of 3.
Increasing the distance by a factor of 4 will decrease the force by 42 , making the force smaller by (1/4)2 = 1/16.
Thus the objects will attract with a force.

=
3
16

F
3.X.5 According to Newtons law of gravitation

~

Fgrav
m1 m2
= G 2

~r2,1

2
11 N m
(3 kg)(5 kg)
=
6.6742 10
2
kg
(2 m)2
= 2.5e-10 N
3.X.6 According to Newtons law of gravitation, the magnitude of the gravitational force on an object by Earth if the object
is on Earths surface is

~
Fgrav
= G
mEarth mobject
R2
Solve for the mass of Earth.
mEarth

~

Fgrav R2
Gmobject
(9.8 N)(6.4e6 m)2
m2 )(1 kg)
(6.6742 1011 Nkg
2
= 6.0e24 kg
3.X.7
(a) Since we are asked for the force on Ganymede by Europa, the vector ~r points from Europa (agent) to Ganymede (object)
which is < 1, 0, 0 >.
(b)
r = < 1, 0, 0 >=< 1, 0, 0 >.
(c) It is the same as
r, or < 1, 0, 0 >.
In calculating the gravitational force on Europa by Ganymede:
(a) Since we are asked for the force on Europa by Ganymede, the vector ~r points from Ganymede (agent) to Europa (object)
which is < 1, 0, 0 >.
(b)
r = < 1, 0, 0 >=< 1, 0, 0 >.
(c) It is the same as
r, or < 1, 0, 0 >.
3.X.8
(a)
~rME
= ~rM ~rE

= 2.8 108 , 0, 2.8 108 m h0, 0, 0i m

= 2.8 108 , 0, 2.8 108 m
(b)

~rME =
s
q
2
rME

2
2
+ rME
+ rME
y
(2.8 108 m) + (0 m) + (-2.8e8 m)
= 4.0e8 m
3
(c)
~r
ME

~rME

2.8 108 , 0, 2.8 108 m
=
4.0e8 m
= < 0.7, 0, 0.7 >
rME
(d)
~F
M,E
= ~Fgrav on M by E
m m
= G M E2 rME

~rM-E

2
11 N m
(7e22 kg)(6e24 kg)
=
6.6742 10
(< 0.7, 0, +0.7 >)
2
kg
(4.0e8 m)2
= 7.0e28 N < 0.7, 0, +0.7 >
= h-4.9e28 , 0, 4.9e28 i N
Note that the force points from Moon toward Earth, exactly as expected for the force on Moon by Earth.
3.X.9
(a) The magnitude of the gravitational field at a distance |~r| from a spherical body of mass M is
|~g| = G
M
|~r|
At the surface of Moon, |~r| = R, the radius of Moon.

|~g| =
=
6.6742 10
11
N m2
kg2
7e22 kg
(1.75e6 m)2
1.5 N/kg
(b) The magnitude of the gravitational force on an object of mass m by Moon is

~

Fgrav = m |~g|
=
(70 kg)(1.5 N/kg)
105 N
(c) On Earth

~

Fgrav = m |~g|
=
(70 kg)(9.8 N/kg)
686 N
3.X.10 The magnitude of the gravitational field at a distance |~r| from a spherical body of mass M is
|~g| = G
M
|~r|
At the surface of Mars, |~r| = R, the radius of Mars.

|~g| =
=
11
6.6742 10
N m2
kg2
6.4e23 kg
(3.4e6 m)2
3.7 N/kg
3.X.11 The gravitational force on a person by Earth near its surface is

~
Fgrav, on person by Earth =

mperson ~gEarth
(60 kg)(9.8 N/kg)
590 N
According to the Principle of Reciprocity,
~F
=
grav, on Earth by person

~
Fgrav, on Earth by person =

~
Fgrav, on Earth by person
~Fgrav, on person by Earth

~
Fgrav, on person by Earth
590 N
3.X.12 The net force on the comet is toward Sun. Sketch the net force and its perpendicular and parallel components at
location B, as shown in Figure 1.
pi
Sun
!
F
!
Fgrav
!
F! B
p
!
Figure 1: The net force on the comet at position B.
!p
p!f
p!i
Figure 2: The final momentum after one time step, starting at position B.
The parallel component of the net force on the comet is opposite the momentum of the comet. As a result, the magnitude
of the momentum will decrease and the comet will slow down. This can be seen by sketching the momentum, change in
momentum, and final momentum after one step. It helps to draw the vectors on their own diagram, as shown in Figure 2.
You can see in Figure 2 that the final momentum after one time step is smaller (i.e. shorter in length) than the initial
momentum at position B. This means that the comet slowed down, which is consistent with our earlier conclusion from
examining the direction of the parallel component of the net force.
The perpendicular component of the net force is mostly upward in the +y direction (if +y is defined toward the top of the
page). As a result the net force changes the direction of the momentum, making the comet curve upward toward the top
of the page along this part of the ellipse.
3.X.13 The magnitude of the electric force of one charged particle on another charged particle is given by Coulombs law.
Substitute known values for charge and distance to calculate the electric force.

~
Felec
=
=
1 |q1 q2 |
4o |~r|2
1 |qelectron qproton |
2
4o
|~r|

19
19
2
9 Nm
|(1.602 10
C)(1.602 10
C)|
=
9 10
2
2
C
1e-10 m
2.3 108 N
Coulombs law is consistent with the Principle of Reciprocity. The magnitude of the force on the electron by the proton is
equal to the magnitude of the force on the proton by the electron.
3.X.14
(a) The magnitude of the electric force of one charged particle on another charged particle is given by Coulombs law.
Substitute known values for charge and distance to calculate the electric force. The charge of the gold nucleus is 79e =
19
(79)(1.602 10
C).

~
Felec by gold nucleus on electron
=
=
1 |q1 q2 |
4o |~r|2
1 |qgold nucleus qelectron |
2
4o
|~r|

19
19
2
9 Nm
|(79)(1.602 10
C)(1.602 10
C)|
=
9 10
2
2
C
3e-9 m
2.0 109 N
(b) Coulombs law is consistent with the Principle of Reciprocity. The magnitude of the force on the electron by the gold
nucleus is equal to the magnitude of the force on the gold nucleus by the electron. Thus,

~

Felec by electron on gold nucleus =
=

~

Felec by gold nucleus on electron
2.0 109 N
3.X.15
Si:
nprotons = 14
nneutrons = 28 14 = 14
Sn:
nprotons = 50
nneutrons = 119 50 = 69
Au:
nprotons = 79
nneutrons = 197 79 = 118
Th:
nprotons = 90
nneutrons = 232 90 = 142
Examine the difference between the number of neutrons and number of protons for a given atom. For Si, it is 0. For Th, it
is 142 90 = 52. It definitely increases with the number of protons in the atom.
3.X.16 Name the four stars as A, B, C, and D. The net force on star A is:
~F
net, A
= ~Fon A by B + ~Fon A by C + ~Fon A by D
All three of the above forces must be calculated directly from Newtons law of gravitation based on the positions of B, C,
and D relative to A.
The net force on star B is
~F
net, B
= ~Fon B by A + ~Fon B by C + ~Fon B by D
But the force ~Fon B by A = ~Fon A by B can be obtained easily from what was already calculated by simply reversing the vector
of ~Fon A by B . Thus, only two forces must be calculated directly from Newtons law of gravitation based on the positions of C,
and D relative to B. The other force is obtained using the Principle of Reciprocity.
7
The net force on star C is
~F
net, C
= ~Fon C by A + ~Fon C by B + ~Fon C by D
The first two forces were already computed and can be obtained by the Principle of Reciprocity. Only the last force must be
computed from Newtons law of gravitation.
For star D, all forces on star D were already computed and can be obtained by the Principle of Reciprocity.
Thus, the total number of forces to be calculated fully from Newtons law of gravitation are 3 + 2 + 1 = 6, and the other 6
forces are obtained by simply reversing the vectors of those forces already computed (i.e. from the Principle of Reciprocity).
3.X.17
(a) Use the non-relativistic approximation for the momentum of the blocks. The momentum of the two-block system is
~psys
= ~p1 + ~p12
= m1 ~v1 + m2 ~v2
=
(1 kg)h5, 2, 0i m/s + (3 kg)h3, 4, 0i m/s
h5, 2, 0i kg m/s + h9, 12, 0i kg m/s
= h4, 14, 0i kg m/s
(b) According to the momentum principle, the momentum of an isolated system doesnt change.
psys
~pf
= ~pi
~pf
h4, 14, 0i kg m/s
Therefore, the momentum of the system at any later time is h4, 14, 0i kg m/s.
3.X.18 The center of mass is a weighted average of the positions of the objects, with the mass of each object as the
weighting factor.
~rcm
=
=
=
=
=
m1~r1 + m2~r2
m1 + m2
(10 kg)h3, 0, 0i m + (2 kg)h8, 2, 0i m
10 kg + 2 kg
h30, 0, 0i kg m + h16, 4, 0i kg m
12 kg
h46, 4, 0i kg m
12 kg
h3.8, 0.33, 0i m
8
Indeed, the center of mass position h3.8, 0.33, 0i m is fairly close to the position of the 10 kg ball which is at h4, 0, 0i m.
3.X.19 The center of mass velocity can be found from the momentum of the system.
~psys
= ~p1 + ~p12
~psys
= Mtotal ~vcm
Also,
Equate the above expressions for the momentum of the system and solve for the center of mass velocity.
Mtotal ~vcm
= ~p1 + ~p12
= m1 ~v1 + m2 ~v2
=
(2 kg)h3, 4, 0i m/s + (5 kg)h2, 6, 0i m/s
= h6, 8, 0i kg m/s + h10, 30, 0i kg m/s

= h4, 38, 0i kg m/s
~vcm
~psys
Mtotal
h4, 38, 0i kg m/s

2 kg + 5 kg
= h0.57, 5.4, 0i m/s
=
3.X.20
(a) System is ball A. The change in the momentum of the system is the change in the momentum of ball A.
~psys
= ~pA,f ~pA,i
~psys
= < 0, 0, 0 > mA ~vA,i
~psys
= mA ~v
~psys
= M~v
According to Conservation of Momentum, the change in momentum of the surroundings is

~psurr
= ~psys
= (M~v )
= M~v
9
(b) System is ball B. The change in the momentum of the system is the change in the momentum of ball B.
~psys
= ~pB,f ~pB,i
~psys
= mB ~vB,f < 0, 0, 0 >
~psys
= M~v
According to Conservation of Momentum, the change in momentum of the surroundings is
~psurr
~psys
(M~v )
M~v
(c) System is both balls. The total momentum of the system is the sum of the momentum of both balls.
~psys,i
= ~pA,i + ~pB,i
= mA ~vA,i + < 0, 0, 0 >
= M~v
~psys,f
= ~pA,f + ~pB,f
= < 0, 0, 0 > + mB ~vB,f
= M~v
The change in the momentum of the system is
~psys
= ~psys,f ~psys,i
= M~v M~v
=
The momentum of the system did not change. It was constant. Therefore, the change in momentum of the surroundings
is also zero, according to Conservation of Momentum.
~psurr
= ~psys
=
3.X.21
10
(a) Which object in the surroundings interacts with you as you are falling? Earth.
(b) Define the system as you and Earth. There is nothing in the surroundings that exert a force on the system, except
perhaps Sun and Moon. However, these can be neglected. Since the net external force on the system is zero, the
momentum of the system is constant. This comes from the momentum principle.
~
p = ~Fnet t
~psys,f ~psys,i
~psys,f
= ~psys,i
The total momentum of the system does not change. It is constant.

