Youth Enrichment in Sports

Youth Enrichment in Sports is devoted to producing and distributing educational pro-

grams that benefit young athletes. These programs help coaches and parents create a mas-
tery climate that promotes healthy achievement in all areas of life, including sports. A
mastery orientation emphasizes skill development, personal and team success, maximum
Mastery Approach
to Coaching
effort, and fun. Research has shown that a mastery orientation to youth sports has strong
positive effects on children and adolescents.

The Mastery Approach to Coaching is the only scientifically validated coaching-edu-

A Leadership Guide
cation workshop that has been shown to have desirable effects on youngsters personal,
social, and athletic development. During a coach-training session, the following topics
are covered:


Objectives of Youth Sports
Orientation to the Psychology of Coaching for Youth Sports
Achievement in Sports and in Life
Mastery Climate Research Results
A Healthy Philosophy of Winning
Behavioral Guidelines for Youth Sport Coaches
The Reinforcement Power of Coaches
Reacting to Mistakes
Maintaining Order and Discipline
Dealing With Violations of Team Rules
Getting Positive Things to Happen
Creating a Good Learning Atmosphere
Self-Awareness
Relations With Parents
Coaching Your Child

The Mastery Approach to Coaching workshop has been transformed into a self-instruc-
tion DVD. The 66-minute video presents recorded segments of a live workshop that in-
corporates several educational procedures, including dynamic interaction, modeling, and
role playing. It is specifically designed to teach mastery-oriented coaching principles with
the aid of animated graphics, photos, and embedded videos.

The Mastery Approach to Parenting in Sports is a research-based self-instruction DVD

that gets coaches and parents on the same page. Similar to coaching education, the
45-minute video focuses on encouraging mastery involvement by parents. This includes
an emphasis on reinforcement of effort as well as outcome, personalized goal setting,
defining success as achieving ones potential, and emphasizing enjoyment and personal Frank L. Smoll and Ronald E. Smith
improvement as opposed to winning at all costs.

Demonstration videos have been produced that present overviews of the Mastery Ap-
proach DVDs for coaches and parents. To see the 12-minute previews, go to the Youth
Enrichment in Sports website (www.y-e-sports.com).
Mastery Approach
to Coaching
A Leadership Guide
for Youth Sports

Frank L. Smoll and Ronald E. Smith

University of Washington

Copyright 2009 by Frank L. Smoll and Ronald E. Smith. All rights reserved.
 2 Mastery Approach to Coaching

Contents
Welcome to Youth Sports! ........................................................................ 3

Objectives of Youth Sports ....................................................................... 3

Orientation to the Psychology of Coaching ............................................ 4

Achievement in Sports and in Life .......................................................... 5

Mastery Climate Research Results ......................................................... 7

A Healthy Philosophy of Winning ........................................................... 9

Behavioral Guidelines for Youth Sport Coaches .................................. 11

A. Reacting to Good Plays and Effort

The Reinforcement Power of Coaches ............................ 13

B. Reacting to Mistakes ............................................................. 14

C. Maintaining Order and Discipline ....................................... 17

D. Dealing With Violations of Team Rules ............................... 19

E. Getting Positive Things to Happen ...................................... 21

F. Creating a Good Learning Atmosphere ............................... 22

Self-Awareness ......................................................................................... 23

Relations With Parents ........................................................................... 26

Coaching Your Child ............................................................................... 29

Concluding Message ................................................................................ 31

About the Authors ................................................................................... 32

 Mastery Approach to Coaching 3

Welcome to Youth Sports!

As a coach, you are one of the millions of adults who make it pos-
sible for countless children to participate in an activity that probably
enriched your own life as you grew up. People who take on the chal-
lenges of leadership in youth sports are far more than just a coach.
They usually are aware of their responsibilities as teachers, but they
may not fully realize they are also amateur psychologists, substitute
parents, and important role models. Are you prepared to fulfill these
diverse roles?
A person who wishes to coach obviously must have certain
skills and knowledge. Many resources are available concerning
techniques and strategies of various sports as well as instructional
methods. Coaching clinics typically focus on specific sport skills
and techniqueshow to shoot a jump shot, goalie positioning, and
offensive and defensive strategies. However, in terms of overall im-
pact, the type of relationship that you form with your athletes may
be the most significant aspect of youth sports.
This manual can help you increase the value of sports for
young athletes personal, social, and athletic development. The basic
principles and guidelines presented are intended to help you create a
supportive environment for learning both sport and life skillsone in
which both you and your athletes can emerge as winners regardless
of how many victories are achieved. In a healthy climate created by
competent and caring leaders, coaches never lose the most impor-
tant contest of allthe challenge of providing a worthwhile sport
experience for the youngsters who have been entrusted to them.

Objectives of Youth Sports

There is no question that sport participation can have positive effects
on young athletes. Those who favor youth sports see them as provid-
ing miniature life situations in which children and adolescents can
learn to relate more effectively to other people and to cope with re-
alities they will face in later life. Physically, athletes can learn sport
skills and increase their health and fitness. Psychologically, they can
develop leadership skills, self-discipline, respect for authority, com-
petitiveness, cooperativeness, sportsmanship, and self-confidence.
 4 Mastery Approach to Coaching

Moreover, sports can be just plain fun! Socially, sports provide an op-
portunity to become part of an ever-expanding network of friends and
acquaintances. Additionally, an important objective of school-sponsored
sports is to promote academic achievement.
Youth sports do, however, have more than their share of critics,
who claim that these programs place excessive physical and/or psycho-
logical stress on young athletes, rob youngsters of the creative benefits
of spontaneous play, and develop antisocial attitudes and behaviors by
encouraging cheating and aggression. They also say that youth sports
are conducted primarily to satisfy self-serving interests of parents and
coaches, who try to achieve glory through young athletes.
In reality, neither advocates nor opponents of youth sports have
a corner on truth. Any of the positive or negative outcomes described
above can occur. The real question is how to increase the likelihood
that young athletes will experience favorable outcomes. Ultimately, the
manner in which programs are organized and supervised is what deter-
mines their effects on young athletes. That is where you come in as a
coach. You have an important responsibility to provide competent guid-
ance and instruction in sport techniques and strategies, and to create a
psychologically healthy situation in which youngsters can derive the
positive benefits of participation.

