World Architecture An Illustrated History

WORLD ARCHITECTURE
All
Illustrated History
1026 black and while
illustrations
and 32 pages of colour plates
The history of architecture is the history

of mankind.
Each culture produces new versions
of the house ot God, the house of man,
and the house of the dead.
In their outward form, these structures
express and project the deepest feeUngs
and highest aspirations of mankind.
Although architecture by itself lacks the
subject matter of painting or sculpture,
it
is
often able to
about
how people
tell
more
us far
worshipped,
lived, loved,
and died what they glorified,

and what they feared.
From the forbidding shrine of an

Egyptian temple to the soaring vaults of
a Gothic cathedral
from
^-
the simple circular hut
of a neohthic settlement to the

mechanised complexity of a Le Corbusier
housing project, the story of architecture
is
here unfolded in
conception and
From many
its
its
brilliantly imaginative
masterly execution.
of the epochs of man's
history nothing has survived but a
fragments of
from
his buildings;
few
these
slender clues we piece together the

appearance and purposes of some of the
great cultural achievements of all time.
WORLD ARCHITECTURE
provides a
full-scale authoritative text,
divided into nine sections:

in which the
meaning of architecture in
Introduction,
continuous tradition
is
its
clearly
long
and
succinctly presented; Ancient and Classical,
which extends from the
neolithic to
the superb classical architecture of Greece
and Rome; Chinese, a clear exposition

of the method and development of
building in ancient and
modern China;
Japanese, a survey of domestic
and
religious architecture in relation to the
country's tumultuous but isolated history;
which describes and clarifies the

main forms of Hindu shrmes and
Indian,
temples; Islamic,
history
of Moslem architecture
North
Africa,
India; Medieval,
in
Egypt,
Turkey and
which covers Early
Spain, Persia,
Christian, Byzantine, Russian,
and Gothic
in
Renaissance,
Europe from the
Romanesque
Europe;
survey of architecture in Europe,

America and elsewhere during the
nineetcnth and twentieth centuries.
There are short sections on
Pre-Columbian America and on primitive
dwellings today, and a comprehensive
glossary of architectural terms.
Now reprinted and revised,
a full
WORLD ARCHITECTURE
completely up to date, presenting the
Aalto, Saarinen, Kahn, Rudolph,
Smithson, Stirling and Gowan and many
is
work of
others,
whose exciting innovations

and discussed.
are fully illustrated
fifteenth to
eighteenth centuries; and finally Modern,
>
>
^m.
Overleaf: Stonehenge
WORLD
ARCHITECTURE
AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY
INTRODUCTION BY
NORBERT LYNTON
H. R.
HITCHCOCK
ANDREW BOYD
SETON LLOYD
ANDREW CARDEN
PHILIP
DAVID TALBOT RICE

RAWSON
JOHN JACOBUS
GENERAL EDITOR: TREWIN COPPLESTONE
HAMLYN
LONDON NEW YORK SYDNEY TORONTO
The
illustrations
from
to
1.
on the half
page,
title
r.
Statue of Rameses
Paul Popper.
II:
Men, Peking: Colin Penn.
Jingoji
Wu
Tem-
ple, Kyoto: Wim Swaan. RoyaJ Mosque,

John Donat. Votive
Stupa,
Kanheri Cave: R. Lakshmi. Stained glass
window, Fairford Church, near Gloucester:
Kersting. Staircase in Dijon: Eric de
Mare. Caracas: Camera Press.
Isfahan:
The
publishers wish to extend their thanks
to the following for permission to repro-
duce and redraw
The Athlone
illustrations:
of London:
Press, University
History of Architecture on the
Compa-
Method, Banister Fletcher. CamUniversity Press

Handbook of
Greek and Roman Architecture, D. S.
Robertson.
Hirmer Vcrlag, Munich
rative
bridge
Egypt,
Max
Flirmer. Penguin
(Pelican History of Art):
Books Ltd
The Art and
Robert Treat Paine

Alexander Soper. Princeton Uni-
Architecture of Japan,
and
versity
Press:
Architecture
in
EvoUiiion
Thames and Hudson

Ancient Near
East,
of
Buddhist
Alexander Soper.
Japan,
Ltd: 71ie Art of the

Lloyd. The
Seton
Andrew Boyd. Andrew Carden, A.R.I.B.A.

Dravngs by Peter Pratt and Martin
Weaver, architectural draughtsmen.
Estate of the late
PUBLISHED BY
THE HAMLYN PUBLISHING GROUP LIMITED
LONDON
NEW YORK
SYDNEY
TORONTO
HAMLYN HOUSE, FELTHAM, MIDDLESEX, ENGLAND
COPYRIGHT THE HAMLYN PUBLISHING GROUP LIMITED I963
FIRST EDITION
963
SECOND IMPRESSION (rEVISEd) I966

FIFTH IMPRESSION I97I
ISBN O 600
03954 4
PRINTED IN ITALY BY ARNOLDO MONDADORI
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION:
Ji
Monument, Stonehenge,
Megalithic
Henry-Russell Hitchcock
Wiltshire,
ANCIENT & CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE:
15
23
LloyJ
Sctoii
COLOUR PLATES
LIST OF
199
Notre-Dame,
200
Amiens Cathedral, i2i8-88
217
Peterborough Cathedral, 11 18-94.
by Amenhotep
Thebes,
III,
1400 B.C.
c.
East end, choir
and Mcsopotainim, Egypt, Crete

and the Aegean, Greek and Hellenistic, Roman,
Primitive Dwellings Today
24
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE:
24
81
JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE:
Pylons of the temple
of Horus, Edfu, 140-124
B.C.
Minos
Palace of
c.
c.
250-57 B.C.
58
Parthenon by night, Athens, 438 B.C.
75
Roman
75
The Forum, Pompeii,
75
House of the
76
completed by Girolamo Rainaldi

Aspendos,
theatre,
c.
200 B.C.
Period,
76
269
c.
93
Rawson
Philip
The
127
Forms
Ciries of the Indus Valley, Early
94
of Architecture, The Hindu Temple
270
A.D. 150
287
Temple of Heaven, Peking,

at
147
94
Rawson
1420
c.
288
Peking, seventeenth
94
Turkey, India
111
MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE:
167
David Talbot Rice
112
Early Christian, B\'zantme, Russia, Art in
Romanesque in France,
Romanesque in Spain, Romanesque
Romanesque in Italy, Romanesque
in Germany, Problems
Summer
288
Palace,
112
Britain,
Zimmermann
Church of St Peter
Hddebrandt
Grand Trianon, Versailles,

Hardouin Mansart
Chiswick
Villa,
321
Paris
Palace of the Shoguns, Kyoto,
322
Guaranty Building, Buffalo,
Ninomaru
Opera, 1861-74. Charles Gamier.
322
Walter Gale House,
c.
322
1000
Mamallapuram shore temple,

Mamalla dynasty, 625-74
130
Detail of sculptural decoration,
Avery Coonley Play House,

1912. Frank
Lloyd
Wright
Congress Building,
Brasilia,
i960. Oscar Nie-
meyer
339
130
Seventeenth Century, Spain in the
Pillar
top carving Chidambaram,
163
Seventeenth Century, Palladianism in
Sta
Maria
la
Northern Europe, English Architecture from

George I, The Netherlands,
Later Seventeenth Century, France from
1715 to about 1760, Rococo and the
in
City, University Library,
O'Gorman, Gustavo
Saavedra and Juan Martmez de Velasco
Blanca, Toledo, Spain,
339
thirteenth century
the Restoration to
Mexico
1915-53. Juan
thirteenth century
France in the
Baroque and Rococo
Park, Illinois,
Somnathpur, Mysore, 1050-1300
High Renaissance and Mannerism,

The Sixteenth Century Outside Italy,
Seventeenth Century,
Oak
Lloyd Wright
Kandariya Mahadevo temple,
130
Renaissance, Italy in the Sixteenth Century,
Dankmar Adler
Palace Hall within the Nijo Castle,
339
Century, the Early
1827.
N.Y., 1894-95.
period, 161 5-1 867
Khajuraho,
233
1687.
Kasuga Shrine, Nara. Founded
1893. Frank
129
1702-13.
London, 1725.
Riverside, Illinois,
Italy in the Fifteenth
in Vierma,
in A.D. 768
Kyoto, early seventeenth century
Norbert Lynton
Classical Tradition,
Wies, Bavaria,
at
Louis H. Sullivan and
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE:
the
Church
Carlton House Terrace, London,

John Nash
in Britain
in
Longhcna
321
Great Wall of China, 221-210 B.C.
Yedo
of Vaulting, Gothic on the Continent,
Italy
della Salute, Venice, 1631-85.
Lord Burlington
the West,
Gothic
Maria
Jules
Peking, Ch'ing dynasty, 1644-1911
The Types of Building, Egypt, North

Africa and Spain, Mesopotamia and Persia,
Sta
1746-54.
(Gerasa), Jordan,
century
ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE:
Philip
at Jerash
Bronze lion
The Escorial, near Madrid, 1563-84.

Begun for Philip II by Juan Bautisu
Baldassare
Temple of Jupiter,
Propylaea
1592
de Toledo, completed by Juan de Herrera
Vetii,
a.d. 50
c.
after
160-70
c.
Baalbek, Lebanon, A.D. 10-249
Nara Period, Heian Period, Kamakura Period,
Rome.
Palazzo del Senatore, the Capilol,
Planned by Michelangelo,
236
Asuka Period,
1738-49.
Fernando de Casas y Novoa

236
109
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE:
Santiago de Compostela Cathedral,
at Cnossos,
Race, Geography and Climate, Materials,
Muromachi Period, Momoyama

Ycdo Period
235
1800-1600 B.C. North Porch
Pompeii,
Period,
Henry VII's chapel, Westminster Abbey,

London, c. 1512
Spain, facade,
57
Andrew Garden
The Pre-Buddhist
218
Temple of Horus, Edfu. Portico with

screen between columns,
Landscape
1250
1163-c.
Colossus, erected
Prehistoric
Andrew Boyd
The Cliincse Building, 1500-221 B.C.
The Unification of Cliina, The Introduction
of Buddhism, The Mongol Invasion,
The Manchus,
The Last Feudal Dynasty, The House and
Family, The Chinese Garden and Artificial
Paris,
1500 B.C. Frontispiece
c.
164
Cupola of Masjid-i-Vakil, Shiraz
164
The Bab Zuwela, Cairo
340
164
Mosque of Sheik
164
Court of the Lions, Alhambra, Granada,
Seagram Building, New York, 1956-58.

Mies van der Rohe and
Philip Johnson
Illinois
Institute
of Technology, Chicago.
Mies van der Rohe. Entrance

Hall, completed 1956
Lutfulla, Isfahan, Persia
to
Crown
Central Europe, Early Eighteenth
Century, England 1715-1760, Disintegration of the
MODERN ARCHITECTURE:
John jacobns Jr
Introduction, Romantic Classicism: the
340
297
181
St Sophia, Constantinople, a.d. 532-37
181
St Demetrius, Salonica, Greece, fifth century
181
St Mark's, Venice,
182
Baptistery
340
Interior,
Notre-Dame-du-Haut,
Ronchamp,
France, 1950-55. Le Corbusier
Style
of 1800, Nationalism and Imperialism, Towards
New Architecture, The Classic Moment

Modem Architecture, The Expansion of
Modem Architecture
GLOSSARY
INDEX
Saynatsalo Civic Centre, Finland, 1949-53.
Alvar Aalto
1377
Renaissance, Pre-Columbian
1042-85
340
in
and cathedral,
Pisa,
Erik Giinnar Asplund
1063-92
342
345
182
Mosaic from Sant'Apollinare

venna,
Forest Crematorium, Stockholm
South Cemetery, 1935-40.
1153-1278 and
c.
540
Nuovo
in
Ra-
340
Exterior,
Notre-Dame-du-Haut,
Ronchamp
:;
PHOTOGRAPHIC ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Reproduced by Gracious Permission of

H. M. The Queen: 763
A.C.L., Brussels: 642
Aerofilms Ltd: 43, 88, 161, 521. J23, 665,
841
Airvicws (M/CR) Ltd: 517, 828, 846
Alinah: 139, 157, 166, 192. 195. 463,
465, 471, 480, 482, 528, 567, 607, 608,
660. 662, 686, 690, 693, 694, 695, 701,
702. 704. 705. 707. 709. 719. 721. 723,
726, 727. 730. 735. 737. 738. 739. 741.
742. 745. 746. 748. 788. 790. 792, 794,
801, 805, 810, 812, p. 233
Anderson- AUnari 469, 663, 718. 799

Wayne Andrews: 904, 942, 952. 954, 956,
De Burgh Galwey:
Annan-Glasgow: 970
Architects' Journal:
1021
don, 939
Bamaby's
114.
97,
204,
199,
XIX, XXI
Bauhaus-Archiv: 995
Bildarchi V Foto Marburg
71,
New
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum,

York: 944, 1020
Musee Guimet,
Hamlyn
361
Paris:
Amman:
404, 477
Ltd: 160, 696, 720, 744, 811,
870
Hedrich-Blessing 999
Heikki-Havas: lOiS
Luaen Herve: 1000
Michael Holford: 878,
168,
171,
172,
52,
174,
64,
59,
178,
191,
O. Hoppe;
941
493. 495. 497. 501, 504, 507, 520, 527,
Hsinhua
529. 531. 533. 535. 536. 537. 539. 556."

566, 571, 572. 573. 576. 579. 581. 583.
185,
XXII;
163,
p.
524.
683.
857,
865,
222,
235,
238,
239, 244, 246, 248, 249, 250, 251, 260,

261, 268, 271, 272. 277, 282, 291
Hunting Surveys: 32
819. 824, 825. 830, 848, 850. 852. 853.

855, 860, 861, 862, 863, 864, 867. 868,
Irish
Government Tourist
Office.
Lon-
Tourist Office, London: 887
936, 972. 974, 975. 976. 998, p. 297

G. Douglas Bolton: 677, 775
Boston Museum of Science: 42
Boudot-Laniotte:
399,
405,
420, 449,
462. 478. 522. 554, 621, 628, 644, 749,
757. 770. 808, 884, 888, ion
Japan National Tourist Association, London
British-China Friendship Association: 236,

241. 242. 243, 258, 259, 266. 273, 275,
280, 282, 283, 285, 287. 289. 290. 292
British
Museum:
230, 231, 234, p. 81
Colin Penn: 256, 257. 264. 267, 276, 278,

279
Antoneilo Perissinotto 19. 473, 496, 499
Photo Researchers: 423
:
Pictorial Press: p. 321.
XLV
Picturepoint:
98.
116,
365.
367.
886,
Jean
898,
1012, p. Ill,
Chevojon - S.P.A.D.E.M.: 920

Chicago Architectural Photo Company:
959. 960. 962, 963, 979, 981. 982
299. 303. 305. 308. 311

A. F. Kersting: 41, 67. 68. 406, 424, 468.
494. 516, 519, 525, 538. 540. 541, 542.
593. 598, 599 600. 601. 609. 616, 617,
17. 22, 23
Director of Archaeology, Mysore: 378
R. E. Dixon p. 164. XXVI p. 181. XXVIH
:
John Donat: 27, 28, 29, 33, 408, 437, 1026

Ronald Doyle: 155, 200
John Ebstel: 1023
Egypt Exploration Society: 63
Finnish Travel Information Centre, London: p. 340, LIII
Olga Ford: 181, 182, 183. 187. 434
Claude Francois-Portal: 563, 589
Fox Photos: 935

French Government Tourist
don:
Gabinctto
Lon158,
699, 700. 712, 714, 716. 724. 732, 733,

807,
XXXIV;
XXXVI;
p.
p. 200,
218.
p. 236,
p.
XXX;
182.
XXXIII;
XXXV;
XXXVII;
p. 217,
235,
p.
p. 288,
XLIH;
XLFV
321,
XX
383, 392. p. 129, XVni; p. 130.

E. Lessing - Magnum: p. 287, XLI
809
534,
loio,
147
p.
547.
902, p. 167
loi,
103,
104,
106,
107,
526, 647
Photo
312.
310.
335.
336.
p.
Researchers:
XL
p. 270,
Julius Shulman: 1022

Society for Cultural Relations with
U.S.S.R.: 506. 509
Museen. Berlin:
Staatliche
the
16. 31
Vic Staccy: 1009
Antwerpen Dienst voor Toerisme:
658. 949
Maggiore
Stato
Aeronaudca
Militare
871
196.
Stoedetner: 856, 903, 977. 978.
989
Ezra Stoller Associates: 1025
987,
Wim
988,
Swaan:
84, 211, 300. 302, 316, 333,
334. 337. 357. 359, 3*9. 379. 385. 395.
XVII;
XVI,
XXIV
164,
p.
Tass Agency: 510, 511, 512, 513, 514
John Topham: 603, 967

Trans-World Airlines, by Ezra
Stoller:
1016, 1017
1004
Ministry
Turkish
543, 885
National Buildings Record, London: 595,
602, 604, 605, 606. 675, 680. 764, 842,
Kansas City: 233

World: 214
Netherlands Embassy. London: 835, 836,
997
Da\id Netthcim:
Newport (Rhode
304.
326.
Wim
Mondadori: p. 58, V
Mustograph Agency: 221,
ciety: 955
Toni
298,
322.
396, 397, 443, 454, 459, p. 127

Swaan - Camera Press: p. 112.
A. Martin: 851, 924
Maryland Historical Society: 906

Mas: 971
Photo Maywald: 430
Terence Mead: 762, 882
Federico Arborio Mella: 615
Albert Morancc, Paris: 1003.
295,
317.
502
Schneiders
Scala:
Dr Franz
969
Mansell Collection: 76. 78, 79, 80, 91, 92,
294,
315.
153.
LichtbildwerksUtte 'Alpenland': 782. 968,
94,
532,
Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (England): 761

Royal Institute of British Architects: 237
Sakamoto Photo Research Laboratory.
Stad
Keystone Press Agency: 816, 822, 1019

R. Lakshmi: 340. 348, 349. 354. 355. 3^8,
837. 838, 849, 854. 990, 991. 992, 9S>6,
175. 177. 179. 460, 481, 484, 697. 698,

804,
XXVIl;
181.
XXXII;
908, 911, 923, 938, 946, 948

William RockhUl Nelson Gallery of Art,
652,
734 736. 791.
p.
199.
Selson's Atlas of the Classical

Office,
1005
Fotografico Nazionale :
651,
XXIII:
p.
Chicago Historical Society: 961

Colour Library Intemarional: p. 288, XLII
Combicr: 518, 560
Bernard Cox: 574
Eric de Mare: p. 269, XXXDC
Department of Archaeology, Government
of India: 339
Department of Archaeology, Pakistan: 338
Department of Public Works, Amsterdam:
774. 950
Director General of Anriquities, Iraq:
433,
639. 731. 740. 759. 765. 767. 769. 780.
119
p.
43 1 ,
548, 549.
550. 551. 553, 555. 557. 558. 5'5i. 564.
565, 577. 578. 586. 591. 629, 636, 638.
880. 883, 889, 891, 905. 910, 912, 916,

917, 919. 933, 947, frontispiece; p. 24,
II. HI;
p. 75, VI; p. 76. IX. X; p. 164,
XLIX
422,
4 19,
925, 927. 937.
Roubier:
899. 922. 944

Casa de Portugal: 755
J. Allan Cash: 93, 120, 121, 126, 205, 207,
339,
82,
435, 440. 442, 559. 568, 582, 584, 585,

610. 612, 634, 641, 645, 649, 650, 653,
751. 752, 753. 760. 766, 820. 821. 829,
219, 220, 269. 286. 894, 895, 896, 897,
p.
393
391.
Marc Riboud - Magnum p. 93. XI

p. 94, Xn, XIII, XTV
Rijksdienst Monumentenzorg: 771
109
374, 453, 456, 640, 722,
4"
350. 351. 352. 353. 360, 362, 363, 364.
314.
XV;
IV
57.
1; p.
156, 394. 398.
Tokyo:
218,
no,
108,
105,
118. 432. 458, 490, 515,
Rapho: 552. 1015

PhUip Rawson: 341. 344, 345, 346, 347.
706, 777. 783. 785. 786, 787. 815. 827.

831, 834, 840, 845, 847, 858, 859, 875,
217,
117,
of India: 356. 372, 377. 380, 388, 389.

451. 452. 455. 1007
Radio Times Hulton Picture Library:
671. 672. 673. 674, 679, 681. 684, 691,
216.
215,
85,
390, 401, 403. 438, 439. 457. 778. 892.
618, 620. 622. 659, 661, 664, 667, 669,
210,
57.
676. 768, 839, 913. 914. 934, 945. 973,

1006
Pix Photos: 932
Paul Popper: 49. 366, 371, 373, 376. 382,
Camera
293, 296, 301, 306,
318, 332
Miss Bromley: 288

Buffalo and Erie Historical Society: 983
Press
Tokyo:
Press.
313.
Roger- VioUet
don: 386, 387
Alan Irvine: 1002, p. 322, XLVI, XLVII,

XLVIII; p. 339. LI; p. 340, LII, LIV.
LV. LVI
ise Shrine: 297
Italian Institute, London: 717
Italian State Tourist Department, London;
874, 877, 901, 926. 928, 929, 930, 931,
20. 30
Orion
Independent Features: 342. 358, 381

Indian
965
Josephine Powell: 70. 72, 74, p. 182, XXXI

Press and Information Bureau, Government
News Agency:
587. 592. 594. 596. 597. 6". 613, 614,

630, 631, 632. 635, 646, 654. 655, 656,
657. 666, 678, 687. 692, 729. 754, 772,
773. 781, 795. 796. 798. 803, 817. 818,
Historical Society:
893. p. 23,
XXXVIII
236.
p.
E.
206, 410, 417, 467, 474, 476, 488, 489,
New York
Nordisk Prcssefoto: 907

Offentlichc Kunstsammlung, Basle: 643
Oriental Institute, University of Chicago:
115,
131
69. 95.
Picture Library:
130,
843, p.
Bureau,
London: 866
Giraudon: 232, 562, 569, 580, 626, 826
Peter Goodliffe: 685
Greek Sute Tourist Office, London
Paul
Austrian State Tourist Department, Lon-
670. 915,
Information
Tourist
Studio Haig,
1014,
212,
135
German
957. 958, 964, 966, 984, 985, 986. 1008,

1013, 1024
208,
918
Leonard and Marjorie Gayton: 832, 844,
879
General Depanment of Information and
Broadcasting, Teheran: 407
German Archaeological Institute. Athens:
of
Information
and
Broadcasting: 441. 485. 486, 505
United Arab RepubUc Tourist and Information Centre, London: 38, 48, 50,
55. 56. 65.412.413. 415.418
United States Department of Defense,
Washington; 940
View
Point Projects: 146, 147. I97. 198.
p. 75.
vn,
VIII
E. Wilford: 448. 498. 500, 503
Hed Wimmer; 209

p. 164,
Island)
XXV^;
p. 339,
Histoncal So-
Professor Rudolf Wittkower: 800
Yan:
152,
193,
194.
425,
426, 427, 428,
588, 590, 750. 756. 758. 872
INTRODUCTION
Hitchcock
BY Henry-Russell
The height of a tower may perhaps be reahscd by chmbing

it, but that of an interior is usually experienced merely by
Buildings that survive from the past arc
fossils
of civilization.
no written records, or
whose records have not been deciphered, monumental remains are the prmcipal sources of mformation. Even of
For certain early cultures that
so-called 'high' periods
Periclean Greece,
say, or
Hadrianic
901-40,
Rome such edifices as the Parthenon and the Pantheon

are, for many people, the most impressive manifestations.
Nearer to our own time the architecture of the nineteenth
946-69
century provides evidences of achievement and of failure
Some
hardly to be found in political chronicles.
even attempt, rather prematurely, to judge our
997.P-339
p.
p.
They
contrast
vast industrial
217
and palaces of the
831,861
lOIO,
1014-15,
1021
its
with the cathedrals
structures
States' in the quality
of their housing and their schools. That will be quite legitimate for future historians, but
tious
and
Architectural history
part,
or not
at
always a
is
of history
is
be tenden-
likely to
can be inter-
It
to mid-twentieth-century
all
merely
as a part
taste.
Yet
of general
to miss a great deal of its potential interest. Despite
the social, technical,
architecture
most
closely to other aspects
of the visual
not merely to
we
We
turn to the history of architecture
even distort
in the expectation
of
statistically the history
of
matter, an extensive
modem
by
plans
To
understand any but the simplest and most naked types
on paper and probably by
cross-sections as well.
Moreover, to the average
tions.
the
fiieze
thenon, for example, even those portions of it
of Chartres or Bourges. Thus,
clerestories
major architectural
qualities
still in situ
on
far
more
attention to the temples

the.
churches
are doing. Indeed,
we are
one may admit
of architectural
history, such as
characteristic factories. This

fully
aware of what
we
that for certain portions
is
no senous error
if
in fact, although
of mass and, above
of space are truly apprehensible only before or within the

building, the history
of architecture
books
in illustrated lectures or
is
that can be presented
by no means merely
is
usually the case with painting or sculpture
echo of reahty.
On the contrary,
juxtaposition of images
by the
as
feeble
skilful selection
and
general views, inside and out,
of all sorts in photographs,

combined with various diagrammatic drawings, especially
areas, details
the
desirable, to
sultation
rate
when
of a building can be round-
is
necessary, or at least very

at
hand
for con-
any
visiting the actual building, or at
memory of
clear
The very
it
have such derivative images
even
some
reality
them.
of a history of any subject assumes a
idea
quence of discrete events
(in the case
se-
of architecture, of
individual buildings) that are rarely to be found in close
proximity.
The Chicago
skyscraper story, for example, can-
Buffalo.
major works are elsewhere, in St Louis and
To
follow the sequence of development of Greek
temples or French cathedrals requires at

travelling to see
all
least as
the prmcipal origmals. In the pages of
and
all
of comparisons can be readUy made that Would take
days or weeks
if
they could be
made only by
seeing
first
and twentieth
too long and the contexts not too disparate, most students
cost
fortifications
of cities in the Middle
state-aided housing in the nineteenth
centuries, a
predominantly non-visual approach has
its
value.
There are significant aspects of architectural history that

can be treated conceptually, using chiefly
words;
or,
matters of construction, with simple diagrams (since
in
all
buildings considered as physical objects are within the realm
of soUd geometry). But considered

a visual matter, and
tographs
that
ence of a
it
buddmg
it is
as
an
through pictures
must be apprehended.
architecture
is
In the actual pres-
other senses are affected, but even within
a great man-created space the response

is
art,
today chiefly pho-
mostly dependent on what the eye
of
the other senses
sees rather than direct.
115-119. 628-647
extensive
a book, such sequences can be clearly ordered,

sorts
960-963
in
Ages and succeeding periods, or the development of low-
of castles and
649
all,
one and then another of the buildmgs themselves.

If the sequences that the idea of history impUes be not
the story
p. 58
in the
Sullivan's
paying
140-144
of the Par-
windows high up
the Acropolis, or the stained-glass
627, 633, 668, 682
of
visitor certain aspects
buildings are in practice inaccessible
of the production of the past that have the most positive
of the Victorians with greater assiduity than their equally
475
(or, for that
one needs the schematic evidence provided
estate),
not be studied in that city alone, since two of the architect
than to the houses of the Greeks, and studying
1014-15
must, even mini-
building by habitually throwing emphasis on those aspects
visual qualities,
516-2$
medieval cathedral
housing
of plans and sections
become informed but
visual pleasure.
which
worth having which the eye
also information
is
ed out so effectively that
yet
as this
cer-
is
the buildings
alone cannot provide. Fully to comprehend, say, a great
arts.
been, if not ugly rather than beautiful, at least of negHgible

visual interest
ing there
exists
in the realm of art, more

The artistic value of individual buildings or, indeed, of whole cities and regions at
certain periods may have been low or even, so to put it,
negative
doubtless more buildings are and always have
specifically
all
mally, include. Furthermore, in the very presence of a build-
views of inaccessible
and functional aspects of building
those that link architecture
of history
such a world history of architecture
certain
sometimes even the
part,
in general.
to consider architectural history
history
is
attempted too soon.
even in periods whose products appeal
esting intellectually
httle
it
arbitrarily opinionated if
most important
has seen
of buildmg construction further schematic diagrams are
by
or they try to read the degree of
past,
who
needed, perhaps even more than are plans and general sec-
least,
of various "Welfare
success or failure
twen-
no human being
man-made
and business
200
writers
own
Ideally all buildings should be visited; but there

tainly
favourably or unfavourably our
tieth-century civihzation, in part at

setting.
our sub-conscious interpretation of what the eye reports.
left
come
to feel that these sequences have real meanings that
are of considerable intrinsic interest,

particular formulations
or another
may
seem.
The simple
the primitive hut to the mature
pealed so
however debatable
the
of those meanings by one historian

one-line evolution
from
Greek temple, which ap-
much to certain eighteenth-century theorists, is to-
day hardly an acceptable pattern for any of the principal

historical sequences in architecture. Yet one cannot deny that
if five
or ten buildings, products of the same culture and
not too far apart in date, are lined up chronologically
whether they be medieval parish churches, Georgian coun-
loi
INTRODUCTION
modern
try houses or
skyscrapers
some
'plot' or 'form*
in the devel-
almosr always appear to be discernible
will
opment. Thus the
study of architecture has a
historical
dimension of temporal depth necessarily lacking

preciation, so
much more
sensuously direct, of individual
most complex.
buildings, even the very greatest or
For obvious reasons, the various sequences

ical chapters,
one another
one might
them
call
that
the histor-
have succeeded
have been more thoroughly
to the present
analysed than the sequences in the Asiatic or pre-Colum-
from
bian cultures that are remote
concerning which
documentation
us in every
and
political
parallel
way and
social-historical
either lacking or relatively inaccessible.
is
Moreover, there are phenomena of architectural history

the Western world, not necessarily lacking
but
less
readily apprehensible to
on
vide certain continuities:
and
all
the
in
other cultures
but speciahsts, that pro-
one hand, the renaissances
revivals that are almost as evident in late antiquity as in
eighteenth-to-ninetcenth
the fifteenth-to-sixtcenth or the

centuries;
the other hand, and not unrelated, the history
on
of architectural theories
ised, partially
The
as articulated in
tual matter that
quite apart
books and
real-
largely an intellec-
is
can be of great interest for
from
own
its
sake
on production. But
the effect of theory
it
certainly should not be ignored in considering the build-
up?. 704,
1000-1007
erected by such theorists
ings
Corbusier, not to speak of the
many
ed and followed with greater or

articulate leadership
who
today and in
architects
less
more
its
accept-
are, indeed, stu-
than visually minded,
critically
earlier periods
judged, architecture not by
who
devotion the highly
of such men. There
dents of architecture,
Pugin or Le
Alberti,
as
judge, and have always
but by
fruits
and even do so when those programmes
its
(as
programmes;
for
most pe-
riods before the fifteenth century) are, in fact, largely
from what was
has been deduced by later observers
what
actually
produced. But direct study of the monuments should, and
most
in
cases docs, lead to scepticism
we come
portance of theory. Rather

ings, in so far as they are
be,
whether
their
of individuals
in so far as
ucts
names be known
who would
and the
today be called architects; and,
1010-1012
of total
is
as true
of the concrete or
social
of
structural-
of the stone
as
of
best craftsmanship
their day.
work, brickwork and,
trol
in the scale
crafts-
was
found
not
in buildings that
hardly
rise
talent
whether
builder, architect or
utilised.
most countries there
to be found a vernacular,
is
and
especially in country villages
owes
concrete-work, on
a fortiori, steel or
of works of art because the creative con-
of a designer of
engineer
In
dichotomy here:
know how to command the

Much of the finest stone-
cause they didn't master or
high
a real
isolated farmhouses, that
nothing to conscious design. The peasant
Httle or
dwellings of Fnesland, the hamlets of the Cotswolds, the
New England, the
small towns of
pueblos of the American
south-west often show an instinctive
command of particular
respectively, brick and

painted wood, adobe that the trained
materials
sophistication,
is
on
architect,
unable to equal. Nor, at
ignore the charms of weathering

leans
limestone rubble,
tQe,
but which,
at his peril
in
by
this level,
very
his
can one
effects that the architect
moss and
lichen, in soft-
ened corners and sensuously mixed textures, are the result

not of man's intentions but of nature's mellowing.
sent,
of
difficulty
world history of architecture
much
in covering so
territory
it is
with equal thoroughness for
works of great geniuses
all
that
is
hardly possible to preperiods, the individual
named or unknown and also the
general rim of building of a period or place
which more
often than not determines the total architectural character of
and so
possible they
are never, by definition, typical. Indeed,
a city or a region. Masterpieces
must be included
far as
Age of Justinian,
only in a handful of major monuments and
485-4;:
there are important periods, such as the

that exist for us
we have
of whose general production

other hand,
some of the most
little
idea.
On
macrocosmic
successful
the
p.
181
enti-
not merely medieval or Renaissance towns such as San

Gimignano and Santiago de Compostela, but later cities
ties,
whose architects
known
were not the product of genius, or even of exceptionally
Hke Bath and Nancy

high individual
arc, in fact,
talent,
but of poHtical, social and material
circumstances (the availability of

ing materials, for example)
least,
to be
found
in
fine, easily
not, to the
seventeenth-century
twentieth-century
Italy,
Spain
bral architects, indeed,

at least
or
Gaudi
were
certain
Guarini,
say, in
812-81
and
971-9:
in
forced
seem often
at
which
the contexts within
of the most intense individual creators
handled build-
same degree
nineteenth
to
work. Cere-
to be rather scornful, or
very aberrant, in their response to materials. Intrin-
sically difficult materials,
of the
sorts ordinarily rejected as
manship of earher France or the brick craftsmanship of
ugly, can fascinate architects like the Victorian Butterficld
933
Holland.
or the twentieth-century Le Corbusier, not to speak of the
p.
is
1000-1007,
result
specific availabihty or non-availability
background
for the production
permits of two separate approaches.
979-983, 1008
to
to us or not, creations
craftsmanship of modern technics
Tliis dual
686-690,
most hkely
they are also works of craftsmanship, the prod-
certain materials. This

steel
are
art,
of technical traditions that are the
situations
loil, 920
works of
concerning the imto realise that build-
moreover,
is,
great architects have, in fact, built rather badly, be-
The
but rarely completely, in executed work.
history of architectural theory
some
the other hand, can be
of the Western world
in various countries
from antiquity
892-899
in the ap-
and there was. There
the 'great
man' approach
On the one hand,
there
that presents architectural his-
tory as a series of illustrated biographies,

sthi's in
of architecture
from Brunelle-
the fifteenth century to Frank Lloyd Wright's or
Le Corbusier's in the twentieth. This treatment

ill-suited to the architectural history
remoter cultures. In contrast there

sees arcliitecture in
any time or place
is
of
is
obviously
earlier periods
the approach
and
which
as the ineluctable result
of the technical status of the building industry as
it
then
architects just
340
mentioned.
There have often been what might be called 'immanent'

architectures, possibilities
more completely
of carrying further and realising
the formal aspirations of original geniuses
who were under-employed,
or even of periods that were
abruptly terminated by extra-architectural events. Here
lies
the fascination of certain unrealised projects, hints of great
buildings that never

for further
came to
material fulfilment, suggestions
development of style-phases
that never quite
matured, yet occasionally in another day and another coun-
900-91;
INTRODUCTION
more
try coiUd inspire later designers
13
effectively than
had already been executed and was thereby Umitcd
tentiality.
general history of architecture cannot, there-
who
ignore altogether certain architects
fore,
such
httlc or nothing,
as Fran(;ois
Blondcl in seventeenth-
movement
such an exotic and peripheral
very
built
century France or Sant'Elia in twentieth-century
756
what
in po-
nor
Italy,
43
well feel
may
the context
at
and serving various
a practical art providing shelter
is
we
human
needs. Actually, the further
past the
more such a highly proper modern attitude requires

The pyramids of Egypt provided shel-
penetrate into the
drastic modification.
Le Van's. For other situations
architect
be inconsequential, the perfection of the
only for the dead, and
much of the
men.
more important
was
men
have been serving also their
attention to
call
erly, the
religious needs,
riods or regions with
own
marise and
wind up
ture, unless
it
Chartres might well accuse us of giving better thought to
is
concept of shelter
vation for
men, much
enormous
East or seventeenth-
palaces such as those
in
many of the
in
which they often excelled consisted
early cultures;
of the ancient
and the
minor consideration
of space creation
sort
in the enclosure of
modelling of terrain by vast terraces and, in
50,
courts, in the
196
general, in effects
arts
gods; and the
and eighteenth-century Europe.
Shelter seems, indeed, to have been a
garden
less
hardly adequate to explain the moti-
is
more
closely related to the landscape or
of the Western world than to what might
be called the 'will to hollow form' of the
Roman
theon, the Victorian Coal Exchange or the
Guggenheim
Museum.
The art of architecture
Pan-
appears.
to
is
concerned with the manipula-
which
a solid, as
latter
with the
had, of course,
hoUow interior spaces, ranging in size

way from a modest domestic room
the
to a vast cathedral; or to the spaces
more
around and between
usually considered as urbanism or as gar-
dening rather than architecture, but not separable theoreti-
from the formal organisation of the elements of indi-
cally
Moreover, every building has a physical context. Some-
may
have ignored that context out of
scorn for surrounding structures

that they
taste.
would be replaced by
More
often,
it is
and on the assumption
a setting
more
to his
own
posterity that has destroyed a once
appropriate context and substituted one hardly imaginable

160
to the original designer.
841
sites
and
also in
or Upjohn's in
to
The
tecture
ment
first
lesson to be learnt
that at
is
book
this
assume that because there
from
the past of archi-
how
those lessons
should or will in the future be apphed. But
Who
is
an
illu-
the history of archi-
would have expected
the late
admittedly very gradually the
why
Renaissance of Italy;
Rococo have
from
this
any moment the next stages of develop-
are uncertain.
northern Gothic to accept
at
should the reaction against the
led to a Classical Revival;
That
is
the case with archaeological
modem cities. Wren's churches in London

New York have long been all but lost
whoUy new
once to a
why
didn't the in-
we
can have
little
idea of
the relatively recent past,
among
less
what
tually
it
had
Ukely to
come
the
last
wUl
from what
was even
it
affect the future.
who saw
generation
in
There were
the study of
in certain earher periods) to imitation.
seems, in the mid-twentieth century, to have
effect,
866, 889-891,
unanswerable, so
is
architectural history as a danger, leading inevitably (as
certainly
p. 270,
900-903, 917-929
character of the study of the history of
architecture today, so different
those
751
753-754. 761-763
architecture? Since such questions
proved to be more or
far
The very
next.
such
vidual free-standing structures.
times, the designer
by the time
an inevitable temptation of historians to turn
It is
tecture they can, at the least, suggest
sion.
at 1900,
Mr Jacobus
creasing use of new materials in the nineteenth century lead
pyramids or Greek temples
buildings,
But the history of architec-
the story.
propaganda or to prophecy
today
all
in
Prop-
are concerned. Ideally,
be arbitrarily terminated at 1800 or
certainly are lessons to be learned
But the three dimensions may apply to

interiors; to
which they
has written, will already be past
have so
modest
studied.
open-ended. That present, concerning which
tion at relatively large scale of three-dimensional elements.
and complexity
hard-
ways
not an introduction but a conclusion might hope to sum-
on
sheltering machines than
follow
those aspects of architecture most relevant to the pe-
the other hand, that the buUders of the Parthenon or of
factories,
448-45
authors of the texts for the different sections each
own
and everyday ones. So excellent are our
very
is
it is
the different
all
which buildings can profitably be seen and

stress
practical
later,
485-488
their settings are, in fact,
In introducing a general history of architecture,

ly possible to
in serving their
which they have often put well ahead of more
and
consequence, while their interiors
real
and
relatively simple;
setting can be
closely the Justinianic model.
greatest architecture
matter to the Egyptians than sheltering the living, which
gods
and the
mosques, built by Sinan a thousand years

striking, since their exteriors
of some
827-828
Le Notre's contribution
Versailles that the garden-designer
was greater than the
is
Vau.\-le-Vicomte or
at
ble, as at St Sofia, that the exterior
in their climate
919
may
Ignored. In this connection, the contrast with the Istanbul
But, of course, sheltering the dead was a
all-important: one
Theorists writing about architecture generally stress that
ter
J,
and
business buildings of the nineteenth
tall
individual structure as a creation of interior space so nota-
has intentionally served the needs of gods rather than
846
the
twentieth centuries. Yet for some buildings the context
theManoeline
as
in Portugal.
it
among
it
Ac-
no
but rather to inspire a yearning to rival in ori-
ginality the great ages that are past.
We should read history
not to lose ourselves in the past but to
set
high goals for
Nor need we be discouraged. Already our own century has produced many buildings not
our
own
achievement.
unworthy
to stand
with those of the
four architects active since 1900
past,
Wright,
fear
come down
comparison with the greatest

to us.
Le
two others
names that have
Corbusier, Mies van der Rohe, perhaps one or
need not
and three or
certainly,
1008, 1007, 999
Tewplc
at
Kaniak
mm
ANCIE
AND
.4-
CLASSICAL
ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL
i6
RhirokiCu in Cyprus
Ncolichic viibge of circular houses.
The
circuhr,
domed
structure,
whether of brick or snow blocks,
one of the primary

forms that persist
is
structural
until
the present day.
Arpachiyah
in Iraq
Tholos-<ypc house.
Tholoi were beehive houses entered
through an outer rectangular

apartment.
man
felt
From
earliest
times,
the need for
indirect entry to his living space.
Plan of temple at Tepe
Gawra
Al'Ubaid period.
Centuries immediately before
3000 B.C. More substantial

brick building
now
followed the
reed-and-mud form.
4 Farmhoase at Hassuna, Iraq

Adobe buildings such as
these soon gave way to
more substantial structures
of mud-brick.
Plan of Hacilar 11.
c.
5000 B.C.
Small walJed
settlement in south-west Anatolia,
approximately contemporary
with Hassuna.
Reconstruction of building in
level
II,
perhaps a shrine.
6 Hacilar in
Turkey
Reconstruction of a house in the