The momentum of the system of you and Earth also equals zero since the net external force on the system is zero. Thus,
as your momentum increases in the -y direction as you are falling, Earths momentum increases in the +y direction as
it rises to meet you. Your momentum and Earths momentum have the same magnitude, but opposite direction. So
the total momentum is zero and remains zero throughout the motion.
3.X.22
(a) The total initial momentum of the system is the sum of the momenta of the two balls. Name them A and B.
~psys,i
= ~pA,i + ~pB,i
= mA ~vA,i + mB ~vB,i
=
0.3 kgh4, 3, 2i m/s + 0.5 kgh2, 1, 4i m/s
= h1.2, 0.9, 0.6i kg m/s + h1, 0.5, 2i kg m/s

= h2.2, 0.4, 2.6i kg m/s
(b) The system is near Earth, so the gravitational force on the system is
~F
grav by Earth on sys
= m~g
= < 0, mg, 0 >
= < 0, (0.3 kg + 0.5 kg)(9.8 N/kg), 0 >
= < 0, 7.84, 0 > N
(c) Use the momentum principle
~pf
= ~pi + ~Fnet t
=
h2.2, 0.4, 2.6i kg m/s + (< 0, 7.84, 0 > N)(0.1 s)
h2.2, 0.4, 2.6i kg m/s + < 0, 0.784, 0 > kg m/s
= h2.2, 1.2, 2.6i kg m/s
11
Note that the x and z momenta of the system are constant (i.e. they did not change) since the net force on the system is
only in the y-direction.
3.X.23 According to the momentum principle,
~F
net
=
=
=
~acm
=
=
=
~
p
t
~v
m cm
t
m~acm
~F
net
m
h300, 500, 200i N
100 kg
h3, 5, 2i m/s2
3.X.24 The total initial momentum of the system is the sum of the momenta of the two lumps of clay. Name them A and B.
~psys,i
= ~pA,i + ~pB,i
=
mA ~vA,i + mB ~vB,i
0.02 kg(h5, 2, 3i m/s) + 0.02 kg(h3, 0, 2i m/s)
= h0.1, 0.04, 0.06i kg m/s + h0.06, 0, 0.04i kg m/s

=
h0.16, 0.04, 0.1i kg m/s
According to the momentum principle, during the small time interval of the impact, the momentum of the system is approximately.
~pf
~pf
Its velocity is
*0

~F t
= ~pi +
net
= h0.16, 0.04, 0.1i kg m/s
12
~psys,f
Mtotal ~vcm
= Mtotal ~vcm,f
= h0.16, 0.04, 0.1i kg m/s
h0.16, 0.04, 0.1i kg m/s
Mtotal
~vcm
~vcm
h0.16, 0.04, 0.1i kg m/s

0.2 kg + 0.2 kg
= h0.4, 0.1, 2.5i m/s
~vcm
3.X.25 The total initial momentum of the system is the sum of the momenta of the two rocks. Name them A and B.
~psys,i
= ~pA,i + ~pB,i
=
h10, 20, 5i kg m/s + h8, 6, 12i kg m/s
h2, 14, 7i kg m/s
According to the momentum principle, since the net external force on the system is zero, the momentum of the system is
constant. So the momentum after the collision is
~pf
*0

~F t
= ~pi +
net
= h2, 14, 7i kg m/s
3.X.26
(a) Neutron decay is governed by the weak interaction.
(b) Proton-neutron attraction is governed by the strong interaction.
(c) Earth-Moon attraction is governed by the gravitational interaction.
(d) Proton repulsion is governed by the electromagnetic interaction.
3.X.27 The magnitude of the gravitational interaction between two particles is proportional to the product of the particles
masses. Changing either mass by a factor n will change the product, and thus the magnitude of the gravitational interaction,
by the same factor n. In this example, if the satellites mass triples (changes by a factor of three), then the magnitude of
the gravitational interaction also triples and becomes 9e23 N. The magnitude of the gravitational interaction between two
particles is inversely proportional to distance squared. Changing this distance by a factor n will change the magnitude by the
same factor, but inversely. If distance increases, then magnitude decreases. If distance decreases, then magnitude increases.
In this example, the distance increases by a factor of three, so the magnitude would decrease by a factor of nine and becomes
1
3 e23 N.
13
3.X.28 The magnitude of the gravitational interaction between two particles is inversely proportional to the distance between
the particles. If the distance increases by a factor n, the magnitude decreases by a factor n2 . If the distance decreases by a
factor n, the magnitude increases by a factor n2 . In this example, increasing the distance by a factor of three will decrease
the magnitude by a factor of nine.
3.X.29 The magnitude of the gravitational interaction between two particles is inversely proportional to the distance between
the particles. If the distance increases by a factor n, the magnitude decreases by a factor n2 . If the distance decreases by a
factor n, the magnitude increases by a factor n2 . In this example, decreasing the distance by a factor of four will increase
the magnitude by a factor of sixteen. (Note that increasing by a factor of 14 is equivalent to decreasing by a factor of 4.)
3.X.30 Here are the relative position unit vectors at each point:
rA
= h1, 0, 0i
rB
= h0, 1, 0i
rC
= h1, 0, 0i
rD
= h0, 1, 0i
Here are the force unit vectors at each point:
F
A
= rA = h1, 0, 0i
F
B
= rB = h0, 1, 0i
F
C
= rC = h1, 0, 0i
F
D
= rB = h0, 1, 0i
Manipulating directions like this may seem strange at first, but it is perfectly valid.
3.X.31
(a) This is a straightforward numerical application. Proceed as follows:

~
Fgrav on Mer by Sun =
=
m m
G Mer Sun
2

~rMer,Sun

2
11 N m
(3.3e23 kg) (2e30 kg)
6.6742 10
2e22 N
2
kg2
(4.8e10 m)
(b) By reciprocity, we must have

~

Fgrav on Mer by Sun = ~Fgrav on Sun by Mer 2e22 N.
Think about the problem this way. Between Mercury and Sun, there can be only one gravitational interaction, so there
can be only one magnitude associated with that interaction.
3.X.32 According to Newtons law of gravitation, the magnitude of the gravitational force on an object by Jupiter if the
object is on Jupiters surface is
14

mJupiter mobject
~

Fgrav = G
R2
Solve for the mass of Jupiter.
mJupiter

~
Fgrav R2
Gmobject
(24.9 N)(71.5e6 m)2

m2 )(1 kg)
(6.6742 1011 Nkg
2
1.9e27 kg
3.X.33
(a) The relative position vector of the star, relative to the planet, is
~rfrom planet to the star
= ~rstar ~rplanet

= 2 1011 , 3 1011 , 0 m 5 1011 , 2 1011 , 0 m

= 7 1011 , 5 1011 , 0 m
(b) The distance is

q
=
(7 1011 m) + (5 1011 m) + (0 m)
= 8.6e11 m
(c) The direction of the relative position vector of the star, relative to the planet, is
rfrom planet to the star
=
=
~r
from planet to the star


7 1011 , 5 1011 , 0 m
8.6e11 m
< 0.81, 0.58, 0 >
(d) Newtons law of gravitation is

mplanet mstar
~

Fgrav on planet by star = G
2
|~r|

2
11 N m
(4e24 kg)(5e30 kg)
=
6.6742 10
2
kg
(8.6e11 m)2
= 1.8e21 N
15
(e) Because of the Principle of Reciprocity, the planet and star exert equal magnitude forces on one another. Thus,

~

Fgrav on planet by star

= ~Fgrav on star by planet
= 1.8e21 N
(f) The (vector) force exerted on the planet by the star is

~F
on the planet by the star

~
Fon the planet by the star rfrom planet to star
(1.8e21 N) < 0.81, 0.58, 0 >

1.5 1021 , 1.0 1021 , 0 N
(g) The (vector) force exerted on the star by the planet is

~F
on the star by the planet

= ~Fon the star by the planet (rfrom planet to star )
(1.8e21 N)( < 0.81, 0.58, 0 >)

= 1.5 1021 , 1.0 1021 , 0 N
3.X.34 First, sketch a rough picture so that your answer can be compared to the picture. A sample is shown in Figure 3.
!F
grav on planet by star
!rfrom star to planet
Figure 3: A star and planet.

Apply Newtons law of gravitation.
The relative position vector of the planet, relative to the star, is
~rfrom star to planet
= ~rplanet ~rstar

= 6 1011 , 3 1011 , 0 m 5 1011 , 3 1011 , 0 m

= 11 1011 , 6 1011 , 0 m
16
The distance between the star and planet is

q
=
(11 1011 m) + (6 1011 m) + (0 m)
= 1.25e12 m
The unit vector is
rfrom star to planet
=
=
~r
from star to planet


11 1011 , 6 1011 , 0 m
12.5e11 m
< 0.88, 0.48, 0 >
Newtons law of gravitation is

~

Fgrav on planet by star
= G
mplanet mstar
2
|~r|

=
6.6742 10
11
N m2
kg2
(4e24 kg)(6e30 kg)

(1.25e12 m)2
= 1.0e21 N
The (vector) force exerted on the planet by the star is
~F

= ~Fon planet by star (rfrom star to planet )
(1.0e21 N)( < 0.88, 0.58, 0 >)

= 0.88 1021 , 0.58 1021 , 0 N

= 8.8 1020 , 5.8 1020 , 0 N
Note that this points to the right and downward which is in agreement with the force vector drawn in Figure 3.
3.P.35 This problem is an exercise in estimation and approximation. We first have to assume that we can treat the two books
as particles so we can apply Newtons expression for gravitational interaction without any modifications. Two books standing
right next to each other on a bookshelf have centers separated by, to the nearest order of magnitude, 1e-2 m. What about
the books masses? Well, if the books are old fashioned physics books, they probably have masses on the order of 1e0 kg,
which is just a fancy way of saying a few kilogram. We can now estimate the magnitude of the books mutual interaction.

~

Fbook on book
2
M
11 N m
M
Mbook
G book book
2 G
2 6.6742 10
2
kg

~rbook,book
~rbook,book
(1 kg)2
(1e-2 m)2

6.6742e-7 N
17
Note that its the order of magnitude thats important here. Multiples and factors of two or three will not change the order
of magnitude. Now lets estimate the magnitude of a books gravitation interaction with Earth. Obviously we need Earths
24
6
mass, 6 10 kg, and well approximate the book-Earth distance to be simply Earths radius, 6.4 10 m.

~
Fbook on Earth
2
M
11 N m
M
G book Earth
2 6.6742 10
kg2

~rbook,Earth
24
(1 kg)(6 10 kg)
(6.4 106 m)2
!
9.78 N
Now we can compare the two magnitudes by taking their ratio.

~
Fbook on Earth

~

Fbook on book
9.78 N
1.47e7
6.6742e-7 N
So the book-Earth interaction is approximately ten million times stronger than the book-book interaction.
3.P.36
(a) If Mathilde were not present, the NEAR spacecraft would travel through space with constant momentum. However,
Mathilde will interact gravitationally with NEAR, deflecting the spacecrafts path slightly toward the asteroid as the
spacecraft approaches and passes the asteroid. The interaction will probably have more effect on NEARs direction
than its speed.
NEAR
104 m/s
d = 2400 km
nea
rly
1200 km
con
tsta
nt v
eloc
ity
Mathilda
Figure 4: Approximate deflection of NEAR as it interacts with Mathilde.
(b) NEARs change in momentum resulting from this encounter can be approximated by estimating the net force on NEAR
due to Mathilde, ~FNEAR,Mathilde , along with an estimate of the duration, t, of the interaction. The magnitude and the
direction of the force on NEAR both vary with time, so we have no choice but to use rather crude estimates. Lets
take t represent the duration of NEARs travel across the 2400 km distance in the diagram. Lets take the force to
have an approximate magnitude corresponding to a distance of 1200 km. Since were really only interested in NEARs
deviation from an otherwise straight trajectory, lets also treat the force as having only a y component, which is another
very crude approximation. But wait! We also need an estimate of Mathildes mass. We can get this from its assumed
mass density and rough physical dimensions.
18
MMathilde
(7e4 m)(5e4 m)(5e4 m)(3e3 kg/m3 ) 5.25e17 kg
Now lets apply the momentum principle.
pNEAR,y
M
M
d

FNEAR,Mathilde,y t G NEAR Mathilde
2

~vNEAR
~rNEAR,Mathilde

2
11 N m
(805 kg)(5.25e17 kg)
(2.4e6 m)
6.6742 10
5 kg m/s
kg2
(1.2e6 m)2
(1e4 m/s)
Be certain you understand where the negative sign came from!