Orientation to the
Psychology of Coaching
In your role as a coach, you are trying to influence the behavior of ath-
letes in desirable waysathletically, psychologically, and socially. Thats
where psychology, the science of mind and behavior, comes in. Simply
stated, the psychology of coaching is nothing more than a set of prin-
ciples that guides your behavior as a coach. Coaches can have different
goals and different approaches to what they do, and these approaches
can have very different effects on their athletes.
Many coaches tend to underestimate the influence they can have
on the youngsters who play for them. In addition to the central role that
you occupy in athletics, it is important to recognize that your influence
also extends into other areas of your athletes lives. Your actions and
the attitudes and values you express help to shape their view of the
world and of themselves. For some young athletes, you may be a more
 Mastery Approach to Coaching 5

important influence than their parents during a formative period of

their lives. In some cases, the youngster may even look to you as a
substitute for a parent who is missing in either a physical or a psy-
chological sense.
Weve condensed the results of more than 25 years of re-
search on coaching behaviors and their effects on athletes into
the Mastery Approach to Coaching. The guidelines are not
complicated, and theyre easy to learn. If you succeed in in-
corporating them into your own coaching style, it can provide
big dividends for you and for the young athletes who look to you
for a rewarding sport experience. In terms of how you affect young-
sters, you can be a coach who never loses, no matter what your won-
lost record might be.

Achievement in Sports
and in Life
The sport environment is a developmentally significant one, partly
because it is an achievement setting of great relevance to the par-
ticipants. For example, research has shown that childrens motiva-
tion and investment are greater in sport activities than in classroom
activities and interactions with their friends. Therefore, important
lessons about achievement and the meaning of success and failure
can be learned in athletics.
When conducted properly, youth sports can help youngsters
to acquire the kinds of attitudes, values, and skills that promote
achievement and success in all areas of life. When mismanaged,
sports can create fear of failure, reduce enjoyment, undermine self-
worth, and counter values of fair play. Which of these consequences
occurs depends largely on the type of motivational climate that is
created by coaches. The motivational climate is critically important
because it communicates different notions about what success is and
what is required to be a success.
Two different ways of defining success have been identified
by researchers who study achievement motivation. An ego goal ori-
entation is found in people who define success as winning or be-
ing better than others. They are always comparing themselves with
 6 Mastery Approach to Coaching

others and dont feel successful unless they see themselves as per-
forming better than others. Anything short of victory is failure and
indicates to them that they are inferior. Carried to an extreme, the
view is that If Im not the best, Im the worst. For such people,
the stakes are high for winning or losing, and some develop high
fear of failure because, to them, failure means inferiority. Hall of
Fame college basketball coach Dean Smith described one hazard
of an ego orientation: If you make winning games a life or death
proposition, youre going to have problems. For one thing, youll
be dead a lot.
A second and more healthy view of success is called a mastery
goal orientation. Mastery-oriented people focus on their own effort
and accomplishments instead of comparing themselves with others. In
a sense, they compare themselves with themselves. They can feel suc-
cess and satisfaction when they have learned something new, seen skill
improvement in themselves, or given maximum effort. Even if they
see themselves as less skillful than someone else, mastery-oriented
people can feel competent and successful if they view them selves as
doing their best to become the best they can be. Legendary UCLA
basketball coach John Wooden captured the essence of a mastery
orientation is his famous definition of success: Success is peace of
mind, which is a direct result of self-satisfaction in knowing you
did your best to become the best you are capable of becoming.
In the long run, by focusing on becoming their best, mastery-orient-
ed people are more likely to realize their potential and to be free of
performance-destroying fear of failure that causes some athletes to
choke under pressure.
Ego and mastery goal orientations do not develop in a vac-
uum; they are acquired and reinforced by significant adults. Adults
create the motivational climate by the values they communicate,
particularly about what success is, and by the behaviors they re-
ward or punish. In youth sports, athletes attitudes toward success
and achievement develop within the motivational climate created by
coaches. In an ego-based climate, the emphasis is on winning out
over others, including both opponents and ones own teammates. Its
fair to say that a statement by the late George Allen, a former Na-
tional Football League coach, typifies an ego environment: In this
game, youre either a winner or a loser. Success means winning
championships. Anything else is failure.

 Mastery Approach to Coaching 7

In an ego-based climate, coaches often focus their attention

on the most talented athletes, who have the greatest influence on
winning. Effort and improvement are not emphasized as much as
performance level. Rivalry among teammates may be encouraged
by comparing them openly with one another. Inadequate perfor-
mance or mistakes are often punished with belittlement and criti-
cism, teaching children that mistakes are to be avoided at all costs
and thereby building fear of failure. Another unfortunate outcome
associated with an ego climate is the willingness to win at all costs,
even if rule-breaking is required to gain the needed advantage. Obvi-
ously, this doesnt sound like a fun environment. And, in fact, ath-
letes in such sport environments report much lower enjoyment than
those in mastery environments.
In a mastery-based climate, the goal is to foster positive
growth as an athlete and as a person. The emphasis is on effort,
learning, and personal improvementdoing what it takes to be your
best. To be sure, winning is valued, but in a mastery climate, the
adults realize that winning takes care of itself if athletes are having
fun, improving their skills, giving maximum effort, working togeth-
er, and are not shackled with fear of failing. Mastery climates foster
an atmosphere of mutual support and encouragement, and everyone,
regardless of ability, is made to feel an important part of the team.

Mastery Climate
Research Results
Which type of motivational climate is best for youth sports? Scien-
tific research has provided a clear answer, and it is the same answer
that has been shown in school and work settings. Mastery climates
consistently have more positive effects on both achievement and on
psychological factors. Seven of the beneficial effects are summa-
rized below.
1. In mastery climates, young athletes are more likely to de-
velop intrinsic (internal) motivation for the activity, enjoying the
activity for itself. In ego climates, participation is enjoyed not for
itself, but instead is a means toward some other extrinsic (external)
end, such as social status and recognition.

 8 Mastery Approach to Coaching

2. Mastery climates are associated with greater sport enjoy-

ment. In ego climates, pressures to outperform others decrease en-
joyment if youre not top dog. Not surprisingly, more kids drop
out of sports from ego climates because competitive pressures de-
crease fun.
3. Mastery climates minimize fear of failure, because an em-
phasis on effort, persistence, and improvement is within the athletes
control. Ego climates foster fear of failure because comparisons with
others (whose performance one cant control) and concerns about
ability increase anxiety.
4. Mastery climates tend to increase self-esteem because
children are rewarded and take pride in their own improvement and
effort. In ego climates, athletes may not feel good about themselves
unless they outperform others, and a failure to do so may diminish
feelings of self-worth.
5. In mastery climates, athletes come to believe that effort is
the key to success, and they value hard work and cooperation with
others. In other words, they internalize John Woodens definition of
success, striving to become the best they can be. In ego climates,
athletes believe that ability and getting an edge over others is what
governs success. They are therefore more willing to cheat or use
intimidation to win.
6. Mastery climates, whether in sports or in school, promote
faster and better skill development and higher performance than do
ego climates. When athletes are enjoying themselves, focusing on
effort and improvement, and are not hampered by fear of failing,
winning takes care of itself. In such cases, coaches find that their
teams are actually more successful.
7. In terms of athletes ratings of how much fun they had and
how much they liked playing for their coach, one study showed that
a mastery climate was about 10 times more influential than was the
teams won-lost records.
Given these consistent research results, it is no accident that
the guidelines found in this manual are designed to help coaches
create a mastery-based motivational climate. Further, the findings on
performance show that coaches do not need to choose between win-
ning and providing a mastery climate. Both goals can be achieved at
the same time. Athletes are likely to learn skills faster and ultimately
perform better if they are having fun in a supportive environment
 Mastery Approach to Coaching 9

that focuses on effort and improvement, and in which mistakes are

viewed as ways of learning rather than things to be feared.
Buying into a mastery orientation means that winning be-
comes something different than collecting Ws and league cham-
pionships. Lets examine this conception of what it means to be a
winner.

