IMPLEMENTATION STRUCTURES FOR DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEMS

FINITE PRECISION NUMERICAL EFFECTS-NUMBER REPRESENTATIONS

QUANTIZATION IN IMPLEMENTING SYSTEMS
REALIZABLE POLE LOCATIONS
DIRECT FORM-I, DIRECT FORM-II
CASCADE FORM
PARALLEL FORMS
TRANSPOSED FORMS
FIR STRUCTURES
GENERALIZED LINEAR PHASE FIR STRUCTURES
DETERMINATION OF THE SYSTEM FUNCTION FROM A FLOW GRAPH

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Although two structures may be equivalent with regard to their input-output

characteristics for infinite precision representations of coefficients and
variables, they may have vastly different behavior when the numerical precision
is limited.

Oppenheim, Schafer, 3rd ed., p. 403

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FINITE PRECISION NUMERICAL EFFECTS

NUMBER REPRESENTATIONS

A real number in twos complement form (infinite precision)

= (0 + 2 )
=1

: arbitrary scale factor

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0 = 0

0 = 1

Quantized form ( +1 bits, finite precision )

= (0 + 2 )
=1

=
= (0 1 2 3 )

Quantization step size,

= 2

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THE ROLE OF

In A/D conversion
[ , ] volts

1 1

binary numbers

Ex: A 14 bit A/D converter is specified to have a dynamic range of 5 volts.

Assuming uniform quantization what are the values of 14 binary bits when its
input is 3.111 Volt?
Solution:
= 5
= 13
= 2
= 5 213
3.111
= 5097.1

5097 = 212 + 29 + 28 + 27 + 26 + 25 + 23 + 20
0 = 0
1 = 4 = 5 = 6 = 7 = 8 = 10 = 13 = 1
2 = 3 = 9 = 11 = 12 = 0
MATLAB code to check
x = 5*(2^12+2^9+2^8+2^7+2^6+2^5+2^3+2^0)*2^-13
d = 5*2^-13
(3.111-x)/d

Result
x = 3.110961914062500
d = 6.103515625000000e-04
ans = 0.062400000000343

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In fixed-point arithmetic, it is common to assume that each binary number has a

scale factor of
= 2
For example
=2

= 0 1 2 . 3

In floating-point arithmetic,
=

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QUANTIZATION IN IMPLEMENTING SYSTEMS

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REALIZABLE POLE LOCATIONS

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 {0, , , , , , , }
8 8 8 8 8 8 8
1 1 3 1
5 3 7

{0,
, ,
,
,
,
, }
2
8
8
2
8
2
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
cos {0, , , , , , , }
8 8 8 8 8 8 8

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DIRECT FORM-I, DIRECT FORM-II

b0 b1 z 1 b2 z 2 ... bM z M
H z
1 a1 z 1 a2 z 2 ... a N z N
M

b z

k 0
N

ak z k

k 0

with a0 1 ,

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Direct Form - I
vn

b0

xn

yn

z 1

a1

b1

z 1

b2

a2

bN 1

a N 1

z 1

aN

bN

z 1

z 1

z 1

Direct Form - II
wn

xn

a1
a2

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yn

z 1
b1

z 1

b2

aN 1
aN

b0

bN 1

z 1

bN

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Ex:
1 2 z 1 z 2
H z
1 0.75z 1 0.125z 2

Direct Form - I
xn

yn
z 1

z 1

0.75

z 1

z 1
0.125

Direct Form - II
xn

a1

yn
z 1

0.75

z 1
0.125

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CASCADE FORM

b0 b1 z 1 b2 z 2 ... bM z M
H z
1 a1 z 1 a2 z 2 ... a N z N

1 f z 1 g z 1 g z
M1

M2

k 1
N1

k 1
N2

1 c z 1 d z 1 d
1

k 1

NS

k 1

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1
k

1
kz

k 1

b0 k b1k z 1 b2 k z 2
1 a1k z 1 a2 k z 2

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Ex: Cascade form of a 6th order system.

2nd order subsystems have Direct Form-II realizations.

w1 n

xn

b01 y1 n

w2 n

b11

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a22

yn

b13

a13

z 1
b21

b03 y3 n

z 1
b12

a12

z 1

a21

w3 n

z 1

z 1
a11

b02 y2 n

z 1

b22

a23

b23

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Ex: Cascade form of a 2nd order system.