(c) In one day, NEAR will travel approximately (1e4 m/s)(24 60 60 s) 9e8 m. As NEAR gets farther and farther
away from Mathilde, the y component of its momentum (and its velocity) is nearly constant. Therefore, in one day
NEARs deviation from its initial trajectory will be approximately
yNEAR
pNEAR,y
MNEAR

(1 day)
5 kg m/s
805 kg

(24 60 60 s) 500 m
(d) Astronomers observed a deviation significantly less than was predicted. Gravitational attraction is proportional to
mass, and mass is proportional to density, so a smaller deviation indicated a smaller mass. NEARs mass was constant,
so Mathildes mass must have been less than the predicted value.
3.X.37 At the surface of a planet, the magnitude of the gravitational field g is

~gat surface =
mplanet
R2
Earth and Moon have different masses and different radii. Therefore, they have different gravitational field strengths at their
surfaces. Incidentally, the gravitational field of Moon at its surface is about 1/6 of Earths gravitational field at the surface
of Earth.
3.X.38 At an altitude y, the distance from Earths surface is R + y. At this height, the gravitational field is 99% of the field
at Earths surface.

~gat surface
= G

~gat altitude y =
mEarth
R2
mEarth
(R + y)2
19

0.99 ~gat altitude surface
m
= 0.99G Earth
R2
m
= 0.99GEarth
R2
1
= 0.99 2
R

~gat altitude y
mEarth
G
(R + y)2
m
G Earth 2
(R + y)
1
(R + y)2
(R + y)2
(1/0.99)R2
R2 + y 2 + 2Ry
(1/0.99)R2
y + 2Ry + R (1 (1/0.99))
y + 2Ry + R (1/0.99)R
Substitute Earths radius and solve using the quadratic formula or the solve function on your calculator.
y 2 + 2(6.4e6 m)y + (6.4e6 m)2 (1 (1/0.99))
y 2 + 2(6.4e6 m)y + 4.137e11 m2
= 3.2e4 m
Check the answer by calculating g.

~gat altitude y
and
9.7
9.8
mEarth
= G
(R + y)2

2
11 N m
6e24 kg
=
6.6742 10
2
kg
(6.4e6 m + 32000)2
= 9.7 N/kg
= 99% as expected.
3.X.39 Assumptions:
Earth is treated as a particle (not a bad assumption given Earths nearly spherically symmetric mass distribution)
humans are treated as particles (a rather crude assumption, but not bad over large distances such as Earths radius)
neglect the distance between a humans center of mass and Earths surface, making the the distance from a humans
center of mass to Earths center of mass approximately Earths radius
humans mass is approximately 60 kg (lots of variation here, but the important part is an order of magnitude of 10 kg)

~

Fon human by Earth
m
m
G human Earth
2

~rhuman,Earth

6 1024 kg (60 kg)

2
11 N m
6.6742 10
600 N
2
kg2
6.4 106 m
20
Now lets do the same calculation for two humans with equal masses, separated by 3 m. Note that Earth doesnt participate
in this interaction to the answer must not depend on Earths mass or radius.

~
Fon human by human
m
m
G human human
2

~rhuman,human
11
6.6742 10
N m2
kg2
(60 kg) (60 kg)

2
(3 m)
3e-8 N
Finally, lets compare these two quantities by looking at their ratio.

~

Fon human by Earth

~
Fon human by human
600 N
6e2 N
2e10
3e-8 N
3e-8 N
The human-Earth interaction is approximately twenty billion times stronger than the human-human interaction.
3.P.40 Lets assume this
takes place near Earths surface so we can approximate gravitational interactions between
experiment

~

Earth and object as Fobject,Earth mobject g. Let t be the very short duration of contact, and assume that t is so short
that the downward change in the balls momentum due to its interaction with Earth during contact is much smaller than the
upward change in the balls momentum due to its interaction with the scale. The ball initially has a downward momentum
pball,i,y = p just before hitting the scale. Shortly after interacting with the scale, the ball has an upward momentum pball,f,y .
So the ball undergoes a change in momentum of ~pball = ~pball,f ~pball,i pball,f,y pball,i,y which, remembering that (a) were
assuming the ball rebounds to its initial height and (b) pball,i,y is a negative number, is just 2~pball,i or just 2p. (Note
that p is a negative number!) This change in momentum is, remember, almost exclusively due to the balls interaction with
the scale and is directed upward. Therefore, the average force on the ball due to its interaction with the scale must also be
upward.
Let T be the long time between the instants when the ball is at its maximum height (its really the period of the balls oscillatory motion), neglecting any energy dissipation. The momentum gives us the magnitude of the average force immediately

|~p |

as ~F ball 2p (remember p is a negative number!).
avg
In each fall, the magnitude of the balls momentum increases from 0 to p (remember p is a negative number!) due to its
gravitational interaction with Earth. This happens within a duration of T /2. Applying the momentum principle to the balls
downward motion allows us to express T in terms of known quantities.
pball,y
Solving for T gives T
2p
m
g,

p 0 ~Fball,Earth t
p mball g
T
2
and now we can get a final expression for the magnitude of the average force:
ball

~
Favg
2p
2p
mball g

2p
T
m
ball
This surprising result happens to be exactly the same magnitude of the ball-scale interaction if the ball were at rest on the
scale! This unusual result will play a role later in our study of gases.
Alternatively, we can get this surprising result another way. Let T be the duration of the balls fall from rest back to that
same place (again at rest). The net change in the balls momentum is zero. Let ~Favg be the average force on the ball due to
the scale. Apply the momentum principle.
21
~pball
0

~Favg
= ~Favg T + ~Fball,Earth T

~Favg T mball gT
mball g
3.X.41 There is only one gravitational interaction between Earth and tennis ball, so there can be only one associated
magnitude. Therefore, statement C is correct and the others are incorrect.
NOTE: This question is not carefully worded. Force is a vector, and one vector cant be greater than or less than another.
Their magnitudes, however, can be so compared. The questions intent is to compare the magnitudes of the Earth-tennis
ball interaction and the tennis ball-Earth interaction.
3.P.42
Before the loop, you should
Define constants such as G
Specify the initial (vector) momentum of each object
Specify an appropriate value for the time step
Specify the mass of each object
Specify the initial (vector) position of each object
Inside the loop, you should
Calculate the (vector) forces acting on the objects
Update the (vector) momentum of each object
Update the (vector) position of each object
3.P.43
(a) Sketch a picture of the situation in 2-D, like the one shown in Figure 5.
Apply Newtons law of gravitation. The relative position vector of the spaceship, relative to the asteroid, is
~rfrom asteroid to spaceship
= ~rspaceship ~rasteroid

= 3 105 , 7 105 , 4 105 m 9 105 , 3 105 , 12 105 m

= 6 105 , 10 105 , 8 105 m
The distance between the asteroid and spaceship is

~rfrom asteroid to spaceship =
q
2
2
2
(6 105 m) + (10 1011 m) + (16 105 m)
= 1.41e6 m
22
!F
grav on spaceship by asteroid
!rspaceship rel to asteroid
Figure 5: The spaceship and asteroid. z-components of the positions are not shown.
The unit vector is
rfrom asteroid to spaceship
~r
from asteroid to spaceship

~rfrom asteroid to spaceship

6 105 , 10 105 , 8 105 m
=
1.41e6 m
= < 0.424, 0.707, 0.566 >
=
Newtons law of gravitation is

~

Fgrav on spaceship by asteroid
= G
mspaceship masteroid
2
|~r|

=
6.6742 10
11
N m2
kg2
(1.4e3 kg)(7e15 kg)

(1.41e6 m)2
= 3.29e-4 N
The (vector) force exerted on the spaceship by the asteroid is
~F
grav on spaceship by asteroid

= ~Fon spaceship by asteroid (rfrom asteroid to spaceship )
(3.29e-4 N)( < 0.424, 0.707, 0.566 >)

= 1.39 104 , 2.32 104 , 1.86 104 N
In the x-y plane, the force points to the right and downward which is in agreement with the force vector drawn in
Figure 5.
23
(b) Apply the momentum principle
~pf
= ~pi + ~Fnet t
~pf ~pi
~pf ~pi
=
=
F~net t

( 1.39 104 , 2.32 104 , 1.86 104 N)(538 s 532 s)

8.4 104 , 1.40 103 , 1.12 103 kg m/s
3.P.44
(a) Sketch a picture of the situation showing relevant vectors.
m2
m1
Figure 6: The positions of block 1 and block 2.

Find the relative position vector of block 2, relative to block 1.
~r2 relative to 1
= ~r2 ~r1
= h18, 11, 0i m h7, 11, 0i m
= h11, 0, 0i m
The magnitude of the vector is easy in this case since its a one-dimensional vector.

~r2 relative to 1 =
11 m
The gravitational force is given by Newtons law of gravitation.

~

Fgrav on 2 by 1 =
=
=
m1 m2
2
|~r|

2
11 N m
(40 kg)(1000 kg)
6.6742 10
2
kg
(11 m)2
2.2e-9 N
24
(b) Use the momentum principle. Define the system as block 2.
~p2,t
= ~p2,i + ~Fnet t
~p2,f
~p2,f

< 0, 0, 0 > +( 2.2 109 , 0, 0 N)(4.7 s 4.6 s)

2.2 1010 , 0, 0 kg m/s
(c) Define the system to be both blocks. At t = 4.6 s the momentum of the system is
~psys,i
= ~p1,i + ~p2,i
=
The net external force on the system is zero, assuming its an isolated system. Thus,
~psys,f
~psys,f
0
>t

~F
= ~psys,i +
net
= 0
The momentum of the system is the sum of the momenta of the blocks.
~psys,f
= ~p1,f + ~p2,f
= ~p1,f + ~p2,f
~p1,f
~p2,t

= 2.2 1010 , 0, 0 kg m/s

= 2.2 1010 , 0, 0 kg m/s
=
Block 2s momentum increases as it moves left. Block 1s momentum increases as it moves right. Their momenta are
equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction so that the sum of their momenta is zero.
(d)

~p1,f

m1 ~v1,f

= ~p2,f

= m2 ~v2,f
They have the same magnitude momentum, but their masses are different. The smaller mass has the greater speed.
So, block 1 is moving faster at t = 4.7 s.
3.P.45
25
Planet
Star
Figure 7: The star and planet with relevant vectors
(a) Sketch a picture of the star and planet.

Calculate the net force on the planet, which is the gravitational force by the star.
~r
= ~rplanet ~rstar

= 3 1012 , 4 1012 , 0 m 5 1012 , 2 1012 , 0 m

= 2 1012 , 2 1012 , 0 m
|~r|
q
=
(2 1012 ) + (2 1012 ) + (0 ) m
= 2.83e12 m
r =
=

~

Fgrav on planet by star =
=
=
~r
|~r|
h0.707, 0.707, 0i
mplanet mstar
2
|~r|
(6.67 1011 )(3e24 kg)(7e30 kg)
(2.83e12 m)2
1.75e20 N
26
~F

~

Fgrav (r)
(1.75e20 N)(h0.707, 0.707, 0i )

= 1.24 1020 , 1.24 1020 , 0 N
Apply the momentum principle to calculate the momentum of the planet after 1e6 s. Define the system to be the
planet.
~pf
= ~pi + ~Fnet t
m~vi + ~Fnet t

= (3e24 kg)( 0.3 104 , 1.5 104 , 0 m/s) + ( 1.24 1020 , 1.24 1020 , 0 N)(1e6 s)

= 9.12 1027 , 4.49 1028 , 0 kg m/s
=
Solve for the final velocity of the planet.
~vf
~pf
m

9.12 1027 , 4.49 1028 , 0 kg m/s
=
3e24 kg

3
= 3.04 10 , 1.496 104 , 0 m/s
=
(b) The position of the planet is found by using the definition of average velocity.
~rf
= ~ri + ~vavg t
Use the approximation ~vavg ~vf .
~rf

3.004 1012 , 4 1012 , 0 m + ( 3.04 103 , 1.496 104 , 0 m/s)(1e6 s)

= 3.004 1012 , 4.01 1012 , 0 m
(c) The final velocity and final position are both approximate since the net force on the planet is not constant and since
the final velocity is used in place of the average velocity. These approximations improve in the limit as t 0. Thus,
the approximations would be worse for larger t like 1e9 s.
3.P.46
(a) Sketch a picture of the two stars at t = 0.
Apply Newtons law of gravitation to calculate the force on star 1.
27
Star 2
Star 1
Figure 8: The stars and relevant vectors
~r
= ~rstar 1 ~rstar 2