A Healthy Philosophy
of Winning
An important issue requiring clarification is the difference between
professional and developmental models of sport. Professional sport
is a huge commercial enterprise, where the major objectives are di-
rectly linked to their status in the entertainment industry. The goals
of professional sports are to entertain and to make money. Financial
success is of primary importance and depends heavily on winning.
In a developmental model, sport is an arena for learning, in
which the ultimate objective is to develop the individual. The most
important product is not wins or dollars, but the quality of the ex-
perience for young athletes. In this sense, sport participation is an
educational process whereby youngsters can learn to cope with re-
alities they will face in later life. Although winning is sought after,
it is by no means the primary goal. Profit is not measured in terms
of dollars and cents, but rather in terms of the skills and personal
characteristics that are acquired.
Most youth sport programs are oriented toward providing a
healthy recreational and social-learning experience for youngsters.
They are not intended to be miniature professional leagues. Unfor-
tunately, some coaches get caught up in the winning is everything
philosophy that characterizes much of our sport culture. This is not
to say that coaches should not try to build winning teams, but some-
times winning becomes more important for the coach than it is for
the athletes. Winning will take care of itself within the limits of your
athletes talents and the quality of instruction they receive. In your
role as a teacher, it is important to recognize that skills are most
likely to develop within a positive and happy relationship between
you and your athletes. And while happy athletes dont always win,
they need never lose.

 10 Mastery Approach to Coaching

Young athletes can learn from both winning and losing. But
for this to occur, winning must be put in a healthy perspective. More
exactly, there is a four-part philosophy that Mastery Approach
coaches communicate to their athletes.
1. Winning isnt everything, nor is it the only thing. Young
athletes cant possibly learn from winning and losing if they think
the only objective is to beat their opponents. If youngsters leave
your program having enjoyed relating to you and to their team-
mates, feeling better about themselves, having improved their skills,
and looking forward to future sport participation, you have accom-
plished something far more important than a winning record or a
league championship.
2. Failure is not the same thing as losing. Athletes should
not view losing as a sign of failure or as a threat to their personal
value. They should be taught that losing a game is not a reflection of
their own self-worth.
3. Success is not equivalent to winning. Winning and losing
apply to the outcome of a contest, whereas success and failure do
not. How, then, can we define success in sports?
4. Athletes should be taught that success is found in striving
for victory. The important idea is that success is related to commit-
ment and effort! Effort is within athletes zone of control. They have
complete control over the amount of effort they give, but they have
only limited control over the outcome that is achieved. As Major
League Baseball star Ichiro Suzuki stated, I have no control over
results. All I can do is play to the best of my abilities. Success is
me giving everything that I have.
The core idea in the Mastery Approach emphasizes that
success is achieved in striving to be your best. Thus, the focus is not
on competing with others and trying to outdo them, but on develop-
ing ones own abilities to the maximum. We saw this concept cap-
tured in John Woodens definition of success, and College Football
Hall of Fame coach Frosty Westering expressed the same idea in
this statement: Doing your best is more important than being the
best.
If you can impress on your athletes that they are never
losers if they commit themselves to doing their best and giving
maximum effort, you are bestowing a priceless gift that will assist
them in many of lifes tasks. When winning is kept in a healthy
 Mastery Approach to Coaching 11

perspective, the most important coaching product is not a won-lost

record; it is the quality of the sport experience provided for the ath-
letes.
How can you teach a mastery-oriented philosophy of win-
ning? First, have regular discussions about it. You must continu-
ally remind athletes about the importance of effort. Second, back up
your words with actions. In other words, dont just talk about effort,
do something about it! Many of the guidelines presented in the next
section are specifically designed to teach effort from a behavioral
perspective. Third, help athletes set individualized goals specific to
them, and encourage them to work toward them. If theyre working
on a technical skill, try to find a way to measure their performance
so they can see their improvement. Use praise and recognition to
reward effort and improvement. Encourage effort and persistence,
telling athletes that skills develop gradually, not all at once. In a
mastery climate, the most improved player award is just as impor-
tant as the most valuable player. Finally, convey to your athletes
that mistakes are one of the best ways to learn, and that they neednt
fear making them. John Wooden referred to mistakes as stepping
stones to achievement because they provide the feedback needed
to improve performance.

Behavioral Guidelines for

Youth Sport Coaches
There are two basic approaches to influencing people, both of which
are used by coaches. The positive approach is designed to increase
desirable behaviors by motivating athletes to perform them and by
rewarding (reinforcing) the athletes when they do. This relation-
ship style goes hand-in-hand with the healthy philosophy of win-
ning presented earlier. And, it creates a mastery-based climate, so
we will refer to it as the Mastery Approach throughout the remain-
der of the manual.
The negative approach, which is often present in an ego-
based climate, involves attempts to eliminate athletes mistakes
through the use of punishment and criticism. The motivating factor
in this command style is fear. Punitive coaching behaviors have
many undesirable side effects that can actually interfere with what
 12 Mastery Approach to Coaching