Hacilar
II
enclosure.
7 Plan of Hacilar VI
More
a late
formally planned house
neoUthic settlement at
Hacilar.
PREHISTORIC AND MESOPOTAMIAN
17
The White Temple, Uruk
Early third millennium B.C.
In
its first
This edifice stood on a pbtform
evolutionary stages, the pattern of man's existence
forty feet high. Entrances at
was
and nomadic. Gathering vegetable food or hunt-
tribal
moving from
ing animals and
them, caves or natural
place to place in search of
provided him with a home,
shelters
which
for the time being satisfied his primitive
Rather
less
ities
end suggest the elaboration

of worshipping ritual between
god, priest and congregation.
cither
needs.
than 10,000 years ago, he discovered the possibil-
of agriculture, and from then onwards new
were introduced into
which
his hfe,
factors
move-
restricted his
ments and resulted ultimately in the permanent settlements
of a farming community. Under these circumstances indi-
homes acquired
vidual
which
new
significance: the space in
certain domestic functions regularly
ed to be enclosed and protected, and the
was devised
took place need-
The primary
for this purpose.
of building
craft
functions to be
considered were eating and sleeping, both of which, as
modem
analogies show, can be performed with equal facil-
ity in a
compartment of almost any
fore, stone
was
When,
shape.
there-
and could be piled up to make a
available
with an opening in one side might
wall, a rectangular hut
suggest itself whereas the plasticity of clay might lend itself

to the construction
would point
to a
of a
flat
roof and
their
of corbelling. The form and appearance of the
way
buildings were in this
was not yet
sense, this
Today we
ment of
rigid, dictionary
which
elevate
their
certain advantages.
architecture
building in such a
who
mere buildings
or designer shall
way
see or use
as to
reactions, that
it
deUberate consideration.
provoke predictable reactions

is,
We
either
Two
of
of per-
which need
these, the structural
of a building's structure must be evident and even impres-
must
spatial principle,
We
purpose inside and out. The
that
which comes
next,
is
more
abstract con-
have already mentioned the elementary in-
which
tention
of
interior
of a building the designer
a building,
is
to enclose space: in the
platform, the central shrine or cella

is
now
flanked
by subsidiary
chambers and the
ornamented with
fa(;ade
buttresses.
s
S
10
10
ft
20 f
10
Temple
at
Eridu
Early third millennium B.C.
Reconstructed.
The temple platform
has
now
reached an advanced stage of

evolution. In part faced
terminates in
with stone,
it
a mosaic of
gypsum cones
sheathed in polished copper.
accordingly concerned
is
with the shaping and disposal of

articulate
purpose and
also be designed for a specific
must adequately express
sideration.
Eridu.
own
its
and
The soundness
functional principles, speak for themselves.
sive. It
series at
tt1
think that in
there are at least four principles
this
Al'Ubaid
Already standing on
Eridu.
building
to the
The most elementary require-
that a builder
is
sonal satisfaction or aesthetic pleasure.
doing
in the
VH at
late
immediate definition here
have consciously contrived the form and appearance of
in those
3000 B.C.
architecture.
of architecture, and
may have
most
of temple
9 Plan
c.
find ourselves able and anxious to distinguish
the special quaUties

status
in the
earliest
by material
dictated, HteraUy,
But except
considerations.
T^
Timber beams
absence to some sort
circular building.
spatial
elements in an
manner. The building's external appearance
in-
troduces the fourth or formal principle, and in apphing

this
all
he will find himself subject to Umitations imposed by

the others
structural,
functional and spatial.
tectural design consists entirely in the observation
cardinal principles.
With
superficial
ornament we
Archi-
of these
are not
yet concerned.
In the primitive buildings
which we were
discussing,
11
Section
with the possible exception of the structural principle none
at
of these matters was yet understood. The rectangular hut
End of
house or a stable
could serve equally well
as a
were
on a smaller
circular dwellings
scale.
grain-stores
As
for spatial
An
through
tomb
Ur
third
millennium B.C.
early and skilful use
untrimmed stone blocks
of
for the
construction of corbelled vaults.
i8
12, 13 Eshnuniu
FUn and elevation of the Gimilun
proporrion or exterior form, any effect obtained from these
was
unpremeditated. Yet
still
this
age of architectural inno-
temple and the Palace of the
cence was to be short-lived.
Rulers.
Tell Asmar, the ancient Eshnunna,
was
provincial city
compared
was
It
in the
Near East that village communities made

and it is among them that archaeo-
their earliest appearance,
with Ur. The square building on

the right
is
have detected the
logists
temple for the
first
architectural design.
of Ur. The temple, planned around
in the conventional shapes
a single axis,
is
typical Babylonian.
dictated
by
germ of an impulse towards
During the neohthic period, contrasts
worship of Gimilsin, deified king
tradition. In
of buildings were perhaps already
Turkey, for instance, on the fringes
of the Anatolian plateau, there were houses substantialof mud-brick on stone foundations,
ly built
ing of a single rectangular compartment.

a
doorway
of one side and the position of
in the centre
the domestic hearth directly opposite
formal niche
in the wall
consist-
still
But they had
behind
emphasised by a
is
At Khirokitia
it
in the is-
land of Cyprus, houses were circular with a beehive-shaped

vault of mud-brick;
and a
created, perhaps for the
raised
wooden
sleeping-platform
time, an upper floor.
first
httle
Crete and northern Iraq, there were again similar
later in
beehive
buildings
called
llioloi,
but they were entered
through an outer, rectangular compartment, which does not

explain itself unless they were partly buried in the side of
hill
and required a Jromos approach
beehive tombs
like the
Mycenae. At Jericho
at
much
later
mean-
in Jordan,
while, a circular stone tower, twenty-seven feet in diameter,
seems to point to the fortification of a contemporary
And
ment.
here, another significant find
some
evidently devoted to
14, IS
screened by
Kbafaje
Plans of
Sm
temples
11
and
Vlll.
Third millennium B.C.
The more open
plan at
Uruk
has been modified in the case of

these temples to suit shrines
situated
The
among
wooden
posts
was
settle-
a building
square, with a portico
cult;
and two doorways leading one

arranged on a sin-
through
a tiny vestibule, all consciously
gle axis.
Here already the functional principle
Yet
it
was more than 2,000 years before the seed of
irregular plot of land has
in the proto-
this
Then,
abstract idea seems effectively to have germinated.
houses.
was
at least
being considered.
and pre-Sumerian settlements of southern
been walled to serve as a forecourt,
and entrance to the shrine
from one
side only.
is
Mesopotamia, amid a crescendo of creative invention,

architecture suddenly materiahsed as a setting for the
plex functions of newly developed civihzation.
The
real
com-
earhest
dwellings here were of reeds and mud. Simply rectangular

in plan but
of an elaborate and ingenious construction, they
must exactly have resembled the great mudhifs
by
the Marsh- Arabs today
stUl built
upright bundles of reeds with
their heads bent together to
form
a vault,
and
a filling
between them of mud-plastered wicker-work. By Sumerian times these
more
had
lor-g
been abandoned in favour of
substantial brick buildings, but
ternal appearance conditioned
centuries to
come, and the comphcated pattern of
entrance facades survived both

as the
memory of their
as a
ulty
their
form of ornament and
pictographic symbol of a temple. For already, in
the middle of the third milleimium B.

shrines
ex-
Sumerian design for many
C,
temples and
were the buildings upon wliich the new-found
fac-
of architectural expression was mainly concentrated.
At Eridu, one of
the oldest rehgious foundations in the
world, a shrine which had started
as
no more than
hut with doorway facing an offering-table and
become
a small
altar,
had
well-proportioned building with long central
sanctuary, side chambers and a faijade elaborately fretted
with vertical buttresses and
recesses,
to
perpetuate the
marsh-building tradition. Far from those marshes
at
Tcpe
19
16
The Great Sanctuary of
Marduk at Babylon, c. 550
B.C.
The ziggurat ('Tower of
Babel')
carrying the high temple stands in
an open precinct, E-temen-anki,
surrounded by
storerooms.
E-sagiJ,
is
priests'
quarters and
The lower
temple,
seen in the foreground.
17 Ziggurat at Ur. c. 2125-2025
B.C.
The remains of
this great
ziggurat give a clear outline of

its
original
form and
18 Ziggurat at
scale.
Ur
Reconstructed.
An
elaborate architectural
setting for an elevated
The ramped, stepped

and buttressed form developed
shrine-
out of the temple platform
of
19
earlier times.
Cboga Zambil ziggurat
Thirteenth century B.C.
A remarkably preserved
five-tiered
Elamite ziggurat near Susa with
of internal
chambers and stairways.
a labyrinth
20 Khorsabad. Wall painting

from a minor palace in the
citadel.
722-705 B.C.
The
painted
bulls
and winged
bands, depicting
genii, arc
bright blue, red and white,

their colours
by
somewhat subdued
which
the limited Ught
entered only through the arched
doorways.
21 Ischali.
Temple complex
Early second millennium B.C.
An
important shrine dedicated
to bhtar, and
two
subsidiary
sanctuaries, are incorporated
into a magnificently
lay-out, in
monumcnul
which terracing
is
cleverly exploited.
22, 23 Khafaje.
Sumerian temple
oval
Third millennium B.C.
The
mam
shrine stood
on
platform in the centre of

an oval precinct or temenos, with
a portico entrance.
priest's residence
was
included in an outer oval.
),
I,
Gawra
in the north,
of three temples on an
group
acropolis faithfully imitated the
And now
at last in these
same design.
buUdings one
proper atten-
sees
tion being paid to the cardinal principles of design
which
present.
The Su-
deprives us of certainty about their structural quahties. But
B. C.)
their functions are properly articulated, so that the part
of planning and formal arrangement. The main sanctuary
identified,
and the allocation of space
is
still
be
perfectly intelligible.
architecture
merian dynastic period
showed few iimovations
now incorporated in a complex of subsidiary chambers

and courtyards, sometimes enclosing smaller shrines dedi-
by which the platform is approached initiate an architectural device which was never afterwards forgotten.
The Sumerian architect is akeady beginning to understand
his job, and in the great period of universal discovery which
ple at Al'Ubaid, near Ur,
follows, he
designing
The
is
make
able to
now
his
own
with confidence and creative abihty.
idea of subUmating a rehgious ritual
the shrine in
which
it
took
by
elevating
was one which
place,
persisted
through Sumerian times and culminated in the high ziggurat

towers of Babylon and Assyria. In the prehistoric temple at
'Uqair, the platform
is
characteristics as
its
has appeared in the
prototype
at Eridu,
and functional
but a
new
element
fact that this
is
is
covered with
already competently
metric ornament supporting or enclosing formahsed figures
men and
animals, need not surprise us. Pottery had al-
ready been decorated in
this
way
the designs of mythical figures
for
many
centuries,
and
had more recently been

Both here and in the
perfected in small-scale rehef carving.
White Temple at Uruk, another form of wallornament took the form of terra cotu mosaic cones, inserted
contingently in the plaster to form a band or pattern. The
so-called
White Temple itself, now standing on a pyramidal

form forty feet high, had entries at either end of the sanctuary, as though to suggest an actual confrontation between
plat-
the worshipper and his god. In other respects it differed

the
little from that at 'Uqair, but an adjoining building,
Pillar
Temple, had free-standing columns eight
and half-columns against the

ered with mosaic.
feet thick
sidewalls, all completely cov-
The coloured ends of
thousands in number) were arranged
the cones
(many
a varying diaper
pattern and must have created a decorative effect of extreme
At Eridu, the only Sumerian site where any stone seems

have been available, even more elaborate facade orna-
ment was
ruins
used in the latest prehistoric temple. Here, the
of earher temples to which
we
have referred, were
enclosed in a stone-faced retaining-wall, and above

rose the serried bastions of the platform,
this
ornamented in
ends
this case with bands of huge gypsum cones, their
sheathed in pohshed copper. Fallen from the temple itself
I4-,
An
I5
22, 23
exactly similar tem-
showed evidence of having been
embeUished with costly and elaborate architectural ornament, remnants of which were found stacked against the
base of the platform after
its
destruction; copper bulls'
ornament with reUgious scenes carved

in white hmestone on a dark ground, columns inlaid with
coloured stone and an enormous copper lintel with mythi-
heads, bands of inlay
cal figures in
It
becomes
high
reHef.
clear that these elevated temples,
themselves,
from
all
of which have
now
towards the
vanished, are
external evidence to have been simple
ably consisting of a single compartment.
known
affairs,
prob-
But the platform
on which they stood had been heightened and elaborated

beyond all recognition. These 'staged-towers', with their
monumental stairways and superimposed porticoes, now
became the most conspicuous features of Sumerian templecities.
They were
constructed of sohd mud-brick, with lay-
bitumen between courses and heavy

cables of plaited reeds to reinforce them. Parts of the facing
and the treads of the stairs were of Idln-baked bricks, and
ers
of matting
set in
their successive 'stages'
They stood
were painted
in different colours.
usually in a fortified temenos or sacred enclosure
and were surrounded
at
ground
level
by more ordinary
temples dedicated to individual deities of the Sumerian pantheon. These were for the most part conventionally planned, with entrance, vestibules, central court and sanctuary
niche
all arranged on a single axis which terminated in the
where the cult-statue stood. Good examples of how such

temples were grouped can be seen in the great temenos
three
at Ur or in the sacred enclosure at Ashur, which had
shows
Ischah
at
temple
provincial
huge
A
ziggurats.
separate
how
complex can be combined in

building. The gateways leading from one to the
the elements of such a
a single
other are flanked
briUiance.
to
entered through a formal portico.
around which the Sumerian fertiUty cult centred. The shrines
structural
adapted to architectural requirements, with bands of geo-
of
by double enclosure-walls and
cinct or temenos, protected
and
to fifteen feet high
form of superficial ornament. The whit-
The
an interesting setting at Khafaje
panels in the brickwork.
ened mud-plaster of the interior wall-faces

painted decoration.
fii
on the south bank of the DiyaJa River, the main shrine

stood on its platform in the centre of an oval-shaped pre-
end of the third millennium, were dedicated to a distinctive

purpose. They provided a setting for the sacramental ritual
aheady ten
made to look higher by vertical

The temple itself has the same
save for the elaboration
was
cated to minor deities,
striking contribution,
half of the tliird rrullermium
(first
Even more significant is the attempt to give formal expression to a newly conceived abstraction. The building stands
upon a podium or raised platform, which is clearly intended
to emphasise the exalted purpose to which it is dedicated.
Nor can one fail to notice how the low walls flanking the
steps
were already
Mesopotamian
played by almost every element in the plan can
19
tachment of other architectural ornaments.

In these prehistoric temples the primary characteristics of
have earher enumerated. The loss of their upper parts

and our consequent ignorance of their roofing principle
we
17
were found smaller cones chipped out of coloured stone

and httle rectangular cement bricks, perforated for the at-
tectural feature
In discussing
buildings
by
projecting towers; a
common
from this period onwards.

Mesopotamian architecture,
which monopohse one's
it
is
archi-
rehgious
attention. Far less care
was lavished on secular construction, as may be judged, for

from the neghgent design of an admimstrative
building attached to a fine temple at Tell Asmar. Its only
instance,
conventional feature
approached on
its
is
a rectangular
short axis
from
throne-room or
a square
divan,
open courtyard.
16
21
Pnvatc houses too were of the 'introverted' type,
24 Plan of the city of

Khorsabad
End of eighth century B.C.
A temporary opiul of the
Assymn
Sargon
empire, built by
II
on an open
but abandoned after

death in 704 B.C.
the major and
site
his
Only
minor
their
rooms having no outward exposure, obtaining their light

from a central court. With the flat facjades of its fortifications rcUeved by alternative buttresses and recesses and
punctuated by towered gateways, the general appearance
of a typical Mesopotamian city is relatively easy to imagine.
and the hmitations of mud-brick construction
Flat roofs
citadels
were excavated.
of formal design, and, though
restricted the possibilities

little
known of
actually
is
parapet treatment or terminal
ornament, the picture conceived

ic
elements rising
tier
above
is
tier
that
of flattened prismat-
over an accumulation of
where a group of reUgious buildings gain
earlier ruins, to
prominence from the
vertical treatment
of
their fafades,
but are overshadowed by the rectilinear bulk of a
Only
zij^ûrat.
these latter gave expression to the aspirations of a
plain-dwelling people; for, like beacons in an otherwise

featureless landscape, each
visible to
The
its
tower must have been remotely
neighbour.
geological environment of the upper Tigris valley
gave a slightly distinctive character to buildings erected by

the Assyrians during the eighth and seventh centuries B. C.
gypsum hmestone was
Soft
25 Khorsabad
of Nineveh and
Reconstruction of part of
now became
main
the
citadel.
in
royalty,
Khorsabad despite the
more
attention
buildmgs, and
frequent failure to achieve
which
conspicuous feature of public buildings. As
might be expected from the exalted
Th Assyrian passion for

symmetry is most apparent
north
easily quarried in the hUls
lent itself to architectural sculpture,
it
was paid
was the
interior
attributes
of Assyrian
to palaces than to sacred
of these which received
the major share of ornament. Five centuries earlier, the
perfect right angles. This
Babylon had used moulded brick or painted

form an ornamental dado around the walls of
was due to empiric planning
Kassite kings of
and an inadequate knowledge
frescoes to
of surveying.
their banquet-halls.
For these the Assyrians substituted up-
low
right slabs of stone (orthostats), their faces sculptured in

relief
with historical and other scenes, forming a continuous
sometimes
frieze,
in
as
much
as
nine feet high.
Above
throne-rooms and other important chambers, the
this,
plas-
would again be decorated with frescoes in the

manner and the ceiling similarly ornamented. Sculp-
tered walls
Kassite
26 Khorsabad. Plan of the

palace of Sargon. 722-705 B.C.
Dominating the citadel of the
city,
ture-in-the-round was
mam
Sargon's palace comprised
ture
an impressive complex of reception

suites
and temples arranged
doorways and
rarely used, but to embellish the
entrances, a
new form of portal-sculp-
was devised, once more following a five-hundred-ycar-
old precedent established this time
by
the Hittites.
It
consist-
around successive courtyards

and covering an area
ed of
of twenty-three
Uons; 'double-aspect' sculptures, often provided with five
acres.
pairs
of symbolical
beasts such as
winged
bulls
or
legs in order to perfect their appearance either froni the
front or
from
the side. These
would
stand
somewhat higher
than the sculptured orthostats of the interior, and above
them
the bricks of a semi-circular arch
with coloured glaze. Coloured designs
^:^---*
ui
also
form
panels at the base of the projecting towers flank-
ing the entry
The
would be enriched
would
in glazed brick
on
either side.
semi-circular arch with radiating voussoirs, to
which
brick construction was easily adapted, had been favoured by
Mesopotamian
architects since prehistoric times.
From
its
by the Assyrians over deeply recessed openings, one

might infer an understanding of barrel-vaulting. And inuse
&,*.4a
deed, Assyrian buildings have often been reconstructed with
vaulted chambers and even domes. But conclusions of this

sort
depend on evidence provided by the
of architecture
so 100 ISO ^00
rare representations
Assyrian rehef-carvings, and
safer to infer that a plentiful
it is
probably
supply of timber from neigh-
Colossus at Thebes
bouring
made
forests (also depicted),
flat
roofs
more
prac-
columns were of timber,

bases and capitals were sometimes carved
Certainly free-standing
tical.
though
from
their
stone.
again the rehefs which provide the only
It is
evidence regarding the e.xternal appearance of buildings.
They show
battlements and also
crenellated
27 Persepolu. 518-465 B.C.

These Persian buildings of
Achaemenid dynasty derive
the
something from the architecture

of Assyria and more from that
of her northern neighbour Urartu.
They
occasional
rectangular windows.
from the
are distinguished
former by the plentiful use of

columns.
24
At Khorsabad, which has provided the most complete

plan of an Assyrian royal city, it is the king's palace which
25
is
elevated
on an
26
viath the parapet
of the
now
25
platform,
artificial
raised
level
city wall, while the temples are
no more than subsidiary features of the plan. The palace

coimeaed by a wide ramp with a complex of low-level
is
pubhc
buildings, having
piece of
own
its
towered
The whole lay-out
sculptured gateways.
monumental planning, with
lative heights
and
fortification
is
a small master-
the massing
and
of the buildings carefully considered.
It
re-
may
well have inspired the central composition of Nebuchadnezzar's
Babylon 200 years
28 Persepolis. Double dragon,
upper part of capital

Resting directly on the
shaft
of
the column, these double
images were also made in the
later.
Apart from ornament and facings, Assyrian buildings were
shapes of men. bulls or bulls with
men's heads.
still
constructed of sohd mud-brick. Their immensely thick
of the rehefs which adorn
walls, like the grandiose subjects
them, gave to the architecture of the period an almost
But when
complacency.
Victorian
works became necessary
engineering
certain
their architects
were compelled
to
build in stone; and then, in structures such as bridges and
aqueducts, their qualities of thoroughness and structural
sohdity became
more obvious
assets.
In the sixth century B.C., after the
fall
of Nineveh, the
focus of historical events shifted southwards agaiii to

lonia,
and during the
some
principles
cultural renaissance
of Assyrian architecture
the old Sumerian tradition.
Baby-
which followed,
were adapted to
Under Nebuchadnezzar
was a great revival of building
activity,
there
and everywhere
on a pretentious scale.
on the lower Euphrates the city of Babylon
ancient temples were reconstructed
Above
itself
city
all,
29 Persepolis. Relief sculpture,
of Darius and Xerxes

The Achaemenid reUef carvings
hall
have the hard precision of

metalsmiths' work.
They
from those of Assyria
differ
in that
they decorate the outside
faiâdes
of buildings only.
was enormously enlarged and replanned. The inner
was
now
magnificently laid out with broad streets
intersecting at right angles,
some
parallel to the river quay,
huge bronze
others terminatmg in
gates in the city wall
or smaller ones leading to landing-stages on the river bank.
The 'Champs
this
composition was the so-
called Procession Street, along
which the images of the
Elysees'
of
New
gods were carried to the

31
passed
Year's Festival.
through the irmer wall, the famous
made an
'Arc de Triomphe', and
palace with
its
it
been rebuilt on an ambitious

In Babylonia there
skirted the imperial
They were covered
now
also
in
these buildings that
were en-
to their fuU height with glazed
low reUef beneath the
glaze, contrib-
onous geometry of otherwise undecorated clay buildings

and the monochrome of an aOuvial landscape, the ghtterthis
precinct
must have acquired an
exaggerated briUiance, like the gilded domes and ceramic

fa9ades of
mosques
Pylons, temple o/Horus, Edfu
in a
Wooden columns were
modern
Islamic city.
in Portico, temple of Horns, Edfu
base
has
a feature
at this
The carved ornament

no equivalent in Assyria.
period.
for sculptured reliefs, so
uted a texture of dehcate shadows. Against the monot-
ing wall-faces of
Column
of Syrian architecture
bricks in brilliant colours, while heraldic animals or patterns
of foHage, modelled
30 Tell Tayanat.
Eighth century B.C.
scale.
was no stone
was the outer facades of
riched.
it
Gate
Hanging Gardens before reaching the great
temple of Bel, Etemenanki, whose ziggurat had
it
Where
Ishtar
26
31 IshtAT Gate. 605-565 B.C.

Rcconsiructcd.
Sunding
at a
point where the
Procession Street entered the

inner city of Babylon, this
great portal had fatâdes decorated
with heraldic amnials
modelled
in relief
and
covered with brightly coloured

glazes.
32 Pcrsepolis
Aerul view.
The palaces and audience
halls
of the Achaemenid kings cover

this
wide terrace
which may
of pavilions
a
in a lay-out
recall the
grouping
in the centre
of
nomadic encampment.
33 Persepolis
Architectural and sculptural
remains. Persepolis abounded in
architectural sculpture. All the
stairways,
were
and most of the
terraces,
lined with reliefs.
The columns,
beautifully fluted,
own.
have a character of
their
34 Boghazkoy
Plan of Temple
Fourteenth-
I.
thirteenth centuries B.C.
The most impressive huge stone

temples built by the Hittitcs
were
to be
found
at
Boghazkoy.
35 Boghazkoy. Inner and outer

of King's Gate. c. 1360 B.C.
side
The
elliptical
flanked
opening,
by great towers, had
corbelled arches standing
on monohthic stone jambs.
EGYPTIAN
During
aspects
same period
in the sixth century B.C.,
some
of Assyrian architecture were reflected in the
cities
this
of south-western
enian kings
Iran,
ruled
from which
icant
terrace
made
on which
a dynasty of
Near
part of the
a large
PersepoUs, which they
hewn
27
AchaemAt
East.
their capital, the great rock-
their palaces stood
makes
a signif-
comparison with those of Assyria and Babylon. For
here,
as
inmiediately becomes apparent, one
is
with a totally different tradition of buildmg. The
Persian architects.
The grouping and

were
interest
development. But although they contributed the embryo
which
in
a cluster
tribal
reminiscent
of gaudy tent-
assembly. Strik-
of an idea which led eventually to the design of pyramids,
no more than
a 'false
Early in the third millennium, stone became the
conventional material for monumental building, and soon

a
new code of architectural
styUstic tradition.
of
Indeed,
formulae created an inflexible
would be
it
true to say that
national styles of architecture, that invented
all
by
the
Egyptians was the most homogeneous and long-lasting.
the various throne-rooms and banquet-halls are disposed
The twenty
at
random on
emplacement, and the
their elevated
magnificently ornamented stairway which forms the main
approach seems unconnected with any one of them.
The most
striking quality
remains hes in the
of
field
plastic
ornament. For
is
immediately apparent
and modelling,
in the aptitude for fine
particularly
of plant
this also
emulated the Assyrians in decorating
with sculptured
ciple
rehefs,
of applying
this
it
drawing
Persian archi-
art.
their buildings
but preferred the Babylonian prin-
ornament only
the
to
exterior
The carving of the rehefs is as formalised as

the Assyrian, but more meticulously detailed, so that at
times it resembles goldsmith's work in its hard precision.
The human figures are stereotyped and sometimes monotfacades.
onous,
as
though carved with waning
and aptitude
revived
alike
interest;
when animal
but interest
were
motifs
handled, and decorative shapes like the magnificent doublebull capitals in the
welcome challenge
Hall-of-a-Hundred-Columns made a
outlasted
all
of northern Syria and
as the
who
ruled during
historically
Old, Middle and
the style of building
di-
New
which they perfected
and even survived the Persian conquest
these
Temples erected
later
still
by
the
Ptolemaic rulers after the death of Alexander can easily
be mistaken for more authentically dynastic buildings.
The
character of Egyptian architecture
was
directly
and
profoundly influenced by geological and chmatic conditions

in the
The
Nile valley.
confmement between
and canopy of
sense of
parallel barriers
of
sky, gave to the
world of the ancient Egyptian a
rectihnear stability,
and inevitable
desert, flattened earth
which must have seemed
as the
rhythm of the Nile
It is
no
his
sort
of
permanent
great feat of imagination
to see this reflected in the prismatic forms
rangements of
as
unchanging chmate and predictable
flood.
and
buildings, or producing
spatial ar-
formative
impulse in the design of tomb-chambers, which were of

special significance
owing
to his preoccupation with per-
sonal survival.
A more tangible aspect
appeared during the eighth and seventh
centuries B.C. in the vassal states
known
in the sixth century.
to the Persian sculptor's ingenuity.
Another peripheral development from Assyrian architectural tradition
dynasties of Egyptian kings
and second millennia B.C., are
vided into sub-phases
and animal motifs,
which has always distinguished Iranian

tects
the third
Kingdoms; but
of these Persian architectural
an origin must be sought in regional tradition, and
35
no
antecedents to suggest the coincidence of a parallel
ingly proportioned in themselves and lavishly decorated,
almost
34
are
seen to have been retained; and in Egypt these have
known
character of
still
are otherwise
of early Mesopotamian
start'.
the individual palaces at PersepoUs
tombs
designs of their niched
which elements of reed-construction
brick buildings in
dence in Mesopotamia, appears to have been non-e.xistent
paviHons formed the nucleus of a
30
facades faithfully reproduce those
architecturally these buildings are
of a nomadic tradition
29
The complicated
difficult to explain.
monumental planning, the cellular composition and interrelation of buildings of which we have seen so much evi-
among
28,
brick superstructures of early mastaba
dealing
in
32, 33
one can imagine only the most tenuous physical link

between countries at that time so separated. Certainly the
of Egyptian environment was the
presence in the Nile valley of
much
desert escarpment, approximately
Luxor, there
found
is
building stone. In the
from modern Cairo
to
an abundant supply of hmestone. Sandstone
Taurus, inhabited by remnants of the imperial Hittites.
is
The Hittites indeed had a tradition of their own, inherited

from the mid-second millennium when they ruled eastern
Anatoha from their heavily fortified capital at Hattusas
(Boghazkoy). Their buildings were of timber-framed mud-
alabaster, basalt
and porphyry. Palm-trunks were the only
form of timber
available,
brick
on a sub-structure of
irregularly jointed
impressive in structural strength
when
their
mihtary and occasionally of striking design,
of an
all-stone
temple
at
purpose was
as in the case
Boghazkoy. But the sculpture
with which they were adorned

different
stone;
workmanship and of
is
derivative in style, of in-
more than archaeo-
Httle
tious buildings.
place
The beginnings of
centuries
at
an early stage these were
But the Hmestone
which took
slabs
and which continued to be used almost
their
until the
end
of the Middle Kingdom, could span no more than eight

or nine feet; so long, narrow chambers
could only be
avoided by multiplying the number of free-standing supports,
and a form of architecture resulted which
is
some-
times described as 'columnar and trabeate'. Chmatic condi-
had
winter skies
Egyptian
and
discarded as roofing material for any but the least preten-
tions also
logical interest.
extreme south and elsewhere granite,
the
in
their effect. Perpetual sunshine
made
it less
and cloudless
important to admit hght than to
exclude heat. If one adds to these the architect's impulse

architecture in
Egypt date from the
before 3000 B.C., which
prehistoric period. Their style
by contemporary brick
may
we have
called
the
have been influenced
buildings in Mesopotamia, though
to express
human
aspirations
on a worthy
ingredients of Egyptian architectural
accounted
scale,
the primary
design are mostly
for.
All these stone buildings, then, are dedicated to rehgious
28
36 Zoser complex, Sakkara.

2778 B.C.
The group, uncovered
in recent
years, comprises a funerary
temple, chapels and residential

quarters for the king's use in a
vast rectangular enclosure.
37 Zoser's Hall of Pillars

Entrance
The
hall
reconstruacd.
architecture of Zoser's
scheme is
detail and
delicate
and
precise in
finish.
38 Zoser complex
WaU
detaU.
Early Egyptian architecture

has a Ughtness
and elegance never repeated in

later work. The ribbed walls
obviously derive from brick
technology,
now
carried out
in stone for the first time.
39 Tomb of Queen Memeith,

Sakkara
Reconstructed.
First
to
dynasty
tomb attnbuted
Memeith. Facade treatment
is
notably similar to that

in temples
of protoliterate
Mesopotamia.
40. 41 Step pyramid of Zoser,

Sakkara
The
The
first
known
pyramid.
stepping seems to have been
for structural rather than

ritual purposes.
The
courses
slope inwards for stability, a
derivation
from the mastaba.
EGYPTIAN
29
monumental purposes; and with few exceptions
or
it
is
they whose ruins have survived above ground or been
42
The building of die pjrnmidi

in Boston Museum
Model
of Science.
considered worthy of excavation. This has resuhed today

in a shghtly
unbalanced conception of what an Egyptian
And had
looked hke.
city in fact
of El Amarnah or the
to the rule, such as the palaces
astonishing Middle
Kingdom
no exceptions
there been
fortress at
one might have been tempted to forget
Buhen
that
in
Nubia,
It
is
necessary to
with two crops
remember
grown
that
per year, the greater part of the
male population was
works projects
months of the year.
available for public

for nine
the private
all
dwellings and the overwhelming majority of other secular

buildings were constructed of mud-brick with palm-trunk
by
roofs and hmited
materials
these
comparatively
to
simple architectural forms.

Surprisingly enough, the
most
style
attractive
and
first,
some ways
in
of Egyptian architecture
in
the
stone-
appeared, already fully perfected, in the third dynasty of
Old Kingdom. This
the
36
complex of King Zoser;

by clearances
37
waUs
consist
by the pyramid
illustrated
is
group of buildings only revealed
comparatively recent years. The interior
in
of ashlar masonry in even courses, and engaged
columns are used, sometimes on short wing-walls, to

the span of the hmestone
beams above. Some
lessen
are decorated
43 Gizeh. The pyramids,

2723-2563 B.C.
The pyramid is really
a giant cairn, a heap of stones
c.
over a grave.
Its
with deUcate reeding, others with

proportionate
been paid owing to
has
attention
which
(to
flutes
anticipation of the Doric order).
The hmestone was
care
little
some with
man-
was taken over jointing
is
deceptive,
was not super-
that
apparent.
ficially
The complex of buddings

at
concealment.
are
quarried in small
ageable blocks, but the refmement of its facing

since
primary aims are practical
ones - permanence and
ceilings often
imitate palm-trunks and capitals papyrus motifs,

leaves.
their
Ornamental elements
charmingly adapted from vegetable forms;

pendant
dis-
Sakkara
is
the
Imhotep,
is
out around Zoser's
The name of
and planning.
design
laid
tomb
major example of monumental
first
known, and
it is
Zoser's
architect,
hardly surprising to
fijid
that
he was afterwards deified. The group comprises an elaborate funerary temple as well as palaces and chapels for
the king's use
,
41
durmg
the Jubilee Festival,
within a vast rectangular enclosure.

the centre
was the
first
The
all
contained
pyramid
step
in
erection of its sort, and itself creates
the most conspicuous link with subsequent architectural
forms.
The
mastaba
tombs of
platforms with sloping
sides,
that time
built
were rectangular
over the
tomb
shaft
chamber and other appointments. One

would assume that the stepped form of the pyramid was
to enclose a ritual
by superimposing diminishing versions of the

platform; but if this idea was ever in mind, it is
arrived at
original
44 Gizeh. Plan of the pyramids

plan of the pyramid group
The
is
in a
way more
showing as it does the austerity

of form and geometric exactitude
with which such a scheme
was conceived.
not reflected in the physical anatomy of the pyramid. For,
though the
central core
is
of mastaba shape,
it is
attenuated
added con-
to the full height
of the structure and to
centric accretions
of masonry, increasingly truncated, with
their stone-courses sloping
it
are
inwards to ensure stabdity. This
device was retained as a basis of pyramid construction long
had been ehminated and the whole structure

had acquired the simphcity of an unequivocal geometric
form. It is well illustrated by a section cut through the
after the steps
fifth
dynasty pyramid
at
Abusir.
Pyramids and other funerary monuments

trate the characteristic style
became prevalent
designs
also best illus-
of the Old Kingdom, which
in the fourth dynasty. Imhotep's elegant
were now
a thing of the past. Their
freedom and
impressive
than the pyramids themselves,
30
were replaced by the ponderous formalism
45 Gizeh. Section of the
individuality
pyramid of Cbeopi
of an authoritarian convention. Granite from Assouan was

now often substituted for limestone and quarried in blocks
There
arc three uitcnul
in the largest
chamben
pyranud, the
result
of
changes made during construction.