= 2.00 1012 , 5.00 1012 , 4.00 1012 m 2.03 1012 , 4.94 1012 , 3.94 1012 m

= 3 1010 , 6 1010 , 5 1010 m
|~r| =
=
q
2
2
2
(3 1010 ) + (6 1010 ) + (5 1010 ) m
8.367e10 m
r =
=
~r
|~r|
h0.3586, 0.7171, 0.5976i

~

Fgrav on 1 by 2 =
=
=
~F
grav on star 1 by star 2
mstar 1 mstar 2
2
|~r|
(6.67 1011 )(4e30 kg)(3e30 kg)
(8.367e10 m)2
1.143e29 N

~

Fgrav (r)
(1.143e29 N)(h0.3586, 0.7171, 0.5976i )

4.100 1028 , 8.200 1028 , 6.833 1028 N
Apply the momentum principle to calculate the momentum of star 1 after 1e5 s. Define the system to be star 1.
~pf
= ~pi + ~Fnet t
=
=
m~vstar 1, i + ~Fnet t

2.841 1035 , 2.482 1035 , 3.268 1035 kg m/s
28
Solve for the final velocity of the planet.
(b) The momentum of the first star is approximate because the net force on it is not constant, but rather it depends on
the distance between the stars. The approximation improves as t 0.
(c)
~rf
= ~ri + ~vavg t
Approximate the average velocity as ~vavg ~vf .
~vf
=
=
~rf
~pf
mstar 1

7.103 104 , 6.205 104 , 8.171 104 m/s

2.00 1012 , 5.00 1012 , 4.00 1012 m + ( 7.103 104 , 6.205 104 , 4.00 1012 m/s)(1 105 s)

= 2.007 1012 , 4.994 1012 , 3.992 1012 m
=
The final position was computed to four significant figures because for a small time interval, its displacement is quite
small. Sometimes rounding to three or fewer significant figures will make it seem like there is no displacement at all.
(d) This result is approximate because the velocity is changing and ~vavg 6= ~vf . However, for small time intervals, ~vavg ~vf .
3.X.47 Each positively charged particle will attract the negatively charged particle. We are to assume that the particles are
at the vertices of an isosceles triangle. If this is true, then the vertical components of each positive-negative interaction will
nullify each other, while the horizontal components of each positive-negative interaction will reinforce each other. The net
force on the negatively charged particle will therefore be directed away from the negatively charged particle and will point
toward the left. Geometrically, the net force will lie along the perpendicular bisector of the line connecting the two positively
charged particles. Note that no formula is necessary to answer this question. The solution is in the geometry.
3.X.48 If the positively charged particle were at the midpoint of the line joining the two negatively charged particles, the
net force on it would be zero (a symmetry argument). But the symmetry is broken, and the positively charged particle is
closer to the negatively charged particle on the right hand side. Thus, the interaction between the positively charged particle
and the right hand negatively charged particle dominated the net force on the positively charged particle. Therefore, the net
force will be toward the right. Note that no formula is necessary to answer this question. The solution is in the geometry.
3.X.49 The direction of the electric force on the electron by the proton is toward the top edge of the page, along the line
from the electron to the proton. Be careful about calling that direction up if your book is lying open flat on your desk! Also
be careful about calling that direction toward the proton because there are infinitely many such directions! The direction of
the electric force on the proton by the electron is toward the bottom edge of the page, along the line from the proton to the
electron. There can be only one electric interaction between the proton and the electron, so there can be only one magnitude.
Therefore, the magnitude of the proton-electron interaction must equal the magnitude of the electron-proton interaction.
The direction of the electric force on electron A by electron B is toward the bottom edge of the page, along the line connecting
the two electrons. The direction of the electric force on electron B by electron A is toward the top edge of the page, along
the line connecting the two electrons.
Note that no formula is necessary to answer this question. The solution follows directly from reciprocity.
29
3.X.50 There can be only one electric interaction between the alpha particle and the proton, so there can be only one
associated magnitude. Therefore, statement C is correct and the others are incorrect.
3.P.51 This is a straightforward problem, assuming we treat electrons as particles.

~

Felec,electrons
Q2
1
1 Qelectron Qelectron
electron
2
2

4o
4o

~relectron,electron
~relectron,electron

~
Fgrav,electrons
m2
melectron melectron
electron
G
2 G
2

~relectron,electron
~relectron,electron
Now take the ratio of these two magnitudes and youll see that the distance dependence divides out, and that the comparison
depends only on fundamental physical constants!

~
Felec,electrons

~
Fgrav,electrons
1
4o
Q2
electron
Gm2
electron
9 10

2
19
1.602 10
C

2 4e42
31
N m2
9.109
10
kg
2
kg
N m2
C2
6.6742 1011
If the two electrons are initially at rest, they will experience both a gravitational attraction and an electrical repulsion.
However, the electrical repulsion overwhelms the gravitational attraction by a factor of about 4e42 ! The net interaction will
be electrical repulsion.
3.P.52
(a)
~r21
= ~r2 ~r1 = h0.4, 0.4, 0i m h0.5, 0.2, 0i m
~r21
h0.9, 0.6, 0i m
2
(b)

~r
21

~r
21
r
r21,x
+ r21,y
2

2 q
2
2
2
+ r21,z
((0.9)) + ((0.6)) + (0)
m
1.08 m
(c)
r21
~r
h0.9, 0.6, 0i m
21
h0.833, 0.556, 0i
~r
1.08 m
21
(d)

m m
~

Fgrav,21 = G 1 22
~r
21

2
11 N m
(2e-3 kg)2
~

6.6742 10
2.29e-16 N
Fgrav,21
kg2
(1.08 m)2
30
(e)
~F
grav,21

~

= ~Fgrav,21 ~r21
Fgrav,21 F
grav,21
~F
grav,21
(2.29e-16 N)(h0.833, 0.556, 0i) h1.91e-16 , 1.27e-16 , 0i N
Make sure this result indicates an attractive interaction and agrees with your diagram.
(f)

~
Felec,21 =

~

Felec,21

1 q1 q2

4o ~r 2
21

2
9 Nm
|(-2e-9 C)(-4e-9 C)|
9 10
6.17e-8 N
C2
(1.08 m)2
(g)
~F
elec,21

~

F
=
= ~Felec,21 F
~r21

elec,21
elec,21
~F
elec,21
(6.17e-8 N) (h0.833, 0.556, 0i) h-5.14e-8 , 3.43e-8 , 0i N
Make sure this result indicates a repulsive interaction and agrees with your diagram.
(h)

~
Felec,21

~
Fgrav,21
6.17e-8 N
2.69e8
2.29e-16 N
(i) Both gravitational and electric interactions vary with distance squared, but the ratio of these two interactions is
independent of distance for a given pair of interacting particles. Therefore, the ratio of the magnitude of the electric
force to the magnitude of the gravitational force is still 2.69e8 .
3.P.53
(a) Assuming
a negligible change in the cars speed, the magnitude of the mosquitos momentum goes from 0 to m |~v| so

~pmosquito = m |~v|.

(b) There is only one interaction shared by car and mosquito, so there can be only one magnitude, ~F.
(c) Neglecting interactions with the road and air, the car
have changes in momentum that are equal in
and mosquito

magnitude, but opposite in direction. So ~pcar = ~pmosquito m |~v|. Given the mosquitos small mass, this is

negligible to the magnitude of the cars initial momentum ~pcar,i = M |~v|.
(d) Although the car and mosquito experience the same force magnitude (different directions), the change in velocity is
greater for the mosquito because the mosquito has a much smaller mass than the car.
~pcar =

~p =
car

M ~vcar

~vmosquito
~pmosquito

~pmosquito

m ~vmosquito

M
~vcar
m
Note that we used the Newtonian approximation for momentum.
31
3.X.54 Lets take system = both rocks + string. Were told the strings mass is negligible, which means the strings
contribution to the systems momentum is also negligible. Therefore, we only need account for the momenta of the two
rocks. Lets also assume both rocks have velocities with magnitudes negligible compared to light speed, so we can use the
Newtonian approximation for momentum.
~psys
0
*

= ~prock 1 + ~prock 2 + ~pstring
~prock 1 + ~prock 2

mrock 1 ~vrock 1 + mrock 2 ~vrock 2
(0.1 kg) h0, 5, 0i m/s + (0.25 kg) h7.5, 0, 0i m/s
h0, 0.5, 0i kg m/s + h1.875, 0, 0i kg m/s
h1.875, 0.5, 0i kg m/s
3.X.55
(a) The system for which the change in momentum is zero is that system on which the net force is zero. There is a nonzero
net force on the car. There is a nonzero net force on the bug. There is, however, no net force on the system consisting
of car + bug.
(b) There is only one interaction between the car and bug, and thus only one force relating these two entities. Force and
impulse (change in momentum) are directly proportional to one another, so there can be only one impulse relating the
car and the bug. Therefore, neither is greater than the other; they must be equal.
(c) If the magnitude of the bugs change in momentum is equal to that of the car, then their respective changes in velocities
must have different magnitudes. The magnitude of the change in velocity is inversely proportional to mass, so the bug
must experience the greater change in velocity than the car.
3.X.56 Choose system = both protons and apply the momentum principle to this system. Let the first proton mentioned
be 1 and the other proton be 2. Lets also assume velocities with magnitudes negligible to that of light, so we can use the
newtonian approximation for momentum.
~psys,f
~p1,f + ~p2,f
~p2,f
*0

~F t
= ~psys,i +
net
0
= ~p + ~p
1,i
2,i
= ~p1,i ~p1,f
= h3.4e-21 , 0, 0i kg m/s h2.4e-21 , 1.6e-21 , 0i kg m/s
= h1.0e-21 , -1.6e-21 , 0i kg m/s
3.P.57
(a) Lets choose system = all clay and apply the momentum principle. Lets also use the Newtonian approximation for
momentum.
~psys,i
~p1,i + ~p2,i m1 ~v1,i + m2 ~v2,i
~psys,i
(0.03 kg) (h3, 3, 3i m/s) + (0.03 kg) (h3, 0, 3i m/s)
~psys,i
h0.09, 0.09, 0.09i kg m/s + h0.09, 0, 0.09i kg m/s h0, 0.09, 0.18i kg m/s
32
(b) Just after the collision, the clay exists as one lump whose mass is the sum of the individual masses. Apply the momentum
principle to the system just after the collision.
~psys,f (m1 + m2 )~vf
~psys,f
But we cant evaluate this because we dont know ~vf . If, however, we assume there are no significant interactions on
our system, then the momentum principle predicts that ~psys,f = ~psys,i . Therefore, ~psys,f = h0, 0.09, 0.18i kg m/s.
(c) Solve the above application of the momentum principle for ~vf .
(m1 + m2 )~vf
~psys,f
~psys,i
~vf
(m1 + m2 )
h0, 0.09, 0.18i kg m/s

h0, 1.5, 3i m/s
0.06 kg
3.P.58
(a) Lets choose system = car + truck + road and apply the momentum principle to the system just after the collision,
assuming low speeds so we can use Newtons expression for momentum.
~psys,i
mcar ~vcar,i + mtruck ~vtruck,i
~psys,f
~psys,f (mcar + mtruck )~vf
The momentum principle predicts ~psys,i = ~psys,f so we can solve for ~vf .
~psys,f
~vf
~vf
~vf
~vf
(mcar + mcar )~vf
~psys,i
(mcar + mtruck )
mcar ~vcar,i + mtruck ~vtruck,i