a coach is trying to accomplish. It is the fastest way to instill fear of

failure and to create resentment and hostility.
Both of the coaching styles are used at all levels of com-
petition. However, the effectiveness of the Mastery Approach has
been scientifically validated. This means that we are not shooting
from the hip with personal beliefs or so-called armchair psychol-
ogy about what we think will work. Rather, the behavioral guide-
lines (leadership principles) comprising the Mastery Approach
were derived from our research on how coaching behaviors actually
affect young athletes. The guidelines were also evaluated in numer-
ous studies conducted in real-life sport settings. In these studies,
groups of coaches were randomly placed in either (a) an experimen-
tal (training) condition, in which they learned the guidelines, or (b)
a control condition where training did not occur. Athletes attitudes
and psychological characteristics were measured at the beginning
and end of the season so that the effects of the training and control
conditions could be compared. The results consistently confirmed
that the Mastery Approach to Coaching (a) fosters positive coach-
athlete relations and greater mutual respect, (b) increases the amount
of fun that athletes experience, (c) creates greater team cohesion and
a more supportive athletic setting, (d) promotes higher mastery-ori-
ented achievement goals in sports and in school, (e) increases ath-
letes self-esteem, (f) reduces performance-destroying anxiety and
fear of failure, (g) decreases athlete dropout rates from approximate-
ly 30 percent to 5 percent, and (h) produces equally positive effects
on boys and girls teams. Its not surprising that prominent coaches
recognize and practice the power of the Mastery Approach. For
example, former National Football League coach Jimmy Johnson
stated, I try never to plant a negative seed. I try to make every
comment a positive comment. Theres a lot of scientific evidence
to support positive management.
There are three important points to emphasize about the
leadership principles. First, they are not sport specific, which means
they can be applied in all sports. Second, they are not age specific,
so they can be used across all levels of competition. Third, they
are not restricted to use in sports. For example, because parenting
is a form of leadership, you can use the principles in raising your
children.

 Mastery Approach to Coaching 13

You likely will recognize that many of the recommended

coaching behaviors are things you already do. However, the chal-
lenge is to integrate new procedures into your personal coaching
style. This will require dedication and effort on your part.
We now present the behavioral guidelines. First, they will
be given in a condensed form in black boxes. The rationale for the
leadership principles will then be covered, along with specific rec-
ommendations for their use.

A. Reacting to Good Plays and Effort

The Reinforcement Power of Coaches

DO: Reinforce! Use reward and praise. Do so immediately. Let

the athletes know that you appreciate and value their efforts.
Reinforce effort as much as you do results. Look for positive
things, reinforce them in word or action, and you will see them
increase. Remember, whether athletes show it or not, the posi-
tive things you say and do stick with them.

DONT: Take athletes efforts for granted.

Rationale for the Guidelines

The Mastery Approach to Coaching is characterized by

liberal use of reinforcement. The most effective way to build desir-
able behaviors is to use the reinforcement power you have as a
coach. Positive reinforcement can include many thingsa pat on the
back, a smile, clapping, verbal praise, a friendly nod. The key is to
catch the athlete doing something right. Look for positive things, re-
inforce them, and you will see them increase. Praise the little things
that others might not notice. Reinforcement, sincerely given, does
not spoil people; rather, it gives them something to strive for. Re-
search shows that athletes value positive reinforcement more than
any other coaching behavior.
Have realistic expectations and consistently reinforce ath-
letes when they succeed in meeting them. Reinforce desirable be-
havior as soon as it occurs, since immediate reinforcement is more
potent. But even delayed reinforcement is better than none at all.
 14 Mastery Approach to Coaching

Remember, whether youngsters show it or not, the positive rein-

forcement you give them helps to solidify the good feelings they
have about themselves.
What you choose to reinforce is of critical importance. Rein-
force your athletes for giving effort as much as for achieving positive
results. The importance of reinforcing effort cannot be overempha-
sized. As we stated earlier, athletes have complete control over how
much effort they make; but they have only limited control over the
outcome of their efforts. If you can get your athletes to strive with
maximum effort, the good outcomes will take care of themselves.
John Wooden emphasized this approach in his coaching:

You cannot find a player who ever played for me at UCLA

that can tell you that he ever heard me mention win-
ning a basketball game. He might say I inferred a little
here and there, but I never mentioned winning. Yet the
last thing I told my athletes, just prior to tip-off, before
we would go on the floor was, When the game is over, I
want your head upand I know of only one way for your
head to be upand thats for you to know that you did
your best. This means to do the best you can do. Thats
the best; no one can do more. You made that effort.

B. Reacting to Mistakes

DO: Encourage immediately after mistakes. That is when the

youngster needs encouragement most. If you are sure the athlete
knows how to correct the mistake, encouragement alone is suffi-
cient. When appropriate, give corrective instruction, but always
do so in a supportive way. Do this by emphasizing not the bad
thing that just happened, but the good things that will happen if
the athlete follows your instruction (the why of it). This will
make the athlete positively self-motivated to correct the mistake
rather than negatively motivated to avoid failure and your disap-
proval.
 Mastery Approach to Coaching 15

DON'T: Punish when things go wrong! Punishment isn't just

yelling; it can be tone of voice, action, or any indication of dis-
approval. Athletes respond much better to a Mastery Approach.
Fear of failure is reduced if you work to reduce fear of punish-
ment. Indications of displeasure should be limited to clear cases
of lack of effort; but, even here, criticize the lack of effort rather
than the athlete as a person.

DON'T: Give corrective instruction in a hostile, degrading, or

harsh manner. That is, avoid punitive or sarcastic instruction.
This is more likely to increase frustration and create resentment
than to improve performance. Don't let your good intentions in
giving instruction be self-defeating.

Rationale for the Guidelines

As much as you enjoy seeing outstanding performance and

all-out effort, most of the time your athletes will show little resem-
blance to superstars. How you react to mistakes is critically impor-
tant. If you handle them wrong, you risk creating a fear of failure in
athletes that can harm their performance, as well as their outlook on
themselves, the sport, and their coach.
Whether they show it or not, most athletes feel embarrassed
when they make a mistake. The most useful thing you can do is to give
them encouragement immediately after the mistake. That is when the
youngster needs it most. If you manage things right, mistakes can
also be a golden opportunity to provide corrective instruction. The
athlete wishes that he or she had done it correctly, and the instruc-
tion may be particularly meaningful at that time. There is a general
principle to follow: If you are sure the athlete knows how to correct
the mistake, then encouragement alone is sufficient. To tell an ath-
lete what he or she already knows may be more irritating than help-
ful. One kind of encouraging response is I know you can make that
play.