The lung's chamber, conuining the
granite sarcophagus,
of Cyclopean proportions. Ornament was abandoned
of monoUthic
favoiu'
With
simplicity.
in
jointing perfected
was used
iiutead of the so-called queen's
chamber.
and improving standards of structural mtegrity, the superficial virtuosity of Zoser's masonry was rapidly forgotten.
The most famous group of pyramids
is
that at Gizeh,
43,
containing the tombs of Cheops, Chefren and Mycerinos.
The Cheops pyramid

and geometrically
at
it
755 feet square by 481 feet high,
is
makes an angle of
The dual aims behind
the intersection of the sides.
pyramid design were
permanence
ones
practical
45
forr)'-lve degrees
and
concealment; and the severity with which these functions

use of
were expressed precluded the

46 Gizeh. Chefren funerary
temple group
This includes the Sphin.x.
The
funerary temple on the
pyramid's terrace was connected
by
a long
the Nile below.
on
in
been a central objective, yet the weight-reheving devices

over these chambers suggest a lack of confidence in
its
attainment. All else was subjected to the sheer scale of the
causeway
to the landing stage temple
ornament even
the internal chambers. Structural perfection must also have
central conception;
and
may have
this
been given extra
emphasis by the low horizontaUty of the subsidiary buildings
which completed each of the three complexes. Architecturally these are perhaps more interesting than the pyramids
themselves. In the case, for instance, of the Chefren group
(which
is
and includes the
best preserved
47 Deir-el-bahari, Thebes.
now known
Temple of Mentuhotep.
temple on the pyramid terrace
2065 B.C.
Here the pyramid has been
causeway
reduced to
The
symbolic tombstone.
great pyramids had already
been found not to be thief-proof,
as the
Sphinx), one sees

is
how
the funerary
connected by a long
to a smaller 'valley temple'
on the river bank
below. The chambers themselves in these buildings account

for so small a proportion
of
their cubic content that the
plan resembles that of a rock-cut tomb; but they are faced
and the king was buried elsewhere.
entirely
with red granite and the roof
grauite monohths. In both temples there
arrangement of
colossal statues,
supported by
is
was
by
light diffused
formal
also a
mostly of green
which must have provided a contrasting colour
diorite,
in the
tival
chambers
Sakkara; but this was the
at
48 Deir-el-bahari. Detail
free-standing figures and
of Queen Hatshepsut's temple
tween
On
the highest terrace of this
of
arches, richly decorated
and
incised.
it
dim
Simple reUefs
vertical shafts in the walls.
had already been carved to enrich the walls of Zoser
elaborate building sunds a series
46
colossal sculpture
Fes-
use of
first
initiated the close association be-
and sculptor which persisted throughout
architect
the subsequent history of reUgious building in Egypt.
One of
few major buildings
the
Middle Kingdom
chffs,
to survive
the funerary temple of
Dramatically situated
Deir-el-bahari.
Theban
is
it
is
at
from
the
Mentuhotep
at
47
the foot of the
composed of low colonnaded terraces

in the centre. The efficacy of a
with a small stone pyramid
pyramid
illusion
protection for a
as
tomb had now proved an
and the king was buried elsewhere; but plain
square piers
still
formed the colonnade, and the
interior
was sparingly decorated with painted ornament. The

races
of a much larger funerary building,
during the
brilliant
dom, makes an
Hatshepsut,
this
laid
eighteenth dynasty of the
ter-
out beside
New
interesting counterpoint. Erected
it
King-
by Queen
temple also was adapted in form to the
unusual requirements of the
site,
but
its
terrace walls in the
shade of the colomiades were richly adorned with sculp-
make an
tured rehefs, and the
two
architectural ensemble
of such memorable beauty that
reflection
is
sometimes
achievement of
modem
still
buildings
together
recognisable
lay-outs.
its
today in the
48-
EGYPTIAN
31
49 Deir-el-bahari
Aerial view.
Here can be seen the graceful

juxtaposition of the temples
of Mentuhotcp
Hatshepsut
built
(left)
and Queen
(right), the first
500 years before the larger,
which echoes
it
in
form.
50 Deir-el-bahari. Temple
of Queen Hatshepsut.
1520 B.C.
The queen was buried in a corridor
tomb deep in the mountains behind
mortuary temple dedicated to
this
Amon. An avenue of sphinxes

connects the temple with the valley.
51
Kamak. Temple of Amon.
1530-323 B.C. Section of

Hypostyle Hall
This impressive
Great
is
hall, part
of the
Temple of Amon,
a symmetrical forest
of columns,
134 in sixteen rows.
The
increased height of the
central colonnades
lighting possible.
make
clerestory
32
S3 Kamak. Temple of
I530-33 B.C.
Oblique rays of sumhine
Amon.
The
New Kingdom
of Thebes,
Luxor stands today. Facing
penetrating through stone

grilles
city
of Egypt,
capital
stood in open country on the right bank of the Nile, where
form of Ughting.
across the river
it
we
nerary buildings like those
were the only
thousands of rock-cut tombs transformed the

into a vast necropolis. In the city
some
existing
But
describe.
hills
behind
each Pharaoh in
itself,
own or an annex
as we must now
turn contributed either a temple of his

to
were fu-
have already described, and
group of buildings such
the function of Egyptian temples needs
first,
to be understood.
They were not intended
setting for public
worship and prayer,
to provide a
the congre-
like
gational establishments of Christendom or Islam. Liturgy
and
were performed by
ritual
none but they was admitted

esoteric purpose
and
priests,
and
to the temple precinct.
of
The
a hierarchy
of the buildings
abstract intention
within can be understood perfectly from a single glance

plaiming. Their component elements are ranged
at their
much
out along a single and
protracted central axis; a
fulcrum on which developments in breadth and formal
may
dualities
The meaning
be balanced.
Each element marks
proach to some ultimate mystery, and
mystery that the
associated with this
is
unmistakable.
prescribed stage in the ritual ap-
it is
in a cult-chamber
axis usually terminates.
For the benefit of the outside world, the significance of

this
arrangement
proach
indicated
is
beyond the
by an extension of
the ap-
sometimes
of the building,
limits
between avenues of sculpture. But the layman's exclusion
from
Kamak. Plan of
S3
the temple
of Amon
The plan is strongly axial and
formal. The processional form
shows
that this
participation in the actual ritual
uncompromising symbolism of
emphasised by the
is
a 'Sublime Porte' at the
entrance to the sanctuary.
To
was
create portals
of
stone pylons were
this sort, gigantic
used in pairs, and these sometimes attained so great a
the dominating hturgical feature.
they
that
size
may
pyramids of an
be thought of
earlier
sometimes covered with

support
Within
ornamental
successors to the
as
Their sloping faces were
age.
and chased
reliefs
perhaps
masts,
the precinct, successive pairs
vertically to
carrying
banners.
of such pylons might
occasionally be used to create a secondary approach to

the sanctuary. This device
temple of
almost
all
Amon
at
is
well iUustrated in the great
Karnak, which, in addition, embodies
conventions
other
usual
such
in
53
buildings.
Entered through pylons, and open to the sky, an outer
colonnaded courtyard gave

pylons, to the great
full
once more between
access,
Hypostyle Hall, which occupied the
breadth of the bui'ding. Architecturally this was
most
striking feature and, like the crossing
of a cathedral
it
was calculated
to
produce
51
its
and transepts
a
temporary
climax in one's emotional reactions. In the three central

aisles,
columns of
colossal height
made
of clerestory lighting through stone

54
Kamak.
of Khons.
Section of temple
1
example of the
at
Kamak
cult
is
temple
consisting of pylons, hypostyle hall,
windows. They
were thus illuminated by oblique rays
sunshine, while smaller pillars
198 B.C.
This smaller temple

fine
themselves
possible a system
grilled
into almost total darkness.
on either
From
side
seemed to recede
the Hypostyle Hall one
progressed between further pairs of pylons into an iimer
sanctuary with the sacred
courtyard surrounded by a labyrinth of minor
boat of Khons and surrounding
cult-chambers,
chapels.
of
all
were many variations on

the
main
halls
and
enclosed in a double outer wall. There
architectural
this
system of planning, but
conventions
and
the
function
which they expressed remained unchanged.
The
New Kingdom
builders
had discovered sandstone
52.
EGYPTIAN
and
quarries at Silsilah, near Thebes,
wider spans possible for
appearance of temple interiors was
slabs.
their shapes
Shafts, swelling
the base
resemble a bunch of lotus
stalks,
bud-shaped
at the time.
at
to
stood upon circular stone
capitals creating
a"
silhouette very
form of an
Kamak, the
the inverted-bell
open papyrus flower. In the Hyposryle Hall

huge central columns took
capitals
theme
Another was produced by a simple
crowned by
tapered shaft,
at
form, while the
latter
this
of the lower order on either side imitated the shape
of a closed flower. Other more cumbersome architectural

features were introduced from time to time, such as the
which incorporated huand the rudiments of a shrine; or the 'Osirisfound mainly in mortuary temples, which could be
so-called 'Hathor-headed' capitals
man
features
pillars',
considered forerunners of the Greek 'caryatids'.
were obehsks,
which
as a setting for
Then
there
special courts
were
sometimes provided, and occasional free-standing sculptures.
But everywhere
a special distinction
by
the interiors of these buildings
was given
to
the ubiquitous ripple of
reUef carving and hieroglyphic inscriptions. Even the shafts
of columns were sometimes covered with such ornaments,

which could consist of incised intagho carving or true
rehef In a building hke the temple of Sethos
both techniques were employed
It is
only
when we
temples that
architects
by
side
elsewhere a very general use was
side
made of
at
Abydos,
and there
as
colour.
turn to the external facades of these
character appears to be lacking. Egyptian
all
confmed themselves
to a single cornice
moulding
of an extremely simple form, apart from which all ornament
was
on
too
gateways and the pylons
restricted to the entrance
either side
we
of them.
In the
realm of structural security
find one curious idiosyncrasy. Little attention
Kamak, which
was
Eleven of the largest columns
paid to foundations.
fell flat
in 1899,
at
were found to have been
supported on friable Uttle blocks of stone placed loosely

together in holes beneath their bases. This fact becomes
more
when we
surprising
consider the
volume and
variety
of experience in dealing with stone, which Egyptians had
accumulated throughout the centuries.

technological virtuosity
may
One example of their
be seen in the rock-hewn
temples of Nubia, of which that designed by Rameses

at
Abu Simbel
is
the
most spectacular. Here, a
apparently pointless tour de force

negative', out of the
is
fantastic
II
and
achieved by carving
'in
sohd rock, a fuU-scale and conven-
tionally designed temple of the sort
we
have been describ-
ing above, and decorating
its
statues, sixty-five feet high,
themselves also carved out of
entrance with four seated
the cHff-face.
we
In Egypt, as
have said earUer, there
is
a natural tend-
ency to concentrate one's attention on stone buildings
and to forget
created.
To
how
ludicrously incomplete a pirture
is
thus
correct this impression, one needs only to
glance for instance at the completed plans of theRamesseum

58
or the Medinet
Habu temple
at
Thebes, in which the
mud-
main stone buildings have been

structure then appears almost submerged
brick dependencies of the
added. The central

in a
Kamak. Papyrus capitals

Temple of Ptah
Several variations on the
conditioned by the
still
echoed vegetable forms.
bases, their
55
in the
But the
need for innumerable columns. Almost always
common
made
this material
and roofing
lintels
33
warren of storage-chambers and
priests'
quarters.
^^^^^"Î^^^^^^H
same
are seen in this group.
ANCIENT AND CtASSlCAL
34
Temple
59 Luxor.
of Amon-Mut-Khons.
1408-1300 B.C.
Here we sec increase
of span followed by an even
greater increase of columnar size.
60 El
Amamah.
of the
city.
Central quarter
1366-1351 B.C.
Akhenatcn's short-lived capital

at
Amamah
had elegant
mud-brick palaces and mansions

with wood-pillared rooms,
formal gardens, and ornamented
pavilions.
6x 1
Amamah.
Plan
of north palace
Inhabited for only eighteen years,
the palace of Akhenaten
was
built ^^'ith precious material
and nchly decorated.
62 El Atnamah. Mansion
of Vizier Nakht
The better houses of the town
may have had
as
many
four storeys, and were
own
as
set in their
grounds, with groves,
gardens and pools.
63 El
Amamah.
Restored
model of Egyptian mansion

This clay model of an Egyptian
dwelling of
c.
1400 shows
the buildings of crude brick,
with door and
window openings
The central
dressed in stone.
hall
was
raised high
enough
to
permit clerestory light on

at least
one
were used
side.
Bright colours
for internal decoration.
CRETAN AND AEGEAN
Again, elaborate reconstructions are available both of pal-
and of minor domestic buildings
aces
in brick, such as
those excavated at Akhenaten's short-hved capital at El
Amarnah. To decorate
these
frescoes in the history
of Egyptian painting were used,
some of
the most beautiful
35
64 Abydoj.
Temple of SethoJ
I.
I3IJ B.C.
Negative inuglio carving was
oflcn used on temple
exteriors in strong light.
and the severity of rehgious convention was relieved by

picturesque contrivances such as balconies and bridges
between buildings. Even the private houses had thoughtfully designed interiors lit by clerestor)- grilles, which
illuminated the attractively painted ceihngs, and
showed
formal architectural treatment of the sort which occasionally
dummy window
required a
symmetry. The gardens
door to complete
or
with
too,
its
of
In the realm
in ignorance.
military architecture, there are striking fortifications for

instance at Uronati, as well as the great fortress to
which
have already referred near the Nubian frontier
we
of Rameses 11. 1301 B.C.

Heavy beams obtain a bearing
on the square abacus.
at
66 Karnak. Temple of Amon.

Reconstruction of clerestory,
Hypostyle Hall. 1312-1301 B.C.
The roof of stone slabs is

supported by 134 colunms. in
16 rows. The columns of the
central nave. 69 feet high,
rise
And
Buhen.
dweUings
is
more
if the
sought
for,
prosaic planning of proletarian
can be found in the purposefully
it
planned housing of labourers
above the
allowing stone
inserted,
light
Amarnah and Kahun.
at
Thebes. Detail of capital in
their cloistered pools
and paviHons, prox-ide a clue to the secular predilections

of the ancient Egyptian, of which purely rehgious monuments would leave one
65.
the Ramesseum, funerary temple
is
side aisles,
grilles to
be
through which clerestory
admitted.
Cretan and Aegean

Moving westward
across
coimerts Asia and Europe,
Aegean Sea and the
the
which
great land-bridge
the
we come
tiny
to the coast-lands of
but formidable,
ancient
stronghold of Troy, which symbohses both geographically

transition from one world to another.
which it brings us is the so-called Bronze
Age, in which the shadowy antecedents of classical architecture must be sought. The region where we fmd
and histoncally the
The period
them
is
to
the eastern Mediterranean, including
comer of
not only Greece but the shores of Asia Minor, which in

early times the Greeks also made their own. Here, smaU
mountain ranges,
reappear
coast,
thrust out
like fingers
from
the Asiatic
Greek mainland. To the south

the island
of Crete.
Its
markable beauty, and one

perfected
turies
to
After the Alexandrian conquest,

a certain reduction in labour
sources led to a smaller building
Aegean
a pattern of
as
first
islands
and
afterwards find counterparts in the promontories of the
by
67 Philae. Ptolemaic kis

temple. 283-247 B.C.
this setting
its
which economy
and elegance combine.
in
Hmits are softly outlined
land- and sea-scapes are of re-
sees how the form of architecture

by the Greeks twenty-five cen-
ago was not only inspired by but perfectly adapted
it.
In discussing
Aegean
architecture then,
Troy can
signifi-
cantly be chosen as a point of departure. Basic traditions
which give character to theUves of a particular

people are considered as together composing what is loosely
termed a 'material culture' and during the complex miand
practices
grations
which took
place in these parts late in the third
on the Aegean
which one
through
channel
the
coast seem to have been
such 'culture' was transmitted from the hinterland of Asia
millennium B.C., Troy and other
Minor
stations
to the islands, including Crete,
Greek mainland. At
and eventually to the

(which
this stage in its history, the 'city'
covered no more than five acres of ground) was architecturally conspicuous for two reasons. Already, a thousand
years before the Hitrites
walls
whose lower
rectangular blocks.
parts
were heard
of,
were soundly
it
had
built
fortress-
of stone
in
Secondly, inside the fortress, was a
68 Edfu. Birthhouse of the

Horus temple. 140-124 B.C.
The Graeco-Roman temple
of which
this
forms
a part
of the best preserved

examples of the period.
is
one
36
more
palace, or
single rectangular
Pan of
circular
the massive walls
Above
is
landmark.
its
is
on
facings
the ends of the wing-walls) exactly reproduced
the sculpture of rampant
between them
recorded
is
Homer
Greek megaron, which
the so-called
described a
thousand years later. This equation gains more than academic
downward-
the shape of the
with a
feet wide,
(such as clay benches for sitting or sleeping and timber
the sixteen-foot lintel
the triangtilar opening containing
lioru;
chamber twenty-five
heanh in the middle and side walls extended to

form an open porch at one end. These and other details
circuiting the palace,
the Lion Gate
of Assembly, composed of a
likely a Hall
69 Mycenae. The Lion Gate,

1250 B.C.
e.
tapering Aegean column.
when one
mtcrest
by
is
reminded
surrounded
that the megaron,
a screen of columns, provided the classical shape of a
Greek temple. For
reason and in spite of geographical
this
evidence offered by the Trojan examples, most art historians
have contrived a purely Greek origin for the form; whereas

It
shaped the
Aegean
1325
Age
started.
through
dromos.
Like the Lion Gate, the

has a
fiat lintel
adopted the form
square,
which
Kultepe
with a huge circular hearth

it
took
Mycenaean
the
in
palaces a thousand years afterwards.
doorway
Here then was the
which
dwelling-house should take
unknown
in the
Near East
became
a religious
completely
from the
and making
islands
mind
ventional an image in the Aegean

it
a form
spreading
mainland to Greece and the
Greece
of the form
basic conception
first
and
corbelled rcUeving arch.
built before
Uttle later, as far east as
and four columns
entered
is
a rectangular
it
Greece
later to
AnatoUa, another was found already to have
B.C.
The beehive tomb
Lemnos, where
found a recognisable megaron
coast,
in central
c.
transmitted
'culture*,
to such islands as
Bronze Age house, and
first
the Bronze
Treasury of Atreus'.
first
Excavators at Beycesultan, seventy miles east of the
Itself
70 Mycenae. Drotnos,
of our Anatohan
in fact part
is
through Troy,
that for classical
With
symbol.
Asiatic
so con-
in the sphere
it,
of practical building construction, came an architectural

tradition every bit as important.
in the
composition of walls
as
Timber was now used
well as of roofs. In the
countries south and west of the Black Sea, a single
method
of building became practically universal. Walls rested on

a
substructure
of
undressed stone,
timber, above which

71 Mycenae. North gate
Roughly squared
stones
vertical posts tied in to the
were
used,
not in regular courses. Their
enormous
size
gave
name Cyclopean
of masonry.
rise to
came
the
for this type
with
strengthened
framework, with
a timber
roof and panels between
with crude or kiln-baked brick. Above
all,
this
filled
device
afforded the structural elasticity so necessary in a region
continually subject to earthquakes.
latter has
was one which only
It
could render impractical, and despite the
deforestation
survived to the present day.
danger from
fire, as
may
Its
beams and vitrified brick fiom which some

But from Crete and Greece to the inland
Syria,
it
dictated
the
small and great buildings

the
fine half-timber
Age have been
buildings of the Broi'ize
and
weakness lay in
be seen in the tangle of charred
reconstrurted.
cities
of AnatoUa
main
principles
alike;
and among these were
of design in
Bronze Age palaces of the Aegean.
If architectural
also are to
at its
developments in
be taken
southernmost Umit
advanced
civilization
this part
in chronological order,
came
where
in Crete,
of the world
we must
to maturity in the early centuries
of the second millennium B.C. Partly owing to

graphical situation, the Bronze
Age
was sharply
that
where
differentiated
in the
to the south
fiom the
from
Aegean. Whereas on
encloses the sea-ways

it
start
a precociously
its
geo-
culture of this island
which developed
its
else-
northern side Crete
between Greece and Asia Minor,
looks towards Egypt and the Levant, and
earliest
times Cretans were
good
sailors.
Unlike
CRETAN AND AEGEAN

37
72 Mycenae. Tholos tomb.

Treasury of Atreus. c. 1325 B.C.
very advanced form
of bcchive-domcd chamber,
closely resembling those in
Egypt
in the twelfth dynasty
and bearing witness
to close
contact therewith.
Similar corbclicd structures are
found
in Crete.
The
73 Cnossos,
*LiCtle Palace*
Stairways, colonnades and
open Ught-wells are typical of

the island palaces; the
columns were of the downwardtapering type and made of wood.
The
were generally
walls
plastered
and covered with
bright frescoes.
74 Cnossos. The palace

of Minos, c. 1800-1600 B.C.
Here
also there
were columns
of wood, narrower
at the
than
furniture legs),
at the
top
(as in
returning flights of
foot
stairs,
bathrooms and plumbing and

folding,
all
innovations in
East Mediterranean architecture.
75 Restored
models of Minoan
bouses
These buildings, with square-cut
3QOOOOOOQOOQ
pel
l^>-
window openings, are decorated

m a way which shows their part
timber construction.
M
iioani
76 Cnossos.
palace of
in.
nnrnnr
75
The
g^rand stairway,
Minos
This stairway
is built around a
whose walls are
supported on tapered columns.
light-shaft
38
77 Mycenae. Plan of the palace

The Mycenaean palaces arc
typically groups of suites of rooms
their northern
arranged round a niain hall
is
with a porch - the mcgaron form.

Sometimes several of these
forms or techniques are curiously combined with more
complexes are grouped round
Near
East.
This
apparent in their architecture, where Egyptian or Syrian
An increasing
northerly traditions.
gypsum
an iimcr courtyard.
neighbours therefore, their most instructive
contacts were with the peoples of the
use of squared masonry,
and columns, some-
orthostats, formal staircases
times fluted or reeded, were Eastern features which they
adopted, and the true frescoes used to ornament their
compare favourably with the Egyptians' tempera

All these refinements were superimposed on
walls
painting.
which were
structural principles
78 Cnossos frescoes
These arc true frescoes on
plaster.
This example gives a lively
Aegean. But for-
basically
associated with these, such as the
mal elements elsewhere

megaron hall, seem not
to have reached
the
and
island,
representation of performers in the
planning was a disorderly
affair,
casually adapted to regional
Minoan
requirements and predilections.
The Cretan temperament,
bull-ring.
which was
the
itself in
fested
ingenious and hght-hearted, mani-
sensitive,
romantic and somewhat disorderly
Minoan
character of
architecture;
in
agglomerative
its
compositions and distaste for symmetry.

these centuries, Crete developed an urban civil-
During
and advanced
ization as complicated
East
79 Cnossos. Royal chamber
royal chambers had plastered
walls painted in fresco above
and lined with a dado
of thm marble slabs below. Here
The
the brilliance of colour
was given
full
strength
by the
natural lighting which

came from the colonnaded
itself;
of the Near
as those
but in strange contrast to the
The
latter, it
no major reUgious
buildings.
these people centred
roimd mysteries of the
could be performed in natural

caves or secret cult-chambers.
famous bull-leaping
as
the
in
the courtyards
which
and
such
settings,
Its
sort
mountain
as
could
spectacles,
take
of royal
place
palaces,
of government. These buOdings
were the great monuments of the age, on which Cretan

architects lavished so much skill and ingenuity. Remains
light-wells.
of them have been found
at three
main
centres: Cnossos,
we know from
Phaestos and Mallia. In the form which

their ruins, they date
from
the three centuries following
1700 B.C., and though their character owes

periodical accretions
their general
The
and reconstruction
appointments are in each case broadly
Palace of
Minos
at
80 Cnossos. Queen*s megaron

Although the use of these
quarters for the queen has been
disputed, the fact
is
of ground and,
to
similar.
Cnossos, which was fmally
destroyed by fue in about 1400 B.C.,
five acres
much
after earthquakes,
the one
is
provides most material for study. Alone
it
like the others,
its
which
covers almost
buildings are
grouped around a central court with a double-square

proportion, a feature for which there
in
Anatoha.
consists
It
is
an
earlier
precedent
of innumerable rooms, generally
that they did
contain, as well as the sprightly
dolphin frescoes,
some of
of
which
public ceremonials, such
theatrical arenas
also served as the seat
produced
animistic beUefs
the most advanced
rather small, and ranges of long storage-chambers, accessible
wing
through inner courts, yards and corridors. In the west
ground
at
level store
rooms and
ritual
chambers, in-
sanitary arrangements, including

a
W.C. with
flushing device.
cluding a throne-room, support an upper suite of reception
rooms
and this is approached by monumental

main entrance and from the courtyard.
(piano nobik),
stairways
from
Placed lower
the
down
the hill
on
the east side, in order to
give these a clear view over the valley, are the residential
apartments of the royal family, again on two storeys
connected by
earhest
stairs.
These apartments are perhaps the
example we have of hving quarters both elegantly
and ingeniously planned to
suit the climate.
Main chambers
and annexed loggias are separated only by ranges of doors,
which
fold back into the stone piers
that the
whole
suite
between them, so
can be tluown open for
summer
air
and space on ceremonial occasions, or closed for intimacy
78
CRETAN AND AEGEAN
and winter warmth.

dadoes of stone
whose
frescoes,
Interior wall-faces are dignified with
and the
slabs,
plaster
above enriched with
and naturaUstic designs are occa-
brilliant
and rather unexpectedly varied by a reproduction
sionally
paint of the half-timber structure beneath.
in
Columns
downwards (a
of painted wood, usually tapering
are
39
81 Maliia, Plan of the palace
Middle of second millennium B.C.
The
palaces at Maliia,
Hagia Triada and Phaeslos were
complexes of rooms
arranged round a
scries
of inner
courtyards, a form already

familiar elsewhere in the
more
device
and
furniture),
own minds
often associated in our

their capitals are
with
Near
East.
composed of square and
cushion-shaped elements which foreshadow the abacus and

echinus forms of classical times. In the outer fa9ades of
of minor dwelhngs of which
these buildings (as in those
windows
small models have survived), square or rectangular
and other forms of ornament once more
are conspicuous
emphasise the structural pattern.
Tombs
in Crete, like those in Egypt,
make
con-
Uttle
tribution to the repertory of architectural practices.

circular tholos burials
much
But
with rectangular antechambers, hke
earher examples
which we have noticed
Mesopo-
in
imminent developments on the Greek
tamia, anticipate
None of
the Cretan palaces or the tovvTis surrounding
them showed any

hke
Middle of second millennium B.C.
Minoan towns and palaces

show that these people were
able
to deal systematically
mainland.
much
82 Phaestos. Part of the palace
of Radamanthus
of mihtary defences, nor
traces
is
there
evidence to suggest that the Minoans were a war-
race. Nevertheless,
they were undoubtedly a maritime
with town-planning problems.
There was an ordered system

of sewers and freshwater canals.
Warehouses were built for
food storage.
people with far-reaching trade connections. Whether by
by
peaceful association or
century B.C.
fifteenth
whole Aegean
the
actual
dominated almost
Mycenae, due west of Athens
area.
was already
in the Peloponnese,
during the
conquest,
culture
their
at this
time the
seat
of
an important mainland principality, and the contents of
famous
the
'shaft-grave'
Schhemann in
the richness
But
period.
some
1876,
burials
discovered
though architecturally
of Minoan
there
of the
art in the provincial centres
at a date usually
by
irrelevant, reveal
estimated at about 1400 B.C.,
great migratory upheaval seems to have transformed
the ethnic composition of the
Aegean peoples and
ended the hegemony of the Cretan nation.

picture once
more emerges,
it
When
to have
a clear
shows the Minoan palaces
area,
and the island, in common with the whole Aegean

dominated by a people whose written language is
now
tentatively identified as Greek.
in ruins
Related by speech
and heredity, they are not so much a nation

of maritime
principalities
and
as a federation
their regional seats
of govern-
83 Phaestos. Plan of
Destroyed by earthquake. The main

feature
are in cities such as
Mycenae, Tiryns and Pylos on
the Greek mainland. Their kings or princes, afterwards
become
to
Homeric legend and
the heroes of
myth, buUt themselves palaces which bore

blance to the
Mycenaean
by
Minoan
labyrinths
resem-
of the preceding age.
palace plans are well illustrated for instance
The
become
that discovered at Pylos.
of which the
classical
Uttle
has
hail
with a central hearth, twelve
central unit
a squarish
is
a megaroti,
compartment
feet in diameter,
and four
columns, probably to allow clerestory lighting or outlets

for
smoke.
usual
It is
separated
columned porch.
subsidiary chambers
garon,
and
in
by
faces
vestibule
on
from
either side include a smaller
both examples the central unit
partially insulated
It
by an irmer
the
In a similar building at Tiryns the
from
these
by
is
as
it
me-
were
a surrounding corridor.
courtyard, colonnaded at Tiryns, and entered
gateway with columned porches
inside
and
out.
of Hellenic houses of l.ooo
years later, the peristyle court,

is
ment
main
portion of palace
here anticipated.
40
The Parthenon, Athens.
84
447-432 B.C.
Thu best-known of
all
Greek
temples, the apogee of Hellenic

architecture,
still
is
picchcd-roof
building surrounded by
a
colonnaded verandah which
originally sheltered brick walls
from sun and
rain.
85 Treasury of the Athenians,

Delphi, c. 500-485 B.C.
The
first
Doric building
to be built entirely out of marble.
Like most trcasunes

it
looked
like a
miniature temple
with only two columns
and
very short
cella.
AND HELLENISTIC
GREEK
Every one of these
features has a precedent a thousand
Anatolia, and the
carher in
years
41
86 Plan of the temple

of Apollo, Thermum.
only resemblance to
Before oo B.C.
Cretan palaces
lies
in the familiar half-timber construction
in the fourteenth
At first the temples were built of

mud-brick with timber framing.
The columns were of wood,
of powerful
of huge rough stones,
and the sculptural

decoration was painted
terra cotta. The whole stood
termed
on
and the
which ornament the
frescoes
plaster-faces. Later
century B.C. these palaces seem to have

been converted into mihtary strongholds by the addition
71
fortress-walls, often built
which the Greeks of
days
later
'Cyclopean'.
a stone platform.
Nevertheless, before the end of the thirteenth century B.C.
they were
I
69
destroyed by
all
and never rebudt.
fire
One opening in the outer fortification at Mycenae is

known as the 'Lion Gate'. Two huge blocks of stone
form
door-jambs and another the
the
relieved of the weight
above
lintel, which is
by a system of corbeUing.
left is filled by a sculptured
^^^S^^^^^S^S^^^S^^Î
87 Plan of temple, Seliniu.

600 B.C.
The megaron plan is here not
yet standardised.
it
The
triangular opening thus
slab,
on which two rampant hons support a cult pillar of

on Cretan seals. A more pre-
the sort often represented

tentious
tombs
72
architectural
treatment
which the princes of
in
It is
the
tholos
Of
age were buried.
of Atreus'
these the so-called 'Treasury
example.
distinguishes
this
most
the
is
round
a beehive-shaped affair with a
striking
interior,
88 The Acropolis, Athens

The Acropolis was originally
a Stone Age site, owing
its
forty-four feet in diameter and forty feet high,
submerged
in the side
of a
hill,
with a low circular retain-
The
ing wall supporting the earth above.
was
is
corbelled vault
of carefully dressed and jointed masonry, orna-
built
mented here and

70
partly
The tomb itselfand the doorway
there with bronze rosettes.
approached by a rectangular dromos,
origin to the presence of fresh-
water springs on
It
later
became
hagh plateau.
and shows
fortress-citadel
traces
of every phase of Greek

architecture before
its
final state just
prior to the
fall
of Athens.
between the two makes a striking architectural composition, flanked
stone.
Above
by
elaborately carved half-columns in green
the hntel once
more
ing triangular opening; but
this
there
is
a weight-reliev-
was afterwards masked
by a panel of spiral and other ornament in stones of various

colours, framed on either side by downward-tapering
pilasters.
Little
more
known of Mycenaean
is
few surviving remains suggest Minoan
These
influence
on
Anatohan forms and the occasional introduction
basically
of Egyptian motifs.
classical
architecture.
stylistic
Greece
parental relationship to that of
Its
traditional siting
the Parthenon had the rear end
and
With
the
end of the Bronze Age

greatest
in sight,
we
turning-points
C, world
which we
have
understanding brought Mycenaean civilization
and for the moment there was nothing
to an abrupt end,
it.
Historically there ensued a curious interlude
of retrogression;
the
had to go round
architectural
events of
about iioo B.
to replace
a procession
in order to enter.
are approach-
in
history. In
little
places,
processional way. Indeed,
it
Greek and Hellenistic

ing one of the
of holy
rather than as a dramatic
towards the gate house,
by no means conspicuous.
is
89 Plan of the Acropolis,

Athens
The plan was dictated by the
a period
of four centuries during which
Aegean peoples relapsed
into a state of poverty
and
impotence almost comparable to that from which they

90 Plan of the Parthenon,
Athens
had emerged during the third millennium B. C.

It is
the
towards the end of the eighth century B. C. that
first
symptoms
are to be seen
civilization materialising
cenaean
citadels, in
unknown, had
ruling prince.
from
an age
when
usually been
Now
there
this
new and
distinctive
period of gestation.
My-
temples were practically
crowned by
were no
prominent building housed the

more, since Greek rehgion
of
the palace of a
and the most
princes,
statue
of a god. Further-
now combined
the worship of
ancient heroes vidth that of personified natural phenomena.
In this final
development of
the Greek temple plan, the
megaron form is partly concealed

by a surrounding colormade or
peristyle.
with
its
Behind the sanctuary,

statue,
chamber used
is
a second
as a treasury.
42
91
The Erechcheion, Athens.
431-40S B.C.
An
irrcguUr
pbn
main
example
a classical
Aegean
we have
tradition as
sable element in
any
known
of the Ionic order.
way
surprising that this basic
In
site.
and indispen-
seen, the central
of dwelling-house was the
sort
and-porch' structure
individual
same
the
tdapted to
porticoes arc added to a

is
very
the
to
whose palace had previously occupied
sacred landmarks. Projecting
building which
might be dedicated
temple
a megaron, and
'hall-
no
form shoidd now have been
as
it
in
is
chosen for the dwelling-place of a deity. The subject to
which we find ourselves thus abruptly introduced

of the Greek temple.
When
that
is
the earUest temples appeared in the seventh cen-
C,
tury' B.
the structural practices of the Bronze
not yet been discarded. Walls were
Age had
of timber-framed
still
mud-brick on a stone substructure, and roofs were generally
92 The Erechtheion, Athens.

Caryatid porch
Here sculptured
figures,
never
again so effectively employed,
The temple
flat.
from
in
may
simplest form, as
its
the reconstruction of a Cretan example, had
be seen
no more
than the elementary features of a megaroii; a rectangiJar
chamber
{cello)
with some
of
sort
altar replacing the
86,
8'
'^
do-
mestic hearth and a central doorway, approached through
replace the columns.
an open portico. Only the square
wing
tion with pilasters in the
which, in conjunc-
pillar
supported a
walls,
beam
over the entrance, can already be seen to anticipate the
columns
new
in antis
of
The
later times.
spatial principle
of a
type of building having thus been determined by the
adoption of an ancestral precedent,
external
its
form was
next drastically transformed by the addition of a verandah
round the main
Whether this
some practical purpose, such as the protection of mud-brick from the
weather, will probably never be known. But the device
or colonnade
was done
in itself
93
The Propylaea, Athens.
437-432 B.C.
Both Doric and Ionic orders
were used together in
the gate house to the Acropolis.
Here also were elegant

muUioned windows and hipped
all
structure.
for purely aesthetic reasons or for
served
once to supply
at
primary
characteristic
of the Greek temple.
The proportions of
the
now
cella
beg?"
'^
^ ""'"
elongated.
The altar was removed to the e
^
the entrance and, when a row of colunm:
down
added
on one
the middle,
.rt.
needed to b
it
side in order to be seen.
Someti
roofs.
The Peloponnesian war prevented
porch was provided
the completion of the buildings
ture,
as originally planned.
came
back of the
at the
which appealed
a fairly usual convention.
ly stage,
was an
apsidal
end
cei
Greek sense o
to the
An
to the building t
presented no problem in roofmg as long a

material used.
thatch gave
then
At
way
the
end of the seventh
to roofmg-tilcs of
were standardised.
of Agrippa.
and the retention beneath
The stepped approach
to the
of
continually
directly
upward and then
through the
centre of the building

to the Acropolis beyond.
pediment. Almost
were
now
still
iQ7-llO
>:
NV
the standard elemt
of
n..
La.%.ai.ivil
U1U
required.
innovation which gave a
ber construction of earher times.

at first
made
and ornament, each

tiously
in the
traditional
reproduced in the
new
stimulus to design
When
this
happened, no
broad system of structure

feature
new material.
being conscien-
In the earhest stone
temples dating from the beginnmg of the sixth century

B.C., every detail of the tmibcr-framcd prototype
imitated in stone,
the
down
to the
/J
SO
was the use of dressed stone to replace the bnck-and-timchange was
a horizonta
present, but a long process
refinement was
One
all
9!I
witi
entrance formed a triangular feature aften

a
J'
OO'lOO
96'600
marble constructed Propylaea from

the Beule gate led the eye
Q 7
c<
g^ble-end appeared a
it
'ÎJ
baked
onwards rectangular buildings
94 The Propylaea
North wing, behind monument
altema
wooden pegs which
beams together. Soon however increasing
was
held
familiarity
I! i
GREEK AND HELLENISTIC
new
with the
possibilities
its
made
stance,
43
material brought a better understanding of
95
and
Athens
limitations.
Its tensile
weakness, for in-
Temple of Nik Apteros,
Filth century
a reduction in beam-spans desirable, whereas
the squat proportions at
assigned to columns proved
first
an unnecessary precaution. Once such principles were un-
small
B.C.
gem of classical
design.
was adapted to
the bastion on which it sunds.
Its
miniature
size
derstood and architects became capable of thinking in terms
of the material which they were using, new

tions could be
appHed
component
while, the
of a building, both
features
ated governing their position and shape.

the so-called 'orders' in
As the end of the
came
that
exist.
sixth century approached, the Doric or-
Greek mainland
to be accepted throughout the
formula for architectu-
as a basic
many improvements
composition. Yet
proportion were
was thus
It
Greek architecture came to
and the western colonies

ral
struc-
and ornamental, were standardised and a canon cre-
tural
der
no-
aesthetic
refmement of design. Mean-
to the
made
possible
and
in shape
by the Greek
architect's
increasing sensibility and confidence. As early as 525 B.C.,
marble came into general use to replace stone
and
structure of buildings,
roofing-tiles could be
it
was soon found
made of
same
the
material.
the
in
even
that
At
first
Parian and other island marbles were preferred, but from
96 The Parthenon roof

construction
Early Greek builders effectively
converted timber forms into stone.
At
about 480 B. C. onwards, the PenteUc quarries near Athens
became
most popular source. Fine poHshed
the
now
could
be obtained and a
new
surfaces
definition in the carv-
they imderestimated the
first
strength of the stone and built

utmecessarily heavily; later they
not only built lightly but gave
even greater lightness by optical
ing of ornamental
detail.
illusion.
Elsewhere in the Aegean, other interesting developments
were taking
islands
and
place.
cities
The
whose
Ionic order,
of Asia Minor occurred a
genesis in the
httle later than
hampered from
by memories of half-timber construction and
the Doric, seems to have been less
the
start
re-
tained in
try'.
its
composition
less
evidence of 'petrified carpen-
Technical improvements in masonry also
new
interest in proportion,
than ever attenuated.

into the design
now
led to
and columns became more
Where new
subtlety
was introduced
of carved ornament, major features
still
retained their conventional formality; and this persisted

until the
invention of the Corinthian capital whose freely
carved foliage carried naturahsm to an opposite extreme.
third order, differentiated in
Ionic,
few other
from
the
as
we
have
was
said,
emblem; but more
rare-
could contain an oracle. The statue was invariably
placed facing towards the rising sun through the main
doorway and
;
the great altar, at
which both
and
sacrifices
were made, stood outside the building on the
offerings
usually connected to
east side,
(The Parthenon has none,
since,
it
by a stone causeway.
it was built, an ear-
when
Uer building was stiU in use for the purpose.)
A second pur-
pose of the building then was to protect an accumulation
of valuable offerings. The sanctuary

statue stood occupied the greater part
was
also
sometimes a rear
ther with
it
hall {opisthodomos)
The
Hellenistic
but there
connected
may
ei-
have
enclosure of the porches them-
of Doric temples with metal
umns perhaps
which the
cella,
or wath the back porch, and this
served as a treasury.
selves
itself in
of the
grilles
between the col-
served the same purpose. In at least one
example of those which survive, the treasury
vaulted chamber beneath the sanctuary.
is
of the Corinthian
which became increasingly
popular
Greek temple,
usually to house a cult-statue or

it
An example
order,
was thus conceived.
The purpose of
ly
respects
97 Temple of Olympian Zeus,

Athens. Begun 174 B.C.
the Hellenistic period.
This building was not completed
by
the Greeks. Subsequently
A.D. 132 Hadrian

and dedicated it.
in
finished
44
Temple of Aphua, Aegina
98
Early
fifth
ccnmry B.C.
Done temple
This
is
the third to
obscure goddess on the same
this
No
site.
metopes have been
found, but these
may have
been of wood.
99 Plan of the temple

of Aphaia,
Aegina
Early
fifth
century B.C.
100 Plan of the Theseion,

Athens
Mid-fifth century B.C.
Built immediately before
the Parthenon.
The Theseion, Athens
loi
Mid-fifth century B.C.
An
edifice built almost entirely
of marble
Its
to
peripteral hcxastyle.
well-preserved state
its
into a church
who
is
due
having been converted
built
by Byzantine Greeks,
an apse at the east end.
of a temple the next important feature was

form the portitfocs and the
In the plan
the arrangement of columns to
colonnade or peristyle surrounding the whole building.

This, in conjunction with
rise to
design, gave
understood or remembered. The
lating if they are to be
90
components of the
a whole vocabulary of Graccisms, which need tabu-
plan of the Parthenon for instance
is
froni that of a normal mciâron with
two columns
amis,
in
102 Tho temenos, Delphi.

700 B.C. onwards
Set apart from the city
on high ground, the temenos or
sacred precinct, usually walled,
conuined the main sacred

buildings. Here the temple of
Apollo occupies the main, central
position; the theatre
behind
it,
is
to the left;
the treasuries in the foreground.
between the wing
(i.e.
ultimately derived
45
walls) at either end. This
has been increased to four (distyle in antis). Ne.xt

walls have been truncated,
number
the wing
leavmg the porch-ends support-
ed by rows of six free-standing columns (amphi-prostyle
and fmally the whole arrangement has been
licxastyle):
enclosed in a single peristyle with eight columns

84
many
end (peripteral octostyle). But there are
Sometimes the
tions.
peristyle in such a building
cated (dipteral decastyle)
sometimes the inner
at
each
other variais
dupH-
peristyle
is
103 Temple of ApoUo,

Corinth, c. 540 B.C.
Only seven monolithic
then eliminated, and at others there
of columns
inside the antae
of the
more than one row

main porch. Occasionis
engaged columns against the outside walls
ally there are
columns remain of the original

thirty-eight.
The
were carved
separately, surfaced
with
and there are rare examples of
circular temples.
often on top of a high rock or acropolis, as at Athens. Other
The
inner building had
94
to
The
it.
as a rule
The
siderations.
classical
a soHd stone platform,
That of
less practical
con-
of which the upper four courses ap-
round the building. Smaller

porch
by
Doric practice was to build upon
peared above ground and were
flat
approach
a diagonal
ideal viewpoint.
subsidiary temples might be dictated
or even a
smaller columns.
position for instance of the propylaion, through
which was considered the
it,
cellas
disposed in a studied relationship
which the temenos was entered, assured

to
two
back to back, containing
two rows of
buildmgs were
made of
marble dust.
Usually a temple stood in a temenos or sacred enclosure,

89
a stucco
capitals
back to form steps aU
set
steps interposed
between them,
ramp, faciUtated the approach to the eastern
{pronaos).
The
floor
of the
cella
also
was
raised a
The Acropolis, Athens
104
Architectural remains.
little
above
that
of the
peristyle, directly
colunms rested without intervening

ormade, the stone walls of the
upon which
the
bases. Inside the col-
pavement
cella started at
By the middle of the fifth century,

Greek masonry had achieved a
finesse hitherto unparalleled
even
level viath
lier
times.
tall
It
upright
ended
slabs, recalling the orthostats
in a sculptured frieze,
of ear-
and above
stone cross-beams supported coffered ceiling-slabs.
sonry between the capitals and the verge of the
this
The ma-
tiled
roof
(entablature), corresponding in a timber building to the
hntel-beams, joist-ends and eaves, formed a pattern exactly prescribed
by the canon of Doric design and propor-
tion. Its construction in stone
can be
far
more
easily
un-
derstood from a perspective reconstruction than from a

verbal description.
The same, however, does not apply
the interior of the cella; for considerably less
about
it
and conflicting theories
oifer a variety
is
to
known
of possible
restorations.
In the sanctuary or naos there
were
lateral
colonnades,
serving to reduce the span of the roofing beams: in the
Parthenon and some

third range of
These were on
temples they were united by a
later
columns across the end of the chamber.

a
much
smaller scale than those outside
and, in order to obtain the required height, a second range
of even smaller
pillars,
sometimes conforming
to the Ionic
or even Corinthian order, was superimposed upon them.
Probably the 'nave' and
'aisles'
covered by timber ceilings
thus created
were then
but the reconstruction of these
No
in
Egypt.
mortar was used, and blocks
were
fitted
together
with extraordinary precision.
46
X05 The marble tfaolos,

Delphi, c. 390 B.C.
Doric 2nd Cohnthiin columns
were used
in
two
circles
of the rotunda- The

architect. Theodoras of Phocaca,
who
here adapted temple
architecture to a circular
structure, esublished a pattern
for the tholos.
106 The Erechtheion, Athens.
421-405 B.C.
The lomc columns
in the north
porch.
The
gilt
eyes of the volutes were

and those of the guilloche
ornament
with glass beads
filled
of four colours.
107 Choragic
Monument of
Lysicrates, Athens,
This
is
the
first
c.
buildmg
334 B.C.
in
which the Corinthian order was

used externally and exclusively.
The columns, although

appearing to be
pilasters, are in
fact free-standing, the
being
infilled panels.
curved wall
96
deponds on diverse theories regarding the main structure

of the pitched roof, which has in every case vanished. All
one can
about
safely say
this is that the
to have mastered the use
Greeks never seem
of triangular tie-beam
trusses.
mortar was used, and the blocks were
By making
extraordinary precision.
sUghtly concave,
it
at-
No
on
was joined
to
its
then dressed
in situ.
Exposed
similar in proportion
By
of
the building are the remains

a frieze
which seems
row bands of completed
Lapiths and the story
of Theseus.
were
in posi-
rough and
left
faces
temporarily re-
in position, except for nar-
fluting at top
and bottom. Metal
them splittmg
in
109 Temple of Poseidon,

Sunium
Restored.
The
several pat-
The Doric order was
of carved enrichment were standardised
like every-
shortly after the middle of
thing
else,
the stone.
and each was used exclusively for
moulding or ornament. As
which
and
what build-
dowels connecting the drums together were encased

to prevent
show
to
the battle of the Centaurs
Each block
were fixed
these
faces
circular
mained undressed when placed
terns
Done,
This method w-as also applied in the
of columns, whose
wood
Temple of Poseidon,
neighbours by a metal dowel, more of-
tion with molten lead.
case
to obtain
the face of the wall.
of iron than of bronze, and
ten
with
their bedding-surfaces
was found possible
ers call a hair-joint
fitted together
108
Simitun. 444-440 B.C.

