Photosynthesis/

Cellular
Respiration

Oxygen and
Photosynthesis

More than half of all

oxygen on earth is
produced by
phytoplankton in the
oceans.
Only plants, algae and
some types of bacteria can
convert the Suns energy
into chemical energy.
Life on earth is only
possible because the sun
provides constant energy
input in the form of light.
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All forms of life need some

type of energy to survive:

Autotrophs living things that can

trap energy (usually light energy)
from the environment and store that
energy in chemical bonds.

Heterotrophs living organisms that

must consume autotrophs or other
heterotrophs for the chemical energy
they need.
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Metabolism

Metabolism refers to all the chemical

reactions that occur within a cell.
Anabolic chemical reactions are reactions
that take small molecules and form larger
ones.
Catabolic reactions are reactions that break
down large molecules into smaller ones.

Metabolic reactions require an initial

input of energy. Heating cannot occur in
biological systems so this activation
energy comes from enzymes.
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Metobolic Reactions

Representation of about 500

common reactions of the
basic metabolic network.
Each point (node) represents
a distinct chemical substance
and each line (edge)
represents a simple chemical
transformation, catalyzed by
a separate enzyme. A typical
mammalian cell synthesizes
more than 10,000 different
proteins, a major proportion
of which are enzymes. The
central vertical line and circle
represent what biochemists
call the "glycolytic pathway"
and the "citric acid cycle", the
bases of cellular energetics
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Autotrophs

Most autotrophs use the process of

photosynthesis to convert solar
energy into chemical energy and
store this in the chemical bonds of
carbohydrates.

Photosynthesis

In addition to high energy

compounds like sugar and starch
which the autotrophs may use for
growth, repair and storage, the
byproducts of photosynthesis are
oxygen, some heat and a molecule
called Adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Chemical energy is potential energy

stored in the bonds of chemical
compounds. All organisms (both
heterotrophs and autotrophs) must
break apart the chemical bonds of
high energy compounds like glucose
in order to release and use that
energy.

In the process of cellular respiration,

organelles called mitochondria break
down sugars to generate molecules of
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
ATP is the source of energy that all
organisms use for nearly all cellular
activities. These activities include:
active transport across membranes,
moving flagella and cilia,
causing muscle contraction and
driving metabolic pathways (anabolism and
catabolism).

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ATP

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A cell gains energy from an ATP

molecule by breaking the bond
between the second and third
phosphate groups. By breaking this
bond, energy is released. When this
bond is broken we are left with
adenosine Diphosphate (two
phosphate groups instead of 3) and a
free phosphate.
ATP ADP + P and energy
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13

To recharge a molecule of ADP, the

cells have to reattach the free
phosphate. This takes energy. The
energy used to reattach the
phosphate to the ADP molecule
comes from the energy stored in
glucose. ATP is made during cellular
respiration.
ADP + P + energy ATP
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The ATP and ADP

Connection

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When discussing photosynthesis and

cellular respiration we have to have
an understanding of energy in
biological molecules.
Atoms and molecules can gain or
lose electrons from their structures.
When one atom or molecule loses an
electron, another substance must
pick up that electron.

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Oxidation when an atom or molecule

loses an electron to another atom or
molecule. A substance that has lost
electrons has less energy in this oxidative
state.

Reduction- When an atom or molecule

gains electrons from another substance.
**All molecules and atoms have more
energy in their reduced forms. Reduced
substances are said to have reducing
power
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Photosynthesis (photo
light synthesis to create)

CO2 + H2O + Sunlight O2 +

Glucose

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Photosynthesis is a very complex

process that takes place in the
chloroplasts of plants, algae and
some bacteria.
In general terms, photosynthesis
converts solar energy into the
chemical energy found in the bonds
of glucose molecules.