 16 Mastery Approach to Coaching

To give effective corrective instruction, you must know how

to correct mistakes. Simply stated, you must be able to teach the
technical aspects of sport skills. But you must also know when to
correct mistakes. Timing is important. Most athletes respond best
to immediate correction. Thus, for the majority of athletes, it is best
to correct mistakes as soon as possiblewhile the action is fresh in
their mind and in their body. However, a small minority of athletes
will respond much better to instruction if you wait awhile after a
mistake. In other words, some athletes benefit most if corrective in-
struction is delayed until they are more receptive to your input. This
is an individual difference to be aware of in your athletes.
If you feel that it will be useful, give corrective instruction,
but do it in an encouraging and positive fashion. Dont focus on the
bad thing that just happened, but the good things that will happen
if the athlete follows your instructionsthe why of it. We recom-
mend using a positive sandwich approach that has three elements:
(1) Start with a complimentWay to hustle. You really ran a good
pattern. (2) Give the future-oriented instructionIf you follow
the ball all the way into your hands, youll catch those just like a
pro does. (3) End with another positive statementHang in there.
Youre going to get even better if you work hard at it. This posi-
tive sandwichtwo positive communications wrapped around the
instructionis designed to make the athlete positively self-motivat-
ed to perform correctly rather than negatively motivated to avoid
failure and disapproval.
Most of us tend to focus on the negative side of ours and
others mistakes. We regard them as something badsomething to
be avoided at all costs. But mistakes do in fact have a positive side.
As noted earlier, John Wooden referred to mistakes as stepping
stones to achievement. In essence, they provide information that
is needed to improve performance. By communicating this concept
to athletes in word and action, you can help them to accept and learn
from their mistakes. Where mistakes are concerned, the only real
failure is a failure to learn from them.
There are several donts to be mentioned in relation to mis-
takes. Dont punish when things go wrong. Punitive comments do
little to increase positive motivation. Punishment isnt just yelling
at your athletes; it can be tone of voice, action, or any form of disap-
proval. Athletes respond much better to a Mastery Approach.

 Mastery Approach to Coaching 17

A second dont involves giving corrective instruction. Avoid

doing so in a hostile or punitive wayHow many times do I have to
tell you to catch with two hands? Are you trying to bug me, or are
you just plain stupid? Giving punitive instruction is more likely to
increase frustration and create resentment than to improve perfor-
mance. Dont let your good intentions in giving instruction be self-
defeating.
The Mastery Approach to Coaching is designed to create a
mastery orientation to achievement rather than fear of failing. In ad-
dition, if coaches deal honestly and openly with their own mistakes,
athletes will be better able to accept their mistakes and learn from
them. We can do no more than our best, and this is one of the most
valuable lessons to be learned.

C. Maintaining Order and Discipline

DO: Maintain order by establishing clear expectations and by

developing a system of team rules. Emphasize that during a
game all members of the team are part of the activity, even those
on the bench. Use reinforcement to strengthen team participa-
tion. In other words, try to prevent misbehaviors by using the
Mastery Approach to strengthen their opposites.

DON'T: Get into the position of having to constantly nag or

threaten athletes in order to prevent chaos. Don't be a drill ser-
geant. If an athlete refuses to cooperate, deprive him/her of
something valued. Don't use physical measures (abuse) as a
form of punishment (e.g., running laps). The idea here is that
if you establish clear behavioral guidelines early and work to
build team spirit in achieving them, you can avoid having to re-
peatedly keep control. Remember, athletes want clear guidelines
and expectations, but they don't want to be regimented. Try to
achieve a healthy balance.
 18 Mastery Approach to Coaching

Rationale for the Guidelines

Some of the most frequent questions of youth sport coaches

concern athletes misbehavior and lack of attention during practices
and games. Serious problems can be avoided by developing a sys-
tem of team rules. This should be done at a team meeting early in the
seasonthe sooner, the better!
How many rules should you have? That depends on the age/
developmental level of the athletes. Generally, however, having
more than 6 or 7 rules tends to be counter productive, because they
will not be remembered. Theres a simple rule of thumb to follow:
Have as few rules as necessary.
Psychological research has shown that people are more will-
ing to live by rules when they have had a hand in forming them,
and when they have made a public commitment to follow them. In
helping athletes to share responsibility for forming rules, there is a
four-part procedure that you can use. (1) Explain why team rules are
necessary and how rules contribute to making them a better team
Rules and regulations are an important part of the game. If we have
team rules, they will keep things organized and efficient. This will
increase our chances of achieving individual and team goals. (2)
Explain why the team rules should be something that they can agree
on as a groupThe rules will be your rules, and it will be your re-
sponsibility to follow them. (3) Solicit suggestions and ideas, and
listen to what athletes say to show that their ideas and feelings are
valuedWhat are the rules that you want to have? (4) Incorporate
athletes input into a reasonable set of rules. Rules should provide
structure and yet not be too rigid. The following are examples of
such rules: (a) Be prepared and focused during practice and compe-
tition. (b) Give maximum effort at all times. (c) Treat others as you
want to be treated.
In addition to formulating a set of team rules, be sure to dis-
cuss the kinds of penalties that you will use for breaking them. Here
again, athletes should participate in determining the consequences
that will follow rule violations. And, of course, your role includes
ensuring that the consequences are realistic.
The advantage of this approach is that it places the responsi-
bility where it belongson the athletes themselves. In this way, team
 Mastery Approach to Coaching 19

discipline can help develop self-discipline. Then, when someone

breaks a team rule, it is not the individual versus your rules, but the
breaking of their own rules.
Rules can play an important role in building team unity. Em-
phasize that during a game all members of the team are part of it,
and that good teammates support each other. By using reinforce-
ment to strengthen desirable behaviors, you can automatically pre-
vent misbehaviors from occurring. You know the old saying: An
ounce of prevention. . . By reinforcing athletes when they are in
the game and following team rules, you can increase team unity,
which is reinforcing in itself.
Does the team rule system only apply to young athletes? Of
course not! Quality coaches at all levels of competition teach self-
discipline with the Mastery Approach. For example, former Uni-
versity of North Carolina basketball coach Dean Smith stated, We
had very few rules on our basketball teams, and all of the rules
were made by our players. The coaching staff was pledged to
uphold them.

D. Dealing With Violations of Team Rules

DO: Separate the behavior from the person; coaches should be

hard on undesirable behavior, but soft on the athlete. The mes-
sage to communicate is, Im very unhappy with what you did,
but I still like you.

DO: Allow the athlete to explain his/her actions. There may be a

reasonable cause for what the athlete did or didnt do.

DO: Be fair and consistent. Avoid showing favoritism by treat-

ing all athletesthe stars and the subsequally. In the words of
Don James, former University of Washington football coach,
Dont spoil themno special deals or star treatment.
 20 Mastery Approach to Coaching

DO: Focus on the fact that a team policy was violated without
degrading the individual or making the athlete feel in the dog
house.

DO: Deprive athletes of something they value. For example, tell-

ing an athlete to sit off to the side (time out or penalty box)
is preferable to making the youngster run laps or do pushups.
Taking away playing time or a starting position are also effective
penalties.

DONT: Express anger or embarrass the athlete. And, of course,

never take action for the purpose of retaliating.

DONT: Use physical measures (running laps, doing pushups) as

a form of punishment.