The columns arc an actcnuatcd
to those of the Theseion at Athens.
however, Greek masonry
In the mid-fifth century,
tained a fmesse hitherto unparalleled even in Egypt.
47
the building
a particular
for the figure sculpture with
was adorned, one can here do hardly
more than mention the positions which it occupied. As

have seen, the summit of the cella facades made a suit-
we
perfected
the fifth century, and at Sunium,
the perfect proportion

side and end columns
was used (thirteen to six).
There were two temples
between
at
Sunium, the
first
having been
destroyed around 490 B.C.
able position for a continuous frieze of reHef sculpture,
subtly Ut
by
98
from the marble pavement
reflected sunshine
below. Figures in deeper
relief
could be empanelled in the
square spaces (metopes) between the imitation beam-ends
main entablature. The pediments have

more ambitious groups of sculpture, which now,
much experiment, were admirably composed to fit
(triglyphs) in the
space for
after
But generally speaking, the impor-
their triangular shape.
tant status
of sculpture
whole composition of the
in the
building can hardly be over-emphasised.
It
would be
true
motive in designing a
to say that the architect's primary
temple was not only to house a particular statue but to

provide a setting for other sculptured groups.
less
And
it
is
surprising to find the sculptor Pheidias apparently 'su-
work of
pervising' the
remembers
the Parthenon architects,
that the intrinsic value
cult-image alone far exceeded
when one
of the chryselephantine
the cost
no Temple
Detail of
Before leaving the subject of masonry, one must mention the 'refinements' applied
by Greek architects to
Sometimes this
the
cardinal forms of a temple building.
in-
volved the actual positioning of architectural features the

;
adjustment, for instance, of inter-columniation, by which
corner
were placed more closely together. But most
pillars
important of
the
main
were the ingenious calculations whereby

of the building, including even the surface
all
lines
of the stylobate, were imperceptibly distorted

act the effects
to counter-
of perspective and foreshortening. Like the
geometrically calculated curve in the tapering silhouette
of a Doric column, these too must have been arrived
by
a long process
Finally there
which must
is
of
trial
and
by pigmentation,
so drastically have conditioned the actual ap-
pearance of such buildings.
It
is
which can be
some modern critics,
a subject
seen to have proved distasteful to
who
at
error.
the subject of colouring
of Aphaia,
Aegina
of the building.
have found archaeologists' tentarive reconstructions
also
Done
capitals,
showing the supenmposed
colonnades,
c.
490 B.C.
48
III-I13
The chrM
The Doric 2nd
Ionic
own
Architectural taste in our
orders
difficult to accept.
were
rarely sympathetic to the colouring
contemporaneous; the Corinthiui
was
of the
a later modification
Ionic.
The Doric was
the simplest,
the Corinthian the most ornate.
At
first
and few can reconcile themselves
some
all
is
undoubted
easily to the
ornamental features and
others were brightly painted in traditional colours,
the Doric and
Ionic orders
were used
separately,
mostly red and blue.
them. Ionic sculptured
friezes
of the Greek orders have been a subject of com-
Details
but latterly architects combined
of Doric buildings.
Ill Ionic column from temple

on the Ilissus, Athens
XI2 Doric capital
Roman emperor
parative study ever since the time of the
were used over Doric columns,

and slender Ionic columns
were used in the
interior
Doric temple,
fact that, in a
time
of stone with paint;
Augustus, to
whom
work on
ical
the architect Vitruvius dedicated a crit-
the subject. Ideal proportions for the
ponent parts of the design are calculated
comof a
in multiples
unit called a 'module', equal to half the lower diameter
of the column. For students they can be presented
from the Thescion, Athens

113 Corinthian capital
from the Choragic Monument
grammatical form and are
of Lysicratcs, Athens
the capital,
easily
in dia-
memorised. In the Doric
order perhaps the most striking and distinctive feature
has
which
no timber
member
clearly a stone-carver's invention
is
origin.
is
and
112,
The gradual refinement of the curved
(echinus) beneath the severely squat mipost (aba-
be seen by comparing early examples
cus) can well
like
those in the beautifully preserved temple of Poseidon at
Paestum, with the perfected version seen in the Parthenon. Other
classical
are the temples
examples of the Doric order
of Aphaia
at
Aegina, of Poseidon
ium and the Theseion at Athens.

The home of the Ionic order was
Asiatic coastal cities
during the
its
most
first
of the Aegean, and
and
at
Sun-
and
in the islands
99,
1 1(
108,
i(
100,
li
Once more,
was the form of
distinctive feature
Conscientious and sometimes ingenious at-
capital used.
117
98
too was evolved
it
half of the fifth century B.C.
striking
at its best
tempts have been made to identify the origin of
this
in,
form
with, for instance, Egyptian papyrus designs or archaic ter-
minal ornaments in the islands of Cyprus and Lesbos. But
we
in truth,
know what
simply do not
gean designers to superimpose upon
something
into
in the shape
graceful
of an open
volutes. Certainly
induced Ae-
first
Doric echinus-form
provided an oppor-
it
was supphed
tunity for additional ornament, and another
by the same designer's addition of moidded

114 Doric capital
Temple of Aphaia, Aegina.
columns. Indeed, in archaic times,
Here, in
to have been paid to these lower parts
this
almost perfect
example of the early Greek temple,

the highly refined Doric
which presented themselves

quarters. In the oldest
order was used throughout.
much
the
to
ends curved
scroll vidth its
bases to his
attention seems
of the building,
human
eye
at
close
temple of Artemis, whose remains
were foimd beneath twenty
feet
of alluvial clay
at Ephesus,
each column stood on a cylindrical plinth ornamented with
made the steps

more humanly manageable
sculptured figures. The Ionic builder also
leading up to the stylobate of

proportions. His columns,
terparts,
small
came
which unlike
their
accurately into line with the
flat fillets
between the
flutes.
Doric coim-
cella walls,
had
In the entablature, the
alternating triglyphs and metopes so characteristic of the
Doric order were replaced by a continuous

sculptured; and the architrave beneath
frieze,
usuaUy
was often divided
into three receding fascia-planes.
An
order
in
ornate but extremely fme example of the Ionic

is
to be seen,
the temple
once more on the AcropoUs
known
as the
usual building, asymmetrical in plan, because

to
accommodate
olive-tree
sical
various
and a well.
immovable
It is
in
at Athciii,
Erechtheion. This
its
relics,
it is
such
is
an un-
intended
as a sacred
eastern portico that clas-
specimens of the Ionic capital are found; and one
91, lOt
49
115-119 Doric temples

in southern Italy
Some of
and Sicily
the finest early Doric
temples are to be found

in
southern Italy and
Sicily.
At Paestum, three well-preserved

temples display the Doric order
at its
most
typical,
although the trachelion

(the necking)
of the columns of
the 'Basilica' (116) shows traces
of Ionic influence.
The other two - the temple of
Poseidon {117) and that
of Demeter (115, 118) - and the

temple
(119),
at
Segesta in Sicily
even
earlier
than
the Paestum examples, have the
monolithic quality which

has
come
to be associated with this
temple type. The
capitals are
heavy and wide-spreading, the

columns have pronounced entasis.
119
50
120, 121 Examples of Ionic

and Corinthian capitals
those over the corner pillars are provided
with one diagonal volute so that their appearance
North porch
of the Ercchthcion
how
sees here
may be
fa(;ades
(left);
Temple of Olympian Zcui,
man
Athens (right).
Bases of columns
famous caryatids was brought to the British
From the Ercchthcion Ocft):

Temple of Zeus. Athens (right).
are substituted for columns;
figures
were
a device not
Agrigentum,
man
which columns were
was
also the first to
differed
two
from
ornament and,
came
among
side
as
may judge from
the ruins of
that
makes a
it
general use,
below the Acropolis and
drill
contained various public buildings,
Corinthian
capital, in
sical times.
One of the best-known
temple to Ares and several
stoas.
That of Attalus which
is
shown
at the
top of
the plan. Before
called
it.
traversing the agora,
any
Choragic
tion with
was
si.x
it
is
seeing
cities.
versatile
when
easy to carve.
occurrences
But
form of
is
the
The
in clas-
again in
at
Athens. This was the so-
Monument of
Lysicrates, a circular erec-
columns and an Ionic entablature around
central structure
the Street of the Panathenaia.
Greek
was used sparingly
case,
an unconventional building
has been reconstructed (see 126)
devices, this
the Greeks later discovered
more
into
was
Per-
sculptured acanthus
far in fact the
no doubt
there can be
Greek ornamental
all
the living plant, one
by
side
capital.
be enriched with a pattern carved to
How
imitate fohage.
cella.
use of diagonal volutes beneath a curved abacus
haps the most ornate of
shape, stood
roof of the
by
also
attached, hu-
adopted in the design of the Corinthian
also
the
this sort
480 B.C., and distinguished
built in
figures supported the
The
Museum
to the Greeks. In the Doric temple of Zeus at
a sohd outer wall to
roughly square
hu-
one of these
a terra cotta
unknown
The market-place of Athens,
both
by Lord Elgin and has since been replaced by

model. Structural sculptures of
122 Plan of the agora, Athens
in
identical. In another porch, sculptured
of ashlar. Fragments have
also survived
107
of
most elaborately carved scroU ornament which adorned
the roof. Another Athenian
Wmds, had
The
monument,
Tower of the
the
small Corinthian colunms without volutes.
direct simphcity
with which the formal elements
present in temple architecture were adapted to the require-
ments of other buildings
is
well illustrated in the Pro-
93.
which one entered the Athens Acropohs.
pylaca, through
Porticoes with Doric and Ionic orders of varying heights
were combined
in a
composition
approach to the summit.
asymmetrical
fitting the
One wing was extended
close a picture-gallery {piiiakotheke)
to en-
and balanced on the
opposite side with intuitive dexterity by a bastion sup-
porting the tiny Ionic temple of Wingless Victory (Nike
Most cities boasted an acropohs like this one at

Athens, on which their principal rehgious shrines were set.
But, as a focal point of communal hfe, the citadel was
Apteros).
rivalled in
123 Stoa of Attalus,
importance by the
agora,
another indispensable
any other
Athens
amenity of every Greek
Plan and section
language to find a term which would express the multi-
Built
by Attalus
II
market,
it.
The
walls
summer
sun, but the
open
difficult in
agora. In addition to
as a place for htigation,
the principles of democracy,
low
itself
winter sun shone straight into

the
served
is
being a
pohtical meetings,
out the course of its history, as the Greek pohtical system

changed from monarchy to aristocracy and fmally adopted
and columns were of marble.

The height of its roof was such
that it provided shade from
the high
it
It
entertainments and minor rehgious functions. Through-
was two-storeyed and had

shops behind
by the
ple functions fulfilled
of Pergamon around 150 B.C.

It filled the east side of the agora,
city.
on the
was government of
side.
JlllllllllllllllllllII
^
'
^
"3
specific
form
pubhc
interest concentrated
agora as the centre of government.

a
kmd which seemed
form of accommodation. In
classical
{bema) for a speaker, with space
But
to require
it
no
times a plat-
around
it,
or even
an elevated rock like the Areiopagus, seemed quite adequate for the purpose, and formally designed council-chambers did not appear until Hellenistic times.
S-i
50
I
I
100 f
For the
rest,
one very simple type of building seemed to
95
94
GREEK
AND HELLENISTIC
51
124 Restored view of the agora

Asses
The agora was the general city
at
meeting place for all purposes

- political, business, legal, religious
and enteruinment - and the

focal point
of government.
125 Plan of the agora, Assos

Here the stoa was built on a
slight slope descending from the
agora. Behind
was
it
which ran through

Facing
was
it
market
to the front.
across the agora
two-storeyed building, die
upper part of which contained

public baths; behind
it
was a
street leading to the theatre.
126
The
reconstructed stoa of
Attains, Athens
Recently built by the American
School of Classical Studies
at
Athens, this admirable

reconstruction
is
to house the finds
of American excavations in the

Athenian agora.
52
137 Pl^n of Piiene

Third century B.C. The town
wall follows the natural contour
of
rocky outcrop. The
arc laid out
on
streets
rectangular grid.
128 Plan of the agora, Priene

This
is
an especially fine
agora, with an
extremely regular pbn.
129 Plan of houses, Priene

Probably
late
fourth or
third century.
of rooms
series
around
built
a central courtyard,
of stone. The outer walls
were blank; windows looked

inwards, very
in Asia
much
as in
houses
Minor today
130 Priene. The ekklesiasterton

Thii council house could hold
all citizens
tiers
of
entitled to vote.
seats rising
The
on three
sides
for debate resemble those in a
modem
senate or parliament house.
131 Theatre at Delphi

Third century B.C.
Here the banked seats arranged

round the sudium-theatre were
built out against masonry
retaining walls where the hillside
fell away. The remains of the
temple of Apollo are directly
in front
of the
theatre.
<:^'^>:ii>^'^^=^':^^P^..
meet
whom business
the requirements of those
all
or pleas-
ure brought to the agora. This was the elongated porch
or
Several such buildings usually grouped themselves
sloa.
way
space, arranged in such a
around the central
as to
catch the sun in \vinter and to afford shade in hot weather.
At Athens the most famous of
was the so-called
all
Painted Porch, beloved of the philosopher Socrates; but
we have
not survived and today
this has
a Hellenistic example, the Stoa
skilfuUy reconstructed
by
of
to be content
Attains,
archaeologists.
It
with
53
132 Lower gymnasium, Priene

During the Hellenistic period,
the gymnasium became a very
formal structure with open courts
for athletics, pools for bathing,
rooms and rooms in

which to rest and meet.
There wdre seating arrangements
for specutors. store rooms and
dressing
lecture halls.
These gymnasia
Roman thermae.
foreshadowed the
which has been

shows the con-
ventional use of a Doric and Ionic order respectively for

external and internal colonnades, beneath a double-pitched
roof and a row of small chambers behind.
When
other types of buildings appeared in the agora,
they seem in plan to be distributed almost haphazardly.
show
But the contours of the
site
have been the
than at Athens, this can be seen
case. Better
often
the reverse to
133 Plan of theatre, Epidaurus.
350 B.C.
The Greeks took advantage
c.
of
such
in cities
as
Delphi or Olympia where, owing to their
religious associations, the attributes
At Delphi,
are combined.
of acropohs and agora
for instance, additional features
a natural hillside site, terracing
and excavating where necessary.

The theatre had four parts:
a
segmental arrangement of
tiered seats, a circular orchestra,
include numerous monuments, sanctuaries, treasunes and

even a stadium, all arranged to obtam the maximum picto-
from the
rial effect
and elevated position
steep prochvities
and proscenium in front of

the Skene, below which
the aaors dressed and waited.
of the natural terrace on which the famous oracle was

located.
But
it is
one
that
of Asia Minor more than elsewhere,
and the planning of Greek
sees civic architecture
around
cities
and geographically perhaps
in Hellenistic times,
in the Ionian cities
their reUgious
monuments
logically consid-
ered and accomplished with real ingenuity.
On
the Asiatic
coast in the centuries immediately preceding the birth of

Christ,
little
remained of the original
their earhest settlements the colonists
on small
usually chosen sites
classical cities.
projecting into the great estuaries; and
it
cities
promontories
was to the neigh-
spread. Frequently
was the action of the rivers themselves which

brought about their downfall. Year by year, as their burden
however,
it
of silt was deposited, the
until either
of alluvium rose
level
Opposite
temple there
usually stood a broad altar,
often with steps for the otSciating
islands or Uttle
bouring shores that the growing
For
of archaic times had
134 Plan of Altar of Zeus,

c. 180-150 B.C.
Pergamon.
priest, to
which worshippers
at which
brought offerings and

sacrifices were made.
The Pergamene
altar
had
long
frieze portraying the
battle
of the gods and
giants, in a
form highly realistic,

theatrical and emotional.
the water-Une receded, rendering their harbours useless,
mud
or the tide of grey
into the streets. In a score
rose over the quays and flowed

of cases, by the end of the fourth
proved necessary to find a new site for

the city on higher ground. When this happened, only the
architects and planners were pleased by the prospect of
century B.C.,
it
wholesale reconstruction.
style characteristic
One
very small
of
we
lenistic
its
the
Hellenistic aftermath.
city, beside
Meander River, has

tern
To them we owe some of
examples of Greek architecture in the developed
finest
the one-time estuary of the
a history exactly following the pat-
have described. The
site
chosen for Priene in Hel-
rimes was a natural terrace
some hundreds of
above the original harbour town, with

to a high rock
which could
chffs
feet
With
The town of Naxos
Known
behind rising
serve as an acropohs.
135
Late sixth century.
all
sculptors
the most characteristic features of a Greek city present m

miniature, it perfectly illustrates the contemporary conception of civic architecture and planning. The whole city
Greek
up
on an
area
on
is
surrounded by a
fortress wall,
which
straggles
either side to encompass rather loosely the
the acropohs rock. Inside,
we
summit of
see for the fust time the
for
its
wines,
Naxos was
centre of Bacchic worship, and
its
were famous in early

There arc still
art.
unfinished statues to be seen

in
its
quarries.
The remains of
a Dionysian temple are

island not far
from the town.
54
136 Mausoleum, Halicanuusus.

353 B.C.
Tim gunt mcmorul to the
ruler of Oru, Mausolus.
all
'Hippodamian' system of planning, with roads intersecting
a regular grid.
convenient area
in the centre, tangential to the broadest streets in either
direction,
restorations
of which are conjectural,

gave us the word mausoleum.
form
at right angles to
reserved for the aôra, which
is
colonnaded
two
stoas at
enclosed by
is
128
Temples and other
different levels.
public buildings are effectively placed elsewhere; and they
include the most perfectly proportioned miniature theatre,
gymnasium and stadium,
well
as
commodate
designed
skilfully
would probably
ac-
130
whole adult male population of the httle

had rising tiers of stone seats on three sides,
the
community.
It
middle and a timber roof spanning
altar in the
with an
as
council-house (ekklesiasterion) which
thirty-two feet without intermediate support.
some of
for the private dwelling-houses at Priene,
As
the larger examples
show
a surprisingly archaic arrange-
ment of planning. As elsewhere, the roon-is are grouped

around a central court, from which light is obtained; but
main reception unit is an old-fashioned megaton, with
and two columns in antis, which can easily be
the
a porch
restored to resemble the end facade of a miniature temple.

is
It
matter
137 Detail of restoration
of entrance to the agora, Priene
The gateway to the agora, built
around 150 B.C., is an early
example of a Greek
ornamental arch;
it
that this tradition survived
by no means impossible
through the
all
classical centuries.
Our
perhaps mainly due to the fact
is
uncertainty in the
tlât,
state
ohs
and lived
in houses
to the
all
of mud'. Certainly on the acrop-
much
there are remains of houses
Larisa,
at
Greeks
as the
themselves boasted, people in those times 'gave
older
than those at Priene, whose planning seems to comprise
spans
an opening of about twenty
feet.
of mcgaron forms. But
a cluster
in the later period
became
rest
popular
as
of the
at
Priene
particularly
itself,
of its history, the peristyle type of house

as
had long continued
it
Hellenistic world. In
to be in the
the megaron porch
it,
extended to form a widely spaced colonnade

the
court,
central
is
round
all
and the rooms around are
loosely
arranged according to individual requirements.

138 Plan of stadium at Delphi
The stadium was almost 600 feel
long and was 90
the centre.
seats ran
feet
shallow
wide
tier
On
the acropohs rock at Priene
in
of
along one side and
around the semi-circle, with the

judges' scats half-way along.
the reverse
contrasts,
the case,
is
we must
and for the sake of other strange
turn to the great city of Pergamon, a
hundred miles to the north. Pergamon

in very
many
respects.
It
Mysia, some miles from

Elaea.
its
It
was
its
built for the
139 Stadiutn at Delphi

Competitions in running, spearthrowing, discus-throwing and the
jump were
held here.
differs
from Priene
stands in an inland valley of
own
most
town of
small harbour
part after 200 B.C.
and
claim to represent one of the most spectacular achieve-
ments of the Greek imagination
of
long
few reniams of buildwhere
ings have survived ; and as an example of a citadel
its
so-called
Uppei City,
in
rests
mainly on the
which most of
its
siting
temples
and other important buildings are concentrated. This is

an isolated rock over a thousand feet high, and at its summit they are disposed on a
series
of
terraces
platforms to form a remarkable composition.
with temples of
its
own,
is
and rocky
lower city
spread over the southern slope
and outwards from the base of the rock; but the citadel
is more than a mere acropohs. It has an agora of its own,
as
well
as a vast theatre,
unrivalled
anywhere
the summit,
its
whose
else in
auditorium
is
spectacular setting
Greece.
On
fitted into a
is
perhaps
the west side of
hollow between
two shoulders of rock, so that the 20,000 spectators could

look beyond the stage over a wide landscape towards the
distant sea. The stage prolonged itself into a formal terrace,
beneath whose parapet the cliff-face fell almost vertically
to the valley beneath. Its complement of temples was in-
129
GREEK AND
numbers when
creased in
the
Pcrgamene
Attalid ruler bequeathed
its last
Romans.
state to the
IlELI F.NI STIC,
most impressive
Its
ROMAN
55
140-14Z
Roman
concrete
Roman cement was
extremely hard
and durable.
monument however was

tar
purely Hellenistic; the great Al-
of Zeus, which early in the present century came to
be partially restored in the Berlin Museum. The
with
perpetual
its
altar itself,
column of smoke, stood on an enormous
stone plinth, which also supported a double colonnade of
columns enclosing
Ionic
on
it
three
and was ap-
sides,
The aggregate was sand

and volcanic gravel. Courses
of bonded flat bricks
served as ties and as shuttering
during erection.
Roman
concrete was never
left
exposed,
for practical as well as for
aesthetic reasons.
proached by a stairway sixty
feet
The
wide.
colonnade were ornamented with two
plinth and the
of sculpture
friezes
portraying one of those scenes of furious action which
Pergamene school of
characterise the
Some
we
other buildings which
The
as charac-
of a Greek city deserve more detailed re-
teristic features
ference.
Hellenistic art.
have named
first
of these
The
the theatre.
is
pur-
earliest
pose of the Greek theatre was to be a setting for periodical festivals in
miming took
honour of Dionysus,
place
merous chorus. Like
all
its
much
attention
was paid dur-
on which
design. Unfortunately, evidence
is.
any
to base
by no means
This applies in particular to the Athenian theatre,
plentiful.
whose parental
relationship to
fers special interest
in
nu-
fourth century B.C. to the improvement of
late
exact reconstruction of the classical theatre
later
fairly
other buildings with a primarily
reUgious intention therefore,

ing the
which dancing and
at
and hymns were sung by a
rebuUdings.
way
such a
It
on such of
subsequent designs con-
ail
its
remains
as
have survived
started as a circular earthen floor, placed
that
the spectators could take advantage
of the sloping rock on the southern flank of the acropolis.
known
And
this
with
its
rical
convention. In the mid-fourth century, regulations
circle,
subsequently
central altar
as
the
'orchestra',
soon became an indispensable theat-
were devised to which the performance of Greek drama

had to conform; and these necessitated the addition of
long skene or changing-room, placed tangentially to the

orchestra.
facade,
Its
which faced
The
it.
arch. Ledges
arches
stone arch was a true
were sometimes
left
at the springing to carry the
temporary wooden centring, and

afterwards built up, making the
arch segmental.
wooden
was
stage
skene had three central
doorways (entrance through each of which implied

ticular
Roman
the audience, could be
used for painted scenery, and a raised

constructed in front of
143
The Roman
provenance from which the actor made
a par-
his
ap-
pearance), and lateral ramps leading to the orchestra entrances.
At Athens
a stone auditorium early replaced the
and was made
natural amphitheatre
of the orchestra.
three-fifths
It
to
surround about
sloped at an angle of about
twenty-five degrees. Radiating gangways and

zontal terraces or girdles gave access to the
The whole arrangement
two
tiers
of
perhaps best seen in the
is
paratively well-preserved theatre at Epidaurus,
horiseats.
com-
whose
re-
mains also give an idea of the beautiful setting contrived

for such buildings in classical times.
to
which
Hellenistic
models
the theatre at Miletus,
torium
now
The
attained,
where
is
actual
magnitude
well illustrated by
a small section of the audi-
supports the ruins of a fairly large medieval
castle.
Few
other types of building need to be dwelt on here.
The stadium,
for instance,
was no more than a simplified
version of the theatre, elongated to an appropriate shape.
Tombs were
curiously designed, especially in Caria and
Lycia, but
outside the category of architectural
compo-
monument whose fame was
assured
sition.
fall
One
funerary
144 Roman vaults and domes

The Roman method of using brick
ribs
with light concrete between
made
vaulting possible
impressive
scale.
on
very
$6
145 Vault in the Minervm

Medica, Romi. c. A.D. 260
Decagonal
building
in
pUn.
garden
this
topped by 2
15
on pcndenlivcs,
which the bter
dome
box
ribs
in with horizontal
Remarkable
been made
of
strides
in the
tile
Mausoleum, dedicated
brought prosperity to the Greek
form
dome
in
known
is
the
World was
to a Persian Satrap
who
had
of Hahcarnassus
city
136
but
only from contemporary descriptions,
copied by Latin writers, and surviving fragments in the
BjTfantines
embedded
Wonders of
inclusion in the Seven
Its
the
its
form
adopted extensively. This

has
by
it.
tied
courses.
have here
understanding
Museum.
British
Roman
During the archaic and
classical
periods of Greek history,
structural principles.
the
numerous colonies founded
made those
in southern Italy
and
Sicily
lands an integral part of the Greek world {Mag-
na Graecia). Northern and central Italy however, contin-
ued to be occupied by
of
whom
tribes
most notably
the
of miscellaneous extraction,
were the Etruscans.
civilized
These people, whose origin was said by Herodotus to have

been
Minor, extended their influence from Etruria
in Asia
northwards to the Alps and,

Their
far as Naples.
classical
that of the
from
cipated
itself
terri-
many of
tories so
worth remembering that

the giant buildings of the time of
Caracalla and Diocletian
were built during the decline of
time being
succession,
and these enormous
Roman Repubhc.
Rome
architecture
Thermae of Diocletian. A.D. 302
Emperors were
subject
during the Repubhcan period. But in the conquered
Roman
following one another in quick
became
cities
the individual qualities and chararteristics of
Some of
the empire.
Etruscan
later all the
expanding
to a rapidly
Etruscan kings in about 500 B.C.
the
hundred years
is
dis-
is
Romans, whose history may be

have begun when the city of Rome became eman-
said to
It
as
respects rivalled that of
Greece; the influence of their architecture
cernible in
146, 147 Vaulting of the
one time, southwards
at
some
art in
httle
began to be apparent
in
the cities had been Greek, that for the
needed to be or could be done to enhance
the dignity or utihty
of public
buildings. In Greece itself
and Asia Minor, Hellenic or Hellenistic temples could be

enriched or rebuilt to please the commumties which they
served; but as these for the most part retained their authe direction of Roman magistrates, Greek
and conventions continued to prevail among them
buildings were erected at
tonomy under
incredible speed.
taste
throughout the centuries directly preceding the Christian
Hke Ephesus and Miletus therefore,
era. In cities
ficult to fix
was
an exact date
finally superseded. In
some of
the remoter provinces,
outlasted the Repubhc. Elsewhere
it
until the
Empire had reached
its
generals everywhere founding
architecture,
new
predominate.
It
a city
drian,
were
kind
new
cities
practical requirements
Of Rone
who
itself
left it
followed
the birth of Christ
it
was not
greatest extent, with
characteristically
of bricks and
the emperors
ries after
and
dif-
is
Hellenistic architecture
certainly
old ones, that
it
which
at
its
and rebuilding
demanded a new
forms came to
Roman
Augustus
said that he
a city of marble.
him durmg
But
found
it
was
the three centu-
Nero, Vespasian, Trajan, Ha who
Scptimius Severus, CaracaUa and Diocletian

the great patrons of architecture
of world
with
the
civic
and supphed a new
equipment
which
it
demanded.
The pre-Roman way of hfe and

ing conditions during the
first
its
adaptation to chang-
century B.C.
is
well
illus-
by the residences of ordinary citizens in the two

small Italian towns, commercial Pompeii and residential
Herculaneum, buried by the eruption of A.D. 79. Here,
trated
in houses
which
are
no
different
from those of
except that the atrium has been roofed

elegantly against a decor
which was
in,
still
Priene,
Romans hved
entirely Greek.
IV Palace ofMinos,
:-
li^
i
i
ROMAN
Elsewhere in
now begun
59
however, far-reaching changes had by
Italy
wheat could be imported from conquered
With huge
hfe greatly increased.
a hitherto rural people in the larger
of mass accommodation had
now
had
reached the
European
territories, in-
had diminished and the
terest in agriculture
town
where even
to take place. In circumstances
attractions
concentrations of
cities,
principles
Rome
to be de\ised.
itself
modem
and the communal needs of
capital,
structurally
avt
huge
its
in
porticoes
and porches. Tbcy tended

to apply the
to a lapade.
new
and complexity of a
size
of
148 Columnar &fde of the

Colosseum, Rome. A.D. 72-80
The Romans rarely used columns
ortkn
On
omunent
as
the Colosseum,
the oiders are used one above the
heavy Doric at the

bottom and the decorative
other, the
foliated orders at the top.
The Romans invented
r"0 more
way - the
population were multiple and urgent. Domestically they
orders for use in this
could partly be met by accommodation in tenement build-
pseudo-archaic 'Tuscan' and the
public
ings;
were
acti\'ities
mans were above
all
The Ro-
a different matter.
a wcU-disciplined people.
combined Ionic
and Corinthian Composite.
Obedience
came naturally to them, and parental training

had promoted in them a capacity for law-making and the
orderly conduct of their pubUc affairs. But these required
an appropriate setting. Not only had legislature and htigarion to be considered, but commerce and the complex
to authority
functions of political and social hfe. Athletics and public
entertainment were hardly
less
mands
new forms of accommodation
and
increased the need for
The manner
spatial organisation.
tects
important and their de-
and planners of Imperial
Rome
in
which
the archi-
satisfied all these re-
quirements and the character of the buildings which they

devised are
host of
pletely
One
more remarkable
the
all
for the fact that a
new problems were solved by the use of comnew materials and structural contrivances.
Roman
which distinguished
practice
from a very
arch with radiating
architecture
was the use of the semi-circular
early stage
voussoirs. In Hellenistic architecture this
device appears on rare occasions but can be recognised as
no more than a
self-conscious tour de force.
more purposefully by
them by the Romans as
tem of construction in
a basic principle in their
came
potentialities
mined
from
new
sys-
brick and concrete. Their discov-
ery of concrete also was a

its
was used
It
the Etruscans and adopted
momentous
event, since, once
to be properly understood,
deter-
it
The
the primary characteristics of their buildings.
of arcuation led logically to the construction of
principle
barrel vaults and,

dripartite features
where these
had to be
in the centre
intersected, groined or qua-
devised.
From
here
it
was
only a short step to the contrivance of a semi-circular
dome. The disappearance

and
in this
way of
horizontal beams
eliminated also the numerous small uprights nec-
lintels
essary to support
the building
them and concentrated the weight of
on fewer but more massive
piers. In this
way
wide, unencumbered floor-spaces became a practical possibility,
and interior design acquired a new

and most
principal
was
builders
characteristic
be
as
important
tectural forms. Their experiments
bold and rational.

materials
became
By
from
The
Roman
of in-
of external archi-
the beginning
the technical adaptation of
were
new
a magnificent scale
possible.
contrast to
ment. This
fell a
is
all this,
good
Athens
Roman ornament and
deal
The Greek
superficial
below Greek standards of
partly explained
purpose was to give
buildings.
ion,
Once
as that
was achieved, buildings on
decoration
tral
interest.
achievement of
their discovery that the organisation
ternal space could
by the
scale to the
orders,
149 Section, Colosseum, Rome

The Greek theatre w"a5 rcmo\-ed
from Its hillside and built
whose
refine-
fact that their cen-
major forms of the
rectilinear motifs
could
of
of a
scats carried
arches
on
tovk-n,
the
a series
tiers
of
whose arcades provided
galleried access to the tiers.
Amphitheatres such
as
were used for

gladiatorial combats and
this
other popular entertammenis.
6o
150, ISI CelsiAn librmry,
not easily be adapted to the
Epbcsus. A.D. 115

Front elevation and plan.
The best-preserved Roman

The building is partly
submerged
in sloping
that the emphasis
main
falls
library.
ground so
on the
bookcases, a colonnade
and an apse
for statue of Athena. Beneath the
apse a vaulted
chamber contains
sculptured sarcophagus of Tiberius
whose memory the
Cclsus, to
library
is
Roman
system of arcuation,
used almost exclusively for decorative purposes
and provided
a conventional pattern for the treatment of
now
intruded
between attached columns deprived of their
practical
facades. Into these also, the ubiquitous arch
faqadc. Inside are niches for
for an upper gallery
now
were
itself
Only
function.
realm of temples and other religious
in the
buildings did the rigidly conservative tradition of classical
new
behefs inhibit structural changes: and one
which
pattern in
But
dedicated.
it
may
design
its
have originated.
was the use of concrete which provided the key
to the developm.ent
Roman
of
architecture.
Its
more than an adequate supply of
quired no
bour, while
main
its
mixing
re-
unskilled la-
and sand, were plen-
ingredients, lime
were
tifully available. If dressed stone
ing, the
type of
conforming to the temple
building, the basiUca, appeared,
also used in a build-
masons' chippings made an excellent aggregate.
was rendered unnecessary by the use of pre-
'Shuttering'
fabricated brick facings.
The
preferred for the purpose
tiles
were no more than two inches
down
square and spht diagonally
but two feet
in thickness
the centre, so that their
inward-facing comers provided a 'key' for the concrete.
'Through
were
courses'
strength. Stone
was
inserted at intervals to give greater
also used for facing, in panels
framed
with brick; a mosaic of pyramidal stone pegs, whose square

heads were
diagonally in the wall-face to create a
set
ticulate' pattern.
For decorative purposes
wide choice of
also,
there
're-
was
and marbles, which could be
granites
supplemented by bronze.
By
mid-first century A.D., the
the
stered the use
Romans had ma-
of pozzolana, a reddish volcanic sand, per-
adapted to making a hard, light concrete for vaults
fectly
now displayed in the conminimum of temporary wooden
and domes. Great ingenuity was

struction of these with a
centring. Barrel vaults, for instance, could be
composed
of successive brick arches, the spaces between them divided
by
Hnking-tiles into concrete-fdled 'boxes'.
struction
of
was used
a quadripartite vault, the
faced with
152 The
On
the
setting
Forum Rotnanum
left
is
flat tiles,
'ribs'
similar con-
composing the skeleton
curved surface between being
keyed into the concrete. The hard-
quahty of the pozzolana consolidated such vaults
homogeneous structural units, devoid of any lateral

thrust which might require abutment. Domes also, con-
into
the temple of
Castor and Pollux, 7 B.C.-A.D.
form
to
6.
structed in this way, acquired the independent soUdity
an inverted porcelain saucer.

the
Roman
architect a
since curves could
which
ed, to
Only
gles
now
vaults
The
use
new kind of freedom
be used and niches or alcoves add-
the base
of
dome
is
the spherical trianadapted to a square
seems to have presented a problem
geometry which he was unable

of
all
for the
most
in
soHd
to master.
these innovations, the craft
stone was by no means neglected, though
The
to
in planning,
compartment
In spite
of
or semi-domes were easily adapted.
the construction of pendentives
whereby
of concrete gave
of building
in
confmed now
part to certain traditional classes of monument.
volcanic stones tufa and peperino had been popular in
the early days of the
Repubhc; but the
latter in particular
proved too coarse to be serviceable for facings and needed to be covered with stucco. Later the
is
seen everywhere in
Rome
today,
came
travcrtiiw,
which
into general use.
Ashlar masonry was laid in mortar or jointed with metal
ROMAN
6l
153 Imperial
Rome
Restored model.
An example of
pbnning on
The
Egypt.
controlled axial
a scale larger
mam
than any
thoroughfare
was the sacred processional way.
Domitian's stadium
Circus of Flaniinius
Circus
Maximus
odeum
Domitian's
Balbo's theatre
Theatre of Marcellus
Pompey's
Domus
theatre
Augustana
Tiberius's palace
Peace forum
forum
Temple of Serapis
Temple of Divus
Trajan's
Claudius
Constantine's baths
Caracalla's baths
Flavian amphitheatre
Titus's baths
Trajan's baths
Diocletian's baths
154 Plan of the

Trajan,
Forum of
Rome
The forum was
entered through a
triumphal arch.
At the
far
end stood the great
basihca and the law court.