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Glucose is then used

to form many
different
carbohydrates (like
starch, oil and
cellulose) and the
energy from glucose
is used by the plant
to synthesis many
other compounds
(such as hormones,
proteins etc.)
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Chloroplasts

Chloroplasts are
found in the
cytoplasm and
contain a pigment
called chlorophyll.
This pigment traps
the energy from
sunlight and uses
this energy to
create
carbohydrates.
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Chloroplasts

Chloroplasts are bound by a double

membrane and contain a fluid called
stroma. Inside the chloroplast and
suspended in the stroma is another
membrane system that is organized
into interconnected, flattened disks
called Thylakoids. These thylakoids
are arranged in stacks called
granum.
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Chloroplast

Stroma- fluid inside

chloroplasts where
carbohydrates are
manufactured.

Thylakoid
membranescontain the green
pigment
chlorophyll.
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Reactions of
photosynthesis

There are two separate sets of

reactions involved in photosynthesis:
The Light Dependent Reactions
and the Light Independent
Reactions (Calvin cycle)

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The Light Dependent

Reactions (non-cyclic
photophosphorylation)

Sunlight, when shinned through a

prism, separates into a spectrum
made up of all the colors of visible
light wavelengths. (think of a
rainbow)

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Pigments absorb certain

wavelengths of light and reflect
other wavelengths. (reflected
wavelengths of light give the
pigment its colour).

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Photosynthetic Pigments

Chlorophyll is green
because it reflects green
wavelengths of light and
absorbs red and blue
light.
Plants have other types of
photosynthetic pigments
such as beta-carotene and
carotenoids that absorb
other wavelengths of
light. We can see these
pigments in the fall when
chlorophyll breaks down.

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Each photosynthetic pigment

absorbs light at different colours.
Having a variety of pigments enables
plants to use a greater percentage of
the suns light

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During the light dependent reactions,

chlorophyll pigments in the thylakoid
membranes absorb light energy.

Chlorophyll and other pigments are

arranged in the thylakoid membranes
in clusters called photosystems.

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Photosystems

Photosystems- Plants and algae have

two photosystems (photosystem I and
photosystem II) made up of about a dozen
chlorophyll molecules and a few
carotenoid molecules.
In the middle of the photosystem cluster
is a special molecule that accepts energy
from the surrounding pigments. This
special molecule is called a reaction
centre or antenna
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Generalized Photosystem

When the reaction

centre receives energy
from the surrounding
pigments, an electron
within the reaction
centre become
excited and is raised
to a higher energy level.
The excited electron is
then passed to an
electron acceptor
molecule outside of the
photosystem.
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Harnessing Light Energy

This electron receptor molecule

now becomes reduced (has
received an electron) and has
much more energy.

Step 1: Light energy is

absorbed by pigments in
photosystem II.

Step 2: Energy from pigments

is transferred to an electron in
the reaction centre of
photosystem II

Step 3: The excited electron is

transferred to a receptor
molecule outside of the
photosystem. This receptor
molecule becomes reduced
(has more energy)

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Photolysis

Photolysis-When an electron leaves the

reaction centre of photosystem II, it has
to be replaced or the photosystem
would eventually run out of electrons!!
In order for a plant to replace the
electrons, the plant splits a water
molecule. When the plant splits a water
molecule, hydrogen ions, oxygen gas
and electrons are produced. Occurs in
the granna.
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H2O 2H+ + O2 + electron

The resulting oxygen is given off by the

plant as oxygen gas to the atmosphere.
The electrons from the broken water
molecule are passed to the photosystem
II cluster to replace the electrons that
are lost to the reduction of the electron
receptor molecule
The hydrogen ions bind to an
intermediate molecule called NADP (to
form NADPH, which is used in the light
independent reactions to form
carbohydrates.)
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Step 4: From the initial reduced

electron acceptor molecule, the
energized electron is passed along a
chain of other electron acceptor
molecules. This chain of molecules that
the electron travels through is
collectively called the electron
transport system.