Rationale for the Guidelines

Formulating team rules is easier than dealing with violations

of them. But dont take it personally when rules are broken. The
testing that young people do is a natural part of their quest for es-
tablishing independence. Simply remind the athlete that a rule was
broken that he or she agreed to follow. Because of thisnot because
of youa penalty must be paid. This approach focuses the responsi-
bility where it belongon the athleteand helps build a sense of per-
sonal accountability. As JohnWooden stated, Discipline yourself
and others wont need to.
What kinds of penalties should be given out for rule viola-
tions? The best thing to do is deprive athletes of something they val-
ue rather than making them do something aversive. As noted above,
telling an athlete to go to the penalty box is better than making the
youngster run laps or do pushups. The objective is to prevent ben-
eficial physical activities from becoming unpleasant by using them
as punishment. Remember also to keep the lines of communication
open and allow the youngster to explain his or her actions.
 Mastery Approach to Coaching 21

E. Getting Positive Things to Happen

DO: Set a good example of behavior by showing respect for

yourself, for your athletes, and for othersopponents, parents,
officials. You cannot demand respect. True respect must be
earned.

DO: Give encouragement. Encourage effort, dont demand re-

sults. Use encouragement selectively so that it is meaningful. Be
supportive without acting like a cheerleader.

DO: Concentrate on the game. Be in the game with the ath-

letes. Set a good example for team unity.

DONT: Give encouragement in a sarcastic or degrading manner.

Dont let encouragement become irritating to the athletes.

Rationale for the Guidelines

All people learn a great deal by watching and imitating

others. This is particularly true for youngsters, who rely heav-
ily on learning through observing. Thus your athletes will learn
as muchor morefrom what you do as from what you say. Rec-
ognize that, as a role model, your athletes look up to you because
you occupy a leadership position in a very significant area of their
lives. The ways you deal with them and approach problem situ-
ations teaches them how to do likewise. Consequently, your ath-
letes behavior will be a reflection of your behavior. For example,
if you cant maintain your poise in the face of frustration, what
kind of model are you providing for your athletes? If you cant treat
referees/umpires with the respect and tolerance they deserve, dont
expect your athletes to act in a dignified manner when calls go against
them. Your athletes are sure to be affected by what you do. In fact, they
will remember what you did long after they have forgotten what you said.
In addition to modeling appropriate forms of behavior, encour-
agement is an important part of the Mastery Approach to Coaching.
 22 Mastery Approach to Coaching

Most athletes are already motivated to develop their skills and play
well. Encouragement helps to increase their natural enthusiasm. It
is important to be realistic and base your encouragement on rea-
sonable expectations geared to the individual athlete. Athletes may
feel like failures when they find they cant reach unrealistic goals.
Again, encouraging effort rather than outcome can help avoid this
problem.
Encouragement can become contagious and build team uni-
ty. It helps you to communicate the enthusiasm you feel, and this
rubs off on your team. Try to get your athletes to be supportive and
encouraging of one anotherWay to go! Lets boost each other up!
The best approach is to be an enthusiastic model and to reinforce
your athletes when they encourage one another.
It is important that during each practice or game, every
youngster gets recognized at least once. Those athletes who usually
get the most recognition are either the stars or those who are causing
problems. The average-ability athletes need attention as well. When
coaches are asked to keep a count of how often they talk to each
youngster, they often discover that there are some athletes who get
very little attention. You might try this yourself.
If an athlete has had a bad practice or a rough game, that
event should not end with the youngster going home feeling badly.
He or she should get some kind of support from you, like a pat on
the back, or a kind wordHey, were going to work that out in
practice. or This must have been a tough day for you. I know what
youre going through, but everyone has days like that sometimes.
Dont let your athletes leave feeling alienated from you or feeling
like a loser.

F. Creating a Good Learning Atmosphere

DO: Establish your role as a teacher. Try to structure participa-

tion as a learning experience in which you are going to help the
athletes develop their abilities.

DO: Give instruction in a positive fashion. Satisfy your athletes

desire to become the best they can be.
 Mastery Approach to Coaching 23

DO: Give instruction in a clear, concise manner and, if possible,

demonstrate how to do skills correctly.

Rationale for the Guidelines

Your athletes expect you to help them satisfy their desire

to become as skilled as possible. Therefore, establish your role as
a teacher as early as possible. Emphasize the fun and learning part
of sports and let your athletes know that your primary goal is to help
them develop their abilities. As former college football coach Tom
Osborne stated, When we had conferences with our Nebraska
players, we always started out by discussing their strengths. Ev-
eryone needs to hear this. Then we told them what they needed
to improve on, with specific instructions on how they could im-
prove.
Always give instructions positively, emphasizing the good
things that will happen if they do it right rather than focusing on
the bad things that will occur if they dont. As we stated earlier, this
approach motivates athletes to make good things happen rather than
building fear of making mistakes.
Give instructions in a clear, concise manner. Remember the
new KISS principle: Keep It Short and Simple. Keep instructions
short; avoid overloading athletes with verbal input. Keep it simple;
dont provide too many technical details, and use language that ath-
letes can understand.
Finally, try to show athletes the correct technique with a dem-
onstration. Remember the Chinese proverb: I hear and I forget.
I see and I remember. I do and I understand. And if you cant
perform the skill properly, use one of your more talented athletes to
do the demonstration

Self- Awareness
Awareness means many things. Awareness pertains to insight into
how we behave and come across to othersknowing what we do
and how others perceive what we do. Another aspect of aware-
ness involves knowing the best ways to achieve goals, includ-
ing alternate approaches and what is best for specific situations.
 24 Mastery Approach to Coaching

One of the striking findings from our researchin which we observed

and recorded actual coaching behaviorswas that coaches had very
limited awareness of how frequently they behaved in various ways.
Fortunately, awareness is something that can be increased.
What are some ways to increase your personal awareness?
First, prior to practices and games, review the Mastery Approach
guidelines that are presented in the black boxes. This exercise will
mentally prepare you for relating effectively to your athletes. Sec-
ond, after practices and games, take some time to evaluate your
behaviors and actions. When going through this self-analysis, ask
yourself questions about what you did relative to the suggested be-
haviors in the guidelines. To assist you in this procedure, a Coach
Self-Report Form is presented (on page 25) for self-monitoring of
desirable coaching behaviors. Third, obtain some behavioral feed-
back. Work with your assistant coach as a team in sharing descrip-
tions of each others behaviors. Not only can you give each other
feedback, but you also can discuss alternate ways of dealing with
difficult situations and athletes and prepare yourselves for similar
situations in the future. At various times, you also can discuss situ-
ations with your athletes to obtain feedback from them. This will
show your athletes that you are interested in their reactions and are
motivated to provide the best possible experience for them.
Awareness also applies to understanding your athletes and
their needs. The most successful coaches are those who can help
each athlete achieve his or her full potential. The hallmark of such
coaches is an awareness of the makeup of each athlete and the abil-
ity to be flexible in how they approach each individual. This allows
them to do the most effective thing at the most appropriate timea
key to reaching athletes.
 Mastery Approach to Coaching 25

