Cellular

Respiration

Cellular Respiration

The processes of photosynthesis and

cellular respiration are directly tied
to one another.
In photosynthesis, hydrogen and
electrons are added to carbon
dioxide gas to produce high energy
molecules of glucose (the carbon
dioxide is reduced).
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In Cellular respiration, the bonds of

the high energy glucose molecules
are broken to release that stored
energy. In cellular respiration
glucose is oxidized (hydrogen and
electrons are removed) and the low
energy compounds carbon dioxide
and water are produced.

The way in which organisms release

energy from carbohydrates can be broken
down into two different pathways:
Aerobic Cellular Respiration and
Fermentation
Aerobic Cellular Respiration
Organisms that live in Aerobic (oxygen
containing) conditions, such as plants,
animals and many types of fungi, protists
and bacteria carry out Aerobic cellular
respiration.
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Aerobic Cellular respiration is an

oxidation reaction in which
electrons from high energy
compounds (mainly glucose) are
transported to oxygen in a series
enzyme mediated steps.

Energy is released from

carbohydrates and stored in ATP
which is used in a variety of cellular
activities.
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Aerobic Cellular Respiration has

3 main stages;
begins with Glycolysis, an
ANAEROBIC process,
and proceeds to the Krebss
Cycle
and an Electron transport
system.
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it

I) Glycolysis

Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of

all living cells, and the ultimate role of
this reaction is to split the 6 carbon
compound glucose, into two 3 carbon
molecules called pyruvate.
1 GLUCOSE (6 Carbons)
2 Pyruvate Molecules (3 carbons each)
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Glycolysis

Glycolysis occurs in the absence of

oxygen and some organisms relay on
this process for all of their energy
needs.

Eg) Muscle tissue can use Glycolysis

for energy in the absence of oxygen for
short periods of time, but eventually
they need oxygen to function fully.

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In order for a cell to split a glucose

molecule into 2 pyruvate molecules, an
initial input of ATP energy is required.

The cell has to invest 2 molecules of

ATP to start the reaction.

This investment of ATP energy is called

activation energy. (Think of using the
energy of a match to start a campfire in
which much more energy is released
then was initially invested from the
match)
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Glycolysis

Once the reaction starts, glucose is

broken down and 4 molecules of ATP
are produced.

We say that Glycolysis yields a net of 2

ATP molecules (initial input of 2 ATP
and 4 are produced = 2 Net ATP)

Glycolysis
Glucose (6 carbons) + 2 ATP (activation energy) 2 pyruvate (6 carbons)
+ 4 ATP (stored energy) + NADH

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Glycolysis

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Steps of glycolysis:

STEPS:
Glucose is broken down into 2 PGAL molecules
(oxidation)
2 ATP are used
PGAL molecule is oxidized and loses an electron and
hydrogen and forms PGA
The coenzyme NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
picks up the hydrogen and electron to become NADH.
NADH is reduced and is used in the Krebs Cycle.
When PGAL is oxidized, energy is released and 2 ATP are
produced
PGA is oxidized further and stripped of its phosphates.
This creates 2 pyruvate molecules and 2 ATP
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Steps summarized:

Glucose (6 carbons) + 2 ATP (activation energy)

2PGAL

2 PGAL + NAD+ 2 PGA + NADH + 2 ATP

PGA is oxidized 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP (stored energy)

Reactants in Glycolysis Final Products of

Glycolysis

Glucose
Pyruvate
NAD+ NADH
2 ATP 4 ATP
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For species that cannot

utilize oxygen, or when
oxygen is not available,
glycolysis and
fermentation (further
breaking down of
pyruvate without
oxygen) are the only
ways to get energy from
glucose.
If oxygen is present,
the pyruvate molecules
are transported into the
matrix of the
mitochondria where they
enter a metabolic
pathway called the
Krebs cycle
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The Krebs cycle

(Also known as the Citric
Acid Cycle or the
Tricarboxylic acid (TCA)
cycle)

-Occurs in the Matrix of the

mitochondria
-Requires Oxygen (Aerobic
respiration)

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Pyruvate (a 3 carbon compound)

from glycolysis is combined with
atmospheric oxygen to form acetic
acid (a two carbon compound) and
gives off a Carbon dioxide as a waste
byproduct.
Pyruvate + O2

Acetic acid +
CO2

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The acetic acid combines with a

molecule called Coenzyme A (CoA)
to form Acetyl Coenzyme A (Acetyl
CoA)

Acetic acid + CoA Acetyl

Coenzyme A
(Acetyl CoA)
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Acetyl Coenzyme A (a two carbon

compound) enters a series of reactions
called the Krebs cycle. Here, Acetyl
Coenzyme A releases its 2 carbons to bind
with a 4 carbon compound called
oxaloacetate. This forms a 6 carbon
compound called citric acid.
Acetyl Coenzyme A + Oxaloacetate Citric acid +
CoA*