In a small colonnaded court stood
Trajan's column.
nDDan
nnnDD
'
pDnnnt
pnncin
tnnann
panac;
pinDinc^
ancL
i-k^
62
155 Trajan's Column,
A.D. 113
The column
Rome.
dowels
to the basilica in Trajan's
forum
an open court with galleries

from which the sculpture
on the column could be viewed.
entirely
We
of marble,
At ground
high.
level
is
leaves
all
but the outer border of
basement courses gives an
in
impression of solidity.
must
now
how
see
these structural devices, as well
and formal contrivances which they made
as the spatial
stands approximately 115 feet
it
which
rough and
the block-face
in
Made
Greek manner; but an innovation was the
in the
'drafted margin'
stood next
of building. Where the Greeks,

only an agora and
people were
pubhc
more
far
Through
153
160
started
life,
built,
House of the
and
from Trajan's war with the

Dacians. There are something
human
and
way
(Via
skirted a variety
course of time, significant addi-
of victory,
arches, pillars
basihca, senate-house
and colonnades of shops. And when,
in the Imperial age,
it
became inconveniently congested,

it by appending their own
successive emperors extended
in a spiral,
the bas-reliefs portray scenes
2,500
in the
Column
Details of sculpture.
Vestals
rendez-
political
shrines before ascending the Capitoline
forum,
were made: triumphal
tions
Carved
this
and which served
centre, the sacred processional
its
of other rehgious
To
Roman
with no more than
Sacra) led past the
Hill.
required
said,
the old Forum Romanum around which
also as a meeting-place, market, social
vous.
have
needs of the
hfe, the
monuments were
their principal
we
sophisticated. Yet they too, in the
early days of their city's
an open precinct
as
couple of stoa-porticoes to accommodate
the functions of their
156. 157 Trajan's
and new types
possible, could be applied variously to old
the
entrance to Trajan's tomb.
forums, each one on an increasingly ambitious
scale.
When
space was required for these lay-outs, slum clearances were
like
undertaken, but later
at fust
figures.
it
on the north
the rocky hill
became necessary
to cut into
end the whole
In the
side.
complex of buildings and forums covered more than

hundred acres of ground.
We
are thus confronted
tectural history
158 The Colosseum,
An
it
elliptical
Rome
was begun by Vespasian
A U.
it
amphitheatre,
and completed
by Domitian in A.D. 82.
of
with the fust example
axial planning
on
in archi-
a colossal scale;
and
already shows a complete mastery of the principles in-
volved. Unlike the Greek acropoUs or agora in which a
70,
saa:j^s*a <a^_||^MkUjutau.'
variety of individual buildings
posed with an
artifice that
was
were asymmetrically
semi-intuitive, the
dis-
Roman
forum was geometrically planned as a coherent composition, in which component units were functionally related
by 'movement' implicit in the general arrangement. In
this
respect the
characteristic
Forum of Trajan was perhaps
and
also the
tered through a triumphal arch into an

feet
square, flanked
left.
It
immense
by double colomiades
was enclosed on the
far side
by the
fa(;ade
colossal basihca, oriented at right angles to one's
inspiring ellipse, measuring 620
and occupying the
There were eighty

external openings on each storey,
those
feet.
on ground
entrance to the
level giving
tiers
of
seats.
The arena
in which the spectacles

were staged was actually
surrounded by
a fifteen-foot wall,
main
axis
Trajan's
came
full*
breadth of the
site.
a small colonnaded square,
famous sculptured column, and on
two comparatively
most
small libraries.
one then passed into a second
Still
on
and
of
approach
Next, on the
dominated by
cither side
were
I55-I5'
the central axis,
pillared courtyard
and was
confronted by the temple dedicated by Hadrian to Trajan

This was approached by a wide stairway
containing an area of 180 by
after his death.
287
ascending between wing-walls to the podium and octastyle
feet.
154
court, 280
to right
159 Plan of the Colosseum

In plan the Colosseum is an awe-
by 513
the
most fmely conceived. One en-
portico.
Shops and markets, again protected from the
weather by screens of columns, spread out

cycles
to the
beyond the outer

main building.
The Romans
retained
the three
slight attenuation in the proportion
and subordination of
its
a 'composite' variation,
in
wide hemi-
walls, symmetrically subordinated
Greek orders (with a
of the Doric colunm
curved echinus), but they added
combining elements of the Ionic and
162-16
ROMAN
63
l6o
The Forum Rotnanum
The
oldest
and
the forums,
its
largest
of
expansion required
the removal at various times

in
its
history of
minor functions to
other parts of the
only
basilicas
were
city, until
state buildings, temples,
and public monuments
left.
The
theatrical displays
which once took place here

were housed in the theatres and
circuses, and the shops were moved
elsewhere. Even so, lack of
space necessitated the building
of
new forums by emperors who
wished to commemorate
their glories.
l6i Cyrene, Libya

Aerial view.
Cyrene was the
capital
of the ancient Cyrenaica, and one

of the greatest of the Greek
colonies.
At
its
height
it is
said to
have had over loo.ooo

inhabitants.
Rome
in
The
city passed to
96 B.C., and continued
to flourish. Hadrian being
responsible for
much
rebuilding.
64
162-165
The Roman
orders
The Roman column was
often
decorative and not. as was

the Greek, invariably structural.
This led to a weakening
of form;
main,
in the
the capitals were over-
more
refined, the shafts longer,
slender and frequently unflutcd.
162 Doric
from the Theatre of Marcellus,
Rome.
163 Ionic
from the Theatre of Marcellus,
Rome.
164 Composite
Arch of
Titus,
In their search for
new
fi-om the
Rome.
and
Romans combined
richer forms, the
the Ionic and Corinthian orders.
165 Corinthian
from the Pantheon. Rome.
"^1
II
M M IIM
166
Temple of Fortuna
Virilis,
Rome
First
century B.C.
small Ionic building, referred
to as pseudo-peripteral because
of the engaged columns
and back. The comer

have
at
the side
capitals
third volute, diagonal
so as to give the capital a

face
on two
sides.
167 Plan of the Maison Carree,
Nimes
century A.D.
Beginning of the
first
Like the Fortuna
Virilis
Maison Carree
and
is
is
on
temple, the
podium
pseudo-penpteral.
The columns
are Connthian.
x68 The Maison Carree, Nimes
provmcial example.
This temple was placed
at
the end of an open court which was
surrounded by
a subsidiary
coloimade, and faced an

outer entrance.
mm
|l
!|
ROMAN
Corinthian.
The 'Tuscan'
order,
from
distinguished
we
Yet, if
shaft.
which Renaissance
Roman
professed to recognise in
by
writers
was hardly
buildings,
the Doric, exxept
are to
65
unfluted column-
its
judge from reconstructions made
on the authority of Vitruvius, the Etruscan temple had a

character of its own. In the first place, it was of all-timber
construction, and
with
terra cotta
deference to
its
its
upper parts were heavily encrusted
ornament.
had no
It
peristyle.
The
frequent dedication to a triad of
three separate compartments, each \\ith
cella,
in
X69, 170 Temple of Venus

and Rome, Rome.
A.D. 123-135
Section and plan.
in this temple built for Hadrian
two
cellas
were placed back

was
to back. This building
surrounded by
superb
colonnaded portico some 545

feet long by 330 feet wide.
had
deities,
own doorway;
its
of these was a low, open portico, two columns

deep, approached by a stairway between wing-walls. Both
and
in front
eaves and pediment had an unusually wide overhang, equal
of the column.
in fact to one-quarter the height
One
temple plan, that of Fortuna
be taken to
Roman
tures to
now
has
Though
requirements.
Rome, may
some of these fea-
Virilis at
adaptation of
illustrate the
the triple sanctuary
been discarded, the building once more stands on
a podium, approached only from the front
between wing-walls. The
steps
Etruscan
had presented blank
cella
and
rear
faces;
by
side
a flight
But there
from
seen
make
colonnade to
portico
set against
is still
the
no doubt
directly in front.
of the
intended to be
it is
end could
rear
Its
line
"pseudo-perip-
edifice
that
now
but these have
been screened with half-columns, continuing the
teral".
of
waDs of the
in fact
an enclosure-wall or screened by subsidiary
ormades without impairing the design, while
its
be
col-.
frontal
approach was exactly suited to the termination of an
axial
31 B.C.
This arcular temple in the
Boarium
steps
Roman
lay-out.
this 'hermit-crab' disposition
became
any
onwards
Roman
characteristically
temples. Quite often, as
removed from Rome
as far
that they
itself
at the
may have
work of Greek
been
carvers.
From now
a feature
of
be seen in examples
as the so-called
Nimes, they were placed
at
may
Forum
on eight marble
the design of the twenty
stands
Corinthian capitals suggests
the
vista in
Temple of Portunus, Rome.
171
c.
Maison Carree
end of an open court,
surrounded by a subsidiary colonnade, and faced to-
wards an outer entrance which again emphasised the

approach.
An
exception to
this
axial
arrangement was the great
Temple of Venus and Rome, in which twin cellos were

placed back-to-back. As a concession to the new fashion
in architectural forms, each
covered by
ended
in a semi-circular niche
semi-dome.
Another type of building which retained something of

the classical tradition both in design and construction, has
already been mentioned. This
pensable feature of
the
communal
Roman
is
a truly indis-
which combined
functions of a social and pohtical meering-
place with those of a law-court.

it
the basUica
city planning,
It
has often been said that
resembled a Greek temple turned inside-out: but inter-
172 Basilica of Maxentius,
Rome. A.D. 310-313

known as the Basihca
Also
nally
colonnades enclosed a central nave, which rising
its
above the
made clerestory hghting
side-aisles,
were covered by pitched timber roofs
and those over the
aisles
in the
possible.
Both
Greek manner
of the larger examples were re-
quired to span openings up to eighty feet wide. Although

the timber fabric of
one
by
now
in
such roofs has long ago perished,
were
in a section
through the Ba-
Forum of
Trajan, the
aisles
storeys,
the nave,
architects
As may be seen
Ulpia in the
two
Roman
famihar with the principle of trussed tie-beam
construction.
silica
all
compelled to conclude that
is
and were themselves duphcated by
nades. In this
were buOt
corresponding to superimposed orders
case
also,
in
central colon-
the rectangular severity of the
of
Constantine,
ic
adjoined the
Forum Romanum.
The enormous groin
vault
topped the central
nave
at a
height of 120
feet.
66
building was relieved by the curve of huge projecting
17] Bmiilica of Mxenciiu,
Rome. A.D. 3IO-3'J

The
all
basilica
civil
was
hcmicyclcs
law court where
Utigation was heard;
end.
at either
In their simpler form, such buildings have a special inter-
abo
they seem to have been adopted as a prototype
agreements and contracts were
est in that
made
for a quite different class
there before a magistrate.
of
edifice in later times. In
con-
ventional examples, the semi-circular apse appears at one
end of the building only and has

throne for a presiding
in
centre a seat or
its
At the reverse end there
official.
is
an arcaded vestibule ('narthex') facing onto an open forecourt ('atrium'). All these features reappear in
some of
the
earhest Christian churches.
which appears
third feature
in the
Forum of
Trajan,
and of which there are more famous examples in the old

Forum Romanum, is the triumphal arch. These monuments
illustrate
how
can be used
an essentially
One
174 Basilica of Maxentius
The
basilicas
the conventional pattern of a classical order
framework of ornament around
as a superficial
Roman
form: the deeply
of other
characteristically
stood ready for
Roman
and terminal
archway.
soffited
Arch of Titus,
sees also, for instance in the
the addition
But the culmi-
statuary.
Christian adaptation. Features
of incised
such
nating result of a compromise between the rectihnear forms
as the semi-circular apse,
the vestibule and the atrium
were found
in
some Early
Christian churches.
lettering
175
decoration in the form
of Greek architecture on the one hand and the predominantly circular lines of
IS
best seen in the
Roman
Colosseum
near the entrance to the old
Roman
on
the other
In
built
the Flavian emperors

travertine fai;adc, the
its
orders are superimposed in conventional suc-
But the columns
cession.
Forum by
A.D.
in the mid-first century
four
construction
that huge amphitheatre,
are half-columns
with no purpose
them
other than decoration, and the openings between
crowned with semi-circular
arches. This
are
arch-and-colunm
motif, repeated indefinitely around an interminable oval

has a soporific effect
fa(;ade,
which blunts
all
perception
of the purpose for which the orders were originally contrived.
The amphitheatre was an elliptical affair with an arena in

The overall dimensions of the Colosseum were
620 by 513 feet. The internal arrangement of its seating and
the middle.
many
was
staircases
masterpiece of ingenuity, and so
well considered that the building could have been cleared
of spectators
in a
few minutes. The stairways and
corridors,
including those under the arena, which provided accom-
modation for gladiators and wild
beasts,
were
for
the
of stone with concrete vaulting. Mouldings and stucco panelling were their only ornament. The
vernacular style of the building was in fact in keeping with
most part
built
the colossal vulgarity of the spectacles presented there.

its
Only
sheer size impresses one.
These great stadiums, of which there were impressive
examples even in Britain, belong to a category of
Roman
buildings contrived for the entertainment of the well-disciplined
imus
Roman
at
masses. Circuses,
hke the great Circus Max-
Rome, which according
to Pliny could hold half-
a-million spectators, differ only in the 'hair-pin' shape of

the dromos around
tical
which the
seating
is
arranged.
The
elhp-
shape of the Colosseum on the other hand might have
been arrived
at
by placing two Roman theatres back to

from their Greek prede-
back. For these differed shghtly

cessors
that the auditorium
in
circle, the
was
now
old 'orchestra' being occupied
dignitaries.
The
by
an exact semiseats for special
structure of the building also tended to
209
182-18
ROMAN
67
175 Arch of Titus, Rome.

A.D. 81
Built to commemorate the capture
;ind
sack of Jerusalem.
The
engat;ed columns are of the
Composite order. The reliefs

were the high-water mark of
Roman narrative art. These
impressive monuments were
erected in
many
areas
conquered by the Romans.
176
Monumental archway
at
Palmyra
First
century A.D.
Erected at the intersection of four
mam
streets,
this
impressive arch at Palmyra
was the
focal point
of
the splendid colonnaded streets.
177 Arch of Septimius Severus,

Rome. A.D. 203
This commemorates the Parthian
wars and is dedicated to the

emperor and his two sons,
Caracalla and Geta. Detached
Composite columns
are seen in
front of the three arched openings.
68
178 Baths of Caracalla, Rome.

A.D. 211-217
From a print of 1832.
Baching was therapeutic, and
the baths were centres for every
kind of cntcruinraent.
including shops, libraries, theatres
and
halls for
boxing and
wrestling matches.
179 Plan of the baths of Titus,

Rome. A.D. 80
The
baths were built
on
part of the
of Nero's 'Golden
House'. Here the famous
site
Laocoon sculpture was discovered.
180 Baths of Caracalla
181 Baths of Trajan.
The
library
ROMAN
69
182 Circus Maximus,
less frequently on the support of a natural amphiand could be completely free-standing. Also, the
wall which formed a background to the sta^c could
depend
skiiic
Scarcely anything remains of

this oldest
over the stage a sloping
wood
shows
It
of
Roman
circuses,
which was enlarged by Julius

Caesar and embellished
by subsequent emperon.
The circus was a track for chariot
races. Gladiatorial combats were
be given an elaborate architectural treatment by a very

free use of the classical orders, sometimes combined with
statuary. There is a magnificent example at Aspendos in
PaniphyUa, which has been cleverly reconstruaed.
Rome
Restored model.
theatre
originally held here, but in the
canopy, which must have
served the dual purpose of protecting the actors from the
first
moved
to the
183 Circus of Maxentius,
Rome
century B.C. were

amphitheatre.
weather and improv-ing the acoustics.

In contrast
to these popular amenities, the thermae, or
bathing estabhshments, were provided for the leisure of a
more
also
sophisticated
and privileged
of greater architectural
They
social stratum.
interest,
are
because the scale on
which they could be conceived and the elaboration of which

they were capable appealed to the aesthetic imagination
and gave
porary
as the
full
A.D. 311
Restored model. Built on the
Via Appia.
scope to the strurtural virtuosity of contem-
Looking at drawings of a building such

Thermae of Caracalla, one sees how, for the first
time in history, the plan alone

in the symmetrical
is
a design in
The
wall, seen here,
architects.
spina, or central
was obhque in
order to adjust the distance

for various starting positions.
an essay
itself,
arrangement of fancifully contrasted
The thermal estabhshments were communal centres

catering for a luxurious form of leisure. That of Caracalla
shapes.
comprised a sumptuous main building surrounded by an
gymna-
elaborate enclosure with gardens and an open-air
Among
sium.
with clerestory Hghting
a vaulted central hall
domed hot-room
a circular
184 Plan of the Circus of

Maxentius
the amenities of the baths themselves were

(tepidarium)
and a swimming-
{calidarium),
pool
open
(Jrigidarium), perhaps
q^ r
to the sky.
Extravagant planning with elaborately curved and polygonal shapes was carried a stage funher in the palaces of
Roman
tonius: De
the
Nero
One
Latin writer's description (Sue-
Vita Caesarum)
of the 'Golden House' which
emperors.
built after the great fire
of A.D. 65 on the
occupied by the Colosseum, reads
Arabian Nights. But more
is
known
of Diocletian's palace
There can be no doubt
from the consid-
to breaking point
how
now
the orders
were
and one
regarded simply
of loosely variable
ture could suddenly curve
patterns.
185 Amphitheatre
A.D. 290
characteristic
at
Roman
with most of the stone
remarkably well
Little
f
is
left
Verona.
arena,
seats
preser\'ed.
of the upper part
the external wall.
Spalato (Spht).
at
that they strained the trabeated
of Greek architecture
repertoire
of the
about them from
excavations on the Palatine Hill and also

erable remains
site later
like a fantasy
184
as
forms
sees there
a convenient
classical entabla-
upwards into an arch beneath
the angle of a pediment or an arcade of arches spring directly
from a row of attached columns
manesque
design).
But
in a sense,
ments could be said to be new, for

been outclassed,
we
these develop-
their temerity
shall presently see,
by
had long
the 'baroque'
of Pompeian ornament.
fantasies
We
as
of Ro-
(a foretaste
none of
architecture, a rehgious building
which could
not,
as the
the great
domed
'rotunda'
known
Pantheon, one of the best preserved but also in a
sense the
most enigmatic of all
first place,
were
is
built
we do
not
know
Aspendos
restricted
to a semi-circle rather than the
In this
Roman monuments.
for certain
which
by whom and when. Most authorities
In the
parts
of
it
are satisfied
on archaeological grounds that both rotunda and dome

were bmlt by Emperor Hadrian between. A.D. 120 and
124, though his name appears nowhere in an inscription.
two-
of the Greek theatre.

theatre a wood canopy
over the stage proteaed the
from the weather and

improved the acoustics.
actors
for obvious reasons, be included in the category of traditional temples. This
at
thirds circle
must turn to another world-famous masterpiece of
Roman
186 Plan of theatre

The auditorium was
70
187
The Pantheon, Rome.
A.D. 120-124
This shows the gabled portico
in
contrast with the
But there
two
domed
also the
is
there
portico,
a rectangular projection
is
unconnected with
building behind.
columned
form
dome was
by
suggested
is
its
name.
Both vault and walls are of concrete,

bonded with bfick and stone
The
clad internally.
vault
lightened and strengthened
httle
it
has never
the great concrete
content oneself with accepting
Roman
no out-
it
ultimate
as
engineer's capacity for imparting to
structures sufficient independent rigidity to elim-
all lateral
Though
tlirust.
with gilded bronze
was originally covered
it
plates, its actual
weight must have been
reduced by the deep coffering with which
slightly
pre-
its
of an internal system of brick arch supports.
proof of the
domed
Finally,
how
constructed, since there are, for instance,
signs
One must
his
in
and Caracalla. Also,
been possible to ascertain exactly
inate
time of
in the
about the dedication of the building, beyond
which
ward
the earliest
and the portico
14)
to be that of Severus
known
is
that
structurally
is
show
work of Agrippa
Augustus (27 B.C. to A.D.

sent
which
Inscriptions
either.
building to have been the
188, 189 Plan and section of the

Pantheon, Rome
which stands upon
the foundations of an carUer building, and between the
its soffit
was ornamented.
is
Like the dome, the rotunda also
by
coffering.
brick.
It
is
of concrete, faced with
was originally embeUished on the outside with
of Pentehc marble and inside with coloured marble
slabs
and porphyry.
deep recesses
above
is
thickness of twenty feet leaves
Its
ground
at
from
deflected
level,
these
in the fabric above. Pairs
and the
pilasters that
entablature.
itself,
ure 142
feet.
by means of
match them, support

size
for
relieving arches
of columns screening these
The modest
rotunda
room
and the weight of the wall
recesses,
a continuous
of the order gives
scale to the
whose inner diameter and height alike measIn the portico, the Corinthian columns arc
unflutcd monoliths of granite and marble.
The huge bronze
doors were plated with gold, and there was originally
segmental vault of bronze plates beneath the timber
roof.
It
is
hard to speak objectively of the Pantheon
architectural design.
One
is
impressed above
all
metrical simplicity and colossal scale of the interior
by
the remarkable effect of Ughting obtained
an
as
by the geo-
from
also
a single
opening, twenty-seven feet wide, in the crown of the hemispherical
dome. For
have venerated
of
its
pagan
accepted
its
its
thirteen centuries Christian worshippers
antiquity while repressing the
origin. Visitors
from
all
memory
over the world have
testimony to the wealth and accomplishments
of Imperial Rome.
When we
we
Roman competence in practical engineer-
speak of technological accomphshments,
reminded
arc
that
commodern mind seeking 'functional

expression'. This is well illustrated by bridges and aqueducts. There is for instance the Mulvian bridge at Rome,
ing produced spontaneous architectural formes which
mend
190 Plan of temple of Venus,

Baalbek. A.D. 273
This highly interesting building
themselves to the
whose arches of tufa and

feet
wide. There
is
travertine spanned openings sixty
Trajan's bridge over the
Danube with
has concave
curves running counter to

circular
plan,
theme
its
its
later
fully
exploited
by the
architects
of the Baroque period.
timber piers 170
feet apart;
and Augustus's aqueduct
Segovia with 128 arches ninety
of uncemented white
Nimes was
granite,
of
Roman
at
This was built
and the Pont-du-Gard
similarly constructed
Here and elsewhere one

to support
feet high.
at
of dry-jointed masonry.
also sees traces
of the devices used
temporary wooden centring for the great arches

tinies.
Ledges
in the pier-face
and
slightly pro-
jecting voussoirs intende4 for this purpose are
still
visible.
187
71
ROMAN
191 The Pantheon, Rome

Engraving by Giovanni Battista
Piranesi (1720-78).
His large prints of cbssical and

post-classical buildings are
characterised
by
their dramatic
romantic grandeur
as
their unparalleled accuracy.
did
They
encourage a wider
in classical archaeology in
much
interest
and
well as
to
the eighteenth century.
192 Interior of the Pantheon,
Rome
The vault and much of the interior
remams of the original structure
although a considerable restoration
has occurred at various
The granite and porphyry

pavement was restored in the
times.
nineteenth century.
wall was
at first
The
circular
faced with pilasters.
The entrance forms one of
eight
arched recesses, the other seven
probably being used for

statues
of gods.
72
I93i
194
Nimes.
Roman
c.
The PontHJu-Gard,
A.D. 14
engineering works often
reached the sublime simplicity and

nobility
Ucks.
which the architecture
The magnificent
Pont-du-Gard was part of an

astonishingly well-constructed
aqueduct, twenty-five miles long,
which brought water

from Vzhs.
It is
to
Nimcs
over 800 feet
long and 155 feet high.

It was built without mortar.
193
ROMAN
73
74
Roman
houses
The apartments were
round
built
an atrium or courtyard which was
more of an open-air room

than a central 'garden*. The house
looked inward
as in the
East.
roofed colonnade round
the atrium served as a catchment
and provided
from the summer sun and
for rainwater
shelter
winter winds. Houses of well-to-do
owners were richly painted, and

had mosaic and tile floors, under
which was hot-air central heating.
In
towns Romans
of
flats,
lived in blocks
the wealthy often
occupying the main floor with

slums above.
197 Street of shops

in the region
of Trajan's Forum,
Rome
198 Street of the Balconies,

Ostia Antica
199 Basilica at Pompeii

As the building for the
adnunistration of the law, the
basilica occupied, as in all
Roman
towns, a focal point in town-plans.
zoo House of the Faun, Pompeii

First
century A.D.
201 Basilica at Pompeii

Plan.
1
202 Hotise of the Faun, Pompeii

Plan.
WWIilHIIIHIflMiaiiai
Ml
ROMAN
Another
common Roman
end was
of an arch a few inches
practice directed to this
to set back the actual springing
behind the inner face of the

centring to bear upon.
pier, leaving a
When
removed, the space between

giving the arch
77
wooden
the
ledge for the
and reveal was
sotfit
itself a slightly flattened
was
structure
filled,
segmental shape.
Rome, as we have said, tenement buildings could accommodate a large part of the
population. Concrete made multiple storeys possible, and
As
to private dwellings, in
must
living conditions
At
id.
at
level
this social
times have been extremely squal-
however, the male section of the
conununity who, to our way of thinking, received more

than their share of consideration,
lives in the
open
air
now
much of their
spent
or in artificially heated pubUc buildings.
life in a Roman town

Pompeian residences to which we have
They were luxurious even by modem
Quite a different aspect of domestic

is
revealed by the
already referred.
standards.
Standing in narrow stone-paved
streets,
these
houses presented blank facades to the outside world.
They
obtained their Ught from a peristyle
the
wholly Greek
colonnaded court, around which the private part of the

house was arranged
and from a second
court, corresponding to the

tected
from the weather by a
columns and draining into a

as
covered
partially
Greek atrium. This was pro-
by
lean-to roof, supported
central pool,
which
also served
an ornamental feature {imphnniim). The main part of
the house had pitched timber roofs covered with

occasionally an upper storey. Heating
water was distributed by

taps.
was by
'rising mains'
Like the Greek houses
a border of
were
floral
metric design around a central picture {einblcma)
way
and
and drawn from
at Priene, floors
decorated with deUcate mosaics
tiles
brazier, but
at first
or geo-
and later
more freely distributed patterns. Walls

and vaulted ceilings made a setting for painted frescoes in
the distinctively Pompeian manner.
these gave
to
These famous wall-paintings, which
art historians
have
embody some of the

forms of Roman ornament. The
classed in four successive 'periods',
most
and elegant
sensitive
from the second century B.C., and were

executed directly on the plaster in fresco, tempera, oil or
colours mixed with melted wax. PubUc rooms in Pompeian
earliest
date
houses of the time had panelled doors with fanhghts and
formal architraves around them; and
was applied,
that the decoration
first
marble veneers and panelling. In
it
in
was between these

forms that imitated
Empire times motifs
became immensely more complicated. The simulation of

architecture became prevalent and whole wall-faces were
covered with an elaborate framework of improbably attenuated classical shapes, sometimes presented in an elementary
form of
perspective.
taken with the

panels
Never had such
classical orders.
was even more remarkable;
blemata consisting
of figured
sometimes depicted
as
well
and
the south-west
And
tice in
newly
their
religious, arranged
comer,
this
The forum
own public build-
around a forum,
as
was placed
in
itself
at the intersection
of two important
seems also to have been the
built
were
though through a window.
as theatres, baths, etc.
streets.
been
for in addition to em-
pictures, open-air scenes
Towns like Pompeii of course had

ings, secular
liberties
The content of the enclosed
Roman
cities,
common
which were
laid
prac-
out like
78
207 Temple of Bacchus,

Baalbek
Second century A.D.
A Roman army branch was
a military
responsible for architecture in the
were arranged
camp with
central gates in the four sides
of a
square enclosure. Judging from impressive town-plans like
of Timgad (Thamugadi)
that
colonies.
North
in
Africa, the streets
something on the hnes of
in a regular grid,
the
Hippodamian system of Hellenistic times. Those adopted
by
the
Romans from
Greek or Etruscan predecessors,
their
remodelled and fortified
were undoubtedly the more
One
own more
in their
leaves the subject of
Roman
architecture with an
uneasy feeling that the emotions which

than justice to
periods in which building, as a
arouses
it
greatness. Certainly this
its
practical idiom,
attractive to the eye.
do
less
was one of those
form of
self-e.xpression,
reached a crescendo of portentous eloquence. But history
had seen
ends,
of the Near
others, particularly in the countries
East: and there
one
is
left
termath with
its
were more
with a
to
come. As the
foretaste,
Roman epoch
not of the European af-
leitmotif of 'regret and
remembered
glory'
but of later centuries under another empire: of Victoriana
and the Nco-classicism of the

with
more
relief that
exotic culture
In looking back
on
the
theme of
be permitted a
Industrial Revolution.
one turns eastward to watch the
on
the
whole of
Baalbek
Detail of columns.
The
cil-chamber.
columns of the Corinthian
pensable
order with fluted
nally
shafts.
in
of
And
a quotation
c. A.D. 240
name Thysdrus.
TripoHtania. The unfinished
in
amphitheatre
is
modelled on the
Colosseum.
210 Baalbek. Temple of Jupiter
Priene; and one
reminded
fi-
the
to
Greek
well governed,
209 El Djem.
cities like
which Plommer has taken from
Greek writer Phocyhdes. He
Ancient
nostalgia, the subjert
because such architecture was an indis-
complement
the upper with a pediment
and the lower arched.
these earliest variations
doubt. Most easily in one's mind,
Between the columns

two rows of niches,
are
remembers the self-contained perfection of its miniature

pubhc buildings; the tiny theatre and small dignified coim-
inner walls
of the temple have engaged
of
invention, if one might
architectural
vignette pictures arise of Greek

208 Temple of Bacchus,
It is
on the Bosphorus.
moment of selective
would hardly be
rise
is
life,
says,
one
is
'A small city on a
better than stupid
Nineveh.
hill,
214
ROMAN
79
211 Baalbek. Temples ofJupiter

and Bacchus
The magnificent temple group
at
Baalbek comprised the temple of
are seen
columns of which
on the right) and that of
Bacchus
(left
Jupiter (the
The
foreground).
Jupiter temple
by Arabs
suffered depredation
and Turks, and before

them,
in the fourth century,
by Theodosius the Great.
212 Baalbek
Sculptural detail.
213 Plan of the great sanctuary,

Baalbek
The temple of Jupiter stood
within the main sanctuary
which was surrounded by a
high wall.
The temple of Bacchus, not
seen
on
was outside the

sanrtuary but was near the Jupiter
the plan,
temple.
214 Timgad
Second and third
centuries
A.D.
Aerial view.
Roman
towns were based
colonial
on the mihury camp.

Recungular or square, they were
entered by four gates, one in
each wall.
were
The
laid out
The main
streets
a recungular grid.
on
axis
was
a processional
was placed
the forum, the basiUca and
way, and along
various temples.
it
PRIMITIVE DWELLINGS
8o
TODAY
Primicive and nomadic

In providing shelter for himself
&om
available materials under
primitive conditions,
man
foundations
laid the
upon which architecture grew.

The circular hut, prototype
of the tholos, the Pantheon and
the Dome of the Rock.
is
found made of reeds in the

and blocks of snow
tropics (215)
in the Arctic (216).
The mud-brick hut with

a
roof
'.hatched
with
sometimes
(217),
overhanging eaves
\vide,
supported by tree-trunk
to keep heavy rain
of the walls and to provide
columns
open
from the
shelter
prototype of
buildings,
In
all
sun.
clear
is
the
verandahed
headed by the Parthenon.
much of south-eastern
Asia,
the sea and the rivers are

the only
means of communication.
Shore- and river-dwellers build
from the
their houses
the jungles and raise
floodmg
against
stilts
Often
a great deal
and trouble
is
materials of
them on
(218. 219).
of time
spent in elaborate
decoration of primitive dwellings,

the Ndebele huts (220)
as in
and the gypsy caravans

the latter an
of
{221).
adaptaoon
dwelling to a nomadic
way
of hfe in countries which

are generally highly developed, with
good
roads.
Here the gypsy

the specialised
calls
skill
upon
of the
nineteenth-century wheelwright.
215 Swaziland, southern Africa

Small
domed
grass hut.
216 Arctic region

Typical igloo structure.
217 Basutoland, southern Africa

Mud-brick and thatch house
218 Borneo. Longhouse with
tanju. or
communal
platform,
in
front.
219 Jesselton, North Borneo

Sea-dweller's homes.
220 Pretoria, South A&ic:a

Ndebele dwellmgs.
221 The Fens, Cambridgeshire
Gypsy encampment.
Ornamental Brick,
Han Dynasty
cs
CHINESE
M'
^***i-l^;
CHINESE
82
222 The Great Wall.

221-210 B.C.
the fifiecnth and
Rc&ced during
sixteenth centuries, the wall with

its
watch towers
much
is
later
than the early buried walled
of central
Asia,
may have
pattern
east
and west.
At
this period,
cities
from which the

spread both
China may be
considered as part of the whole

Bronze Age cidturc which spread
all
over the Eurasian continent.
223 Chinese
The
beam frame system
pine or cedar columns.
often of great length and girth,

rested
on stone bases to
them from the damp and
protect
were often elaborately carved.

The columns were held in both
dirertions by beams of diminishing
length, separated
vertical
members.
by
short
On
these
were
placed the roof purlins, a system
which could avoid the straight line.

Most Chinese buildings were
built in this
way.
THE CHINESE BUILDING
Introduction
83
224 Western and Chinese roof
compared
construction
growing out of its own neolithic

culture on Chinese soil and independent, to an unusual
extent, of contributions from outside, attained to an early
Chinese
civilization,
from
self-
the development of Bronze
Age
culture in about 1500 B.C. right into the present century.
Chinese architecture, which

integral part
its
own
of course, any
which
triangulated
construction
inhibits expansion,
whereas
beam frame system of China,
not based on the triangle
above column
level,
is
capable of
considerable expansion in
all
directions.
more or
real antiquity,
unbroken
less
continuity,
It is this
which helps
to
make
the
com-
of Chinese civOization.
the unique interest
truss, a rigid
with an unusual degree of
tradition, into the twentieth century.
not,
timber arch, the
of Chinese civihzation, and early developed
special characteristics,
systematisation, continued, too, in a
and
some ways
a typical and in
is
as the
West developed the
the
pre-eminence and maintained a rather complete and

conscious continuity
As well
rather paradoxical effect of this, however,
is
parative rarity of anything old. There are fewer old build-
China than
ings in
in Europe,
none of the age of the
Pantheon, none of the age of St Sophia, few, indeed of

the age of Salisbury Cathedral. Peking,
supreme example
of Chinese town-planning, physically dates only from the
and many of
fifteenth century,
been more or
less
Wall
seen of the Great

is
the
Ming
its
completely rebuilt
itself,
famous buildings have

since.
What
is
actually
completed about 210 B.C.,
re-facing of the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries.
The
The Chinese Building
kept aesthetically distinct by the Chinese architects. There

the
podium
brackets used to support the
eaves overhang underwent
The individual building can be thought of as divided into

a number of distinct elements, elements which were indeed
was
225 The high raked bracket,

or 'ang tou-kung'
or base, of hard
rammed earth
for
humbler
many
changes, especially during
Sung periods.
The high or raked bracket
in the Sung dynasty became an
the T'ang and
independent, asymmetrical
structure of great elegance
buildings, faced with brick or stone for grander ones, vary-
supporting the eaves purlin as well
ing in height and elaboration according to the 'rank' of the
as a purlin higher
building.
On
the
than one
tier
of beams,
podium timber columns were placed on

stone bases, carved in a great variety of forms. The timbers
mainly used were pine and a kind of cedar. The columns
were tied in both directions by beams, sometimes more
essential difference
let
But the
into their upper part.
from European construction
up the
roof slope.
is
seen in
the cross-section. In the West, besides the timber arch to
support the roof purlins, the rigid triangulated truss was

developed. In the Chinese cross-section, the place of the
arch or truss was taken by a system of beams of diminishing
lengths placed vertically one over another across the plan
between columns and separated firom each other by
struts,
above which the purlins were placed.

This basic bay was capable of expansion in
all
directions.
Across the plan in the direction of the span, the cross-section itself could be increased in viddth
by increasing the
number of beams, by adding columns, forming verandah

bays or inner spaces of varying widths. Lengthways
be extended, of course, by mere repetition.
It
it
could
could be
extended upwards by varying the heights of different parts
of the cross-section, forming lower verandahs with a higher

internal
room,
clerestories, galleries
internal space; or
It is
by
surrounding a higher
the addition of upper storeys.
a striking feature
of the Chinese cross-section
not being based on a triangle above colunm
allowed considerable freedom
The
relative positions
of the
in the design
purlins,
that,
level,
it
of the roof-Une.
which controlled
this.
226 Variation of the high

raked bracket
CHINESE
84
227 Bracket cluster,
could be varied so
or *tou-kuiig'
any required curve. Even the ridge did not have to be
The
basic device for carrying
the eaves overhang
One
angular.
was
somewhat
bUng
the cantilever bracket,
resembling the extraordinary
produced a
pair
of
struts,
of the
cross-section, resem-
and therefore
straight ridge
one on
of the centre
either side
could produce a roof which swept over in a curve
line,
together endlessly.
strut in the centre
a queen-post,
an angle.
Chinese puzzles, pieces locking
be either in a straight Kne or in
as to
without any ridge. The

be placed so
struts
and purhns could,
to produce a roof-line
as
wholly
in fact,
straight,
wholly curved or any combination of the two, and

forms were used on occasions. The
all
hne tended to
straight
be used for humbler and more utihtarian roofs, while those
of importance came to be usually one of the other
Another feature of the roof which had

tional connections but
228 'Tou-kung* in position

The cluster was capable of many
more
at
hang.
demand
some
which was
its
types.
obvious func-
deliberately emphasised,
periods than at others, was the eaves over-
timber structure and an open plan or a verandah

protection
from
the weather
by means of the
eaves.
There were many and various apphcations of the cantilever
extensions in order to carry
used to achieve
the rafters as far out as possible
beyond the outermost columns.
to
this,
out
rafters as far
but the main device used to carry the
as possible
beyond
and
the column,
also
perform many other internal cantilever supporting func-
came to be the cluster of brackets or tou-kung.

Above the beams and brackets the purlins, commonly
tions,
round
in section, carried rafters also
round
made of bamboo, on which boarding was

with an insulating layer of
two
layers
our
(in the
of segmental
clay,
tiles.
in section
on which again were
Tiles
were
and
covered
fixed,
laid
either natural col-
north, grey) or glazed in various colours
blue,
purple, green or yellow.
Roof forms were of
four basic types: the gabled, the
hipped, the half-hipped, half-gabled, and the pyTamidal.

All the roof timbers
were ordinarily meant to be
but in important buildings an internal

to or
wooden
seen,
ceiling fixed
suspended from one of the levels of crossbeams was
often provided as a decorative feature. These were basically

a squared
painted.
framework forming panels or
central space in
which were
would often
coffers,
an important
hall
be ceiled in an octagonal, circular or dome-like shape,
formed by means of brackets and carved woodwork.

Systems of standardisation varied from period to period
but were mainly based on a range of standard reaangular
timber sections appropriate to different spans and situations.

Proportions of columns,
229 Lower Hua-yen temple at
Ta-t'ung
Twelfth century.
End
Even
were by
rule,
and
though numerous,
all part of a knoVn repertoire, so that the main part

of a building could be erected without detailed drawings,
external walls in Chinese
only from description and specification of a typical bay.
There were
screens often sloping
em
em
back and disclosing the top

brackets, supporting
details,
were
or Bank wall.
houses were not load-bearing, but
were
toti-kuiig, etc.,
bracket arrangements with other
beams and
roof Thus, there were no cornices
construction
uous
to construct.
fairly considerable differences
and southern
\'isual
between north-
The timber sizes of the northwere more robust. The most conspicpractice.
difference
was the southern tendency
exaggerated upturn to the comers of the eaves.
to an
It is
the
northern tradition which on the whole dominated Chinese

architecture and
WaUs and
turally; they
which
is
mostly
illustrated here.
partitions in buildings
were
were not used
screens. Internal partitions
struc-
were com-
monly framed in timber and not always carried up to full

height. Even thick external walls were not used to carry
the loads of beams, floors or roofs; independent timber
229
columns carried these loads and were
either
half-embedded
229
THE CHINESE BUILDING
85
230 Han dynasty house.

206 B.C.-A.D. 220
Pottery model.
This
IS the simplest form of

dynasty house, a rectangular
Han
hut-Iikc Jtruaurc, single-storey cd,
with
tiled
rammed
roof and walls of
earth.
Most houses of this period

however were two-storeyed,
incorporating a walled courtyard;
the ground floor was used
for livestock.
Han dynasty tower
231
Pottery model.
The model clearly shows

corbel, pan cantilever
the part
construction at the eaves comers.
Han dynasty
232
pleasure
pavilion
Pottery model.
This simple two-roomed pavilion,
with
its
sturdy construction
and sparse decoration

clearly has a rxistic provenance.
233
Han dynasty
five-storey
house with small gateway

Pottery model.
This
may
It
a semi-fortress
is
have been a town house.

with
look-out towers at the gate comers.
The
scale
is
distorted to
make
manageable tomb model.