(mcar + m2 )
(2800 kg)h40, 0, 0i m/s + (4700 kg)h14, 0, 29i m/s

(7500 kg)
h1.12e5, 0, 0i kg m/s + h6.58e4, 0, 1.363e5i kg m/s
(7500 kg)
h6.16, 0, 18.2i kg m/s
(b) Since our choice of system included the road, the road cant exert an external force on the system and so has no effect
on the systems momentum.
3.X.59
(a) You should choose the system on which the net force is zero. With net forces on the bullet and the block, the best
choice is the system consisting of bullet + block.
(b) If the net force on a system is zero, then the systems final and initial momenta must be equal. Therefore, statement 2
is true.
33
3.X.60 This is a nuclear decay problem, and so is governed by nuclear interactions. Choice of system is extremely important
in this problem. We cannot choose system = radium nucleus because the radium nucleus does not exist after the nuclear
interaction takes place. Similarly, we cannot choose system = alpha particle + radon nucleus because neither of these particles
exists prior to the nuclear interaction happening. The best choice of system is system = all particles. The systems initial
state is such that the total momentum is zero (only one stationary particle). Note that in the initial state, the systems total
energy is not zero (stationary particles have energy). With no net force acting on our chosen system, the total momentum
must be zero in both the initial and final states. So if the newly created alpha particle moves in the +z direction in the final
state, then the newly created radon nucleus must move in the z direction so as to conserve momentum.
3.X.61
(a) Choosing the system consisting of bowling ball + ping pong ball and applying the momentum principle to that system
tells us that the systems momentum is conserved. Therefore psys,z = 0.
(b) Choosing the system consisting of just the bowling ball and applying the momentum principle to that system tells us
that the net force on the bowling ball must be in the same direction as the bowling balls change in momentum. The
force on the bowling ball by the ping pong ball is in the +z direction, and that must also be the direction of the bowling
balls change in momentum. Thus, for this system, psys,z has a positive sign.
3.P.62
Assume the bullet travels in the +x direction, ~vi = h300, 0, 0i m/s. Define the system to be the bullet and the block. Assume
that the net external force on the system is zero. Apply the momentum principle with the initial momentum being before
the collision and the final momentum being after the collision.
~psys,f
0
>t

~F
= ~psys,i +
net
The momentum of the system is the sum of the momenta of the bullet and block. The final velocity of the bullet is the same
as the block.
~pbullet,i + ~pblock,i
= ~pbullet,f + ~pblock,f
* 0= m

mbullet ~vbullet,i + mblock ~vblock,i
~v + mblock ~vf

bullet f

mbullet ~vbullet,i = (mbullet + mblock )~vf
!
mbullet
~vbullet,i
~vf =
mbullet + mblock

0.105 kg
~vf =
h300, 0, 0i m/s
0.105 kg + 2 kg
= h15, 0, 0i m/s

~vf = 15 m/s
3.P.63
(a)
34
~psys,i
= ~pA,i + ~pB,i
=
h20, 5, 0i kg m/s + h5, 6, 0i kg m/s
h25, 1, 0i kg m/s
(b) The impulse on the system of the two objects is due to the net external force on the system. During the small time
interval of the collision, the net force on the system is approximately zero, so the impulse on the system is approximately
zero.
(c)
~psys,f
~psys,f
0
>t

~F
= ~pA,i +
net
= ~psys,i
= h25, 1, 0i kg m/s
(d)
~psys,f
= ~pA,f + ~pB,f
~pB,f
= ~psys,f ~pA,f
= h25, 1, 0i kg m/s h18, 5, 0i kg m/s
= h7, 4, 0i kg m/s
3.P.64
Define the system to be the two rocks. The net force on the system is zero, so
0
>t

~F
= ~psys,i +
net
0
:

= ~p
+
~plarge
+ ~plarge rock,f

rock,i
small rock,f
~plarge rock,f = ~psmall rock,i ~psmall rock,f
~psys,f
~psmall rock,i
= msmall rock (~vi ~vf )

=
5 kg(h0, 1500, 0i m/s h0, 1800, 0i m/s)
5 kg(h0, 3300, 0i m/s)
= h0, 16500, 0i kg m/s
3.P.65
Define the system to be the two rocks, named A and B. The net external force on the system is zero. Apply the momentum
principle.
35
~psys,f
~psys,f
~pA,f + ~pB,f
mA,f ~vA,f + mB,f m
~ B,f
~vB,f
0
>t

~F
= ~psys,i +
net
= ~psys,i
= ~pA,i + ~pB,i
= mA,i ~vA,i + mB,i ~vB,i
mA,i ~vA,i + mB,i ~vB,i mA,f ~vA,f

mb,f
(9 kg)(h4100, 2600, 2800i m/s) + (6 kg)(h450, 1800, 3500i m/s) (7 kg)(h1300, 200, 1800i m/s)
8 kg
= h3138, 1750, 4200i m/s
3.P.66
Define the system as rock 1 and rock 2. Apply the momentum principle to the system. The net external force on the system
is zero, so
~psys,f
~psys,f
~p1,f + ~p2,f
0
>t

~F
= ~psys,i +
net
= ~psys,i
= ~p1,i + ~p2,i
m1 ~v1,f + m2 ~v2,f
~v2,f
=
=
=
m1 ~v1,f + m2 ~v2,f
m1 ~v1,i + m2 ~v2,i m1 ~v1,f
m2
(5 kg)(h30, 45, 20i m/s) + (8 kg)(h9, 5, 4i m/s) (5 kg)(h10, 50, 5i m/s)
8 kg
h16, 1.88, 5.38i m/s
3.P.67
Define the system as the two rocks. The net external force on the system is zero. Apply the momentum principle.
~psys,f
~psys,f
0
>t

~F
= ~psys,i +
net
= ~psys,i
The momentum of the system is the sum of the momenta of the two rocks. The final velocity of each rock is the same since
they stick together.
36
~pA,f + ~pB,f
= ~pA,i + ~pB,i
mA ~vf + mB ~vf
(mA + mB )~vf
= mA ~vA,i + mB ~vB,i
~vf
mA ~vA,i + mB ~vB,i
mA ~vA,i + mB ~vB,i
mA + mB
(15 kg)(h10, 30, 0i m/s) + (32 kg)(h15, 12, 0i m/s)

15 kg + 32 kg
= h13.4, 1.4, 0i m/s
3.P.68
First, sketch a picture of the situation showing the people and Earth before they jump and the people and Earth at the
moment the people leave the ground, as shown in Figure 9. Treat the people as a single particle.
People
People
Earth
Earth
Before people jump
Just after people

leave the ground
Figure 9: Sketch of people and Earth before and just after they jump.
Define the system to be the people and Earth. The net external force on the system is zero. The system is initially at rest,
so the initial momentum of the system is zero. Apply the momentum principle.
~psys,f
0
>t

~F
= ~psys,i +
net
= ~psys,i
~psys,f
~psys,f
The momentum of the system is the sum of the momenta of the people and Earth.
37
~psys,f
= ~ppeople,f + ~pEarth,f
= ~ppeople,f + ~pEarth,f
~pEarth,f
~ppeople,f
mEarth ~vEarth,f
mpeople ~vpeople,f
~vEarth,f

~vEarth,f =
mpeople ~vpeople,f
mEarth
!
mpeople
mEarth

~vpeople,f
Assume that the mass of each person is 50 kg ( 110 lb). Assume that the average speed of each person as she or he leaves
the ground is about 2 m/s.
(6 109 )(50 kg)
6e24 kg
= 1e-13 m/s

~vEarth,f =

(2 m/s)
Earth would move a distance less than the diameter of a single hydrogen atom in second 1.
3.P.69
Assume the bullet travels in the +x direction, ~vi =< v, 0, 0 >. Define the system to be the bullet and the block. Assume
that the net external force on the system is zero. Apply the momentum principle with the initial momentum being before
the collision and the final momentum being after the collision.
~psys,f
0
>t

~F
= ~psys,i +
net
The momentum of the system is the sum of the momenta of the bullet and block. The final velocity of the bullet is the same
as the block.
~pbullet,i + ~pblock,i
= ~pbullet,f + ~pblock,f
* 0= m~v + M~v

m~vbullet,i + M ~vblock,i
f
f

m~vbullet,i = (m + M )~vf

m
~vf =
~vbullet,i
m+M

m

~vf =
~vbullet,i
m+M

m

v
~vf =
m+M
38
Before Collision
After Collision
Figure 10: The meteor and satellite before and after the collision.
3.P.70
First, sketch a picture showing the objects before and after the collision (see Figure 10).
Though the satellite is rotating, treat it as a particle. Define the system to be the meteor and satellite. Apply the momentum
principle with net external force equal to zero.
~psys,f
~psys,f
~pmeteor,f + ~psatellite,f
m~vmeteor,f + M~vsatellite,f
m < v2x , v2y , 0 > +M < vf x , vf y , 0 >
0
>t

~F
= ~psys,i +
net
= ~psys,i
= ~pmeteor,i + ~psatellite,i
= m~vmeteor,i + M~vsatellite,i
= m < v1x , v1y , 0 > +M < v , 0, 0 >
Write the above equation in component form in the x and y directions.

x:
mv2x + M vf x
M vf x
= mv1x + M v
= mv1x + M v mv2x
vf x
vf x
mv1x + M v mv2x
M
m(v1x v2x ) + M v
M
Note that vf x > v as a result of the collision. Thus, the satellite will be moving faster in the +x direction due to the collision.
Now for y,
39
y:
mv2y + M vf y
M vf y
= mv1y + 0
= mv1y mv2y
vf y
vf y
mv1y mv2y
M
m(v1y v2y )
M
Note that vf y is positive, thus after the collision, the satellites velocity has a slight upward component in the +y direction.
3.P.71
(a) First, sketch a picture showing the balls before and after the collision (see Fig. 11).
Before Collision
After Collision
mB
mB
mA
mA
Figure 11: The balls before and after the collision.

Define the system as the two balls, A and B, where A is the lighter ball. Apply the momentum principle. The net
external force on the system is zero.
~psys,f
~psys,f
~pA,f + ~pB,f
0
>t

~F
= ~psys,i +
net
= ~psys,i
= ~vA,i + ~pB,i
mA ~vA,f + mB ~vB,f
~vA,f
=
=
=
mA ~vA,i + mB ~vB,i
mA ~vA,i + mB ~vB,i mB ~vB,f
mA
(0.05 kg)(h17, 0, 0i m/s) + 0 (0.1 kg)(h3, 3, 0i m/s)
0.05 kg
h11, 6, 0i m/s
40
(b) Impulse on ball A is
~pA
= ~pA,f ~pA,i
= mA ~vA,f mA ~vA,i
= mA (~vA,f ~vA,i )
=
(0.05 kg)(h11, 6, 0i m/s h17, 0, 0i m/s)
= h0.3, 0.3, 0i kg m/s
(c) Define the system as the lighter ball A. Apply the momentum principle.
~F
net on A
~pA
t
h0.03, 0.03, 0i kg m/s
=
0.03 s
= h10, 10, 0i N
=
3.P.72
Sketch a picture of the system before and after the package is launched, as shown in Figure 12.
Before Launch
After Launch
m
m
Figure 12: The system before and after the package is launched.
Treat the objects as point particles. Define the system to be the space station and the package. Assume that m << M so
that the center of mass of the system before the package is launched is very close to the center of mass of the space station.
With this assumption, the initial momentum of the system (before the launch) is zero. Also, assume that the net external
force on the system is zero. Apply the momentum principle.
~psys,f
~pstation,f + ~ppackage,f
0
>t

~F
= ~psys,i +
net
= ~pstation,i + ~ppackage,i
=
Thus,
0+0
41
~pstation,f
~ppackage,f
M~vf
~vf
~vf
m~v
m
~v
M

m
hv cos , v sin , 0i m/s

M
Written in component form:
~vfx
~vfy
m
M
v cos
and
m
M
v sin
Basically, the space station recoils in the opposite direction with equal magnitude and opposite momentum as the package,
as a result of launching the package.
3.P.73
(a) Write a VPython program to solve the problem. Here is an example.
1
2
from __future__ import d i v i s i o n

from v i s u a l import
3
4
RE = 6 . 4 e6 #r a d i u s o f Earth
5
6
7
s p a c e c r a f t = s p h e r e ( pos =(10RE, 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan , r a d i u s =0.25RE)