*the CoA molecule is recycled back to pick

up another Acetic acid to bring to the
Krebs cycle.
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Within the Krebs cycle, the citric acid

is stripped of two CO2 molecules, as
well as Hydrogen and Electrons. Once
the citric acid is stripped of the
Carbons, it becomes the 4 carbon
compound Oxaloacetate, which
returns to the beginning of the cycle
to pick up 2 more carbons from Acetyl
Coenzyme A

Citric Acid 2 Carbon Dioxides Oxaloacetate +

H+ + e22

The Electrons and Hydrogen are picked up

by NAD and FAD (flavin adenine
dinucleotide), which are reduced to NADH
and FADH2. These two coenzymes go to an
electron transport system where they are
oxidized and the energy released is used to
make ATP. The vast majority of ATP is made
during the electron transport systems.
Reduced in the Krebs cycle
NAD + H+ + e- NADH
FAD + H+ + e- FADH2
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Electron Transport System

(AKA- Cytochrome system, oxidative
phosphorylation, respiratory chain )

High energy electrons and hydrogen

molecules from the electron carriers FADH2
and NADH are passed from one electron
carrier to another in a series of reactions.
The last electron acceptor in this series of
reactions is oxygen.
When the final electron receptor, oxygen,
binds to the hydrogen and electrons which
have been passed down the electron
transport system, water is created and
given off as metabolic waste.
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Without oxygen, there would be no final

electron acceptor and the electron transport
system could not proceed because it would
become jammed with the hydrogen and
electrons.
At each reaction in the electron transport
system, a small amount of energy is given off
which is used to pump hydrogen ions from the
matrix of the mitochondria, across the inner
membrane into the intermembrane space.
This buildup creates potential energy which is
used to create ATP through chemiosmosis and
ATP synthase. (see chemiosmosis in
photosynthesis)
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Electron Transport
System

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Oxidized in electron
transport system

NADH NAD + lots of ATP

energy + Water

FADH FAD + lots of ATP

energy + Water

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In total, the two pyruvic acids

that enter the Krebs cycle
yield 34 more ATP molecules.
When we combine this with the
2 net ATP we gained in
glycolysis, we have a net gain
of 36 ATP in Aerobic
respiration.
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Anaerobic Fermentation

Some organisms (such as some

bacteria and yeast) do not use
oxygen and therefore do not have
mechanisms for the Krebs cycle.

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Some cells exist in anaerobic

conditions some of the time (muscle
cells that dont get enough oxygen
during heavy exercise).
These cells use metabolic pathways
that do not use oxygen or electron
transport systems.
Anaerobic fermentation is not
very efficient and produces much
less energy than aerobic respiration.
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Lactate (Lactic acid)

Fermentation

NADH produced during glycolysis is used to turn

pyruvate into lactate (lactic acid).

This can occur if there is not enough oxygen

available to act as a final electron acceptor in the
electron transport system of the Krebs cycle.

Excess pyruvate builds up in the muscles and the

cells convert it to Lactic acid using NADH. If too
much lactic acid builds up in the muscles, they can
become cramped and not enough ATP is available
for further contractions so they shut down (become
fatigued).
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Lactate (Lactic acid)

Fermentation

Glucose Pyruvate + 4 ATP

No Oxygen

Pyruvate + NADH Lactic Acid + CO2 + 2ATP +

NAD+

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Later, when oxygen is available

again (heavy breathing after
exercise), the lactic acid is converted
back to pyruvate. Now the pyruvate
can go through the Krebs cycle as
usual and ATP stores can be rebuilt.

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Lactic Acid Fermentation

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Ethanol Fermentation

Some organisms, such as yeast, will produce

Ethyl Alcohol instead of lactic acid as a
byproduct of anaerobic fermentation.

Pyruvate (3 carbons) from glycolysis is

converted to a 2 carbon sugar called
acetaldehyde and a carbon dioxide molecule
which is given off as waste. (think off the
holes/bubbles in bread)
The 2 carbon acetaldehyde is reduced using
NADH and is turned into ethanol and a small
amount of ATP.

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Besides Ethanol and Lactate, other

products that can be produced as a
result of anaerobic fermentation
include: acetic acid (vinegar),
acetone and butanol.
Because the byproducts of Anaerobic
fermentation have not undergone a
complete oxidation, they still have a
lot of energy stored in their bonds.
Ethanol can be used as a fuel source
for example.
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Ethanol Fermentation

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Cells use many kinds of

organic molecules as fuel
for cellular respiration

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