Each time the electron is passed

from one molecule to the next, it
loses a little bit of
energy.
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Chemiosmosis

Step 5: Chemiosmosis - The energy

that is released from the electron as
its passed from one molecule to
another in the electron transport
system is used to move hydrogen
ions from the stroma (liquid in the
chloroplast) into the thylakoid space
(interior of the thylakoid).
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-The concentration gradient of hydrogen

ions becomes very large, as there are
now many more hydrogen ions inside
the thylakoid compared to in the stroma,
and the thylakoid
membrane is
impermeable to Hydrogen ions.
This generates potential energy as the
hydrogen wants to diffuse but cant.
(think about water being kept on one
side of
a damn: Lots of energy in the
water!!).
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-The hydrogen ions can only exit the

thylakoid space through special
channels in the membrane called
ATP synthase. As the hydrogen ions
move through these ATP synthase
channels, the energy is used to make
ATP from ADP and a free phosphate.

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Step 6: Pigments in Photosystem I (this is a

second photosystem) absorb light energy and
transfer their energy to the reaction centre of
the photosystem I cluster.
An electron in the reaction centre becomes
excited and is transferred to another electron
transport system.
As the electron is passed through this set of
molecules the energy released is used to
reduce the molecule NADP.
Using the energy from the electron and the
hydrogen ions from splitting a water molecule,
NADP becomes reduced NADPH.
This molecule has lots of energy and is used to
make carbohydrates in the light independent
reactions.
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Step 7: Electrons from Photosystem

II replace the electrons lost from
photosystem I in the formation of the
NADPH.

**Remember that electrons from

photosystem II are gained from
splitting water molecules.

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Light dependent reaction

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Products of the Light

Dependent Reactions

ATP ( from chemiosmosis)- used in

light
independent reaction
NADPH (created using hydrogen and
electron
from splitting water
molecules (photolysis)) - used in
light independent
reaction
Oxygen gas (from photolysis) given
off to
atmosphere
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The Light Independent

Reactions (Calvin-Benson
cycle)

The Light independent reaction is the stage of

photosynthesis where the CO2 and H2O are
converted into a carbohydrate.
The energy rich molecules ATP and reduced
NADPH from the light reaction are used to
supply electrons and reducing power for this
reduction reaction.
This reaction can occur in the presence or
absence of light because the energy to run this
reaction comes from the stored chemical
energy in ATP and NADPH.
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Calvin Benson cycle

The Calvin-Benson
cycle occurs in the
stroma of the
chloroplast and each
stage is mediated by an
enzyme.
The cycle occurs in
three stages carbon
dioxide fixation, carbon
dioxide reduction, and
ribulose bisphosphate
regeneration.
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Carbon dioxide fixation

1. Carbon dioxide fixation - CO2 from the

atmosphere is brought into the plant and is
chemically bound to an existing 5 carbon
compound called Ribulose Bisphosphate (RuBP).
Binding the Carbon dioxide (1 carbon) to the 5
carbon RuBP creates a 6 carbon compound which
immediately breaks down to form two 3 Carbon
compounds called Phosphoglyceric acid (PGA)
CO2 + RuBP 6 carbon unstable sugar 2
PGA

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Carbon dioxide reduction

2. Carbon dioxide reduction - PGA is a

very low energy compound. To increase
the energy within the bonds of the PGA
molecule so that it can be used to make
sugars, ATP and NADPH from the light
reaction reduce the PGA.
This reduction causes the PGA to turn
into another 3 carbon compound called
Phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL). PGAL
has much more energy than PGA.
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PGAL is the end product of the Calvin cycle

and PGAL can be removed from the cycle and
used for the formation of larger carbohydrates
such as glucose, sucrose and starch.

**If one molecule of PGAL (3 Carbons) is to be

removed from the system then 3 molecules of
CO2 must have entered the system - so for the
ultimate formation of 1 glucose (6 Carbons)
from 2 PGAL molecules there must be an
initial input of 6 CO2 into the system.

PGAL (3 carbon) + PGAL (3 carbon) Glucose (6

carbon)
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Ribulose Bisphosphate
regeneration

3. Ribulose Bisphosphate
regeneration RuBP, (the initial 5
carbon compound that is bound to a
carbon dioxide) must be regenerated
so the Calvin-Benson cycle can
continue. Most of the molecules of
PGAL undergo reorganizations to
regenerate RuBP.
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Calvin Benson Cycle

Step 1 Carbon
Dioxide Fixation

Step 2 Carbon
Dioxide
reduction

Step 3 RuBP
Regeneration
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