Coach Self-Report Form

Complete this form as soon as possible after a practice or game. Think
about what you did, but also about the kinds of situations in which
the actions occurred and the kinds of athletes who were involved.
1. When athletes made good plays, approximately what percent of
the time they occurred did you respond to good plays with
REINFORCEMENT? _____ %
2. When athletes gave good effort (regardless of the outcome),
what percent of the time did you respond with
REINFORCEMENT? _____ %
3. About how many times did you reinforce athletes for displaying
good sportmanship, supporting teammates, and complying with
team rules?_____
4. When athletes made mistakes, approximately what percent of
the time did you respond with:
A. Encouragement only _____ %
B. Corrective instruction given in an encouraging
manner _____%
(Sum of A plus B should not exceed 100%)
5. When athletes made mistakes, did you stress the importance of
learning from them? _____ Yes _____ No
6. Did you emphasize the importance of having fun while practic-
ing or competing? _____ Yes _____ No
7. Did you tell your athletes that doing their best is all you expect
of them? _____ Yes _____ No
8. Did you communicate that winning is important, but working to
improve skills is even more important? _____ Yes _____ No
9. Did you do or say anything to help your athletes apply what
they learned today to other parts of their life (for example, doing
the right things in school, family, or social life)?
_____ Yes _____ No
10. Something to think about: Is there anything you might do
differently if you had a chance to coach this practice or game
again?
 26 Mastery Approach to Coaching

Relations With Parents

The role of coaches in dealing with parents is critical to the success
of youth sport programs. Although many parents contribute posi-
tively, the negative impact that some parents have is all too obvious.
Uninformed parents can rob athletes of the benefits of sport partici-
pation. Hopefully, as a coach, you will be able to channel parents
genuine concerns and good intentions in a way that supports what
you are trying to accomplish.
We have found that a preseason coach-parent meeting is the
key to avoiding potential problems. Having a meeting is well worth
the extra time and effort. This part of the manual is a guide for plan-
ning and conducting an effective meeting with parents. We recom-
mend that you evaluate the information and make modifications to
suit your personal situation.

Planning and Preparation

The overall objective of a coach-parent meeting is to im-
prove parents understanding of youth sports. With sufficient plan-
ning and preparation, it can be an enjoyable experience.
Plan for an hour-long meeting, but be prepared to go a little
longer if needed. The meeting does not have to be elaborate to be
successful. However, the importance of being well prepared and or-
ganized cannot be overemphasized. To improve organizational qual-
ity, a written program outline should be developed and followed.
The meeting should be scheduled as early in the season as
possiblethe sooner the better. A letter of invitation should be used
to notify parents. Include brief statements about the objective of the
meeting, its importance, and information about the date, time, lo-
cation and directions. A team roster, with addresses and telephone
numbers, should be sent along with the letter. Follow-up telephone
calls are recommended to remind parents about the meeting.

Content and Conduct of the Meeting

Effective communication is a two-way street, requiring
both speaking and listening skills. In conducting the meeting, par-
ents should be drawn into discussion instead of lecturing to them.
This can be done by encouraging parents to ask questions, and by
 Mastery Approach to Coaching 27

directing questions to them from time to time. Also, in creating an

open atmosphere for exchange, it is very important to show respect
for the parents. Make them feel that they are a contributing part of
the meeting, rather than a mere audience.
Opening (5 minutes). Begin the meeting, with an introduction
of yourself and your assistant coach(es). In welcoming the parents,
it is important to let them know that you appreciate their interest and
concern. Praise them for attending. Next, establish your credibility
by giving background information. Tell them about your experience
in the sport, your experience as a coach, and special training that
you have had (such as workshops, or clinics you have attended).
Finally, point out the purpose of the meeting, and tell them how
you will provide information about fundamentals of the sport. For
example, you may wish to invite them to attend a practice session.
Objectives of youth sports (10 minutes). After the opening
remarks, there should be a discussion of youth sport objectives. Help
parents to understand the difference between professional sports and
the developmental model that guides your program (see page 9). If
adults work together, the objectives of the developmental model can
be achieved.
Details of your sport program (10 minutes). During this part
of the meeting, details should be presented about the operation of
your sport program. You should specify what is expected of the ath-
letes and parents relative to the programs goals. Some coaches find
it useful to organize a parent committee. The committee is given the
task of coordinating parent involvement in many activities of the
season.
Coaching roles and relationships (10 minutes). Parents will
benefit from knowing about your coaching style. In addition to
describing the Mastery Approach that you will be using, parents
should be encouraged to reinforce it in interactions with their chil-
dren.
Parent obligations and commitments (20 minutes). Inform-
ing parents about their roles in youth sports and the responsibilities
you expect them to fulfill is the most important part of the meeting.
This should include discussion of four topics.

 28 Mastery Approach to Coaching

Topic 1. Counseling children about sport selection and the

level of competition at which they want to play: This involves con-
ferring with and listening to children.
Topic 2. Parent commitments: To contribute to the success
of your sport program, parents must be willing and able to commit
themselves in many different ways. Five questions serve as impor-
tant reminders of the scope of parents responsibilitiesquestions to
which parents must be able to honestly answer yes.
1. Can you share your son or daughter? This requires put-
ting the youngster completely in your charge and trusting you to
guide his/her sport experience. It involves accepting your authority
and the fact that you may gain some to the childs admiration that
once was directed at the parent.
2. Can you accept your childs disappointments? When an
apparent disappointment occurs, parents should be able to help their
children to see the positive side of the situation.
3. Can you show your child self-control? Parents should be
reminded that they are important role models for their childrens be-
havior. Your coaching task becomes much more difficult if parents
lose control of themselves at games. You can hardly be expected to
teach sportsmanship and self-control to youngsters whose parents
obviously lack these qualities.
4. Can you give your child some time? The best advice you
can give them is never to promise more time than they can actually
deliver. Recommend that parents ask their children about their sport
experiences and make every effort to watch at least some of their
contests.
5. Can you let your child make his/her own decisions? This
is an essential part of growing up, and a real challenge to parents.
Sports can offer parents an introduction to the major process of let-
ting go.
Topic 3. Dangers of over-identification by parents: Some
parents might unknowingly become a source of stress to young ath-
letes. All parents identify with their children to some extent, and
thus want them to do well. Unfortunately, in some cases, the de-
gree of identification becomes excessive. The child then becomes
an extension of the parents. When this happens, parents begin to
define their own self-worth in terms of how successful their child is.
 Mastery Approach to Coaching 29

Some parents thus become winners or losers through their chil-

dren, and the pressure placed on the child to perform can be extreme.
A key to reducing parent-produced stress is to impress on them that
youth programs are for children, and that children are not miniature
adults. Parents must acknowledge the right of each child to develop
athletic potential in an atmosphere that emphasizes participation,
person growth, and fun.
Topic 4. Rules for parent behavior: The most unfortunate
parent problem is misbehavior at games/contests. As part of their re-
sponsibilities, parents should watch their children compete in sports.
But their behavior should meet acceptable standards. Youth sport
authorities recommend six rules for parental behavior.