The house was highly decorated
a
with a revealed timber frame.
234
Han dynasty watch tower
Pottery model.
The curved eaves line began

to make its appearance in Chinese
building during the
Han
This watch tower
interesting
is
two of the three eaves have

marked upward curve,
in that
a
the other
234
djTiasty.
is
straight.
CHINESE
86
235 Yun Kang caves, near

Ta-t'ung, Shamt
The
were separate from them altogether.
or
walls
the
in
was often
screen character of external walls
Fifth century.
and emphasised.
skil-
example can be
These rock-cut Buddhist shrines
fully expressed
were on a grander
seen in the massive battered walls, pierced with deep open-
Tun-huang.
scale than
Interiors
were
striking
of the corner towers on the city walls
ings,
in iniicr Peking.
sometimes decorated with coloured
These external screens are simply sloped back
high- and low-relief carvings.
and stopped
at the
top
work
short, disclosing the timber structural
behind, sprouting into brackets and supporting the eaves
and the roof. The same kind of expression can be seen in
on the front of the Ta Hsiung Pao
the screen-walls
It
one of the most interesting
IS
chitecture,
that the
and one which has not been
whole building
form. The functional
236, 237 Caves of the Thousand

Buddbas, Tun-huang
Begun fourth century.
Tun-huang was an important
point on the main trade route to
place.
The
and base
and not
red, also white,
on top of such
a wall or
and ramps, one colour,
brackets, rafters, eaves
including the decorative and
caves were lined with
The
painted plaster and finished as
of buildings, and
Wooden
city-planning
protected the entrances. These were
and elaborated
to time.
and not
their steps
left
natural,
ceihngs, a range of
symboHc ornaments
at
the
was only part of an ensemble
individual building
Buddhist chapels.
from time
natural materials,
podium, with
members and
ridge and eaves.
rebuilt
left in
vivid colours and patterns. Roof, one colour throughout,
finished under state patronage.
porticoes originally
aim was
polychro-
yellow or black. Balus-
if painted at all
pilgrims and eventually
The
in a totally
white marble. Columns, one colour, often red. Beams,
The rock-cut
They were begun by Buddhist
well as in
parasites; the aesthetic
major part
walls, if plastered
e.g.
shrines have obvious
in history,
actual colours varied according to time
India and thence to the West.
Indian parentage.
as
Their general distribution was: enclosing walls
one colour, often

trades
common
was the protection of the timber
basis
members from decay and

matic building.
Hall.
of Chinese ar-
designed in colour
is
that the timbers played a
and
qualities
the subtlety and grandeur of Chinese
all
based on a few simple principles and prac-
is
tices
which were widely appUed, whether
Httlc
homestead, the lay-out of a temple, a palace or a whole
city.
These were
[a]
walled enclosure,
south orientation and
The word
(ii)
(</)
(t) axiality, (c)
north-
the courtyard.
and
for 'city'
But not merely was a
to the plan of a
was the same:
'wall'
ch'ciig.
city walled; the principal internal
of a city were walled. Every important ensemble of
parts
buildings and spaces was a walled enclosure in
itself,
and
enough would be composed of separate walled enclosures. The palace was a labyrinth of walled enclosures.
Not only a temple, a library, a tomb would be walled
if large
enclosures; a 'house'
house a complex of
(c)
(fc),
and
was a walled enclosure, and
many
a great
enclosures.
Within the walls or sometimes forming
((/)
part of the walls, buildings, usually rectangular in plan
and
usually in later centuries of one storey than of
two
238 Mai-chi Shan. Cornrick

Mountain, near T*ien-shui,
more
Kausu
or more, were planned around a courtyard or series of
Sixth-eleventh centuries.
courtyards, with every important building having
This rock stands about 500 feet
high and
artificial
The
is
honeycombed with
caves,
194 in
largest shrine
on
all.
was carved
side facing south,
in
the east
beams and draperies
long
and west
sides,
and any
series
of important
buildings standing one behind another in a north-south
imitation of a seven-bay hall with

colutnns,
its
with subsidiary, often lower, buildings
line,
facing south
on
to courtyards.
of two or more storeys

to be planned
orientation has
will often be
Even compact houses

found on examination
round a small courtyard. This south-facing

its
obvious functional
basis,
but
it
also ap-
pears to have been conventionalised early in the Bronze

in
Age
connection with ancestral ceremonies and those of the
worship of heaven and earth.
The roads of a
ing
it
city ran
north-south and east- west, divid-
into a rectangular grid.
The
principal street
was
1500-221 B.C.
87
and the principal gate typically
typically north-south,
the centre of the south wall.
The
in
enclosure-walls, both of
the city and of its constituent parts,
were the most massive
elements, not only in themselves but in the buildings built
on them
at points
of entrance and
or
if
entered
it
it
at the corners.
encountering an enclosure did not open
it
road
up but stopped,
passed through openings in the walls and
under buildings on the wall above.
By such principles, the apphcation of which was, of course,

by topography, chance, growth and economics, arof sizes varying from a single 'cell'
to a whole city, of which an imperial palace would be only
a part, were assembled into a unified whole, the whole and
varied
chitectural compositions
up of south-facing,
parts built
walled enclosures.
axial,
1500-221 B.C.
The
ntiUennium of Chinese architecture has to be
first
exam-
passed over very rapidly indeed, if ordy for lack of

ples.
Until 221 B.C., there was one dominant type of
social
and economic organisation, based on bronze and then
gradually changing and breaking up with the introduction
of iron
600 B.C. This system, called by the Chi-
in about
nese 'slave society' and
by Dr Needham* 'Bronze Age
Proto-feudahsm', came to be a pattern of small
who
held
them
they paid tribute and
owed
by
princes
as fiefs
states ruled
a king, to
whom
the obUgation to supply troops.
The walled town grew up

kings, princes
from
home of
as the fortified
and nobles, the granary for
the
tribute grain, a
centre of manufactures and of trade. Thus, Chinese society,
was early based on the town, from
basically agricultural,
which
dominated a portion of the surrounding
the lord
countryside.
As
flood-control, water conservancy
and water
transport developed, and as long-range trade expanded, the

cities
grew
grew
in importance.
number. Thus, a
in
As cultivated land extended, they

cellular pattern
of walled
tovvTis,
living off the surrounding countryside, spread over China.
The
basic producers
of society were
firom prisoners captured in the
many
to
it
in
many
common, from
in
principally
wars, and peasants,
not tied to the land, but not owning the land

held
working
slaves,
formed
agriculture and in urban crafts, a class
They
either.
their lord, subject to corvee
and
exactions in produce and manufactured goods.
Excavations
Anyang
at
in
Honan, the
site
kings' capital, have brought to Hght traces
of the Shang
of a city-wall
of rammed earth and (eleventh century B.C.) foundations

of large buildings, which already show some of the
characteristics
floor
special
of Chinese architecture the podium or
formed of
successive thin layers
with narrow staves to form a
raised
of earth tamped
hard permanent
slab,
the shaped footings of stone for the timber colunms.
The
really
columns themselves had vanished, but
their regular spacing
in dimensions appropriate to timber construction
beam
the timber post and

tecture
show
that
construction of Chinese archi-
was already estabhshed.
It
appears likely from the
remains that the hght-weight panel between columns was

also estabhshed.
No
were possibly of
trace
of
tiles
was found, and
the roofs
thatch.
The hegemony of
the
Shang kings was taken over
* Science and Civilisation in China, Joseph Needham,

Cambridge University Press. Vol. I, 1954. Vol. II, 1956,
F.
etc.
R.
in
S.
CHINESE
88
242 Pagoda of the TzuHMi

temple, Cb'ang-an (Sian). 704
Originally part of a monastery.
The abbot who ordered its building

had made a journey to India.
The eaves are corbelled of brick
work but modelled to imitate
the more usual Chinese timber
1027 B.C. by that of the Chou, which nominally continued
B.C. Meanwhile the introduction of iron
until 221
600 B.C.
had
(actually later than in Britain)
effect in the
improvement of
about
in
greatest
its
agricultural implements.
comparatively rapid expansion in cultivated lands took

place with the clearing of forests and grasslands, leading
eventually to a complete change in social relations.
methods.
By
that
the time of Confucius (551-479 B.C.), the picture
of a turmoil of states constantly
one of the growing
who made
of scholars
class
is
Confucius was
at war.
themselves
and diplo-
useful to the feudal princes as secretaries, advisers
mats. In a flamboyant age of lawlessness, exaggerated personal initiative and crushing exploitation, he preached order,
good administration and
social peace,
based on benev-
among
olent autocracy, mutual obhgations
different classes
of society and among members of the family, and on a

wide expansion of unprivileged education.
The
of society was paralleled
flux
of
in the flux
ideas.
This was the period of the 'hundred flowers' blooming and

the 'hundred opinions' contending,
modem
from which the
slogan was drawn, and several important schools of thought

followed. Confucius was amplified
byMencius (Meng-tzu),
opposed by Chuang-tzu and the Taoists,

Legalists,
because
and so on. Taoism must be
its
by the
later
specially
mentioned
on Chinese thought and art became

itself The two modes of
influence
second only to Confucianism
thought exercised, in
influence,
fact,
a kind of dual or complementary
Confucianism dominant and Taoism
critical
and
unorthodox. While Confucianism was conservative, pa243 Hall of Kuan Yin. Tu Lo

temple, Chi-hsien, Hopei. 984
The
three storeys are gallenes
round
central well
colossal sutuc
contaimng
of Kuan
Ym.
ternalist,
and conformist, venerating precedent
rational
and hierarchy, perfectly adapted to become the orthodoxy

of a bureaucratic empire, Taoism was anarchical, mystical,
anti-rational, experimental
and popular, venerating nature
and teaching the contemplation of nature.

As these
developments, basically
deriving
spread of iron, took place with increasing

a
from
the
momentum,
period of stUl greater brilliance ensued (the "Warring
States' period,
475-221 B.C.), with advances in agriculture,

art.
Cultivated lands were further extended,
the aninaal-drawn
plough appeared, the crossbow was
technology and
perfected, iron mines sprang
up everywhere.
economy developed, ambitious
irrigation
launched, manufactures and trade, and vvdth
grew
rival
states
of
the city,
China
reduced themselves to seven, of which
one, the state of Ch'in,
became the conqueror of
other six and the unifier of China.
assumed the
in 221
such
them
vastly.
The Unification
The
A money
schemes were
title
of Ch'in Shih Huang-ti, or
B.C. At once
as the creation
many
acts
all
First
Emperor,
of unification were
started,
of the Great Wall, the standardisation
of coinage and measures, the simplification of the

to forms closely
resembHng those
programme of road
state
the
The king of Ch'in
in
script
use ever since,
building and the obliteration of inter-
boundaries.
The Great Wall (221-210 B.C.), China's most famous

work of engineering, was, in fact, a joining and extension
of walls already built by previous feudal states. It was
none the less a colossal work carried out at extraordinary
THE UNIFICATION OF CHINA
89
244, 245 Pagoda of the Fo Kung

temple, Ying-hsien,Sbansi. 1056
Exterior and section.
Because of
its
date, this
important building
an
is
in
Chinese architecture, one of purely

Chinese timber design and
construction.
and 216
Octagonal
in
plan
feet in height,
has five main storeys

which are expressed
and mezzanine floors
which are not.
it
Cim,m>mmM-
The bold
eaves projections,
supported on four-tier bracket

systems, illustrate the flexibihty of
the Chinese
246 Fo
beam
frame.
Kuang temple, Mt
Wu
T*ai, Shansi. 857
This
in
is
the earliest
wooden
building
China.
Thirty clay figures of Buddhist

personages crowd the dais
at
the
back of the central portion
of the
They
hall.
are onginal
T'ang
although redecorated. In
figures,
this early
example, the bracket ends

supporting the beams are heavy
corbels; later examples are
developed into cantilever brackets.
CHINESE
90
247 Fo Kuang temple,

857
Mt
Wu
T'ai. Shansi.
Section and south elevation.
Here Chinese timber technology

can be clearly seen.
method
Basically the
is
that
of
primitive log cabin building.
Half-lapped, jointed logs are laid in
an intenecting, criss-cross pattern.

The taper is outwards and upwards.
248 Shen
Mu
hall.
Chin-tzu,
Shansi. 1023-31
In front of the hall (Hall of the
Sacred Mother)
is
the square fish-
pond crossed by a cruciform

ramped bridge, all on a central
axis to the hall, which is doubleroofed with seven bays and
a
verandah.
249 Lung-hsing temple at

Cheng-ting-hsien, Hopei
Eleventh century.
One of three
large buildings giving
a clear expression
of
of the disposition
Sung group. The fourth
building
is
a largely
destroyed
pavilion which houses the gigantic
bronze Kuan Yin.
THE UNIFICATION OF CHINA
speed by the only method available for great pubhc works,
of labour on a vast
a conscription
runs
from
kuan
in
The Great Wall
scale.
Gulf of Pohai westwards
the
Kansu, a distance of 1,684 miles.
Chia-yu-
to
total length,
Its
however, which generally follows contours and includes

considerable loops,
more than 2,484
is
original
was of rammed earth construction, but successive generations
of
was
it
Ming
maintained and rebuilt
rulers constantly
and most extensive
with stone and brick took
Now
which
repairs
1,
and rentable;
became, in
it
A money economy
though rent and

'free'
China
is
byword,
perishable material, and
no
really
early buildings survive.

Instead
we have
to
turn to such
records for examples.
history,
and formally
by the Chinese 'feudaUsm' and by Dr
called,
of investment.
The
Although the early
'bureaucratic feudahsm'. Slavery, for production,
gradually disappeared. Land was privately

saleable
architecture.
development of technology
and refacing
began the second great period of Chinese
Needham
These show various forms
of
place.
lasted until the nineteenth century,
until 191
and
if,
and sixteenth centuries under the
in the fifteenth
that the last
250 T'ang frescoes
from Tun-huang
the Chinese built mainly in
The
miles.
91
taxes
fact,
owned and was

main form
the
prevailed on the whole,
were often paid
in grain or sUk.
peasant and wage-earning artisan were the basic
producers (and taxpayers) of society. But since the small

peasant hved near the borderhne of subsistence, he could
by natural
easily be forced,
to
borrow
on, then
sell,
calamities or harsh taxation,
become
land and
his
a tenant
farmer or wage-earning labourer. Thus, there was always a
tendency for the large landowners to become
and the peasants
larger
still
on
to be forced into greater dependence
The power of the central government was, by European

standards, immense and was based on a number of state
institutions
later
which were
age
a system
of
state
grammes, such
less
developed in Europe
as
of information, goods and armies;
waterways; huge public works proflood control, water conservancy and
national defence works; state
production; an
until a
network of good roads and post systems
for the swift passage
army
monopoUes,
conscripted,
in
in iron
e. g.
theory,
from the
whole population. Perhaps the most important instrument

of the central government and the most characteristic
of the whole system was a
feature
bureaucracy or
trally,
civil service,
educated
large,
cutting across local interests and controlling
from which most of

painters
recruited in theory
in practice
leisure to
men of
the great
and statesmen
state
appointed and controlled cenall
of the administration, including the army. This huge

in Chinese history
scientists,
letters,
were drawn, was
by open competition from
who had
mainly from those
parts
'class',
the
all classes,
means and
be educated, the landowmers and merchants.
set, went through a gradual development, which however for centuries can be seen only
Architecture, already
from funerary models, paintings and the like. The

of towns did not change but was merely developed
in this second period.
The town
ceased to be the
of a lord but became an administrative

officials
many
('Enemy Observation Pagoda*),

K'ai
them.
much
251 Liao-ti T'a
officials,
scholars
further
domain
of
centre, the seat
of the central government and the
subsidiary
pattern
home of
the
and employees of the
bureaucracy. Landlords of the surrounding countryside
tended to Hve in the
city, as
well
as vastly
increased
numbers
of merchants, tradesmen and craftsmen of all kinds. Libraries,

archives, temples, schools, warehouses, markets, inns
and
Yuan temple,
Ting-hsien, Hopei. 1001-55
typical brick-built
Sung dynasty.
It was built as
pagoda of the
watch tower
in
an important frontier town.
The pure masonry design
has
no
timber-denved imitation brackets
and
details.
CHINESE
252 Fang Hsin-kan*s house,

Hsi-hsien,
Ming
shops mulriplied, and large numbers of towns
Anhui
house in
a village street.
An example of
The Introduction
walled enclosures
taken to extreme.
The high
walls
grew
into
great centres of trade, luxury and culture.
dynasty.
of
Buddhism
About A.D. 65 an undoubted influence from abroad arrived, the introduction of Buddhism from India. On the
round the house

few feet
arc taken to within a
of the windoNVs of the buildings

they enclose. The main entrance,
whole Buddhism
but
from the south-west, was through

courtyard containing some
built within the secular
Chinese tradition,
did contribute one special type of building
it
the
a Buddhist building, housing
pagoda. In origin
outhouses. Inside the courtyard
the sutras or enshrining
were two paved pools which

collected rainwater from
used scenically as a verrical element in the
surrounding roofs and also from
and not even attached to a monastery. The two
the courtyard paving. Verandahs
of the pagoda were, no doubt, the Buddhist stupa or
ran along
the yard.
two sides of
The main hall
in
is
from
dagaba
the
built lou.
(upper plan), and the upper
possessed these
storey (lower plan) contained
some
sacred object,
came
it
artificial
to be
landscape
'parents'
and the Chinese many-storeyed timber-
India
But
centre of the floor plan
strictly
should be remembered that India, too,
it
two
distinct types,
and
that
both contrib-
uted to the development of the tower or shikhara in Indian
bedrooms, but no privy.
temple architecture. The pagoda of the Sung Yueh temple
on Mount Sung
PCT
oldest
the
r~i-
Honan was
in
A.D. 523 and
built in
surviving building in China, a twelve-sided
plan of solid brick construction.
whole form
is
The
Indian origin of the
obvious.
The rock-cut Buddhist temples or
in
shrines
China
again have clear Indian origins, e.g. the Caves of the
Thousand Buddhas
on
1_
at
Tun-huang, an important
the great east-west trade route connecting
China with
and the Western world. The cutting
and dedication of
these
caves began in A.D.
366 and
continued irregularly until the tenth century. The
Yun
caves near Ta-t'ung in Shansi were cut in the fifth
another famous group of rock-cut shrines
century;
25
beween
Peking
Roof and ground
in
all
by
radically
improving the connection
the northern and south-eastern areas. Extending
previous waterways, they created the Grand Canal, linkplan.
These highly formal enclosures
ing the Yellow River, the Huai and the Yangtse. The
were so
canal
was an extension of roadway,
parts
of its length, roads lined with
closely
238
Sui dynasty (581-618) virtually secured the unity
of China once for

253 Typical courtyard house
235
is
on Mai-chi Shan, Cornrick Mountain, near T'ien-shui.
The
236,
station
India, central Asia
Kang
241
is
guarded that the
doors themselves contained a
too, for over important
whose 'shadows
trees,
deflectory arrangement of barrier-
The outer
screens.
overlapped
court,
for children, guests
and
This development
was paved with stone

with a small lotus pool in
servants,
slabs
The inner
the centre.
long guest
domain.
hall,
In
building,
was the
by
arch An-chi
parents'
two peony
a high level
of bridge-
first
('Safe
of
its
kind,
is
the
bridge
Crossing')
famous segmental
at
Chou-hsien
in
239,
work was between

605 and 616, and the engineer's name Li Ch'un. It has
been in continuous use ever since, or rather until 1954, when
The
Hopei.
one corner of the
inner court was a strangely shaped

stone and
demanded
and the earUest surviving bridge, which camiot
have been the
court,
separated from the outer
were constructed along both
other',
banks.
surrounded by the kitchen and
rooms
each
beds.
new
date of this remarkable
bridge was built nearby to save further wear on the
structure.
The
of
Sui dynasty
was brought down by the unpopularity
engineering works leading to massive peasant insur-
its
rection, out
of which the great T'ang dynasty (618-907)
was founded. By continuing but

canal-building
and transport, by
the peasants without too

ests
much
less
drastic
skilful
efforts
in
concessions
to
interference with the inter-
of the landlords, by successful frontier wars leading to
internal
sorts
peace,
by
trade
tolerating
of foreigners, the earher T'ang
rather
allowed
to
develop,
and welcoming
all
rulers introduced, or
period
of extraordinary
53
XI Temple of Heaven, Pekini<
*ajgvt
W\
I
'
^
t
>,,-_..._.
,..*
-*
THE INTRODUCTION OF BUDDHISM
vigour and prosperity, combining receptivcncss with expansion.
The empire, production,
trade and manufactures,
shipping and waterways
cities,
grew.
all
and
Printing
porcelain were the most striking technological advances,
but
forms of
all
and almost
intellectual life flourished
all
occurring over the columns, with only one
and brackets,
orJy one building remains.
of the world
The
general lay-out of the city has been recorded and recon-
structed. This
is
at that time,
based on plans published in the Ch'ing
dynasty but appears to be accepted
as substantially correct
archaeologists. Possibly the Chinese will soon
by Chinese
Peking.
T'ang from 907 to 960, which was not disruptive enough

to stop
new
new
advances in printing, or to prevent the
Sung (960-1274) from continuing

development of commerce and industry,
period under the

a stiU greater
still
Advances were made
neering and shipbuilding.
the
arts.
to
to
and
greater heights in science, technology, philosophy
some of
of Archaeology
buildings
short period of partition and confusion followed the
with greater accuracy. The Chinese
Institute
All
ceilings.
compared with the more famihar
be in a position to re-create the whole plan of Ch'ang-an
in hydraulic engi-
Gunpowder was invented and
have already made extensive excavations in the famous
various rmlitary applications developed, such as the explo-
palace of the T'ang emperors, the Ta-ming Kung, the

excrescence at the north-east comer of the rectangle of
sive grenade, the incendiary missile
the city plan.

acres
823
The
one
area of this enclosure was just under
and
two-fifths
north
rrules
main rectangle of the
the
ming Kung and
south
to
The
just over a mile %vide at the south side.
by
area of
the parks to the east of it,
was about 19,155
Paper
money made
painting
of A.D. 704, originally
the Tzu-en
is
mon-
652 by order of
built in
Hsuan Tsang (604-64), who

was abbot of the Tzu-en. It was a brick structure of five
storeys, but in 704 it was remodelled and two more storeys
were added making its height about 190 feet.
Since the buildings of the Han dynasty, some of the
specially familiar features of Chinese architecture had apthe famous traveller to India,
peared: a greater emphasis on the roof, a greater eaves
famous
these
There
is
were surely
artually a
all
T'ang dynasty wooden
It
and not very large
as
the
Chmcse
Chinese
Wu
exactly to the year
the level of the platform
to
height
Its
the
in
rime
its
seven bays are
halls go. Its
under 119 feet overall on plan.
just
is
58 feet
from
top of the ridge-end
ornament, and the depth of the plan

outside faces of columns and back wall.
is
hall surviving
by
was not a building of great importance
T'ai in Shansi, dated

857.
is
66', feet between
The
14 feet from the centres of columns.
eaves overhang
thick screen-
wall bersveen columns encloses the sides and the back.

five centre bays to the front or south,
which
The
fully
the back of the central porrion of the hall.

clay
figures
crowd
About
thirry
of Buddhist personages, some very

and these, too, are original T'ang figures,
large,
this dais,
though redecorated
in later ages.
Almost
all
the impressive
of this unique building are those which are specially

of the T'ang: the low-pitched roof slope rising
slightly towards the ridge, the subtly and slightly curved
features
typical
lines
of the ridge, the hips and the
ridge and
its
Bronze
lion,
eaves, the massive rile-
ornaments, the great eaves overhang sup-
ported by the main four-tier clusters
West. There
in the
Of Sung
pottery and
also
no doubt that T'ang and
is
of cantilever brackets.
world
the leading civilization in the
in
pre-eminent not only over Europe but
centuries,
these
over India and the
rest
Sung China had declined
of
Asia. In defence,
since
T'ang times
however.
spite
of
the invention of explosives, and after 1044 the Tartars in

the north, while nominally paying allegiance to the Sung,
actually carried
as
its
capital,
The Sung
on a
government with Peking
separate
while receiving subsidies from the Sung.
capital
of the emperor
was
first at
Pien-hang (modern Kai-
it
and the capture
was moved to Hangchow. Scenes of
Pien-hang are shown in the superb scroU painting By

river at
The
Ch' ing-miiig
the
scroll
hotels
and
festival,
the
of the eleventh century.
follows the river in from the countryside, and
most of the
scenes are
of ships, barges, small
streets,
'riverside cafes' in the suburbs. After
shops,
showing
magnificent segmental arch timber bridge the scroU
passes
We
through
a gate building
and enters the
city proper.
see a rather larger three-storey hotel just inside the
gates; then almost
remainder being
From
are equal,
with sohd nail-studded doors. The two end

bays are shghtly smaller and correspond on plan to an
ambulatory at the two sides and behind the long dais at
open
appearance.
its
feng), but after a disastrous raid in 1126
connected.
main haU of the Fo Kuang temple near Mount
the
mass of pubhshing on
hardly necessary to speak, since their perfection
Sung China was
overhang, the curved roof-lincs and the bracket cluster
and
it is
fact, a
famous manual of architecture.
of technique and subtlety of form have long made them
The one building which remains

astery
invented, and there was, in

subjects, including a
22 miles.
3.
Many
famous physicians Uved and worked, and a great medical

encyclopedia was compiled. Moveable-rype printing was
many
perimeter just under
its
and the flame-thrower.
Education spread, and private schools mulriphed.
Ta-
alone, excluding the
city
acres or nearly 30 square miles, and
.7
of the suspended
coffering
these features can be
simple and almost
visible inside the hall, the
severe shallow
the capital, Ch'ang-an, largest, richest and grandest
city
lesser cluster
between columns, the bold and massive structure of beams
Ming and Ch'ing
the arts developed to classic heights.
Of
95
immediately the
scroll
breaks
the
off,
lost.
Sung d)Tiasty dates the second oldest timber

and even grander than the Fo Kuang temple, the
the
building,
Kuan Yin hall of the Tu Lo temple, Chi-hsien, Hopei,

of 984. Kuan Yin, who had become for some reason in
China a feminine personage.was the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, the Lord of Compassion. The building is five
somewhat more than 66 feet long and 50 feet in

coimtmg the eaves overhang, which was again
about 14 feet firom the column centres. Its height is 73 feet,
and it is of three storeys, or two and a mezzanine. These
bays,
depth, not
floors are galleries
well of the
This
weU
full
round the outside of the
contains a colossal clay
nearly 50 feet high. Again
Peking xni Summer palace, Peking XIV Great Wall of China
plan, leaving a
height with an octagonal cupola above.
we
see,
statue
on
of Kuan
Ym,
ground
floor.
the
243
CHINESE
96
Hiung Choo-fu's
254
house.
As individual works
small and simple house.
two
nese architecture,
The kitchen was

The main room on
floor (lower plan) was a
floor (upper plan).
first
ccrcmomal room
tablets
Roman
up
for ancestral
to the
end of the Sung, when buildings of
the
one courtyard on the south-
quahty
this
in their thousands, to say
of those times made up of such buildings,
other
are
hall
nothing of the larger compositions, the palaces and
atrium.
The
The
eaves.
whole of remaining Chia tantaUsing remnant from an age, at least
and finer must have been standing
and family records, rather
like the
and the Fo Kuang
this
in
tiers
the
surely the finest examples in the
bedrooms were on the ground
the
columns, five
the
height and four steps outwards, supporting
Living rooms, reception and
built on.
on
the great bracket clusters
Anhui
Ming dynasty.
rooms were bedrooms.
all
now
cities
wholly
vanished. In these r\vo examples one recognises an archi-
entrance was from
teaural integrity uniting the clearest expression of structure

and function with the utmost subtlety of line and proportion,
west.
which the
straighter,
buildings of later
fussier,
prettier
hall
the Shen
rimes never equalled.
Mu
in Chin-tzu,
near T'ai-yuan, Shansi, built between 1023
and 1031, a
Another interesting
.,^[ig:niii
double-roofed, seven-bay hall with a verandah in front,
which connects with

with
1953.
r
:^
cruciform bridge over a fish-pond,
steps to the front
The
down
and ramps
The bridge was
fi:om the sides.
II
is
to left
248
and right
extensively repaired in
steps in front lead to a Uttle building called the
Hsien Tien, bmlt in 1168.
From
that
Sung dynasty
the
of the K'ai Yuan
also dates a
very fme pagoda,
temple of Ting-hsicn,
Hopci,
251
'Enemy Observation Pagoda', biiilt between looi and

1055. Octagonal in plan and more than 262 feet in height
it had no timber floors but was wholly constructed in
the
i''':.iJi.A.:ii.'|'!.i.ii
brick with brick vaults and corbelling and brick floors.
^\'<mi:4
>54
Furthermore, the detailing
There were
floor. Its
255 Ch'ing dynasty house

in
An
isolated
two courtyards and
several one-storey buildings.
The
in
and a
passages
derives
from
what was
a strategic
Chinese
and
timber-design
at
each
point in the frontier
territories.
The Fo Kung temple pagoda of 1056

purely
room
central
actual use as a mihtary
its
between the Sung and the Liao
house with
the addition of
stairs,
name
watch tower
Anhui
of pure masonry design,
is
with no timber-derived decorations or imitation brackets.
a building of
is
construction.
It
is
entrance, as with other
was
from the south-west into
a courtyard. Principal rooms and
buildings in this tradition,
halls are
found
at the centre
each floor with bedrooms

at the sides.
octagonal on plan and 216 feet in height.
The
are not expressed, except that the verandah
main
five
storeys are expressed, but there are mezzanine floors
which
on the ground
of
floor adds a second tier to the base.
The Sung dynasty, too, was the time of the famous

book Yiiig-tsao Fa Shih, or Architectural Methods and Patterns,
whose first edition was pubhshed and printed in 1103 in
Pien-Uang (Kaifeng). The author was Li Ming-chung,
a scholar, painter
service posts,
of the Board of
largish
staff.
and "caUigraphist,
held various
Works with
civil
and
a deputy, assistants
Besides writing this book, a commission
the emperor, he himself carried out

Illustrations
tend to
who
and eventually was Inspector of Works, head
show
from
this
book
that the colour
from
many building schemes.
are interesting because they
schemes of the Sung period
were more varied and subde than those of the Ming and
Ch'ing periods which are seen today, partly because of
a far greater use
of white.
One must
under the blue-green glazed
and not the orange-yellow
tiled
tiles
imagine these colours
roofs of
of
Sung
palaces
later imperial roofs.
Other differences in the T'ang and Sung ensembles

from those of the Ming and later, which can be ghmpsed
from paintings, are their generally more open and pavihonlike character,
and the greater play with the massing of
244.
THE INTRODUCTION OF BUDDHISM
97
256 Courtyard house, Peking

This detail of a courtyard
shows a subsidiary suite of roorm,

probably bedrooms, with, at the
right, a lower gallery to join
them to the principal living rooms.

The court is paved and set
with
omamenul
as crab apple,
trees
such
and flowers
in pots
were set along the edges.

Here celebrations were held, and
an outer courtyard, a
temporary stage might be set up

when actors were hired for
birthday parties.
257 Courtyard houses, Peking

The basic Chinese house
had buildings facing inwards
on three or four sides of a central
courtyard, the walls being blank
on
their outer sides.
98
CHINESE
buildings of different heights and sizes and
the greater
variety and intricacy of roof shapes.
The Mongol Invasion

Some remarkable reforms
put forward in the
Wang
of the eleventh century by
An-shih
of the opposition of landlords and
broke out
revolts
latter half
failed because
and peasant
officials,
But the Sung were
usual.
as
ing was
finally
swept away by an external force, the Mongol empire of
but
struggle,
years'
institutions
reasons (Yuan dynasty,
was
It
now
a fifty
was ruled by means of Chinese
it
and public works
(e.g.
which were maintained by
nals)
fell after
the post roads and ca-
the
Mongols
for military
among
other things, of Kublai's Peking,
laid
out according to purely Chinese design, and of what
was
really the
Sung
of Hangchow*, where
capital city
went on very much
masonry, a greater simplicity and hori-
solid
sym-
zontality in overall shape, and probably also a greater
metry and formality.

Peking
once, the
at
is,
typical
ing,
example of
'earliest'
town-
many compositions and ensembles,
plan and the source of so
of Chinese architecture, where the individual build-
however
impressive,
is
never the
of architec-
real object
but always a mere part in a larger sequence.
ture,
Pei-ching, the 'northern capital', has existed since about
Polos arrived, and Marco took
under Kublai Khan (1280-95). His travels give
service
valuable glimpses,
change was basically
been other changes: a greater monumentality, a greater use
1279- 13 68).
that the
clear that again the
is
it
aesthetic choice.
of brick and
Genghis Khan, which had already spread over Asia and

penetrated Europe to the Danube. China
lost,
The emphasis has simply been

placed on the roof in a new way by which it now seems
to float above the structure rather than to be carried by
and flung out by the structure. There also appear to have
one of
life
highly unpop-
as before e.xcept for the
2400 B.C., when there was a neoHthic settlement on the

site.
Historically,
was the
it
town
Han
in
capital
of one of the 'Warring
and fourth centuries B.C., a provincial
States' in the third
times, lost to the northern invaders during
the fourth and fifth centuries'A.D., recovered
by the Tang,
again held by the barbarians in the tenth to twelfth centuries.
ular
Mongol garrisons, curfew and other aspects of miliMarco Polo, though innocent of artistic interests, and obhvious to much that he saw**, was an acute
social observer; as a business man he was specially impress-
In 12
as
Ta-tu
tary rule.
or T'ai-du, the 'great capital' of Kublai. This had
many
ed with the wealth and luxur)' of the contemporary China.
{Nan-diitig, 'southern capital'), but in 1403
Hangchow especially should be read.

The Mongol regime lasted only seventy-three years
His account of
after Kublai's death. Secret societies
of resistance and peasant
rebeUions sprang up in increasing numbers.
emperor was,
in fact, a
man of poor
The
Ming
first
peasant origin,
who
Genghis Khan and was rebuilt
to
fell
It
resemblances to later Peking, but was more regular.
The Ming emperors
first
had
their
Lo
re-established Peking as the capital
and
to
the south of T'ai-du. and dead
on
HiU or Prospect HiU. an
artificial hill
out of excavated material from the

enlarged.
The
walls of the city
Nanking
Emperor Yung
capital at
rebuilt
it
shghtly
of Coal
the axis
lakes,
which he had
were faced with
brick.
had become a leader of the peasant armies. With the Ming
the middle of the sixteenth century the population
dynasty (1368-1644), which came in on a tide of patriotism
grown
and national renewal,

amples. In building,
By
this
it
we
enter the period of actual ex-
was an age of enormous productivity.
time, of course, there
in the style
were
several differences
of individual buildings from what had gone
far
beyond
a complete
new
the walls,
and
it
By
had
was intended to build
wall round the whole
but in the
city,
end only the southern suburbs were enclosed within
(lower) waJl, finished in 1552, nine miles round with seven

gates, the 'outer city'.
The roof became higher and steeper. The ridge

and caves lines straightcr and more mechanical. The co-
The plan of the city is thus clear and easy to grasp. It is

composed of four main walled enclosures, the outer city to
lumns therefore became equal
the south, the inner city to the north, the imperial city
before.
their slight
taper and entasis.
in
height; they also lost
The
eaves overhang was
considerably reduced, and the bracket system, instead of

visibly
a
throwing out the eaves over the columns, forming
rhythm corresponding with
reduced to an even
tinuously over
size
and a deUcatc
further increased
Thus,
scale,
by the
The
lateral
was
ruiming con-
column and beam, separating
joining columns and roof.
to the sides
the points of support,
rather than
horizontal emphasis
is
bracketing pieces attached
of the colunms under the tie-beam.
different effect
was produced:
stiffer,
straighter, less
namic but perhaps more decorative. Since there

evidence to suggest that the
art
within the inner
is
dy-
no
of heavy structural bracket-
(the walls
city,
of the imperial
city
no
longer exist) and within that again the palace or 'forbidden'

city.
The
as well.
outer and inner and palace city walls were moated
Almost
main imperial buildings were on
the
all
or immediately about a due north-south axial line rim-
ning from the south gate of the outer dry almost to the
north wall of the inner
city.
The main elements of

civic design, were,
with no change in the structural system, a
still
walls with their

across
them
the plan, considered as a piece of
on the one hand,
the massive concentric
rhythm of bastions and towers, and
cutting
the straight line of a continuous composition
of buildings, spaces and incidents, carefully controlled and

related to each other,
and forming incidentally
dramatic
processional approach to the centre of government.
He
called it Kinsai, or Quinsai, which A. C. Moule decided

meant Hsing Tsai or Hsing Tsai Suo, the 'Temporary Re-
sidence' (of the emperor).
** 'The houses
ated.
The
in general arc
very
solidly built
and richly decor-
inhabitants take such delight in ornaments, paintings
and elaborations that the amount spent on them is something

staggering.' The Travels of Aiarco Polo, translation by R. E.
Latham. Penguin, 1958.
273
formed by Kublai
Two other compositions in the neighbourhood of Peking,

basically
Ming, should be mentioned. One
and Altar of Heaven

tombs, some
is
the
twenty miles north-west of the
original practices of nature-worship, including

altars to the spirits
Temple
in the outer city, the other the

city.
Ming
The
open-air
of nature, had been taken over by the
262
THE MONGOL INVASION
99
258-261 Gardens,
Soochow
for strange
The Chinese uste
shapes and 'natural' forms led to
arrangements
their
way
as
as the
artificial
in
European formal
garden. Curved walls, pierced

screens, extravagantly
shaped
door openings, pools, meandering

paths, bridges and water
everywhere resulted
in a
highly
romantic sophistication.
These characteristic scenes of
Soochow show
the relationship
between garden, building and water.
258 Hsien Yuan

259
Chuo Ching Yuan
260 Shin Tze Yuan
261
Chuo Ching Yuan
CHINESE
lOO
262
PUn of Pddng
Mamly Ming
Confucian
articul
of
dty grew rapidly, the

popuUdon spreading beyond
centtir>'.
the
the southern
\%-alL
dty.
when
the ensemble
gates,
and
in the fifteenth
was begun, the
The whole
site
was
in the
wooded
walled,
enclosure, about a mile square with the northern ends
rounded, contains an inner walled and wooded enclosure
from north
nearly three-quarters of a mile
dty
'inner'
he did the 'mandate of heaven'.
suburbs south of the waU.
In the middle
The
as
were outside the
altars
centurs',
of the sixteenth century,

this southern suburb was enclosed
mthin another wall, thus forming
the 'outer'
and performed by the emperor on behalf
holding
his people,
These
in the fifteenth
hill
state
dynasty (i36-i(S44)-
Rebuilt on che xxis of in
contained the walled
over two-thirds of a mile
just
imperial dty and within that the
western boundary of
walled palace.
east
and
this is a
east
to south
west.
to
by
Near the
square enclosure (but facing
Chai Kung or Palace for Fasting,
west), called
where the emperor stayed
in
preparation for the cere-
monies.
To
the west
is
main
the
part of the composition, running
north and south. The whole ensemble

the side
by
a ramp.
triple-roofed
and
It
263 Plan of the Fu-ch*eng gate.

Inner city, Peking
This gate in the west wall of the
formed of two
buildings on a D-shaped crescent
inner
road.
is
aty
is
a massive loop-holed structure
on
top of the wall through which
an arch
is
of the
circular,
Temple of Heaven in a
north, from which a causeway
nearly 400 yards long, raised to the level of the surrounding

tree-tops, leads south,
first
a semi-circular enclosure
to
containing a smaller circular enclosure, within which
is
a smaller single-roofed circular temple, and, finally, at the
extreme south, to the circular open triple-terraced Altar of
Heaven
set in a
from north
square enclosure.
to south
being raised in
The outer gate building
approached from
blue-tiled
rectangular enclosure to the
î
is
consists essentially
is
The whole composition
about half a mile long. The
level, so that the traverse
fart
of
of the causeway
has been hkened to a 'passage through space', the double
climax of the two main centres, one
at
each end of the
pierced.
ensemble, the perfect interdependence of the parts of the
whole composition, combine
to
make it not only a
rs'pically
Chinese work of art but one of the outstanding architectural

compositions in the world.
The thirteen Ming tombs, those of Yung Lo to Ch'img

Cheng (1403-1644), are scattered over a wide area m a
natural amphitheatre, surrounded by montains some twenty
miles north-west of Peking. That of Yung Lo, the
Chang-ling ensemble, forms a kind of centre to the whole
and
264 Fu-ch'eng Men. Inner city,
Peking
The inner keep of
solid-TA-alled
approached by a long succession of incidents, a
is
succession of stone figures of court attendants and animals,

bridges,
the gate
is
guardhouse with
gateways and so on. Chinese tombs are not
mausoleums but mounds containing the
coffin in
an under-
ground chamber. Until the Ming dynasty, there were no
verandah.
surface buildings,
and these w-ere merely for
and
sacrificial
ceremonial purposes.
The Manchus: the last Feudal Dynasty

In the latter part
of the Ming dynasty, concentrations of
land appeared again, tax irregularities, a dangerous increase

in the
power of the eunuchs and
and oppression
more
this
as
special agents
in their acts
of extortion
of the emperor. Once
peasant wars broke out, and Peking was taken; but
time
profited.
it
was a northern people, the Manchus, who
The Ming emperor
refused to
make common
cause with the insurgents against the invading Manchus.
whole empire, fell to them.

Mongols before them, merely
they found it, and themselves became
In 1644. first Peking, then the
The Manchus, hke

operated the
state as
'sinofied' to the point
the
of losing their
discriminated against
the
own language, but
they
Chinese in various wajT (of
which the enforcement of the
'pigtail'
was one), and they
281
THE HOUSE AND FAMILY
were always nervous of national opposition
to their rule.
However, the Ch'ing dynasty ( 644-191 1) did provide a

long period of peace, during which the population rose to
1
new level, and cultivation and trade continued

Dranu developed, and the novel produced
a
to increase.
2*5 Plan of the Yung-ting gate.

Outer city, Peking
As with the Fu-ch'eng Men, this
gate in the south wall of the
outer city
Dream of the
Red Chamber (by Ts'ao Hsueh-ch'in; eighteenth
The
century).
new deon Ming
visual arts rather continued than rose to
velopments. Architecturally the Ch'ing carried
U, enclosing
form
space.
D-shaped
The Yung-tmg Men
lies at
the very surt of the axial line
and led to the gate of the

inner city.
and added to Ming buildings; there was
rebuilt
styles,
marked by an
its
of
greatest masterpiece, usually translated as the
is
extra length of wall in the
perhaps
hardly a break.
The House and Family

Throughout
period of 'bureaucratic feudalism', the
the
The dominant
family structure remained fairly uniform.
and
'ideal'
among
form, which in practice could be realised only
the better-off,
on Confucian
was the
principles,
large 'joint' family. Based

consisted,
this
in
complete
its
form, of parents, their unmarried children, their married

sons with their famiUes,
all
living under
one 'roof. Married
became members of their

husbands' families. Any male member might have, besides
his principal wife, a secondary wife or wives, whose
daughters
left
the family and
266 T*ien-an Men

(Gate of Heavenly Peace).
Imperial city, Peking
T'ien-an Men, entrance to the
imperial dty, faces a huge square
which has become the Chinese

equivalent of the Red Square in
Trafalgar Square in
Moscow.
London, the Place de la Concorde

m Paris or Times Square
m New
York.
children were also part of the family. In one house there

five generations and,
might be four or
with servants, several
hundred persons.
In the hierarchy of the family the older generation
had
authority over the younger, and the head of the family
was the
father of the oldest generation.
women
was
The
position of
theory quite secondary to men, and they
in
did not ordinarily have a voice in family councils, but
was
neither
their position that
and endowed with
of
chattels;
and
definite rights
could have authority over
men of
it
was graded
duties.
A woman
a younger generation
virtue of the principle mentioned above, and the head
by
of the joint family could

for a father
and not
on
his
be,
his son. In the
was wholly about
Dowager of
woman
This gate stands astride the great

axial
way
Peking
The
red battered base wall
mverted
across a
widow
that crosses
at the palace enclosure.

is
an
on plan. It stands
moat and is surmounted
by white marble
balustrades.
Dream of the Red Chamber, which
a large
and wealthy joint family, the
head of the family was, in

principle that
and often was,
death would be succeeded by his
Wu
Men (Meridian Gate).

267
Inner city, Peking
fact,
woman.
enabled Tz'u-hsi T'ai
It
was
this
Hou, the Empress
the nineteenth century, and other
women
in
Chinese history, to wield poHtical power. So in practice,
women
had much influence
in the joint family
and were
often managers of the family's funds and internal arrange-
ments,
Lady Phoenix was
as
for a time in the
Dream
of
Red Chamber.
the
This general pattern was, of course, subject to exceptions
and
variations.
Poor famihes tended to be smaller
since
268 Peihai Park.

Inner city, Peking
The whole area is nearly three and
a half miles long with three
anificial lakes. In the thirteenth
century,
they could not afford secondary wives, additions to build-
and
ings
so on.
The
traditional courtyard house,
appUed the same general
was
essentially a
more
and
waUed
courtyards, with a
lesser
however,
principles already discussed.
enclosure,
It
composed of one or
main room or
and lower buildings on the
hall facing
south
and west
sides.
east
There are some remarkable Ming dynasty houses that

have survived, though partly in ruins,
They were
all
exceptional in
Anhui province.
more than one way: they were
two-storey buildings in the
streets
of small towns,
or sometimes isolated in open ground outside villages.
when Kublai
lakes, the material
enlarged the
excavated
was used to make Coal Hill, on the

axis of which Peking was built.
CHINESE
269 T'ai-ho Men.

Inner city. Peking
This view of the gate house of
the T'ai-ho Ticn (Hal! df
Supreme Harmony)
Meridian Gale.
is
by
crossed
five parallel
gate house
The
bridges.
from the
is
crescent canal
is
ramped and stepped platform.
The
has a great breadth of
site
scale typical
of Peking.
270 Plan of palace city

or 'forbidden* city, Peking
The Meridian Gate

centre,
stream with
and
its
at the centre
or Hall of
is
above which
is
the lower
the
five bridges,
is
the T'ai-ho Tien,
Supreme Harmony.
271 T'ai-ho Tien, Palace city,
Peking
The main ceremonial
hall
of the
Imperial Palace in which the
emperor gave audiences.