Earth = s p h e r e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . blue , r a d i u s=RE)
8
9
10
11
m=1.5 e4 #mass o f s p a c e c r a f t
ME = 6 e24
G = 6 . 6 7 e 11
12
13
14
v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) #i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y o f s p a c e c r a f t
p=mv #i n i t i a l momentum o f s p a c e c r a f t
15
16
17
t=0
dt =0.13600 #time s t e p
18
19
rmag=mag( s p a c e c r a f t . pos ) ; #d i s t a n c e o f s p a c e c r a f t from Earth
20
21
t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r=s p a c e c r a f t . c o l o r )
22
23
while rmag>RE: #s t o p i f rmag < RE
42
rate (1000)
r=s p a c e c r a f t . pos
rmag=mag( r )
r u n i t=r /rmag
24
25
26
27
28
Fgrav=GmME/rmag 2 r u n i t
Fnet=Fgrav
29
30
31
p = p + Fnet dt
v = p/m
s p a c e c r a f t . pos = s p a c e c r a f t . pos + v dt
32
33
34
35
t r a i l . append ( pos=s p a c e c r a f t . pos )
36
37
t = t + dt
38
Begin with an initial velocity of zero. The spacecraft accelerates to the right, crashing into Earth.
(b) To 3 significant figures, using a time step of 0.1 h (i.e. (0.1)(3600 s)), the minimum velocity is ~vi = h0, 1.06e3, 0i m/s.
However, if you watch many orbits you will find that its not a closed orbit. This is due to the fact that the time step
is too large and therefore produces inaccurate results.
(c) When trying smaller time steps, t = 0.01 h (or rather (0.1)(3600 s)) gave better results that were consistent for
numerous orbits. However, the initial speed had to be increased to ~vi = h0, 1.07e3, 0i m/s to avoid crashing into Earth.
(d) Straight lines could be seen near Earth, and in fact the orbit wasnt even closed for t = 0.2 h (which is (0.2 h)(3600 s/h).
Any larger time interval will show straight line segments and an open orbit, especially noticeable as the spacecraft approaches Earth. The error is mostly due to the the approximation that ~vavg ~vf , when in fact the average velocity will
likely be greater than or less than (in magnitude) the final velocity. The other approximation is that net force is constant during the time step, when in fact it changes as the spacecrafts distance from Earth changes during the time step.
(e) It helps to print rmag inside the loop so that you can examine the distance of the spacecraft from Earth. For a perfectly
circular orbit of radius 10(6.4e6 m) = 6.4e7 m, the distance of the spacecraft from Earth will not deviate from this
value. You can adjust the rate statement to speed up or slow down the calculations. Note that printing will slow down
the program. For a time step of 0.01 h, a speed of 2.5e3 m/s gives a nearly circular orbit that is off by only about
0.2% (1/640 0.002).
(f) If the launch speed is slightly less than or slightly greater than the speed for a circular orbit, the path of the spacecraft
is an ellipse.
(g) Using a time step of (0.01)(3600 s), the spacecraft escapes if its initial speed is greater than 3.5e3 m/s.
(h) The spacecraft travels to the left, slowing down until its speed is zero, and then it speeds up toward Earth.
(i) The speed needed to leave Earth, moving to the left, is the same as in part (g).
3.P.74
43
(a) Modify the program in 3.P.74. You will need to look up the radius of Moon and its orbital radius (i.e. average centerto-center distance from Earth). Heres a sample program for part (a). The rate() statement has been removed in
order to speed up the animation. When drawing the sphere for Moon, make its radius arbitrarily large so that it can
be seen in the animation. Also, note that the net force on the spacecraft is the sum of the gravitational force by Earth
and the gravitational force by Moon.
In this example, Earth is at the origin. Therefore, the distance of the spacecraft from Earth is simply the magnitude
of the spacecrafts position.
1
2

3
4
5
RM = 1 . 7 3 7 e6 #r a d i u s o f Moon
6
7
8
9
s p a c e c r a f t = s p h e r e ( pos =(10RE, 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan , r a d i u s =0.25RE)

Earth = s p h e r e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . blue , r a d i u s=RE)
Moon = s p h e r e ( pos =(3.84 e8 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . white , r a d i u s =0.5RE)
10
11
12
13
14
m=1.5 e4 #mass o f s p a c e c r a f t
ME = 6 e24 #mass o f Earth
MM = 7 e22 #mass o f Moon
G = 6 . 6 7 e 11
15
16
17
v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 3 . 2 6 4 e3 , 0 ) #i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y o f s p a c e c r a f t
p=mv #i n i t i a l momentum o f s p a c e c r a f t
18
19
20
t=0
dt =0.013600 #time s t e p
21
22
23
rmag=mag( s p a c e c r a f t . pos ) ; #d i s t a n c e o f s p a c e c r a f t from Earth

rrelmoonmag=mag( s p a c e c r a f t . posMoon . pos ) #d i s t a n c e o f s p a c e c r a f t from Moon
24
25
t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r=s p a c e c r a f t . c o l o r )
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
while rmag>RE and rrelmoonmag>RM: #s t o p i f rmag < RE or rrelmoonmag < RM

#c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on s p a c e c r a f t by Earth
r=s p a c e c r a f t . pos
rmag=mag( r )
r u n i t=r /rmag
FgravE=GmME/rmag 2 r u n i t
33
34
35
36
37
38
#c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on s p a c e c r a f t by Moon
r r e l m o o n=s p a c e c r a f t . pos Moon . pos
rrelmoonmag=mag( r r e l m o o n )
r r e l m o o n u n i t=r r e l m o o n / rrelmoonmag
FgravM=GmMM/ rrelmoonmag 2 r r e l m o o n u n i t
39
40
41
#c a l c u l a t e n e t f o r c e
Fnet=FgravE + FgravM
42
43
44
45
#u p d a t e momentum and p o s i t i o n
p = p + Fnet dt
v = p/m
44
46
s p a c e c r a f t . pos = s p a c e c r a f t . pos + v dt
47
48
t r a i l . append ( pos=s p a c e c r a f t . pos )
49
50
t = t + dt
The minimum initial velocity for the spaceship to crash into Moon, to four significant figures, is 3.264e3 m/s.
(b) Though not perfectly symmetric, a speed of 3.259e3 m/s will cause the spacecraft to loop around Moon and return to
Earth in a figure-8 like-pattern. Increasing or decreasing the speed by 1 m/s will allow you to see various orbits that
return the spacecraft to Earth.
(c) An orbit where the spacecraft reaches zero speed and returns along its same path is achieved with an initial speed of
3.2534e3 m/s. Decreasing the time step by 1/2 slightly improves the accuracy of the orbit. A reasonable time step to
use is about 10 seconds.
(d) Increasing the speed by only 0.1 m/s yields a very different orbit that does not repeat itself and is not stable. Try
3.2534e3 m/s for example.
(e) When the spacecraft is approaching Earth or Moon, it speeds up because the parallel component of the net force on
the spacecraft is in the same direction as the momentum of the spacecraft. As a result, the spacecrafts momentum
increases in magnitude and the spacecraft speeds up.
3.P.75 Create three bodies of the same mass. It helps to use typical values of radius and mass for a planet or star. In the
example below, masses and radii were chosen to be similar as Sun. The program below has initial conditions for a particularly
interesting orbit in which identical mass stars are arranged in an equilateral triangle and the initial velocities are tangent to
a circle which circumscribes the triangle, as shown in the figure.
Figure 13: Initial positions and velocities of three stars of the same mass.
The code for this example is shown below. The code used to calculate the initial velocities ensures that the velocity vectors
are tangent to the circle.
1
2

45
3
4
5
6
a=1e11 # c o n s t a n t used i n i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n s o f s t a r s
R=7e8 # r a d i u s o f t h e s t a r s
G=6.67 e 11
7
8
9
x =0.288675 a # used t o f i n d t h e r a d i u s o f t h e i n i t i a l c i r c l e t h a t c i r c u m s c r i b e s t h e s t a r s
R c i r c l e =( s q r t ( 0 . 7 5 ) 0.288675) a # r a d i u s o f t h e i n i t i a l c i r c l e t h a t c i r c u m s c r i b e s t h e
stars
10
11
12
13
s t a r 1=s p h e r e ( pos=(a/2,x , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w , r a d i u s =10R)

s t a r 2=s p h e r e ( pos=(a/2,x , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan , r a d i u s =10R)
s t a r 3=s p h e r e ( pos =(0 , R c i r c l e , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . magenta , r a d i u s =10R)
14
15
16
17
s t a r 1 .m=1.989 e30
s t a r 2 .m=s t a r 1 .m
s t a r 3 .m=s t a r 1 .m
18
19
s i =3e4 #i n i t i a l s p e e d
20
21
22
23
24
#f i g u r e o u t i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y v e c t o r s so t h e y a r e t a n g e n t t o t h e c i r c l e
s t a r 1 . v=s i c r o s s ( norm ( s t a r 1 . pos ) , v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 1 ) )
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
print
print
print
print
print
print
"r_1 (m) : " , s t a r 1 . pos

"r_2 (m) : " , s t a r 2 . pos
"r_3 (m) : " , s t a r 3 . pos
"v_1 (m/ s ) : " , s t a r 1 . v
"v_2 (m/ s ) : " , s t a r 2 . v
"v_3 (m/ s ) : " , s t a r 3 . v
32
33
34
35
36
s t a r 1 . p=s t a r 1 .m s t a r 1 . v
37
38
39
t=0
dt=1e2
40
41
42
43
t r a i l 1=c u r v e ( c o l o r=s t a r 1 . c o l o r )
44
45
while 1 :
46
47
48
49
50
51
#c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on s t a r 1 by s t a r 2
r 1 2=s t a r 1 . pos s t a r 2 . pos
r12mag=mag( r 1 2 )
r 1 2 u n i t=r 1 2 / r12mag
Fgrav12 = G s t a r 1 .m s t a r 2 .m/ r12mag 2( r 1 2 u n i t )
52
53
54
55
r13mag=mag( r 1 3 )
46
56
57
r 1 3 u n i t=r 1 3 / r13mag
58
59
60
#c a l c u l a t e Fnet on s t a r 1
Fnet1 = Fgrav12 + Fgrav13
61
62
63
Fgrav21 = Fgrav12
64
65
66
67
68
69
r23mag=mag( r 2 3 )
r 2 3 u n i t=r 2 3 / r23mag
70
71
72
73
74
75
Fgrav31 = Fgrav13
76
77
78
Fgrav32 = Fgrav23
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
#u p d a t e momentum and p o s i t i o n o f s t a r 1
s t a r 1 . p = s t a r 1 . p + Fnet1 dt
s t a r 1 . v = s t a r 1 . p/ s t a r 1 .m
s t a r 1 . pos = s t a r 1 . pos + s t a r 1 . v dt
t r a i l 1 . append ( pos=s t a r 1 . pos )
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
t=t+dt
Shown below are some initial conditions for various orbits. The initial conditions for the long-lasting orbit are for three
identical masses arranged in an equilateral triangle with velocities tangent to a circle that circumscribes the triangle.
47
long-lasting orbit:
r1 : h-5E+10 ,-2.88675E+10 ,0i m

r2 : h5E+10 ,-2.88675E+10 ,0i m
r3 : h0, 5.7735E+10 ,0i m
v1 : h15000, 25980.8, 0i m/s
v2 : h15000, 25980.8, 0i m/s
v3 : h30000, 0, 0i m/s
For an orbit that produces a collision, many different initial conditions will suffice. Note that the animation will look awkward
because there is no if statement to stop the animation when a collision takes place. But rather, the stars may go through
each other, and due to a very large force when their centers become very close, be pulled back through one another, giving
the impression that they bounce off of each other. Heres a sample set of initial conditions that causes this to occur.
collision:
r1 : h-5E+10 ,0, 0i m
r2 : h5E+10 ,0, 0i m
r3 : h0, 1E+11 ,0i m
v1 : h20000, 0, 0i m/s
v2 : h0, 20000, 0i m/s
v3 : h20000, 20000, 0i m/s
Again, there are many different initial conditions that will cause one of the stars to escape.
escape:
r1 : h-5E+10 ,0, 0i m
r2 : h5E+10 ,0, 0i m
r3 : h0, 1E+11 ,0i m
v1 : h0, 40000, 0i m/s
v2 : h20000, 0, 0i m/s
v3 : h20000, 0, 0i m/s
3.P.76
(a) Assume that Earths orbit is a circle. Average speed is
|~v| =
=
=
=
distance in one revolution

time interval for one revolution
2Rorbit
T
2(1.5e11 m)
(365 day)(24 h/day)(3600 s/h)
3.0e4 m/s
48
(b) A period is 365 days. Its reasonable to make t = 0.001T which will result in 1000 steps to compute one orbit. For a
circle, each step will be less than 1 degree around the circle. So anything less than 12 hours (1/2 day) is a reasonably
small time step. For example, use t = (0.0010)(365)(24)(3600) s.
(c) Here is a sample program. Though Sun is placed at the origin, the program is written so that if Sun is not at the
origin, the calculation of the gravitational force on Earth is still correct. The variable au in the program refers to an
astronomical unit which is defined as the average distance of Earth from Sun.
1
2