1 2 z 1 z 2
H z
1 0.75z 1 0.125z 2

1 z 1 z

1 0.5z 1 0.25z
1

xn

yn
z 1

z 1
0.5

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z 1

z 1
0.25

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PARALLEL FORMS

H z

NP

C z
k

k 0

NP M N

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2
Ak
Bk 1 ek z 1

1
1
1

c
z
k
1 d k z 1
k 1
k 1 1 d k z

N1

N N1 2N 2

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C0

w1 n

e01 y1 n

z 1
e11

a11

z 1

a21
w2 n

xn

e02 y2 n

yn

z 1
e12

a12
z 1

a22
w3 n

e03 y3 n

z 1
e13

a13
z 1

a23

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Ex:

1 2 z 1 z 2
H z
1 0.75z 1 0.125z 2
7 8 z 1
8
1 0.75z 1 0.125z 2

xn

yn

z 1
8

0.75

z 1
0.125

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Ex:
1 2 z 1 z 2
H z
1 0.75z 1 0.125z 2
8

18
25

1
1 0.5 z
1 0.25z 1

18

xn

yn

z 1
0.5
25

z 1
0.25

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TRANSPOSED FORMS

For a single input, single output (SISO) linear flow graph: Reverse all branch
directions, interchange the input and output node assignments, keep
transmittences the same, then the system function remains unchanged

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Ex:

1 2 z 1 z 2
H z
1 0.75z 1 0.125z 2

Direct Form II
xn

yn
z 1

0.75

z 1
0.125

Transposed Direct Form II

xn

yn
z 1

0.75

z 1
0.125

xn

Transposed Direct Form II, redrawn.

yn

z 1
0.75

2
z 1

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0.125

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FIR STRUCTURES

yn

hk xn k
k 0

Direct Form
xn
h0

z 1

z 1

z 1

h2

h1

z 1
hM 1

hM

yn

Transposed Direct Form

xn
hM

hM 1

z 1

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z 1

hM 2

z 1

h1

h0

z 1

yn

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GENERALIZED LINEAR PHASE FIR STRUCTURES

Odd Length Filters (Type-I and Type-III)

: even (filter order)

xn

z 1

z 1

z 1

z 1

h2

h1

hM 0
2

h M 1

yn

Note that

z 1

z 1

z 1

z 1

h0

hM
2

for Type-III filters!

-1 multiplications in parentheses are for Type-III (odd symmetry) filters!

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EVEN LENGTH FILTERS (TYPE-II AND TYPE-IV)

: odd (filter order)

z 1

z 1

z 1

xn

z 1

z 1

z 1

h0

yn

h1

h2

z 1

M 1
2

-1 multiplications in parentheses are for Type-IV (odd symmetry) filters!

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DETERMINATION OF THE SYSTEM FUNCTION FROM A FLOW GRAPH

w1 n

w2 n

x n

y n

w3 n

w4 n

z 1

w1 n w4 n xn

W1 z W4 z X z

(a)

W2 z W1 z

(b)

W3 z W2 z X z

(c)

W4 z z 1 W3 z

(d)

Y z W2 z W4 z

(e)

a b

W2 z W4 z X z

(f)

cd

W4 z z 1 W2 z X z

(g)

f,g

z 1 1
W2 z
X z
1 z 1

f,g

W4 z

z 1 1
X z
1 z 1

Y z

h,i e

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(h)
(i)

z 1 1 z 1 1
X z
1 z 1

z 1

X z
1 z 1
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Ex: a) Given the following flow graph of an LTI filter, determine its transfer
function H(z).
x[n]

y[n]
-0.5
-1

-0.5
z-1

z-1

b) Plot the Direct Form II structure for the filter H1(z)=(1-2z-1)H(z), where H(z) is
the filter in part-a.

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Ex: Consider the following system function with real valued coefficients
H ( z)

b2 b1 z 1 z 2

1 b1 z 1 b 2 z 2

a) Find and plot the direct form II structure for H(z). Determine the number
of multiplications, additions and delay terms.
b) Find and plot the signal flow graph of a new filter structure such that there
are two multiplications only. You can have more delay terms than those in
part a. (multiplication by 1 or -1 does not count).

a) num. of multiplications=4

b2

x[n]

num. of additions=4

y[n]

-1

z
-b1

num. of delay terms = 2

-b2

b1

z-1

b)
b2

x[n]

y[n]

-1

-b1

-1
-1

z
z-2

-1

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