It is flanked by two unequal
pavilions, for resting and workmg.
Here
is
seen the emperor's
throne on
The
its
raised platform.
coffered ceiling
ocugonal binding
made
use of
arches.
272 The Altar of Heaven.

Outer city, Peking
The altar consists of three
concentric terraces with white
balustrades and steps at the
cardinal points. This in turn stands
within a circular enclosure
which
is
a square.
contained within
103
273 Coal Hill, or Prospect Hill
Besides not being "great houses', they were also limited
by sumptuary laws
and
to a considerable plainness externally,
They were not even planned
also in size.
Chuag-shan Park, Peking

Looking due north from the paUcc
much part of the
aty, and very
to face south
composition,
but mostly south-west, for various local reasons. However,
hill
the inward-facing arrangement
was
and though the
kept,
were arranged around them
One example must

house
that of Fang
in a village
house
Hsin-kan's
There was
street.
from which there was
the north-east,
to
to the north-
courtyard forming part of these.
274 Plan of the Temple

and Altar of Heaven, Peking
The circular temple stands on a
The
triple-tiered platform.
kitchen and outbuildings were thus beyond the wall to
bottom of
the
balustrades.
At
open covered
were two
on
it
two
the
sides
the north-west,
and a
with an entrance to the
At
of the courtyard were two

(rooms on the
door opened on
stairs.
an upper
The
of the house
it is
were
to be seen (they
all
wath tung
discloses
oil, as
a three-arched gate
several
points
of
whose members
one of the most remarkable
architectural compositions in the
world, although worked on at
on the north-east and with

the centre of the plan, and
the boldly carved roof,
interest: firstly,
end
to a semi-circular
smaller circular temple.
different times
by
different
architects.
floor.
section
on
enclosure containing another
first
to the street
The main hall is in

the large room above this, not quite central, was probably a
ceremonial hall in which family treasures and ancestral
tablets were placed. The very small room at the right of
the first-floor plan would be a cupboard or store and
not a privy, which at that time would never be placed on
the
by
above ground.
the far
gives
service corridor ran connecting

street
linked to the open-air alur
causeway nearly 400 yards long,
raised
with stone
httle pools
or verandahs
spaces
from one of which
floor),
It is
the plan and to the left of the section. Inside
the shallow courtyard
on the
a subsidiary entrance
nected to the house; and the entrance, from the south-
was through
set
either side.
Hsi-hsien,
in
west and south-west (not shown on the plan) but con-
west,
two on
top and
manner.
narrow lane
There were lower buildings
to the house.
the artificial
of the plans and sections of a
suffice
Anhui
in a traditional
is
mile-long perimeter,
with five pavilions, one
courtyard was reduced in scale almost to a light well, the

plans
with
^ [^
were not painted but treated
was most of the woodwork, though some
ground-floor ceilings and beams were painted with deHpatterns);
cate
secondly, the
south-west
section of the
window-wall, with a window-seat on the line of the columns
and a curved-out section of the under-window panel,

which supported the mulhons outside the columns, and these
mullions, tied back to the columns, supported quite a considerable caves
overhang by means of
two-storey
free-standing
the
with
(street) side,
privacy,
its
own
wall
entirely circulation space
ts
covered with blue
glazed
tiles
platform
marble.
is
the three-tiered
ramped
granular wliite
The
exterior
is
highly
coloured with red columns and
on
the
north-east
corbelled capping, entirely for
though the window-wall on
was almost
a toii-kiiiig; thirdly,
275 Temple and Altar

of Heaven, Peking
The three-tiered roof of the temple
brackets of red, blue, green
and gold.
of the plan
that side
on both
floors
and
only provided light and cross ventilation.
later
tradition
example from the Ch'ing dynasty of the same

to be found in the same locality. This was
is
an isolated house with two one-storey courtyards. The

kitchen,
on
and beyond a lobby, a privy and a
pigsty,
were
the north of this courtyard, and the entrance to the
two-storey house was from the south-west side of the

counyard. The plan followed the usual arrangement, with
the principal
rooms and
and bedrooms
Two
of the
at
each
halls in the centre
of each floor
side.
illustrations here are the plan
and the roof-
from above of a fairly recent Peking house which is

typical enough to serve as a reference to some details of
plan
the Chinese house.
The
exterior walls
were of grey
brick, the
roof of grey
276 Temple of Heaven cupola,

Peking
The carved and painted
interior has a coffered ceiling.
CHINESE
104
277
Drum
half-round
and BcU Tower*.
Inner city, Peking
and
These arc the Ust two northern

buildings
on the main
clay
The
tiles.
gateway,
entrance
doors
its
roof timbers were bright with colour. These en-
its
were the only incidents Ln a street of houses where

rooms looked inwards. Guarded by servants as they
were, no-one passed inside without permission. They were
trances
axis.
all
of contact from the inside to the outside
also the only point
come out
buy from pedlars.
Just opposite the entrance there was the famihar carved
or coloured screen wall. The outer court was paved with
stone slabs. A small pool with lotus growing in it was
world, and here the ladies sometimes used to
watch
to
a procession or
near the centre.

178 The
Drum Tower,
Peking
were
Standing on the intersection
of the main axis and the
crab apple tree
street
of
Tung Chih Men is the Drum

Tower which, though rebuilt,
may be the original Drum
Tower of Kublai's city.
courtyard;
family-rooms
It
was not
mere
some
and
The kitchen and
serv-
But the long
south.
two courtyards marked a defuiite
between the outer half of the house, where
division
acquaintances
came and
where only
was
set
parties
relatives
mally penetrate.
stage
and many flowers
guest-rooms
on the
in the suite
reception hall between the
half,
were
there
in the side buildings.
rooms were
ants'
in the courtyard,
out in pots round the edge.
set
service
and a
'date tree' {Zizyphus vulgaris)
grew
It
was
up when
and the iimer
held,
in the outer that the
actors
when
birthday celebrations,
were
and intimate friends would nortemporary
were hired for the owner's
was
the reception hall
fjled with tables and a temporary kitchen
was
also
installed in
the inner court.
This inner court, encircled by a verandah, was also stonepaved. There was a 'strangely shaped rock' in one corner,
and two
in the
of shrub-peonies faced each other
raised beds
middle of the two
and verandah were
ings
sides.
all
woodwork
other decorated
The columns of the
build-
painted red, and the beams and

other bright colours.
some plans kitchen and service rooms were behind the

main room on the north; but here meals were brought
all the way from the outer courtyard. In summer the
In
279 The Bell Tower, Peking

The last building north on the
axial line.
From
this
south gate of the outer city
about five miles.
was
table
point to the
rained
the
set in
open
court or
air in the irmer
if
it
on the verandah.
is
The
on
use of the
ants
rooms was, of course,
flexible,
depending
and numbers of the family, of guests, depend-
the tastes
and so on. Traditionally the head of the family would
occupy the main
suite
and a married son one of the
side
the
The most private places in this very private house were

two Httlc open-air courts surrounded by high walls,
one
at
suites.
each end of the main
had a date
of the
tree
father.
had just bare
growing
The
in
suite.
it
Neither was paved.
was the
that
other, that of the
One
special retreat
mother and daughters,
earth.
The floors of the rooms were stone slabs, and carpets

were few. The whole window-wall of a room on the
courtyard side was composed of a panel of windows and
doors. Windows were of thick translucent paper, which
had a certain amount of thermal
resistance in winter. In
spring they were rolled up, and the

outside
air.
tinued to
since
rooms opened
Unlike the Japanese and the Indians,
make more
T'ang times
if
to the
who
con-
use of the floor, the Chinese, ever
not earher, have used
and bedsteads of similar heights to those
tables, chairs
in Europe.
Heating was generally by the portable charcoal brazier,

prepared by servants and brought into the rooms
glowing condition.
In the north there
was
also a
in
form of
105
280 Leng-en Tien, Ming tombs,

Peking
Set in groves of pines
and cedars the thirteen Ming tombs
are scattered over a wide area.
The Chang-Ung ensemble, tomb of

Emperor Yung Lo (1403-24),
forms a centre to the whole,
and includes the p'ai-lou, a threearched stone bridge, three-arched
long avenue lined
gateway,
by stone
figures
and animals
in
another gate and two
pairs,
more bridges before

the tomb is actually reached.
This - the Leng-en Tien -
is
the
pnncipal hall in the ensemble and
on
stands
triple
terrace in the
middle courtyard.
281 Five-arched marble

platform (1522-66),
Ming tombs, Peking

The
arch,
p'ai-lou
tomb, with
is
leadmg
to
Chinese triumphal
the principal
parallels in India
and
elsewhere.
This
example
is
of white marble,
roofed with blue glazed
tiles.
282 Fang Ch'eng Ming Lou,

Ming tombs, Peking
At the end of the court beyond
main hall is a brick wall
the
about nineteen
with
topped
feet high,
double-roofed
tower building.
283 Wan Li tomb (1573-1620).

Ming tombs, Peking
An isolated walled grove with a
stone tower.
The tumulus
is
250 yards across; the tomb

an axial arrangement of
five vaulted rectangular
about
is
chambers.
end chamber lay the

bodies of the emperor and his two
wives behind a series of
In the
self-locking doors.
CHINESE
io6
284 Plan of
Summer
Palace
Ch'ing dynasty (1644-1911).

L>'ing six milci north-west
of Peking, the Summer Palace

extends over 832 acres (inset).
Lakes,
hills,
islands
and woods,
all
carefully landscaped, are the setting

for more than 100 buildings.
The main buildings arc in the
northern quarter, on a peninsula

(large illustration).
285
Summer
Palace lake
The lake is surrounded by

an embankment and has
a system of causeways
and islands; it is based

on the West Lake at Hangchow.
286 Fo Hsiang Ko,
Summer
Palace
The main group of

dominated by
this
buildings
is
octagonal tower.
287 The long gallery,
Summer
Palace
covered way from

group of courtyard buildings
near the entrance, on the east,
Extends
all
the
as a
way
along the south shore
of the promontory.
The beams of each bay of
this
gallery are painted with scenes of
the palace.
288 White marble bridge.

Palace
Summer
THE CHINESE GARDEN AND ARTIFICIAt LANDSCAPE
undcrfloor hearing, the
k'aiifi
or raised heated dais extending
over part of the room. Solid fuel was shovelled in at one
end and
other the products of combustion extracted
at the
above the caves. There were never
a short flue taken
bv
107
289 The Empress Dowager's

marble boat. Summer Palace
At the extreme western end of the
is a group of buildings
gallery
including the fantastic marble boat

built
chimneys
Chinese houses. The
in
a sleeping area at night, without a bedstead.
by day and
area
served as a sitting
fe'iiii^
Clothes, however, were an important part of the heating
system. Reversing the
and thick
quilted
house. This, at
modern
The
was
bathroom were more
Europe and do not always appear
plans at
on
a verandah or in an outhouse.
of a narrow-hned rectangular
The
privy, consisting
290 Bridge of Seveoteen Arches,
Summer
Palace
This elegant piece of engineering

connects the eastern shore of
the lake to one of the principal
about two
pit
air,
deep,
feet
islands.
over one end, was often built
seat built
shed in some convenient corner. Sewage
was by a system of
enterprise,
and
and ceremonial purposes.
on
disposal
many of
buildings.
Artificial
The kitchen was sometimes in the open
as a separate little
the other
lamps and candles. The Chi-
for decorarive
casually treated than in
with a narrow
who
also responsible for
warmed
and out of doors.
in
oil
kitchen, the privy and the
all.
was
had the advantage of greater adapt-
hghting was generally by

nese lantern
the nineteenth-century
fur-lined or
shoes in a slightly
felt-soled
least,
going constantly
ability to
practice of light clothes
Chinese in winter wore
the
hearing,
full
by
Empress Dowager
often run by private
carts,
which empried the
privies at night in a
door-
to-door collection and dehvered the sewage outside the

walls to the surrounding farms,
and used for
As
fertihser.
emphasised that aU
toilet
where
was composted
it
bathroom,
to the
must be
it
arrangements in the houses of
were mainly
the better-off, mcluding bathing and washing,
provided for by means of basins, bath-tubs, commodes,

etc.,
brought to private rooms by
servants.
As
in
all civili-
zarions until the industrial age, domestic comfort, even that
of a comparatively modest house such
as this
example,
let
alone the luxury of a palace, depended not only on the

buildings and equipment but
In this house there
on the cheap labour of servants.
would be
at least six
men
servants
and
three maidservants living in, besides servants hving outside.
The men slept
in the servants'
rooms
in the outer courtyard,
291 Confucian temple, Ch'u-fu,

Shantung
This shows the Pei Ting pavilion
the temple group, the focal
point of which was the hbrary
Wen
(K'uei
Confucian
Ko) containing
Nearby were
tablets.
stables for visitors to
horses,
all
a.xially
The foundation
A.D.
keep their
planned.
dates
from
153-
rooms of the females in their charge.

plan often was adapted to the needs
a house on high ground near Hangchow,
the surrounding hills on the west, north
the maids in the
The convenrional
of a
special site. In
with views on to
and
east,
the entrance
is
from
the south.
The whole
plan
turned outwards instead of inwards. The south-facing

orientarion is dropped; the main hall is turned to face west
is
and
east.
round to
ond
One
room, perhaps
side
face south
hall takes the
on
for a guest,
form of
air
inward on
and across
it
sec-
room with a loggia,

view. One internal space
has been created; the study or hbrary has

faces
twisted
The
a garden
looking west and north on to the
and
is
to the entrance courtyard.
no external view
open to the
covered space on
to a pool in a tiny court
to the
back wall of a
the other side.
In a Chinese house, the garden and the artificial landscape
were based upon
Tibetan-style temples built at Jehol
by Ch'icn Lung, is dramatically

placed on a hillside, adapting
it'elf
The Chinese Garden and Artificial Landscape

principles startlingly different
from
all
We
have noriced the dual influence of Confucianism and Taoism on Chinese thought. This duality
of opposites is clearly expressed in the relarionship, both
architecture.
292 P'u-tuo Tsung-cheng

temple, Jehol. 1767
This temple, one of several
contradictory and complementary, between the Chinese
to the contours.
CHINESE
io8
house and the Chinese garden, and their extensions, the

city
and the
artificial
were formed by Confucian ideas:

formality, symmetry, straight lines, a hierarchy of impor-
The house and
the city
man-made
tance, clarity, conventionality, a
by
den and the landscape were formed
The
order.
gar-
typically Taoist
conceptions: irregularity, asymmetry, curvOinear, undulat-
258-261
possible the remarkable synthesis of the artificial landscape,

a landscape
landscape.
which was purely
nature and yet was a composition of buildings too. While

it
was based on the natural topography of the
elements could be purely
The
West Lake
area of the
been mentioned. The lake
persistent feeling for wild nature.
islands
was
this
sought to evoke, even on a

rived the principles that
garden
that the Chinese garden
image of wild nature
the avoidance of
and from
sniall scale,
came
moiJd
to
de-
this
the style of the
of the avenue and
straightness,
the vista, of 'seeing to the end' of anything, the avoidance
of
the modelling of levels, the creation of
'rules',
hills,
sides
the east with
which
wandering or rambHng
to re-create the experience of a
Yet man was to be present too,
a vaster landscape.
as in the wildest
of the landscape paintings there was
most always some
figure, hut, path or bridge.
in
just
al-
There was
no dichotomy between architecture and nature. There

were more architectural elements in the Chinese garden
than in those of Europe, and this integration of the two
to be
was one of the great achievements of the Chinese
things
and
were the earth
natural elements of the garden
itself
modelling; water; rocks, stone and sand; trees and
its
shrubs, flowers
and moss. Grass played
and the lawn was never used
The
at all.
rock was a special Chinese
ly shaped
inal function
was
no pan,
Httle or
cult
of the strange-
tradition.
Its
orig-
to suggest in miniature the dizzy crags
of the Chinese landscape, but the search for rocks of more

and more remarkable shape became a sort of collectors'
cult, as if
The
is still
buildings surrounding
it,
of the garden, apart from the
were: walls (of course); gateways
it
The
men-
other famous pieces of landscaping are worth

:
the area of the present PeOiai Park in Peking.
first,
three artificial lakes he to the west of the palace in
Landscaping of
began
this area
was developed by Kublai
Ming
city
was
built
on
in the twelfth century
and
When
the
in the thirteenth.
the axis of Coal Hill, this area
remained an imperial pleasure-ground, with romantically

placed buildings, hbraries, theatres, temples, studios, boathouses, residences of princes, built around the shores.
The
was here
that
all this. It
Emperor Kuang Hsu was virtually imprisoned in enforced

seclusion by the Empress Dowager until his death, after
had crushed
she
his effort to
The second example

close to the
Western
is
the
Hills
the city walls of Peking.
is
from
Summer
about
Palace,
six miles
which hes
hills,
which
is
lake; the rest
is
which leads into groups of

where the imperial hving quarters
the east,
south-facing courtyards
and court buildings were. From here,
all
along the south
covered ways; bridges and pavihons. Walls, with their
ered wav, the beams of each bay decorated with paint-
form than
tours, serpentine in elevation.
were another
specially
Shaped openings into gardens
Chinese tradition: oval,
many
fan-shaped, hexagonal and
other forms.
circular,
The
object
was to frame a view or some special aspect of the garden

by means of the shape. Decorative lattice work, always a
feature
of windows, was lavished
designs for
open-work wooden
in
garden buildings. The
balustrades, for paths
and
paving, were endless in variety. Open-sided covered ways

connecting parts of a building or of a garden were often
meandering
in plan, rose
and
fell
in level
and sometimes
to the grey-greens
added touches of bright colour

water and plants. Bridges also
were
of rocks,
built across the per-
Pa\'ihons,
of a surprising variety of plan-forms, were
of
specially
important
for they
were outdoor rooms, on an
of a lotus-covered
The
principles
as centres
lake, or
of scenes from the Summer Palace

At the centre of the peninsula, rising to the top of
the hOl, is an ensemble of buildings and courts dominated
by a high octagonal tower, called the Fo Hsiang Ko. The
on
interest
and
also for use,
island in the
middle
itself
covered
group
tastic
way
passes along the shore
Palace,
were appHcable to landscaping on
their
built
their
state,
286
to the
by the Empress Dowager. She was,
many of the
buildings of the
which was her favourite
works of great vigour and charm.

In 191 1 the Manchu dynasty were
by
this
west end 'of the peninsula, containing a fan-
at the
marble boat
in fact, responsible for
mer
beyond
own
289
Sum-
residence, initiating
finally
overwhelmed
obstinate refusal to reform or modernise the
by which means alone the
economic systems,
threat
of the Western
now so much superior to theirs (includwho had not refused to reform), could
have been met. Sun Yat-sen took

there culminated a
office in 1912: in
more complete
the fascinating problems of
modem
social revolution,
1949
but
Chinese architecture,
which the aims of industriahsation and the expanding build-
a hilltop.
of the garden, from
287
ings (by craftsmen)
ing that of Japan,
petual pools or streams.
285
causeways, islands and woods.
shore of the peninsula, runs a long brightly coloured cov-
elsewhere, curving or zigzag on plan, roUing to the con-
284-29<
north-west of
The composition extends over
823 acres, the greater part of
composition of artificial
introduce reforms in 1898.
or openings; lattice work; balustrades; paths and pavings;
usual and subdividing functions, were freer in
268
There was a fourth lake to the north.
the imperial city.
The entrance
for natural pieces of abstract sculpture.
architectural elements
on
there to impress the visitor as
Ch'ing emperors greatly added to
tradition.
The
main
in the
city itself
wall completed the vast composition,
its
impressed Marco Polo.
Two
it
some of them. The
placed on the slopes of
tioning
succession of incidents;
has already
the causeways and the
of monastery buildings and pagodas were dramatically
was
Hangchow
at
itself,
were all artificial. The ring of mountains on three

of the lake was brought into the landscape, and groups
the placing of rocks and the constant introduction of water.
The garden was to be
place, large
artificial.
ing and zigzag forms, mystery, originality, a deep and
It
work of art, but not some-
thing formal or urbane, which had the quahties of wild
very nature,
a large scale
and made
ing programmes have put before the Chinese, are outside

the scope of this survey.
Stone Lantern, Katsura Imperial Palace gai.
ISiiflK^
^*
j>
jî.-
*^-v*.
JAPANESE
ifi
i<*j
<v^.
*<5t
*.
^MTh^l
JAPANESE
no
and chronological methods arc not
293 Imperial palace, Kyoto
The
Begun eighth
entirely suited to dealing
centtiry.
294 Sairyo-4len, imperial palace,
usual historical
of
the history
Kyoto
The
with Japanese architecture and
development.
its
reasons for this are due to the
immunity of Japan,
The imperial Japanese capital was

moved to Kyoto in the eighth
over very long periods, from external interference or in-
century.
fluences.
From
has
then on, the imperial palace
been continually rebuilt and
restored
owing
the
to
perishable
Those
which have operated, such
influences
of Chinese
that
civilization
of Korea, have been of themselves continuous and only
new
gradually developing, assimilating
nature of the building materials,
mainly wood. The Japanese

house and palace alike favoured
as
and the neighbouring culture
The same
elements.
consequently true of rehgious and philo-
is
economic changes.
sophical development, and of social and
the courtyard plan.
Presenting a blank exterior to the
Even
outside world, a miniature
tion of
world within was
built
original
vived alongside the
Japanese building tends to be
latively
on account of the
timber post and hght
new
behefs,
and are current today
re-
unchanged.
Complementary
and strong tradition of
to this steady
infilling
thought was the highly organised structure of a medieval
panel construction used.
The roof
erup-
influential
A.D. 538) into Japanese life, the

and age-old beUefs and traditions of Shinto sur(after
round carefully laid-out gardens.

rectangular
and immensely
great
Buddhism
of
verandahcd apartments ranged
the
after
construction was of
society based
composite bracketed
on an
industrious and skilled peasantry
bound
to their lands.
and corbelled beams.
The whole was
by
reinforced
a highly developed crafts-
manship using the available indigenous building materials

of timber, metal, clay and
One
fibre.
can onJy compare such a culture to that of the
Nile valley; in which the overall forms are constant, and
changes can only be observed after close examination.

In complete contrast to this
immunity from external
dis-
turbance and the stabihty of the social structure, there has
been throughout Japanese
of physical
ity
forces
disaster,
life
the constant threat and actual-
on a gigantic
scale,
from
the natural
of earthquake and storm, to which these islands are
subject.
For they are situated on the edge of the Pacific
hurricane belt and also in an area where earthquakes are
of regular and frequent occurrence.
295 Sand garden,

imperial palace, Kyoto
To Uve
with these great natural
compelled to
versal use
restrict
men
have been
of timber for building right up to the advent of
Western influence
them
forces,
themselves to the continued and uni-
in the last eighty years,
which brought
and reinforced concrete and engineering tech-
steel
niques to counter the effects of nature. This choice of

terials
was made
forest products
easier
by
ma-
the variety and quantity of local
and of the general-purpose bamboo.
Stone, though available in plenty, has in consequence
been practically eliminated
some
for
296 Stone garden,
Ryoan-ji monastery, Kyoto
defences of the great feudal
dies,
have an
air
of timelessness about them.
They
a building material, except
few
and
rural areas,
for the
castles.
resulting
of great influence on Japanese architecture,

from the impermanent and temporary nature of
many
materials used for construction, has been the re-
Fifteenth century.
These Japanese gardens, where

nothing grows or
as
store houses 'and in a
so
side effect
placement of ancient buildings by exart rephcas,
as illustrat-
are a tangible result
Shinto shrines (A.D. 478) which, though
of the teaching of Zen Buddhism.
ed by the
Rigidly formal on one hand
probably identical with the original design, have, in
in their use
of raked sand,
earliest
been reconstructed
many
times
stepping stones and their careful

design, they
depend too on the
twenty
strange rocks and selected twisted

trees.
This cult of the contrast
accident of nature
,t
is
called
'sharawagi' by the Japanese,

and has had some influence on
modern
architerture in the West.
vitally
effect that the use
between discipHned design and the
frequently as every
as a result
important feature to bear in mind
is
the
of timber always has on form and plan
of the basic use of
rectilinear character
L-ven in
as
years.
Another
cunous fortuitous shapes of
297
fact,
common
units
of length,
becomes universal and all-pervading,
asymmetrical lay-outs.
This natural formality has been used
as a contrast
XV
by
the
Kasiiga Shrine,
iVafiJ
wv
'<iUfrîr
w*
airt^*^
:W^^=
;^#'
i
!*#
^m^'
%/
t**'
>îîS^s
Jt.A-
..'
***
^'\M
XVI
XVII
RACE, GEOGRAPHY
AND CLIMATE, MATERIALS
Japanese to the extreme and sometimes hyper-self-conscious
of their gardens;
irregularity
trast
between
their society's
tliis is
also related to the
297 The inner shrine of the sun

goddess, Ise
con-
Fifth century.
extreme rigidity and the uni-
and 'nature consciousness' of
versality
"3
This shrine has been continuously
their rehgious or
without alteration
rebuilt
philosophic outlook.
every twenty years.
Race
steeply
Its
pitched thatched roof
is
developed form of the indigenous

tent-shaped thatched Japanese
That these
with
is
all
cidtural traditions should
their attendant crafts practically intact,
of unique value,
as
it is
medieval society and
its
up
to 1868,
The
stilts.
framework of
bamboo
thatch
laid
is
on
closely lashed
poles.
possible to sec a highly developed
arts at
comparatively close quarters.
study of that society makes
losses in individual skills
hut on
have been preserved,
more
clear the
enormous
and values that have occurred
in
the course of the Western industrial revolution.
The Japanese and where they came from can

deduced from the map.
It
forming the population of these
They came by
best be
clear that the early
is
islands
races
298 Kumesu Shinto shrine,

Matsue. Built 1346
were not Chinese.
both from the south, from Indonesia
sea
Heavy
and overhanging eaves of Japanese

buildings, and also made it
successive
waves of invasion, driving the native population
of primitive
and early
tribes
steadily northwards.
necessary to raise the floor to
become
such as the Ainu,
arrivals,
and humidity dictated
rain
the steeply pitched roof
and Indo-China, and from Mongoha via Korea and Manchuria an admixture of landmen and seamen arriving in
platform on
stilts.
These invaders probably brought with
them knowledge of metals and the primitive crafts. Subsequently, in historic times, more immigrants came in from
Korea, often craftsmen especially encouraged to
the skills
settle for
which they could mipart.
Geography and Climate

Geographically Japan
is
a curving line of rocky islands of
volcanic origin following the
main outhne of
eastern Asia
and mountain heights running roughly north and south.

It
has, therefore, as
one would expect, a high
erned by seasonal trade-winds, which
rainfall
299 Kasuga shrine.

Founded A.D. 768
One of the oldest existing
gov-
greatest in the
is
there
is
great variation in temperature
The high humidity of
the
with light infilhng panels

for protection.
Sohd load-bearing walls
between the climate
islands.
vermilion.
summers
has dominated the
The numerous
worshippers,
to
seem
are rare.
painted bright
is
are votive offerings
design of buildings, public and domestic, and on the whole

the rigours of the cold, dry winters
is
one of timber frame structure
This shrine
of the north and south of the
Shinto
shrines. Japanese architecture
summer and autumn and least in mid-winter. Average

annual ramfall in Tokyo is 63 inches as against, say, 24
inches in London. Also owdng to the difference in latitude
early
lanterns
from
some dating back
1323.
to have been
met by stoicism and the wearing of additional clothes.

To meet these summer conditions, buildings have been
raised on open wooden platforms, which remind one of
traditions of southern Asia. They can be thrown open by
systems of screens to allow free circulation of air.
have considerable overhang to throw off the

shade in
summer
The
rains
roofs
and give
300 Traditional fiirmhouse,

Kansai area
while allowing winter sun to penetrate.
Being of timber, they are
Seventeenth century onwards.
relatively safe against earthquake
Outer walls of country houses are
but highly vulnerable to
fire.
generally filled in with cob.
mud bound by chopped
Materials
advantage
The building
materials available, as has already been
tioned, are mainly forest products: paper,
Roofs were,
in
tiles
men-
js
and metals.
large buildings.
ridges,
tile
roofs
were introduced
Somctmies they were
These are often made to
later for
opened up
finished with copper
and other decoration for temples, town

while the earher materials were stiU in use.
spirals
houses, etc.,
the frame to
such as oiled paper.
early days, always thatched or of bark
but elaborate
uken of
use panels of hghtweight material
so that sides
shingles,
straw.
In the courtyard walls full
300
Palace of the Shoîms, Kyoto xvii Niiwmarii Palace Hall within the Nijo Castle, Kyoto
of rooms
in
slide
may
be
fine weather.
JAPANESE
114
301 Nagoya castle.

Completed 1611
The pagoda-likc form and
The Japanese
approach
craft
wood
is
other
fields.
The wood
unique, as has been their

is
seldom pamted
the
curvilinear tiled roofs are
or treated, but
imported influences from China.
ploit
Tlic dcred galleries are supported
by
use of
in
its
is
and used so
carefully selected
as to
ex-
natural characteristics of texture and colour.
Stone was available; some particularly suitable for build-
a diminishing series of
from Tochigi, used
ing, such as the soft volcanic rock
bracketed beams.
fu'e-proof buildings,
fortifications,
it
is
was not used on
the bases of posts, platforms
and
in the
form of
and
a large scale except for
steps, for
garden pavings
natural boulders, an essential feature of
Japanese gardens. Wattle and daub

walling in country
for
But apart from
in general use today.
in frequent use for
is
districts.
The pre-Buddhist Period

This period
starts
mother goddess. As
the
Jomon
with the
to the Asiatic mainland,
and
neolitliic culture related
associated
is
a culture
with worship of
stretches back into the
it
second millennium B.C., without records or
historical
landmarks.
Early dwelhngs appear to be of
two main
types, often
327-329
interchanged; pit dwellings of rectangular or oval plan and

the hut type usually, with the floor raised
on
a platform,
Japanese castles are built on a
The latest examples of Jomon

pottery have been found in Honshu and date from about
heavy stone platform. The heavy
1000 B.C.
302 Osaka
of southern
castle.
curved battering
is
1587
protection
The Yayoi
Asiatic origin.
culture, centred in
against earthquake as well as stege.
The
in
stone courses are cut to slope
techniques
craft
Kyushu, marked an advance
owing much
from
to influences
the
mainland, particularly from China and Korea.
inwards towards the rubble core.
The culmination of these developments was seen during

when the precepts of the
the third and fourth centuries,
Shinto religion were being estabhshed and the central im-
government was being formed from the
perial
ing principalities and
monuments
kingdoms of
earlier times.
conflict-
The nuin
surviving are the great tujnuli and tombs
centring round the plain of Yamato, south-east of Osaka.
These tumuli are of Korean

lated to the stiipas
style,
and probably are
of China and Buddhist
sides
were strengthened with baked
were
later
clay cylinders
ornamented with heads and
and strongly
local character called
figures
Haniwa.
memorial mounds cover an immense

It is
from
India.
the tops
of a
striking
Some of
these
area.
this period, too, that the traditional
the Shinto shirnes, such as those at Ise,
re-
Their
forms of
were developed and
have survived relatively unchanged to the present day. The
form of these shrines h.-s had more influence on the outlook and methods of Japanese architects than any other
group of buildings, until the advent of Western influence.
303 Nijo castle, Kyoto. 1603

This mtenor of the kuro-shom
chamber clearly shows the framed
structure with a
coffered ceiling.
proportions are
great care.
beamed and
The panel
worked out with
The wall
arc sophisticated
There are Uterally thousands of such shrines throughout

the country, but the groups at Ise retain the original ancient
paintings
form, construction and lay-out most closely;
and elegant.
of repeated reconstructions,
as
well
as
this in spite
of being the most
venerated.
The two
chief shrines are the
Ise
Naiku, dedicated to the
Geku, dating from A.D. 478

and associated with the sun goddess. In them are combined
all the essential and constantly recurring features of thatched
grain goddess, and the
Ise
roof with spreading eaves, platform for the main rooms
and
light
They
timber partitions and walls.
stand inside fenced enclosures and with subsidiary
buildings and store house

303
very
much on
the lines that
297
THE PRE-BUDDHIST PERIOD
"5
304 Matsutnoto castle.

Founded sixteenth century.
The surprisingly hght-looking
structure seems to float above the
sloping stone base surrounded
by
The
wide moat.
shuttered galleries were
constructed for use of and defence

against archers.
Archery reached
very high
standard in Japan, and was
still
favoured for silence and

surprise long after the introduction
of
firearms.
305 Osaka castle
The
mam
weapon
against the
Japanese castle or palace was
The upper
storeys
heavy timber,
style
fire.
were of
built in log cabin
and rendered externally.
The lookout towers
or keeps
contained living quarters and
on a palatial
and elegance.
store houses, often

scale in
both
size
JAPANESE
Ii6
306-310 Horyu-ji temple,

Nara. A.D. c. 607
This, the oldest existing temple in
Japan, was built by Prince
Shotoku, an early convert to
Buddhism. The temple plan was

intended to be a complete
world
in miniature.
The
principal
shrines, the hall for prayer
and
teaching, and the tope,
the sacred tower, are four square

to the quarters
of the
earth,
and
have the four cardinal entrances
up
flights
of
steps.
The pagoda, which

sometimes almost
China was
in
solid,
is
complete framed structure.
The
introduction of
Buddhism
to
Japan opened the way to

strong Chinese influences in
philosophy and
all
as in architecture.
tiled roofs
the arts as well
The curved,
and bracketed
pillars
from China, but the lightness

of the structure, which makes
are
the roofs appear to float
above the buildings,
is
Japanese.
310
117
ASUKA PBRIOD, NARA PERIOD
must have been followed
The
lay-out of these groups of buildings and their en-
closures
this
symmetry beyond
and into the
Even
symmetrical, though no attempt
basically
IS
made to carry
aries
of the imperial
in the lay-out
of those days.
residences
relation
The Daibutsuden
bound-
of
of one building with another.

in
wood
seen here, the
of the Great Buddha,
cella or hall
is
the immediate
the early buildings demonstrate the constant
of Japanese thought and plarming,

mality
is
311 Todai-ji temple, Nara

Eighth century onwards.
Another arly temple at Nara.
with a
tile
roof.
160 feet high, 187 feet long
It is
and 166
wide.
feet
theme
which extreme
for-
contrasted and surrounded by the almost self-
is
conscious awareness of nature and natural forms.
Undoubtedly, the royal palaces were large and comparatively elaborate, modelled,
no doubt, on
ideas
from
the
mainland, acquired through contact with Korea. But none
of these or
their sites has survived, largely
moving of
dition of the
due to the
tra-
the seat of the imperial court at
the death of each emperor.
AsuKA Period (538-645)

By
this
time the imperial house was estabUshed
at
Yamato
and had close associations with the Korean Three Kingdoms, and through them with the Wei dynasty of north
From Korea were
China.
in 538.
By
the end of the
century. Prince Shotoku Taishi, regent in the
si.xth
of
introduced the fust Buddhist
and teachers
scriptures, writings
his
name
aunt the empress, was converted to Buddhism.
The
effect
of the introduction of Buddhism, apart from
the religious and philosophical aspects of
its
teaching, im-
312 Todai-ji temple, Nara

comer of a wooden store
This
house shows the traditional log

cabin type of construction.
mediately increased the country's cidtural and political
with China, and brought with
much
it
ideas
ties
It
of building on a
grander scale than before. This growth of outside
contact wdth the highly developed and already ancient civ-
of China introduced,
ilization
and sophisticated
at
one
leap, a fully
grown
was from
this half-lapped joint,
combmed with
corbelling outwards
to
form an inverted pyramid
order that the notches should
be staggered, that the

Sino-Japanese bracket grew.
art tradition.
Chief among Prince Shotoku's works was the foimdation
of the Haiyu-ji temple. Other temples, such as the Shitcrmo-ji, Hokyi, Hamji and Horyu-ji, were established, the
last
named being
original buildings
(the
main
Much
built in 607.
:
preserves
some of
its
sanctuary).
of the work of the period was done by Chinese
and Korean
artists
and craftsmen
Yamato, and
settle in
It stiii
the pagoda, the gatehouse and the kondo
who
who had
been invited to
brought with them the models
for sculptures, such as the great gilded bronze statue of the
Sakyamuni
Tari, the
trinity in the kondc
of Horiyu-ji, executed by
grandson of a Chmese immigrant, and dedicated
Many
such bronzes with their symmetrical styUsed

and archaic smiles must have been derived from
small portable figures, and are typical of the Asuka period.
in 625.
draperies
Nara Period
313 Todai-ji temple, Nara.
Negasu-do
The Todai-ji group
largest
(645-793)
in japan,
is
one of the
the space taken
equalling that of the imperial
The seventh century saw a funher increase

from the mainland. Relations were estabHshed
the T'ang dynasty at
its
capital
in influences
directly
with
and scholars passed between the two countries.

The climax of this influence was reached with the found-
new
rectilinear city-plan,
it
was a
close
capital at Nara.
Having
a symmetrical,
with the imperial palace
copy of the lay-out of the
It
is
Chinese rather
several times since the eighth
Ch'ang-an, and emissaries,
travellers
ing in 710 of a
palace.
than Japanese and has been rebuilt
as the focus,
capital city
of
Ch'ang-an.
Buddhism was all powerful, and Emperor Shomu ordered
The whole group

was extremely impressive as can be
judged by the magnificent
south gate, the Negasu-do, built in
the twelfth century and is
century.
influenced
by Indian building.
JAPANESE
ii8
314 Daibutsuden.
that a temple be built in each province,
Todai-ji temple, Nara
The high upswept
caves and the
portico over the main entrance are
strongly reminiscent of the
Japanese
torii
or free-standing
sun gates. This

largest
wooden
is
It
The
tury survived.
temple-monasteries, for example the
and the Toshodai-ji, are magnificent
mipcrial Todai-ji
groups of buildings, of which
under one roof, in the world.
311
claimed that twenty buildings of the eighth cen-
is
the
building,
of them subor-
all
dinate to the Todai-ji imperial temple near Nara.
sufficient original structures
remain, in spite of destruction and rebuilding, to
and
their scale
and
style
illustrate
to allow for fairlv detailed re-
constructions.
Elaborate roofs of glazed
columns painted
and painted decorations in
them
315 Pagoda of the Yakushi-ji
temple, Nara
tiered roofs
evenly but
which
this
do not taper
show freedom
in design
gives the elevation of
pagoda something of the
character of Japanese calligraphy.
made
colour in the interiors
full
glorious in colour and form.
The
was the low Buddha haU, or
central feature
contrasted with the pagoda, which had
Eighth century.
The
woodwork and
external
tiles,
with overhanging eaves and gilded
red,
and other monastic
a lecture hall
stiipa,
One of
koiido,
superseded the
buildings.
the buildings of particular interest surviving
is
the magnificent Shosoin, the imperial treasure-house, built
about 752, of triangular timbers

logs of a log cabin,
laid horizontally, like the
and supported on
platform and huge
312
timber columns.
new and
All this
elaborate building activity did not pre-
vent traditional Japanese structures from being built for
everyday purposes, with
changed
in
traditional
their
forms hardly
any way.
Heian Period (794-1185)

The period commences with the removal of the capital
from Nara to Heian-Kyo (City of Tranquil Peace), the
present
site
The new
plan
and
of Kyoto.
was
city
some ways was
in
the Chinese court

tion to that
316 Pagoda of Horyu-ji

temple, Nara
the spire
is
pagoda
an adaptation
of Buddha's many-tiered canopy

or umbrella.
on the
of a Chinese city-
lines
by
by the contacts made with
increased
the nobihty
and by
traders, in addi-
of the Buddhist monks and missionaries
who
had provided the original channel between the court and

the outside world.
Eighth century.
In this and the previous
built
Nara. Chinese influence was as strong as ever,
as at
In this period the
new Buddhist
sects
of Shingon and
Tendai were introduced to Japan, and they brought with
them
a mass
of minor
divinities
and a
desire for greater
elaboration in buildings and decoration. Their influence
even affected the ancient simpHcity of the native Shinto

religion,
whose symbols were,
mented by
in fact,
representations of
began
During
draw
to
this
for the first time, supple-
its
gods.
The two
reUgions,
together.
period began the system of the peasantry
paying their dues to landowners or their agents instead of

to the imperial
government, and
into the feudal system,
Towards
the
this
gradually developed
which gave power
to the samurai.
end of the tenth century, the decline of
the T'ang empire accelerated the development of an inde-
pendent Japanese culture. Scholars ceased to travel between
two capitals, and finally diplomatic contact between

them ceased. Even contact with Korea was diminished.
From about 898, a far greater independence from forthe
eign
ideas
began to develop among the
nobility,
ruled the country in the emperor's name. This

referred to as the Fujiwara period, the
mous
dle
who
name of
is
who
often
the fa-
governed Japan up to the midof the twelfth century. It was the first prolonged period
clan
effectively
293
HEIAN PERIOD
119
317 Itsukushima shrine,

western Japan
Thirteenth century.
The Japanese loved
contrast, the
man-made
refined artificiality of
objects with natural freedom.
Buildings connected
by
corridors and covered
bridges,
ways
are irregularly dispersed

rocks,
wood and
among
water.
317
318 Rinkaku-ji
(Golden Pavilion), Kyoto

Fourteenth century.
The
a
elaborate care with
site
which
was chosen
was not
aesthetics
matter of
- feelings - alone, but a
prmciple of Buddhist doctrine,
which constantly
refers to
the lessoris to be learned from the
observation of nature
itself.
JAPANESE
120
319-321 Saimyo-ji main hall

Fourteenth centxiry. Sketch, plan
znd
section.
The bnckctcd capiul and

composite beams are similar to
those of China.
Although the basic form
the
is
rectangular bay, these bays are
capable of independent
development, and
is
a strict
symmetry
not necessarily imposed.
The frame structure carrying its

load upon posts and the raising of
the floor into a platform make
Japanese buildings independent of
the hmitations of a sloping
or irregular
site.
322 Kiyottiizu-dera temple,
Kyoto
Reconstrurted 1633.
The
shrines
and
halls are carefully
distributed over a sloping
wooded
site.
323 Shitenno-ji monastery,
Osaka
Sixth century onwards.
Reconstructed pbn.
The
early
monastery and temple
plans adhered to the strict
symmetry of their Chinese models.

