188 / State-Variable Characterization of Dynamic Systems Chap. & Noni ar State Equations and Th For the nth-order system with distinct eigenvalues, let us assume that the input-output transfer function is of the form Cs) _ K(s — ays — a3) US) TNs = he) n>m (4-392) which is expanded by partial fraction into Xs) a. i w-dts (4-393) where o, denotes the residue of C(s)/U(s) at s = 4,. It was established earlier that for the system described by Eq. (4-382) to be state controllable, all the rows of F must be nonzero; that is, y, #0 for i= 1,2,...,m. If C(s)/U(s) has one or more pairs of identical pole and zero, for instance in Eq. (4-392), a, = 2,, then in Eq. (4-393), o, = 0. Comparing Eq, (4-391) with Eq. (4-393), we see that in general a= fe (4-394) Therefore, when o, = 0, 7; will be zero if f, % 0, and the state y, is uncontrol- lable. For observability, it was established earlier that F must not have columns containing zeros. Or, in the present case, f, # 0 for i = 1, 2,...,. However, from Eq. (4-394), fat (4-395) When the transfer function has an identical pair of pole and zero at a) = Ay o, = 0. Thus, from Eq. (4-395), f; = 0 if 7, # 0. Linearization When a dynamic system has nonlinear characteristics, the state equations of the system can be represented by the following vector-matrix form: O — x00, 10) (4-396) where x(¢) represents the m x I state vector, r(¢) the p x | input vector, and £[x(@, r(0)] denotes ann x 1 function vector. In general, { is a function of the state vector and the input vector. Being able to represent a nonlinear and/or time-varying system by state equations is a distinct advantage of the state-variable approach over the transfer function method, since the latter is defined strictly only for linear time-invariant systems. ‘As a simple illustrative example, the following state equations are non- linear: dx) _ dt dx,(t) at x4(0) + x30) (4-397) x) +r@Sec. 4.18 Nonlinear State Equations and Their Linearization / 159 Since nonlinear systems are usually difficult to analyze and design, it would be desirable to perform a linearization whenever the situation justifies. A linearization process that depends on expanding the nonlinear state equation into a Taylor series about a nominal operating point or trajectory is now described. Alll the terms of the Taylor series of order higher than 1 are discarded, and linear approximation of the nonlinear state equation at the nominal point results. Let the nominal operating trajectory be denoted by xa(t), which corresponds to the nominal input ro(¢) and some fixed initial states. Expanding the nonlinear state equation of Eq. (4-396) into a Taylor series about x(t) = x,(¢) and neglect- ing all the higher-order terms yields 40) = fe to) + Fy VD Le (x, — x0) (4-398) FAX, 8) — + EAL oo i= 1,2,...5m, Let = Xe (4-399) and Ary =r) — roy (4-400) Then At, = 4; ~ Sor (4-401) Since Hor = fio» Fo) (4-402) Equation (4-398) is written = PHD f(x") Bam BEL tet RUE A eon The last equation may be written in the vector-matrix form Ak = A*Ax + B*Ar (4-404) where Hf. Oh Hy ox; Ox, 7" Ox, a, fs ces At—| 0x, Ox." Ox, (4-405) (4-406)160 / State-Variable Characterization of Dynamic Systems Chap. 4 where it should be reiterated that A* and B* are evaluated at the nominal point. Thus we have linearized the nonlinear system of Eq. (4-396) at a nominal operating point. However, in general, although Eq. (4-404) is linear, the ele- ments of A* and B* may be time varying. The following examples serve to illustrate the linearization procedure just described. EXAMPLE 4-31 Figure 4-27 shows the block diagram of a control system with a saturation nonlinearity. The state equations of the system are ham (4-407) hau (4-408) Fig, 4-27. Nonlinear control system. where the input-output relation of the saturation nonlinearity is represented by u = (1 — eX!) SGN x1 (4-409) where 1 1 >0 SGN x {* : (4-410) -1 x <0 Substituting Eq. (4-409) into Eq. (4-408) and using Eq. (4-403), we have the linearized state equation As, Shas, =Ax: an) At - phas, = Ke-KomlAx, (4-412) ‘where xo: denotes a nominal value of x;. Notice that the last two equations are linear and are valid only for small signals. In vector-matrix form, these linearized state equations are written as At) _fO 1px (anl-[e ellen] ean a = Ke-Kiz! = constant (4-414) where It is of interest to check the significance of the linearization. If xo is chosen to be at the origin of the nonlinearity, xo, = 0, then @ = K; Eq. (4-412) becomes Ai, = KAx, (4-415) ‘Thus the linearized model is equivalent to having a linear amplifier with a constantSec. 4.19 State Equations of Linear Discrete-Data Systems / 161 gain X. On the other hand, if xo; is a large number, the nominal operating point will lie on the saturated portion of the nonlinearity, and @ = 0. This means that any small variation in x, (small Ax;) will give rise to practically no change in Aza. Exampte 4-32 In the last example the linearized system turns out to be time invari- ant. In general, linearization of a nonlinear system often leads to a linear time-varying system. Consider the following nonlinear system: FB (4-416) da = ux (4-417) We would like to linearize these equations about the nominal trajectory [xo1(t), Xo2(0)], which is the solution of the equations with the initial conditions x,(0) — x3(0) and the input u(t) = 0. Integrating both sides of Eq. (4-417), we have X= x20) = 1 (4-418) Then Eq. (4-416) gives xa ottl (4-419) Therefore, the nominal trajectory about which Eqs. (4-416) and (4-417) are to be linearized is described by xo) 141 (4-420) ox) = 1 (4-421) ‘Now evaluating the coefficients of Eq. (4-403), we get I» af 2 ax, x, Equation (4-403) gives Ai = Fan (4-422) Ak, = woAx; + xoiAuw (4-423) Substituting Eqs. (4-420) and (4-421) into Eqs. (4-422) and (4-423), the linearized equations are written as (ae']-[o eller] + [32 Je aay which is a set of linear state equations with time-varying coefficients. 4.19 State Equations of Linear Discrete-Data Systems Similar to the continuous-data systems case, a modern way of modeling a discrete-data system is by means of discrete state equations. As described earlier, when dealing with discrete-data systems, we often encounter two different situations. The first one is that the components of the system are continuous- data elements, but the signals at certain points of the system are discrete or discontinuous with respect to time, because of the sample-and-hold operations. In this case the components of the system are still described by differential equations, but because of the discrete data, a set of difference equations may be