3
4
5
6
au =1.5 e11 #d i s t a n c e o f Earth from Sun

R=7e8 #r a d i u s o f Sun
G=6.67 e 11
7
8
9
Sun=s p h e r e ( pos = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w , r a d i u s =10R)

Earth=s p h e r e ( pos=(au , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . blue , r a d i u s =0.5 Sun . r a d i u s )
10
11
12
Sun .m=2e30
Earth .m=6e24
13
14
15
T = ( 3 6 5 2 4 3 6 0 0 ) #p e r i o d f o r a c i r c u l a r o r b i t
s i =2 p i au/T #i n i t i a l s p e e d f o r a c i r c u l a r o r b i t
16
17
18
19
#i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y
Earth . v=v e c t o r ( 0 , s i , 0 )
Earth . p=Earth .m Earth . v
20
21
22
t=0
dt =0.001T
23
24
t r a i l E a r t h=c u r v e ( c o l o r=Earth . c o l o r )
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
while 1 :
rate (100)
#c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on Earth by Sun
r=Earth . pos Sun . pos
rmag=mag( r )
r u n i t=r /rmag
Fgrav = GSun .m Earth .m/rmag2( r u n i t )
33
34
35
#c a l c u l a t e Fnet on Earth
Fnet = Fgrav
36
37
38
39
40
41
#u p d a t e momentum and p o s i t i o n o f Earth

Earth . p = Earth . p + Fnet dt
Earth . v = Earth . p/ Earth .m
Earth . pos = Earth . pos + Earth . v dt
t r a i l E a r t h . append ( pos=Earth . pos )
42
43
t=t+dt
(d) The path of Earth in the simulation is indeed a circle. Add a print statement to the while block to print the position of
Earth. Also, change the while statement to while t<T in order
to run the simulation for onlyone year. You will notice
that the final position of Earth calculated in the loop is 1.49804 1011 , 8.17597 109 , 0 m. The small negative
49
component of Earths position means that it hasnt quite reached its initial position yet. Thus, there is numerical error
in the simulation with this time step.
To print t after Earth completes one orbit, change the while statement to while 1: and use an if statement to check
the clock reading and then the position of Earth. If the clock reading is greater than one period, then check to see
when Earth crosses the y-axis. The sample program below illustrates how to do this. Note the if statement that is
within the while loop which prints the data you need when the condition is met.
1
2

3
4
5
6

G=6.67 e 11
7
8
9

10
11
12
Sun .m=2e30
Earth .m=6e24
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Earth . v=v e c t o r ( 0 , s i , 0 )
20
21
22
t=0
dt =0.001T
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
while 1 :
rate (100)
rmag=mag( r )
r u n i t=r /rmag
33
34
35
Fnet = Fgrav
36
37
38
39
40
41

42
43
44
45
46
47
i f ( t>T) :
print "T=" , T , " t=" , t , " r=" , Earth . pos
i f ( Earth . pos . y>0) :
break
50
t=t+dt
48
The printed results are:

T=
T=
T=
T=
T=
T=
T=
T=
31536000
31536000
31536000
31536000
31536000
31536000
31536000
31536000
t=
t=
t=
t=
t=
t=
t=
t=
31567536.0
31599072.0
31630608.0
31662144.0
31693680.0
31725216.0
31756752.0
31788288.0
r=
r=
r=
r=
r=
r=
r=
r=
<1.49888e+11,
<1.49922e+11,
<1.49949e+11,
<1.49971e+11,
<1.49987e+11,
<1.49997e+11,
<1.50001e+11,
<1.49999e+11,
-6.2932e+09, 0>
-5.35142e+09, 0>
-4.40944e+09, 0>
-3.46728e+09, 0>
-2.52498e+09, 0>
-1.58259e+09, 0>
-6.40133e+08, 0>
3.02349e+08, 0>
In the simulation, Earth completes an orbit at t = 31788288.0 s, yet the actual period of Earths orbit is closer to
T = 31536000 s. This is fairly close, and decreasing t to t = 0.0001T doesnt make much of an improvement. Yet
increasing it to t = 0.1T gives a non-circular orbit with lots of straight lines. t = 0.01T is about the largest time
interval that can be used and still get a circular orbit with a period close to what is obtained with much smaller time
intervals.
(e) Based on the previous part, begin with t = 0.001T . Take out the if statement(s) from the previous part. Heres a
sample program.
1
2

3
4
5
6

G=6.67 e 11
7
8
9

10
11
12
Sun .m=2e30
Earth .m=6e24
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Earth . v =1.2 v e c t o r ( 0 , s i , 0 )
20
21
22
t=0
dt =0.001T
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
while 1 :
rate (100)
rmag=mag( r )
r u n i t=r /rmag
51
34
35
Fnet = Fgrav
36
37
38
39
40
41

42
43
t=t+dt
The result is an ellipse. The largest time step recommended is t = 0.01T . The more eccentric the ellipse, the faster
Earth travels when near Sun. In this case, smaller time steps such as t = 1 104 T must be used.
If a large time step is used (i.e. too large for accuracy), you will see straight lines on the ellipse, especially when Earth
travels fast, near Sun.
A highly eccentric ellipse like this would cause enormous climate change. Im not sure it would kill life, but it would
affect which life survives. Life that evolves to handle such climate change would be the life that would survive.
(f) First, add print statements to print the gravitational force on Earth and its momentum. This helps you know how to
scale the arrows that you will draw to represent the force and momentum vectors. The sample program below shows
how to draw and scale arrows to represent the force and momentum vectors for Earth. Run the program, and you will
notice that the force on Earth is always toward Sun, as expected. The momentum of Earth is always tangent to its path
and in the direction of motion (as it should be). Earths momentum is greatest when Earth is nearest Sun (perihelion)
and is least when Earth is furthest from Sun (aphelion).
1
2

3
4
5
6

G=6.67 e 11
7
8
9

10
11
12
Sun .m=2e30
Earth .m=6e24
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Earth . v =1.2 v e c t o r ( 0 , s i , 0 )
20
21
22
t=0
dt =0.001T
23
24
25
26
27
f a r r o w = arrow ( pos=Earth . pos , a x i s=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )

parrow = arrow ( pos=Earth . pos , a x i s=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . magenta )
28
29
30
f s c a l e = 0 . 1 au /1 e21
p s c a l e = 0 . 1 au /1 e28
52
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
while 1 :
rate (100)
rmag=mag( r )
r u n i t=r /rmag
39
Fnet = Fgrav
40
41
42

43
44
45
46
47
48
#u p d a t e arrows
f a r r o w . pos=Earth . pos
parrow . pos=Earth . pos
f a r r o w . a x i s=f s c a l e Fnet
parrow . a x i s=p s c a l e Earth . p
49
50
51
52
53
54
t=t+dt
55
3.P.77
(a) The program from 3.P.77 or 3.P.76 can be modified to simulate a binary system. The example below was modified
from 3.P.76.
1
2

3
4
#s t a r 1 i s Sun and s t a r 2 i s i t s companion s t a r
5
6
7
8
au =1.5 e11 #1 A.U.

G=6.67 e 11
9
10
11
s t a r 1=s p h e r e ( pos = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w , r a d i u s =10R)

s t a r 2=s p h e r e ( pos=(au , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan , r a d i u s =10R)
12
13
14
s t a r 1 .m=1.989 e30 #mass o f Sun

s t a r 2 .m=0.5 s t a r 1 .m
15
16
s i =3e4 #i n i t i a l s p e e d
17
18
19
20
#f i g u r e o u t i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y v e c t o r s so t h e y a r e t a n g e n t t o t h e c i r c l e
s t a r 1 . v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
s t a r 2 . v=v e c t o r ( 0 , s i , 0 )
21
22
53
23
24
25
26
t=0
dt=1e4
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
while 1 :
rate (1000)
r12mag=mag( r 1 2 )
r 1 2 u n i t=r 1 2 / r12mag
38
Fnet1 = Fgrav12
39
40
41
Fgrav21 = Fgrav12
42
43
44
Fnet2 = Fgrav21
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
t=t+dt
60
Run the simulation. The two stars orbit one another, and the entire system moves in the +y direction since the initial
momentum of the system is in the +y direction and doesnt change (since the net force on the system is zero). If
you change the initial conditions of the companion star (star 2 in the program), you can find various possible orbits
including open orbits. However, the center of mass of the system always moves in the direction of the initial momentum
of the system.
(b) Change the following lines
star1.p=star1.m*star1.v
to
star1.p=-star2.p
54
to make Suns momentum opposite the momentum of its companion. You must define the companions momentum
before Suns momentum. Note that the earlier definition of Suns initial velocity is irrelevant since Suns momentum is
being redefined.
Now, the momentum of the system, ~psys = ~p1 + ~p2 , is zero. Thus, the center of mass remains at rest as the stars orbit.
3.P.78
Use the program from 3.P.77 that simulates the orbit of Earth. If you use the same initial conditions that resulted in a
circular orbit and if you change the gravitational force to be proportional to 1/r3 , the force is so small that Earth nearly
travels in a straight line. So, increase G to a value between 6 and 12 (N m3 /kg2 ). Various values from G = 6 to G = 12 will
result in interesting orbits.

Alternatively, set G = 10 and vary the initial speed. If ~vcircle is the speed of Earth in a circular orbit, try initial speeds of

0.95 ~vcircle to 1.05 ~vcircle .
Here is a sample program.
1
2

3
4
5
6

G=10
7
8
9

10
11
12
Sun .m=2e30
Earth .m=6e24
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Earth . v =0.98 v e c t o r ( 0 , s i , 0 )
20
21
22
t=0
dt =0.0001T
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
while 1 :
rate (1000)
rmag=mag( r )
r u n i t=r /rmag
33
34
35
Fnet = Fgrav
55
36
37
38
39
40
41

42
43
t=t+dt
Heres another force to try. This force is zero when Earth is at its equilibrium distance from Sun (1 A.U.). However,
its negative (attractive) if Earth gets farther and positive (repulsive) if Earth gets closer. Thus, it acts like a spring. Use
G = 1 1050 and set the gravitational force to
Fgrav = G*Sun.m*Earth.m*(rmag-au)**2*(rmag-au)/abs(rmag-au)*(-runit)
The factor (rmag-au)/abs(rmag-au) is positive if Earth is closer than 1 A.U. to Sun and negative if Earth is further than
1 A.U. to Sun.
3.P.79
(a) At a distance of 1 A.U., the gravitational force on Earth by Sun is

~
Fgrav, on Earth by Sun =
=
=
MEarth MSun
2
|~r|

24
30
2
11 N m
(6 10 kg)(2 10 kg)
6.6742 10
kg2
(1.5 1011 m)2
3.56e22 N
At a distance of 40 million km, the gravitational force on Earth by Venus is

~
Fgrav, on Earth by Venus =
=
=
MEarth MVenus
2
|~r|

24
24
2
11 N m
(6 10 kg)(6 10 kg)
6.6742 10
kg2
(40e9 m)2
1.5e18 N
(b) The ratio of the force on Earth by Venus to the force on Earth by Sun is

~

Fgrav, on Earth by Venus

~

Fgrav, on Earth by Sun
1.5e18 N
3.56e22 N
4 105
In comparison to Sun, the force on Earth by Venus is quite small. It is indeed a good approximation to neglect Venus
in the simulation of Earth orbit around Sun.
56
(c) At a distance of 400,000 km, the gravitational force on Earth by Moon is