1. Do remain seated in the spectator area during the event.

2. Dont interfere with your childs coach. Parents must be willing
to relinquish the responsibility for their child to the coach for
the duration of the practice or game.
3. Do express interest, encouragement, and support to your child.
4. Dont shout instructions or criticisms to the children.
5. Do lend a hand when a coach or official asks for help.
6. Dont make abusive comments to athletes, parents, officials, or
coaches of either team.

Coach-parent relations (5 minutes). Communication is the

key to friendly, productive relations. Parents should be told of your
willingness to discuss any problems that might arisea two-way line
of communication. You should let them know what times and places
are best suited for discussion with you.
Closing (20-30 minutes). We recommend concluding the
coach-parent meeting with a question-and-answer session.
The coach-parent meeting is a vitally important tool for de-
veloping parent involvement and support. A successful meeting will
help solidify the athletic triangle (coach-child-parent) and lead to
a positive youth sport experience.

Coaching Your Child

Many volunteers find their way into coaching youth sports because
their own son or daughter is playing. Therefore, the majority of
 30 Mastery Approach to Coaching

coaches end up coaching their own child at one time or another.

This can be a wonderful opportunity to spend quality time together,
but it also presents some unique challenges for parents and for their
children.
The most difficult issue concerns confusion arising from the
dual roles of coach and parent. To effectively deal with this, you and
your child need to understand that coaching behavior and parenting
behavior will be different. For example, a coach will not be able to
give the immediate access or personal attention that a parent would
give to a child at home. A coach must make time for all members of
the team, not just one young athlete.
Four principles for the coach/parent to follow are presented
below. The first two provide a foundation, which should be estab-
lished in a preseason meeting with your child. The last two prin-
ciples can be implemented during practices and games.
1. Ask your child how he or she feels about your being the
coach. In other words, get your childs perspective prior to the sea-
son. If there are reservations, its important to discuss them. Most
children enjoy playing for their parent, but some would prefer an-
other coach. Are some kids afraid to say they would rather play for
someone else? Yes, because they might believe their mother or fa-
ther will feel rejected. To counteract this, you must openly commu-
nicate with your child; hear your child; encourage them to express
their true feelings.
2. Discuss how your role will change when you are in the
athletic environment, and why you need to treat your child like any
other team member. Does the youngster feel any undue pressure,
such as perceived favoritism or excessive demands from you? Many
coaches tend to be harder on their child, and they bend over back-
ward not to show favoritism. Being fair does not mean being harder
on your child. Its a challenge to be impartial and treat your child no
differently than anyone else on the team.
In addition to talking with your son or daughter, we recom-
mend explaining the situation to the whole team. This can be done
at the first practice or team meeting. Some coaches tell their athletes
that, even though their son or daughter is on the team, they consider
every player as one of their children. Young athletes are able to un-
derstand the message.
 Mastery Approach to Coaching 31

3. Be a mom or dad at home and a coach on the field. Make

sure your separate roles are clear in your mind and in your childs.
There are at least two ways to put this principle into operation. First,
have your child refer to you as Coach during practices and games.
The labeling helps to solidify the separation of roles. Second, if you
have an assistant coach, have that person work with your child in
situations involving individual instruction. If the assistant also has a
child on the team, use the crisscross technique of working with each
others children.
And dont overdo it! When driving home, naturally youre
going to discuss the game. But set up a time interval, and dont go
beyond it. Keep things in balance, and set some reasonable limits.
4. Reaffirm your love, regardless your childs level of perfor-
mance. Youngsters will go to extremes to please their parents, and
too much emphasis on sports gets things out of kilter. Above all,
demonstrate in words and actions that your love does not depend on
athletic ability.
Coaching your own child may be convenient and fun, but it
isnt always the best thing to do. Try to avoid coaching your child for
more than 2 or 3 years in a row. You definitely should not be the only
coach your child ever has. Youngsters gain a lot by learning to adjust
to other styles of leadership; thus, it is a disservice not to expose
them to other coaches. When the time comes to end the coaching
relationship with your child, clearly explain the decision so that he
or she does not feel rejected.

Concluding Message
We hope the Mastery Approach to Coaching will help you create
a more enjoyable and rewarding sport experience for your athletes
and for yourself. Your willingness to give your time and talents to
young athletes is deeply appreciated by the youngsters whose lives
you touch, by parents, and by program administrators. Have a great
season!
 32 Mastery Approach to Coaching

About the Authors

Frank L. Smoll (Ph.D., University of Wisconsin) is a Professor of
Psychology at the University of Washington. He is codirector (with
Ronald Smith) of the sport psychology graduate program. Dr. Smolls
research focuses on coaching behaviors in youth sports and on the
psychological effects of competition on children and youth. He has
authored more than 130 scientific articles and book chapters, and he
has coauthored/edited 19 books and manuals on childrens athletics.
Professor Smoll is a fellow of the American Psychological Asso-
ciation (APA), the American Academy of Kinesiology and Physi-
cal Education, and the Association for Applied Sport Psychology
(AASP). Dr. Smoll was the recipient of AASPs 2002 Distinguished
Professional Practice Award. As an undergraduate, he played on
championship basketball and baseball teams, and he is a member
of the Ripon College Athletic Hall of Fame. In the area of applied
sport psychology, Dr. Smoll has extensive experience in conducting
psychologically-oriented coaching clinics and workshops for par-
ents of young athletes.

Ronald E. Smith is a Professor of Psychology at the University of

Washington. He received his undergraduate degree from Marquette
University and his Ph.D. in clinical psychology from Southern Illi-
nois University. Dr. Smith is Director of Clinical Psychology Train-
ing at the UW, and he has served as head of the social psychology
and personality areas, and as codirector of the sport psychology
graduate program. Professor Smiths major research interests are in
personality, stress and coping, and sport psychology research and
intervention. He has authored more than 180 scientific articles and
book chapters, and he has authored or coauthored 25 books. Dr.
Smith is a fellow of APA, a past president of AASP, and the recipient
of a Distinguished Alumnus Award from the UCLA Neuropsychiat-
ric Institute for his contributions to the field of mental health. From
1986 to 1996 he directed a psychological skills training program for
the Houston Astros and has served as a consultant for the Oakland
Athletics, as team counselor for the Seattle Mariners, and as a train-
ing consultant to Major League Soccer.