~
Fgrav, on Earth by Moon =
=
=
MEarth MMoon
2
|~r|

24
22
2
11 N m
(6 10 kg)(7 10 kg)
6.6742 10
kg2
(4e8 m)2
1.75e20 N
(d) The ratio of the force on Earth by Moon to the force on Earth by Sun is

~

Fgrav, on Earth by Venus

~

Fgrav, on Earth by Sun
1.75e20 N
3.56e22 N
5 103
Though more significant than Venus, the force on Earth by Moon is only 5 thousands of the force on Earth by Sun.
Thus, its a reasonably good approximation to neglect it in the simulation of Earths orbit.
3.P.80
(a) Modify the program in 3.P.74. A step size of 10 seconds can be used. Heres an example program where Rangers
initial velocity is directly toward Moon. Note that the radii of the spheres are larger than the actual radii of Earth and
Moon, in order to make them visible in the simulation. A print statement is added after the while loop (outside the
while loop) so that the clock reading can be printed after Ranger crashes into either Earth or Moon.
1
2

3
4
5
6
RM = 1 . 7 5 e6 #r a d i u s o f Moon
h = 5 e4 #i n i t i a l a l t i t u d e o f Ranger
7
8
9
10
Earth = s p h e r e ( pos = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . blue , r a d i u s =5RE)

Moon = s p h e r e ( pos =(4e8 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . white , r a d i u s =0.5 Earth . r a d i u s )
r a n g e r = s p h e r e ( pos=(RE+h , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan , r a d i u s =0.25 Earth . r a d i u s )
11
12
13
14
15
m=173 #mass o f r a n g e r
G = 6 . 6 7 e 11
16
17
18
v=v e c t o r ( 1 . 1 1 e4 , 0 , 0 ) #i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y o f r a n g e r
p=mv #i n i t i a l momentum o f r a n g e r
19
20
21
t=0
dt=10
22
23
24
25
rmag=mag( r a n g e r . pos ) ; #d i s t a n c e o f r a n g e r from Earth

rrelmoonmag=mag( r a n g e r . posMoon . pos ) #d i s t a n c e o f r a n g e r from Moon
57
26
t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r=r a n g e r . c o l o r )
27
28
29

rate (1000)
30
31
32
33
34
35
#c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on r a n g e r by Earth
r=r a n g e r . pos
rmag=mag( r )
r u n i t=r /rmag
36
37
38
39
40
41
#c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on r a n g e r by Moon
r r e l m o o n=r a n g e r . pos Moon . pos
42
43
44
Fnet=FgravE + FgravM
45
46
47
48
49
p = p + Fnet dt
v = p/m
r a n g e r . pos = r a n g e r . pos + v dt
50
51
t r a i l . append ( pos=r a n g e r . pos )
52
53
t = t + dt
54
55
print " c r a s h e d a t t=" , t
(b) The minimum initial speed of the Ranger to reach Moon is 1.2e4 m/s (rounded to two significant figures). With initial
speeds less than this speed, the Ranger reaches a turning point (zero speed) and returns to Earth. To three significant
figures, with the constants defined as in the sample program, the initial speed was found to be 1.11e4 m/s.
(c) Use an initial speed of (1.1)(1.2e4 m/s) = 1.32e4 m/s. Use the print statement after the while loop to print the clock
reading in seconds. Convert this to hours and days. The duration of the trip is about 15 hours, or 0.6 days.
(d) After the while loop, use print "speed = ", mag(v) to print the magnitude of Rangers velocity. With an initial
speed of 1.32e4 m/s, the impact speed at Moon is 7500 m/s.
3.P.81 In order to reuse an earlier simulation of Earth and Moon that were on the +x axis, in this example, Venus, Earth,
and Moon are arranged as shown in Fig. 14.
Venus has about the same mass as Earth. It is about 4 1010 m from Earth. The distance from Earth to Moon is about
4 108 m. Thus, Venus is 100 times farther away from Earth as Moon. This is so large that the distance from Ranger
to Venus is approximately constant during its journey. As a result, the gravitational force on Ranger by Venus remains
approximately constant and equal to
58
+y
Venus
Earth
+x
Moon
Figure 14: The orientation of Venus, Earth, and Moon.

~
Fgrav on Ranger by Venus
= G
mranger MVenus
|~r|
6.6742 10
11
N m2
kg2
24
(173 kg)(6 10
(4e10 m)2
kg)
4e-5 N
Without Venus in the model, it took about 50,000 s for Ranger to get to Moon. Lets calculate the deflection of Ranger in
the direction toward Venus in this time interval.
= Fby Venus on Ranger, y t
py
(4e-5 N)(5e4 s)
2 kg m/s
Now, apply the definition of average velocity to calculate the deflection in the direction toward Venus. If Venus is in the +
y direction and the initial velocity of the ranger is in the + x direction (toward Moon), then
vavg,y t
v v
i,y
f,y

t
!
*0

pf,y
pi,y
=
t
2

1
2 kg m/s
=
(5e4 s)
173 kg
2
300 m

1
m
59
The above calculation is an approximation because the gravitational force is not exactly constant. However, with a deflection
of only 300 m, which is small compared to Moons radius, certainly we can say that Ranger will not miss Moon as a result
of the gravitational pull of Venus.
Lets write a program to get a more accurate calculation of how much Venus deflects Ranger. First, return to the simulation
in problem 3.P.81 and print the position of Ranger when it crashes into Moon. This will tell us where the crash site is in our
model, without the effect of Venus. The crash site is found to be at h3.98334e8, 0, 0i m.
Now modify the program in problem 3.P.81 to add Venus. Because Venus is so far away, compared to the Earth-Moon
distance, you must increase the radius of the spheres to make them visible. Heres a sample program.
1
2

3
4
5
6
RM = 1 . 7 5 e6 #r a d i u s o f Moon
h = 5 e4 #i n i t i a l a l t i t u d e o f Ranger
7
8
9
10
11
Earth = s p h e r e ( pos = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . blue , r a d i u s =100RE)

Moon = s p h e r e ( pos =(4e8 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . white , r a d i u s =0.5 Earth . r a d i u s )
Venus = s p h e r e ( pos =(0 ,4 e10 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w , r a d i u s=Earth . r a d i u s )
r a n g e r = s p h e r e ( pos=(RE+h , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan , r a d i u s =0.25 Earth . r a d i u s )
12
13
14
15
16
17
m=173 #mass o f r a n g e r
MV= ME
G = 6 . 6 7 e 11
18
19
20
v=v e c t o r ( 1 . 3 2 e4 , 0 , 0 ) #i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y o f r a n g e r
p=mv #i n i t i a l momentum o f r a n g e r
21
22
23
t=0
dt=10
24
25
26
rmag=mag( r a n g e r . pos ) ; #d i s t a n c e o f r a n g e r from Earth

rrelmoonmag=mag( r a n g e r . posMoon . pos ) #d i s t a n c e o f r a n g e r from Moon
27
28
t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r=r a n g e r . c o l o r )
29
30
31

rate (1000)
32
33
34
35
36
37
#c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on r a n g e r by Earth
r=r a n g e r . pos
rmag=mag( r )
r u n i t=r /rmag
38
39
40
41
42
43
#c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on r a n g e r by Moon
r re l m o o n=r a n g e r . pos Moon . pos
44
45
#c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on r a n g e r by Venus
60
46
47
48
49
r r e l V e n u s=r a n g e r . pos Venus . pos

rrelVenusmag=mag( r r e l V e n u s )
r r e l V e n u s u n i t=r r e l V e n u s / rrelVenusmag
FgravV=GmMV/ rrelVenusmag 2 r r e l V e n u s u n i t
50
51
52
53
Fnet=FgravE + FgravM + FgravV
54
55
56
57
58
p = p + Fnet dt
v = p/m
r a n g e r . pos = r a n g e r . pos + v dt
59
60
t r a i l . append ( pos=r a n g e r . pos )
61
62
t = t + dt
63
64
65
66
67
68
print
print
print
print
print
" c r a s h e d a t t=" , t
"= ( i n h o u r s ) " , t , ( t / 3 6 0 0 )
"= ( i n days ) " , t , ( t / 3 6 0 0 / 2 4 )
" s p e e d = " , mag( v )
" pos= " , r
The impact speed and impact time are the same as in the previous model without Venus. However, the crash site is at a
slightly different location. Because Venus is in the +y direction from the Earth-Moon axis, it attracts the spaceship slightly
in the +y direction, thus deflecting it in the +y direction. The new crash site found by the simulation is at the location
h3.98334e+08, 327.013, 0i m. Thus, adding Venus to the model deflected Ranger only 327 m from the crash site in the original
model. We can conclude that Venus has a negligible effect on the Ranger, and its safe to neglect it in our model.
Note that the simulation predicts a very similar deflection (327 m) as the back-of-the-envelope approximation of 300 m.

Matter and Interaction Chapter 03 Solutions

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1

3.X.1 According to the Principle of Reciprocity,

3.X.5 According to Newtons law of gravitation

Solve for the mass of Earth.

(2.8 108 m) + (0 m) + (-2.8e8 m)

At the surface of Moon, |~r| = R, the radius of Moon.

(b) The magnitude of the gravitational force on an object of mass m by Moon is

(70 kg)(1.5 N/kg)

(70 kg)(9.8 N/kg)

At the surface of Mars, |~r| = R, the radius of Mars.

3.X.11 The gravitational force on a person by Earth near its surface is

(60 kg)(9.8 N/kg)

According to the Principle of Reciprocity,

~Fgrav, on person by Earth

Figure 1: The net force on the comet at position B.

nneutrons = 197 79 = 118

nneutrons = 232 90 = 142

= ~Fon A by B + ~Fon A by C + ~Fon A by D

= ~Fon B by A + ~Fon B by C + ~Fon B by D

= ~Fon C by A + ~Fon C by B + ~Fon C by D

(1 kg)h5, 2, 0i m/s + (3 kg)h3, 4, 0i m/s

h5, 2, 0i kg m/s + h9, 12, 0i kg m/s

= h4, 14, 0i kg m/s

h4, 14, 0i kg m/s

(2 kg)h3, 4, 0i m/s + (5 kg)h2, 6, 0i m/s

= h6, 8, 0i kg m/s + h10, 30, 0i kg m/s

h4, 38, 0i kg m/s

= < 0, 0, 0 > mA ~vA,i

According to Conservation of Momentum, the change in momentum of the surroundings is

= mB ~vB,f < 0, 0, 0 >

According to Conservation of Momentum, the change in momentum of the surroundings is

The change in the momentum of the system is

The total momentum of the system does not change. It is constant.

0.3 kgh4, 3, 2i m/s + 0.5 kgh2, 1, 4i m/s

= h1.2, 0.9, 0.6i kg m/s + h1, 0.5, 2i kg m/s

(c) Use the momentum principle

h2.2, 0.4, 2.6i kg m/s + (< 0, 7.84, 0 > N)(0.1 s)

h2.2, 0.4, 2.6i kg m/s + < 0, 0.784, 0 > kg m/s

= h2.2, 1.2, 2.6i kg m/s

3.X.23 According to the momentum principle,

0.02 kg(h5, 2, 3i m/s) + 0.02 kg(h3, 0, 2i m/s)

= h0.1, 0.04, 0.06i kg m/s + h0.06, 0, 0.04i kg m/s

h0.16, 0.04, 0.1i kg m/s

h0.16, 0.04, 0.1i kg m/s

h10, 20, 5i kg m/s + h8, 6, 12i kg m/s

h2, 14, 7i kg m/s

Here are the force unit vectors at each point:

(b) By reciprocity, we must have

(24.9 N)(71.5e6 m)2

~rfrom planet to the star

(b) The distance is

rfrom planet to the star

(d) Newtons law of gravitation is

(f) The (vector) force exerted on the planet by the star is

(1.8e21 N) < 0.81, 0.58, 0 >

(g) The (vector) force exerted on the star by the planet is

!rfrom star to planet

Figure 3: A star and planet.

~rfrom star to planet

(11 1011 m) + (6 1011 m) + (0 m)

The unit vector is

rfrom star to planet

Newtons law of gravitation is

from future import d i v i s i o n

from future import d i v i s i o n