This reconstructed plan
is
the earliest monastery of
remains are
still
visible.
of
which
KAMAKURA PERIOD
121
324, 325 Zen hall, reconstructed

from Daitokuji Hatto, Kyoto
of almost complete and deliberate national isolationism.

In opposition to the earlier esoteric Buddhist sects, the
Seventeenth century.
aristocracy favoured the cult of

salvation
Many
open to
is
who
all
Amida
which
(Jodo), in
Zen
invoke the Buddha's name.
teaching
clear halj
lecturer,
temples were built by emperors and nobles. Sur-
demanded
a large
with a platform for the
and
minimum
of
distraction in the
form of images
viving examples of the period arc the pagoda of Daigoji,
and decoration
an aid to
the Sangcn-in, and the lecture halls of the Koryu-ji and
contemplation.
as
The main load-bearing columns
Horyu-ji monasteries. All these were elaborately decorated
are set well within a light
In the temples the difference
between inner and outer
was eliminated, bringing
sanctuaries
all
curtain wall.
the images to-
gether in one crowded enclosure.
The palaces and, particularly, the homes of the nobiUty

grew more elaborate, in a style known as shiitden-zukuri.
Here we
style
on
development, on a large
by the
characterised
irregular dispersal
buildings sometimes linked with covered
ridors,
trees,
of
of rectanguways or cor-
and passing through and carefully related
scheme of
ficial
scale,
one of the typical features of Japan's architecture.
as
It is
lar
see the early
of domestic building which has come to be looked
water-ways or ponds, creating
world of
its
to a
whole
and romantic gardening with rocks,
naturalistic
a self-contained arti-
own. The design aims
at
personal and
and recreation, rather than public ad-
social appreciation
vertisement or prestige.
Kamakura Period
The middle of the
and
civil
(1185-1337)
twelfth century was a time of rebellion
war, following the decline of the Fujiwara admin-
istration. In this conflict the

ily
Minamoto fam-
party of the
was fmally victorious and
established a military
ernment of the samurai warrior-class

south of Tokyo, imder Yoritomo
Kamakura,
at
govjust
about 240 miles west of
the ancient imperial capitals.
This revolutionary change in the ruHng
class
and the
establishment of a government on military hnes (the haktifii),
which was
up
tions right
to be characteristic
of Japanese administra-
to the re-estabhshment of imperial rule in
many
the nineteenth century, was reflected in
The Zen
sect
other ways.
of Buddhism, which was brought from
China together with
influences
from the Sung, was particand was adopt-
ularly suited to the outlook of the samurai,
ed by them.
The main
of Zen was
characteristics
treme simpUcity in
that
stressed ex-
it
and was based on a beUef
ritual
in
personal meditation and self-discipUne.

Its effects
on temple
buildings was to ehminate the multi-
tude of minor statues, the
on the
altar
hall itself
and not
was increased
other materials were
left
Buddha
figure
now
being alone
an inner sanctuary. The temple

height,
in
plain
and woodwork and
and undecorated. The plan-
ning followed the Chinese traditions of symmetry, which,
however, the native Japanese planner always tended to

transform into a consciously picturesque asymmetry.
It
is
in this period that the bukc style
developed, as distinct
from
of samurai house
the earUer shinden-zukuri style
of the aristocracy and imperial
palaces, based
on separate
buildmgs linked with covered ways.
The samurai enclosed their homes with a ditch and fence.

The rooms were grouped under one roof, or a group of
coimected roofs inside
this enclosure. Materials
used were
JAPANESE
327-329 Examples of early

Japanese dwcUings
Early Japanese huts were built of
forest maienais. timber and
bamboo frames covered with

The frames were lashed
thatch.
together with twisted or plaited
ropes
The
no metal connections.
was
earhest tent type (327)
partly a pit dwelling.
The
other example (328, 329)

development of the tent-roof
into a low-walled hut
similar to those
stilts,
is
on
found
in
or river areas throughout
coastal
327
south-eastern Asia.
In
these dwellings are estabUshed
lasting elements
architeaure
of Japanese
the wood frame, no
load-bearing walls, the platform
on
stilts
damp
site.
suitable for building
on
or rocky or steep hillside
The
ridge poles are
already a feature.
These were eventually crowned

with metal
birds.
In huts such as these the domestic
fowls roosted.
4^
MUROMACHI PERIOD
123
330 Plan of the Katsura

imperial palace and its gardens.
Kyoto,
1620
c.
331 Plan of the shoin

and gepparo, Katsura imperial
palace
The main complex.
332 The Katsura

imperial palace
Acrul view.
This great house epitomises the
form
essentially Japanese
at
its
highest peak.
The keynote
simplicity
is
one of deceptive
which on
closer
inspection reveals luxurious
refinement.
The main apartments
and small pavilions, summer

houses and store rooms
arc carefully sited in a highly
romantic natural garden. The

apartments are planned to
a
module, the controlling factor
being the standard straw floor mat,

the tatami,
whose dimensions
by three feet. This

of modular planning,
are six
use
early
with the consequent standardisation
of door and wall panel
sizes,
together with the use of lightweight

panel walling independent of the
structure, has
been
much
by modern Western
studied
architects.
JAPANESE
124
333 Kalsura imperial palace.
held usually in a
Kyoto
Main
for this purpose.
entrance.
Japanese gardening and Landscaping
irrespective
too has growing influence in the
meeting
West. There
is
great simplicity
here which best expresses
Japanese
of rank, are equal, and the purpose of the

is
directed
by the
'tea-
supervises the ritual.
Important elements
taste.
The whole
to converse.
is
who
master'
room or little house designed especially

The members taking part arc few; all,
in this
ceremony
are the materials
and lay-out of the room. The equipment
is
of the most
studied and traditional simplicity, and the focus
is
the
tokotwma, a recess for the exhibition of paintings, usually

ink and brush, and flower arrangements.
In the palaces, great houses
and temples, the painting of
assumed a new imponance, and beauwork was done on a large scale, often with brilliant
the screen partitions

tiful
by
colours,
The
the school of
(Golden Pavilion) and the Ginkaku-ji
ji
One
the
ceremony,
which may be regarded as a form
of symposium under the host,
who would direct the topic. The
alcove and shelves were
extraordinarily varied period was
this
development of the Japanese
down
all
of
feature
(the Silver Pavi-
gardens for their retirement.
lion), set in beautiful
334 Shugakuin imperial villa,

Kyoto. Built 1655
This apartment was set aside
Kano Motonobu.
slwguns themselves built houses such as the Kinkaku-
at sea.
Trade developed
the China coast to the Pearl River, and they
were notorious
pirates.
As trade increased with
the outside world, the ports and
for the important tea
new
harbours assumed a
ent and
trade
importance, developing independ-
wealthy merchant communities. Through
came
the
this
from Europe, Portuguese
influences
first
intended to display single works
muskets from Macao and the great Christian missionary
of
Francis Xavier.
art, a
wall scroll or small
statue, or a flower
arrangement.
Tatami are on the
floor.
MoMOYAMA
Period (1573-1638)
The Ashikaga
shogtins failed to
keep
their control
of the
provincial daitnyo, particularly after these had adopted the
of the musket for their foot soldiers. They were driven

from power and were followed by three outstanding figures
of Japanese history, Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi
use
and Tokugawa
men and
leyasu. All
were
splendid patrons of the
Hideyoshi built the palace

skirts
of Kyoto
after
which
brilliant soldiers, statesarts.
Momoyama
at
period
this
three great soldiers and adnunistrators, of

335 The shokin-tei, Katsura
Instead ot doors,
whole wall
panels could slide back. These

panels
is
the
most colourful
the unification
central
were often translucent to
admit daylight when
and
government,
who
Hideyoshi,
all
personality,
had risen from being
soldier to an all-powerful ruler
wet weather.
much more
far
overhanging eaves
of Japanese buildings cut off most

direct light,
and the
interiors
were dependent on reflected light

from the ground round about.
tions
whom
Hideyoshi
between them achieved
of continuous civU war.
openings were closed in cold or
The
on the out-
named. These
of Japan under a strong
pacification
after years
is
a plain peasant-
of the country,
initiated
stringent regulations governing class distinc-
and precedence, and based the government on the
samurai,
who were
the merchant
class.
forbidden to enter trade or mix with
He
also tried,
ineffectively,
to limit
growing economic power of the merchants.

There was no policy of isolation, and during this period
the
sea-going trade expanded. Europeans,
Por-
particularly
tuguese, both traders and missionaries, frequented the ports
and traded
silks
and European goods from Macao.
Contact was maintained with China and two great

expeditions in 1592 and 1597 were launched through
rea,
Ko-
intended to establish bases for the conquest of mainland
territory
and an attack on China. Both these expeditions
failed.
Europeans
at this time,
and for nearly
on the whole encouraged, and
fifty years,
a considerable
were
number of
318
MOMOYAMA
PERIOD
125
336 The ko-shoin, Katsura

The approach to the landing

from the lake
place
,ind
islet.
337 The shokin-tei, Katsura

The
villa in its rich setting
carefully placed rocks, trees
water.
of
and
The whole ambience of
the Katsura group reminds one of

the elaborate and graceful
tea
ceremony, with rooms of
varying mood,
vistas
of charming,
5imple gardens, lakes, ponds
and
plants.
The shoin
(336), a place for
study
and contemplation, had the

advantage of improved light by the
addition of a bay
a feature
window,
introduced during the
Kamakura
period.
JAPANESE
126
Japanese (more than 300,000), particularly in Kyushu, were
converted to
In
Cliristianit)-.
mains of these foreign missions
The period ends with

At
this
as
survive.
slwgwis ruhng through the
and increasing
of
characteristic activity
of
part
their policy
of
restrictions
were placed
and
palaces,
was the
and
careful
and repair of the ancient tem-
which had
damaged in civil war.

The most characteristic
been
fallen into disrepair, or
feature
of their building were
the great feudal castles of the period, such as those at Osaka,

built
by Hideyoshi
palace at
in 1587,
Yedo,
Tokyo, Himeji,
now
Shibata,
304
rial
301
early in the sixteenth century,
a part
of the impe-
Matsumoto, founded
Nagoya, completed
in 161
and many others.

All these consist of great defensive walls of polygonal
earthquakes, surrounded by a deep ditch or moat.
These walls are crowned by timber watch towers and
dominated by picturesque look-out towers or keeps,

of timber with prominent
303
based on social position and precedence.
of these
In spite
restrictions, interest in foreign learning
continued to increase, and with the growing use of
of
in place
continued to
money
means of exchange the merchant-
rice as the
grow in wealth and influence. Towards

many samurai were, in fact, hopelessly
the end of the period

in their debt.
building continued on a large scale
Official
and pagodas
ples
Yasaka and Bessho
at
elaborate
tombs such
deceased
shofûns,
The
as
built
those of
Nikko
became
8,
tem-
and of
commemorate
to
between 1616 and 1636.
much
earher official buildings have
for later they
of
161
in
more
steadily
greater interest,
repetitive
and elaborate.
In contrast, the domestic buildings closely related to the

tea-houses,
and governed by the
traditional scale set
by the
built
tiled roofs, several storeys high,
covering, continued to develop the native style of budd-
ing and gardening.
The most
and notable building, which epi-
influential
tomises this essentially Japanese form,

rial palace, built
with entrance
is
the Katsura impe-
about 1620. This lovely group of buildings
gates,
and tea-houses surrounded by a gar-
to provide Uving quarters. Within these great enclosures,
den and lake of studied informality, was the
complete palaces were often
actually bmlt under the direction,
built, as at
Nijo
castle,
Kyoto,
tea-masters of the time.
which contains the palace of Ninomaru.

Important buildings of the period include the temple of
Nishi-Hongwanji with
its
Chamber of
built
Stalks,
by
Hideyoshi, the Samboin temple ot Daigo and the Kanchi-
result, if
of the most
The form continued
not
influential
as the inspi-
ration of domestic building to 1867 and beyond, to our
own
time.
Interest also centres
on the buildings of merchant town
houses, shops, warehouses and bridges.
of the Toji temple, Kyoto.
in
ruthlessness.
six-by-thrce foot size of the talami (straw mats) used as floor
dressed stone or granite, with a curious curved batter to

resist
once with complete
at
Tokugawa regime elaborated its system of

including laying down a complete buildmg code
Steadily, the
class
these great rulers, as a
stabiHsation,
large-scale reconstruction
ples
all
which was put down

controls,
by leyasu of
foreigners and their entry into the country.
302, 305
re-
time steps were gradually taken to sup-
press Christianity,
on
still
substantial
the establishment
himself and his successors

hakiiju.
area
tliis
They
all
show
high degree of sldU in design and the simple use of local
Yedo Period (1615-1867)

leyesu,
by
materials in structure and in details such as screens,
the defeat and deaths of
scendants of Hideyoshi at the
fall
all
the surviving de-
of Osaka
castle in 1616,
achieved complete control for his family, estabHshing what

is
known as the Tokugawa Shogunate.

He moved liis capital, the bakuju headquarters,
and shutters and roof

In fact,
theatre,
it is
Yedo,
popular
arts
such as these, the Kabuki
and the enormous output of the woodcut
the best and

to
in the
So that
it
most
typical
was from
work of the
these, the
from
period
most
is
lively
elements, rather than
the great castle there
which forms part of the present im-
under the Meiji restoration were carried out.
The Shogunate was,
perial palace.
The tendency
ers
was
to exclude external influences
carried further for fear that
might become
allied
and foreign-
internal
discontent
with foreign intervention. This pohcy
was hastened by the Christian Shimabara revolt of
1637,
cay
when
in 1857,
icy
actually, in a state
the increased pressure
culminating in
Commander
exposed
its
weakness.
was discredited and the
that
and active
the samurai, that the changes
of modern Tokyo, and constructed
on
artists,
to be found.
the site
a village
trellis
details.
of internal de-
from European
nations,
Perry's forcible intervention
From
isolation
then onwards
its
pol-
of Japan was doomed.
Wheel, Black Pagoda. Orissa
INDIAN
INDIAN
128
The
Indus Valley
of the
Cities
served
as a
processional path, perhaps also playing
in the defence
The
must begin with the
history of Indian architecture
which
buildings of the great cities
flourished in the Indus
two
valley between about 3000 and 1500 B.C. There are
338
chief
Harappa and Mohcnjo-Daro, lying some 600
sites,
The mound of Harappa was
miles apart.
before
concerning these
tific
largely spoiled
was possible to excavate most of our information
it
comes from the
therefore,
cities,
scien-
excavation of Mohenjo-Daro.
Both
were most
large.
They
on
planned
carefully
main boulevards running
grid
system,
with
Both cities
buildings themselves forming rectangular blocks.
were constructed mainly of

Each contained
and the
right across the city,
fired bricks in the
Enghsh bond.
high platform which accommodated
the walled citadel, and
contained
this, in turn,
number
of large buUdings, presumably connected with the func-
of government, of most interesting character. The
tions
whole
city
was drained by
of them some eight
valley house
upon
unit turned in
system of culverts, the largest

Corbelled arches were used
was conceived
itself. Its
from
A single
passage-way
the exterior to the inner court, and in
the larger houses this passage-way
keeper'slodge. All
as a self-contained
external walls were battered
and were not pierced by any openings.

led through
was guarded by
windows and doors
a small
open-
to the interior
ed from the inner court, and access to the upper storeys,
may
of which there
lintels
at least
was gained by external
roof,
flat
have been
two
and stair-treads were made of wood;
from
of charred
pieces
the ruins of
with great
is
The
fertile
must
at
that time have been both
and contained large areas of
forest.
and
floors,
of brick,
firing the colossal quantity
for providing the inhabitants with
most of
as
well as
their necessary
equipment, must have been enormous.
The
on
buildings
the citadel contained an extraordinary
building. At
230 by 78
Mohenjo-Daro
feet,
the
a collegiate
ground plan of a
structure,
shows many cells and small rooms surround-
mud-facings, but there
down
to the floor,
and
perimeter wall lined with small

a generally accepted
housed the ruling

priests similar to
was
a hall
piers to
guess that this
caste
of the
Egyptian
city,
on three
complex
and
institutions.
made of this
as
It
may
a well-designed series
of which
of
air-flues
ing and preserving the grain.

a long,
still
cloth to cover the bare walls of interiors, just
they are in western India at the present day.
The Indus
as a great increase
subject
The
citadel itself
was ap-
some
to
of population in the
the
such
strain,
For, although
cities.
during their 1500 years of existence these
cities
retained
the original lay-out of their planned grid system, in later
much
times the houses themselves were

parti-walls,
and conditions of
seem
life
subdivided by
have become
to
cramped.
Both of
eclipse
these
suffered
cities
sudden and complete
round about 1500 B.C., by the invasion of
a bar-
barian people sometimes identified with the Aryans. At
Mohenjo-Daro, on the
of
circular brick terrace
women
were found the skeletons of three
well,
lying
with
broken pots where they had been struck down,
their
from
in the streets. Thereafter,

its
architecture disappear
history.
The
true
earliest
structural
which we have evidence, has

executed
entirely
wood.
in
of
architecture
no remains,
left
However,
many
are rock-cut caves

architecture,
India, for
for
it
was
stone-relief
in
carvings of the second century B.C. to the
first
century
representations of buildings; there
which imitate the forms of wooden
and there are
these enable us to gain
'a
literary descriptions.
Together
of the architec-
fairly precise idea
ture of the time.

characteristic
method of construction was by
verti-
and horizontal beams socketed and pegged with
bamboo, with
walls of wattle and plaster or brick.
from decay. Large
under the floor for dry-
immune from
valley appears to have been
of invasion for a very long time. However, the
threat
bases
survives and contains
woven
as
be that ornamental hangings were
originally
Another building
which were
jars,
of a material identified
liquid, there are traces
cotton cloth.
may have been
perhaps a college of
have been coloured
another possibility. At the bottom
posts
It
support the roof. Appended to the citadel was a
proached by
may
There
is
is
sides.
eighty feet square, with twenty rectangular
large granary, the floor
its
surrounded by
itself
cells
cit-
used for clothes and other possessions, as well as for food
The
feet,
artisans'
bleak in appearance as a
as
of one of the large domestic storage
cal posts
with steps
have been
to
meanest
palaces, to the
rows beneath the shadow of the
mill town.
Lancashire
brick-Uned and bitumcned tank, 39 by 29 by 8
government
appear
adel,
But the buildings themselves, from
are small.
all
the largest
ing a court; another contains a bathing pool consisting
of
We
in these
and some interesting fragments have been discovered,
cities,
although
A.D., there are
complex which can only be compared with
of their having
trace
were indeed practised
that the visual arts
the Indus valley civilization and
supplies of available timber for roofing
and for
know
and unburied bodies were lying
of
interesting that this part
is
no
is
India,
It
difficulty,
exceptionally
there
largely semi-desert, or at least cultivated
sockets for joists.
now
Ha-
form of
rappa, and the walls bear ample evidence in the
which
open
plus an
Floors and roofs,
staircases.
pine have, in fact, been recovered
cities is that
been ornamented with plaster work or painting.
economy may have been
and for some doorways.
for these culverts,
The Indus
feet deep.
part
its
citadel.
most extraordinary feature of the architecture of these
Indus valley
cottages huddled in
were originally extremely
these cities
of the
set
into
areas
pots
to
protect
The
their
were often roofed with
type of barrel vault constructed out of a series of curved
wooden members springing from
wooden
architrave
supported on rows of columns, across which were laid

joists
supporting most probably a thatch. Railed verandahs,
and dormer windows framed

were
characteristic
feature
is
in ogival
hood mouldings,
of this form of architecture.
the kind of railing employed,
One
special
which consisted
wandering ramp, which seems, from
of squared-ofF posts supporting an architrave, and each
have
joined by three railings of lenticular section socketed into
calculated avoidance of direct
and easy
access, to
XVIII Kaiidariya Muliailfvo Icmple,
Khajumho
tr^sv'^
XIX
i ^^-^^^
THE EARLY FORMS OF ARCHITECTURE
the posts.
It is
formed from
from
probable that these lenticular railings were
a pair
of the convex-faced
were
this pattern
338 Street in Mohenjo-Daro,

Pakistan. Before 1500 B.C.
Brick buildings were hid out on
a circular trunk in the course of squaring
of exactly
sawn
planks,
first
131
Railnigs
it.
closely imitated in stone.
The Early Forms of Architecture
rectangular grid town plan.

The houses may have had corbelled
domes. The city was supplied
a
with fresh water and well drained.
The whole system
The
earhest surviving architecture of India, mainly
forms:
takes three
dhist,
preaching caves;
the third, of
the
Many of
By
men
and meditation
shrines
as
of conventional structural
Rishi and
far the
huts,
and have domed
the third-century B.C.
(e.g.,
Milkmaid caves
in the Barabar hills).
most important type of early cave
dhist preaching hall. This consists
with two
from
columns with pot-shaped
a series of
aisles
ambulatory surrounding
by
pierced
a great
Bud-
the
is
of an apsidal
like excavation,
is
{I'ihauu);
the small early caves closely imitate the
or barrel-vaulted interiors
Lomas
of Uving caves
second,
of India, innumerable caves have served
In the hot climate
patterns
of rock-cut
consists
first
stiipas.
generations of rehgious
retreats.
the
Bud-
basilica-
and a barrel vault springing

bases;
a rock-cut slupa,
it
has an
and the facade
horse-shoe-shaped window,
set
an ogival hood moulding. In the earhest caves of

type
Bhaja (second century B.C.) and Pitalkhora
at
in
this
(c
100 B.C.), the rock was intended to be supported and
supplemented by an actual wooden construction of roof

ribs
and external balconies.
A.D.)
and Ajanta caves
wooden members were
Later, as at Karle (first century

(fust
A.D.),
century
dispensed
separate
with and reproduced
entirely in the carved stone. In this series, a great deal
was employed, much of
sculpture
column
capitals
it
and on panels of the facade. The
figures nearly always represent opulently sensuous
couples,
of
on the
figurative,
earlier
human
sometimes dancing, sometimes riding animals;
the later, iconic images of the

Especially
common
in
Buddha and
attendant deities.
the early decorative carving are
the rosette and stepped crenellation, while bead
mouldings occur. The
last
of the preaching
and
reel
be
halls to
was at EUora in the seventh century, and here the ornament shares in the Indian tradition by then developed.
cut
Beside the entrance to these caves was usually placed a
monolithic
pillar
supporting
an animal emblem or
Buddhist symbol. These were derived from the well-
knowTi Asokan columns,
set
up during the third century,
probably by the emperor Asoka. They were polished

monolithic shafts with
capitals in the
form of
no base or
a lotus
footings, with
with down-turned
bell
petals,
supporting on the pericarp an abacus holding a carved
animal emblem:
bull, elephant, horse
or triple lion. These
carvings are the earliest works of Indian art of the historical
period to survive, and the stone was polished to a mirror-
smoothness which has endured to the present day.

The second type of building, much employed in early In-
like
dia,
was the
vihara.
This consists of a courtyard surround-
ed by small single rooms opening from
it.
In
Gandhara
the bases of such viharas built of stone have been excavated.
They accommodated the monks who Hved in the monastery

to
which the
open
in the
stupas belonged,
manner of
and the courtyards were
the typical Asiatic
sarai.
The only
examples of such viharas to survive are caves cut entirely
affinity
has a strong
with Sumerian
cities.
INDIAN
132
342 Cave XIX, Ajanta

century A.D.
number
cave,
At the Buddhist university of

Ajanu there was a scries of
Most of
twenty-six chapels and schools cut
rock-cut
into the chff of the ravine,
the
about the
first
centuries B.C., to the seventh
century A.D., or
The
portico shows
and the evolution of
t'iharas,
type during
this
At Ajanta and Ellora
soil.
were cut to accommodate the expanding

of these
size
and upper storeys were added, so
creased,
timber
its
is
in-
i'iharas
became neces-
it
its
window and columned
horseshoe
sniall
walls.
communities of monks. As the
later.
typical entrance with
probably the
which has pohshed
the great cave-sites of western India have such
especially I'iharas
and second
at Ajanta,
development on Indian
tectural
from
earUest of these
XIII,
seven centuries A.D. represents a leading archi-
fu'st
and
a secluded site for meditation
prayer. These halls date
The
in the rock.
First
sary to support the weight of rock over the large central
court by ranges of piers and columns.
technological origin as clearly as
the Greek stone temple.
Durmg
these centuries the facades of the viharas, their
balconies and the interiors, were increasingly ornamented
with
and painting, both decorative and
relief sculpture
The extremely elaborate decoration was demainly from a few basic motifs the floral garlands,
figurative.
rived
of jewels, and rich
strings
with which early custom
cloths,
had, in fact, invested the simple shrines of ancient India.
The
was based on iconographic devel-
figurative sculpture
opments that took place during

of one of the
cut
from
image
As time went on these
the rock.
particular
was the adoption
centre of the back wall of the
cells in the
the shrine for a large cult
I'ihara as
these centuries.
feature of importance for later architecture
itself usually
came
cells
to
be encircled by an ambulatory to allow for pradakshiiia,
and then completely detached from the wall.
The
third type of early Indian architecture
on the
stiipa
domed
structure derived
Old
evolution from the burial tumulus.

343 Plan of vihara, Elephanta
below the apex
The
containing rehcs of the
system.
had
It
origin in the
its
Aryan family house which is still

the form of the well-to-do
Indian home.
Three or more sets of
apartments are arranged roimd a
central courtyard. The front
verandah
talk
is
of walking round sacred

right-hand
This
side.
of facing the
dome with
with raihngs and

rite.
The
sit.
circular stiipa,
found
344 Buddhist vihara, Ellora
Seventh century.
has the monks'
The
The
of
known
as the
cells
and
with
its
become
a pillared hall in order to
the floors above.
a raised terrace
performance of
the
at
c.
local
deities,
and narrative
wee
with
reliefs
this
was then enclosed

which frequently had
terrace,
level,
terraces,
complete or fragmentary and
120 B.C. and A.D. 100, have been
Barhut, Sanchi,
railing posts
The
consisted
stiipas
Bodh-Gaya and Mathura.

often carved with rehef figures
vegetation
elaborate
ornament
representing Buddhist legends.
The
ornamentally carved gateways themselves consisted of a
storeys.
central court has
ground
either
gates,
Tin Thai,
arranged
as pradakshiiia.
and adding
stone,
saints.
keeping them to the
known
is
one or four highly ornamented gateways. Such
of dates between
on three
objects,
staircases for
in a larger railing at
railings
This cave,
rite
few
reverence consisted
development of the
architectural
earliest
chamber
Buddha or of Buddhist
mode of paying
Indian
great feature.
men
of the family
and hold council.
Here the
is
of
formed
sites.
usually placed a small
feet
The normal
was centred
a process
stiipas
the focus of the great Buddhist pilgrimage
Seventh century.
vihara was the Uving
accommodation for the monks,
based on a cloister and cell
by
support
of three separate curved architraves, carried high
series
on
solid pillars.
stiipa.
There was generally
At Amaravati and other
sites in
column near the

Deccan
the eastern
have been found the remains of exceptionally fme

pas,
whose
stit-
facing slabs and railings of white laminated
limestone were carved with a profusion of narrative and

decorative reliefs
(first
to third centuries).
At some of the Buddhist
sites
the
ground plan of an
ancient preaching hall has been traced, aligned along an

east-west axis with the
main
stiipa.
This was presumably
originally a timber structure, perhaps with brick facings,
and
it
followed the pattern of the apsidal
basilica
with
133
THE EARLY FORMS OF ARCHITECTURE
345 Side chapel of vihara,

Ajanta. Cave XXIH
Seventh century.
Side chapels for private
devotional purposes exist for

exactly the
In
same reasons
as those
Western churches.
Xn
346 Vihara, Ajanta. Cave

Second century B.C.
This teaching hall is in one of the
earliest
Buddhist rock-cut
monasteries,
has
curved architraves, derived from

the cross section of the
stupa-house, decorated doors and
window
heads.
347 Preaching
First
hall, Ajanta.
XDC
Cave
century A.D.
This chapter house or preaching

hall
is
one of the
finest
examples
of Buddhist architectural design.

!t
is
well proportioned,
elegant,
is
and the
relief
decoration
restrained.
Carved bands on the columns

have
their
prototype in the metal
bands used to strengthen
columns
in an earlier
technology.
timber
INDIAN
134
348 Gupta temple, Sancbi

Early
The
fifth century*.
earlier
form of Hindu
temple consisted of a single
with
cell
colunmed portico
a small,
attached, an exact parallel
to the cella of Asia
Minor and
the
Mediterranean.
This
is
actually a Buddhist shrine,
the earliest example
left
in stone.
349 Durga temple, Aihole

Late fifth century.
The Hindu development included

a great stone
shrine.
tower over the
The Durga temple
clearly
follows the stupa-house plan,
with an ambulatory round the

shrine.
shrine
Hindu
Walking round the

is
an important part of the
rite.
THE HINDU TEMPLE
135
colonnade and ambulatory. The ground plan of an enig-
350 Stupa I gate, Sanchi.

A.D. 50
The railings and four triumphal
arches at Sanchi were originally
of plain wood.
This was replaced by elaborately
matic circular shrine, with interior colonnade, has been
found
at Bairat.
Further developments in
north-western region
Kabul
valley of the
design took place in the
stiipa
known
Gandhara, centred on the
as
Here
river.
on square
raised high
tiers
c.
Names of donors occur

sections in both fences
these,
pates.
was some 400
that built at Shah-ji-ki-Dheri,
wood
eventually decayed away.
and crowned by enormous
plinths,
of honorific umbrellas. The most famous of
As time went on,
carved stone as the
were constructed
sttipas
feet high.
The
reasons of sacred tradition.
form, and' its plinths were contracted into elaborate base-
This, the northern gate,
mouldings. The sixth-century Dharaekh
finest,
single-domed brick
really a
moulded
lightly
pillar,
Sarnath
form
original timber
was therefore followed for
the Buddhist sttipa evolved a taller
sltipa at
various
at
and
is
the
work of a smgle
master mason possessing unity
is
faced with stone, with
the
which the other, earUer gate5 lack.

There is only one donor's name
on this gate.
base and bands of incised fohate ornament.
The Hindu Temple

The evolution of
lution
The
may
Hindu temple begins with
the
At the present day, the various
lage shrine.
be observed
still
the vil-
of evo-
stages
in progress at different places.
Indian villager has always been prepared to recognise
the divine in natural objects,
Thus, an ancient
whenever
it
with snake-holes
tree
manifests
at
ant-hill or a spring will be recognised as sacred.
itself.
an
foot,
its
Gradually
people of substance will provide a carved stone slab to

receive offerings,
raiUng
ground
the
sanctify
an
as
away
keep
to
cattle,
351 Base of stupa, Rajgir
and
and ultimately
enclosure
Fifth century.
The stone
built shelter for the hallows. Later, this
may
hallows-chamber
an image
be adorned
may
of the deity
shelter
with
and the
sculpture,
be installed.
The
facings to the stupa
were often carved with reUef

figures of local deities, with
and
elaborate vegetation
earhest
ornament and
narrative rehefs representing
form of Hindu
with
cell
two
structural
temple consisted, thus, of a single
a small portico attached,
pairs
of columns. This remained the fundamental
pattern for the temple, although
earhest
it
was
example of
this
type in stone
Buddhist shrine reconstructed on the
By
to
the end of the fifth century,
add
roof of the
to the
form of
in the
or curvilinear
subject to consider-
and decoration.
able expansion
The
Buddhist legends.
supported by one or
The
is
actually a
Sanchi
(c.
420).
had become conventional
cell a solid superstructure
a buttressed
sides.
it
hill at
pyramid with
of stone
either straight
early variations (late fifth century)
352, 353 Stupa
fundamental type are represented by two temples
of
this
at
Aihole in the Deccan, one of which, the Ladh Khan,
c.
Sanchi.
I,
A.D. 50
Sculptural details.
has an enclosed, slab-roofed ambulatory of square plan
Early Buddhist sculpture already

shows the sinuous linear
around the
element associated with India.
cell.
The
other,
the
Durga temple,
has an
The
open verandah-hke ambulatory on an elongated plan;

and the great temple at Deogarh in central India (r. 600)
had
was
Its
central shrine
raised
One
on
characteristic
with the weight on one

giving a frontal S
surrounded by tour porticoes, and
a square plinth
with four access
The
of the purifying river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna
at
the base of the jambs, an ornate lintel usually with the
jambs.
From about 600 onwards,
in panels
friezes
on
in the centre,
and
of small panels of amorous couples ranged up the
tional to
employ
also
became conven-
a great deal of figure sculpture, chiefly
of narrative or iconic
of flying
it
celestials,
relief,
ceiling
leg.
shape to the
ornament,
and vegetation and water
stupa sculptures
ot plaster, gilded
the exterior of the cell door bearing sculptured figures
good fortune
the
were
originally covered with a thin skin
temple, from the earliest times, was an ornate frame on
a series
is
centre line.
staircases.
and constant feature of the Indian
figure of the goddess of
favourite figure pose
counterpoised shoulder to hip
deities
the brackets of the colurrm capitals.

352
and coloured.
INDIAN
136
On
354 Mullikarjuna temple,
Patudakal
the eastern coast of southern peninsular India, a type
of structural temple developed which played an important
Seventh century.
part in the evolution of
under
Hindu buildmg. This appeared
Sculptural detail.
great deal of 6gure sculpture,
often telling a story, occurs
They
arc inextricably
architectural
and
of these temples are
istics
in rebef panels.
dynasty called the Pallavas. The chief character-
ground plan of shrine
that the
and portico was extended by the addition of
woven with
ornament
pillared
employed
hall
detail.
attached
sometimes separate. The
but
portico,
the
to
was adorned with ranges of
exterior
round moulded
acteristic
large
a dance pavihon, sometimes
as
on which
the mouldings of the plinths
and of the architrave above the
with char-
pilasters,
and
capitals;
same time,
at the
the temple stood,
were very much
pilasters,
developed, the latter with a prominent curved drip mould-
The tower
ing.
of
usually
as a series
moulding,
of
above the central
(sinkhara),
each with a prominent curved drip-
tiers,
and
was
shrine,
pyramidal form, and was developed
a regular
with a
later
of miniature blind
series
pavilions.
Opinions are divided

temple type, but
Badami
at
in
it
it
ple at Conjiveram,
by
The
6oo.
style
of architecture
Mamallapuram and
the shore tem-
These buildings are elaborated
715.
c.
this particular
originated, actually,
some time before
the Deccan,
most famous examples of this Pallavan

are the shore temple at
of
as to the origins
seems likely that
the addition of a perimeter wall, faced with pilasters
and mouldings, ambulatory corridors around the main

355 Plan of shore temple,
Conjiveram
shrine incorporated into the pyramidal structure,
Eighth century.
The
Under the Pallavan dynasty

more elaborate development of
figure sculpture
is
of
a characteristic restrained style,
of single
representing iconic figures
shrine and portico took place.
dence.
and on the
porticos
courtyard.
which
characteristic Pallavan pillar
consists
is
fluted
inside the perimeter wall,
cloisters
abacus.
cushion,
stump of
form of a fluted
a caryatid lion, supporting a
of
column crowned by
circular
stone pyramid.
in evi-
little
is
employed on the
to the shrine
was preserved, and the shrine

itself was crowned by a massive
on narrow
deities
panels between pilasters; sheer decoration
A hall for ritual dances was

added to the portico, and
the whole was set in a walled
The ambulatory
and an
entrance hall aUgned with the shrine and a dance pavilion.
a capital in the
supporting a fluted widely expanding
A number
of temples in
be
this style are also to
from the
sev-
enth century. These are mostly of relatively modest
size
found
at
Pattadakal in the Deccan, dating
but exhibit the same structural characteristics. They are
probably derived directly from the Badami originals.

Before continuing with the discussion of local
structural temple
it
is
necessary to consider
temples cut in the western Deccan. The
were
group of small caves
at
Badami,
earliest
c.
styles
of
Hindu cave
of these
578. These are
remarkable chiefly for their extremely fme figure and

iconic sculpture cut in very deep relief, but also for the
elaboration of pillar types and their profding.

the points to
which Hindu
the greatest attention
is
architects
One of
have always devoted
the supporting colunm. Far
attempting to establish a single formally perfect
from
type,
they have applied a great deal of invention and ingenuity

to the multiplication
and profding.
complex
of shapes of the
Later, the pillar
is
its
decoration
a
ot figure sculpture.
The two main groups of Hindu

at
capital,
even developed into
caves are at Ellora and
Elephanta. At Ellora in the western Ghats, there
is
a large
number of caves cut over a period of centuries; sixteen

are Hindu. They are characterised by the extreme development of dramatic and vigorously moiivemeiiu' figure
3SS
THE HINDU TEMPtE
137
356 Kailasanatha temple,

Ellora
Eighth century.
Sculptural detail.
The
Ellora style of detailing

- curvilinear decorative elements
and small cartouches is
evident here.
357 Shore temple, Conjiveratn

Eighth century.
The
or tower over the
shikhara,
shrine, an elaborate
heavy
tiered
mass
of"
masonry,
is
ultimately developed from the
many-tiered umbrella crowning

the stupa, in turn a sign of
from the badge of
respect derived
rank over an Aryan
kmg's tumulus.
358 Kailasanatha temple,

Ellora
Eighth century.
The temple was begun by

Krishna
in
about 760 to the
glory of his name-god to
whom
he attributed
his unifying
victory over south India.

It is
a technical tour-de-force.
rock-cut temple, the
quarried
down
masom
into the hill
above, cutting out a
pit
from
varying
from 50 to 160 feet

and leaving in the middle a
detached mass of rock from
in depth
which they sculpted
full-sized,
double-storeyed temple.
The plan
is
symmetrical, of the
Pallavan type. Courtyards and

sanctuaries surround the
central shrine,
capped by
pyramidal tower.
its
INDIAN
138
The first group, the Dasavatara (early seventh

two storeys, both planned on the lines of
359 Indrani cave. EUora
sculpture.
Seventh-eighth centuries.
century), has
Thu
the view from one of the
is
chapels lining the courtyard
the Buddhist vihara with cell at the rear. There are, of
towards the seated
course,
figure of Indrani placed
on
in a sculptured niche.
The
elaborate pillars have capitals
of corbelled appearance.
no
living cells
around the
courts.
The second group,

around the
a similar plan, but with a processional path
shrine, comprises the
Ravana-ka-Khai and the Ramesvara
(late
seventh century) with magnificent figure sculpture.
The
third
on
Ellora
Elephanta.
Dhumar Lena
the
is
constructed
Kailasanatha (300
cruciform
is
(early eighth
largely
plan,
dominated, however,
by 109 by 96
temple cut from a hUlsidc.
Its
which
ft),
centre
is
century),
anticipating
by
the great
monoUthic
an origmally nat-
is
emblem
ural cleft in the rock containing a natural phallic
of stone, which had been

turies.
The upper
of reverence for cen-
a subject
storeys consist
of
of
a single sculpture
temple of Pallava-Pattadakal type, of the eighth century.
The bottom storey with

was added some hundred
gigantic
its
years later
figure
sculptures
by the deepening
of the floor of the quarry in which the temple stands.
the inner courtyard the
upon
rests
with
a sculpture
feet high,
of
fiieze
herd of elephants
who
nearly
Hindu
all
thus appear
detailing
escence
whole temple on
to carry the
is
some of
the other
represented a vast range of the complex
intended to be white-plastered and/or painted
a solid plinth
about twenty-seven
which
the early
Eighth cenniry.
From
the walls of the quarry are
Hindu iconography which was being elaborated during

Middle Ages. It is clear from many surviving
fragments and patches that these works were originally
360 Elephant frieze,

Kailasanatha temple, Ellora
temple
Around
caves, in
architecture was.
The
as
indeed
Ellora style of
particularly evident in the curvilinear efflor-
is
of decorative elements
brackets,
which had
hood
e.g.,
been
their backs.
mouldjngs, and small cartouches
The elephants symbolised the

monsoon rain clouds as well
kept within rectilinear bounds. Also characteristic are the
as
earlier
very numerous panels and bands of miniature figure sculp-
strength and fortitude.
tures representing genre scenes.
and
its
Again
in the
Kadasanatha
attendant caves the columns are splendidly elabo-
rated.
At Elephanta, an island adjacent to Bombay, the great

Shiva temple of the eighth century
laid
is
361 Sculpture at Elephanta.
by
The Trimorti
is
well known. This
out on a cruciform plan with the centre occupied
a free-standing shrine for a phallic
emblem
about
set
figures, while the rear wall
oc-
Eighth century.
with colossal guardian
The
cupied by the well-known Trimurti, a colossal bust re-
threefold nature of divinity
occurs in both
Hindu
and Buddhist doctrine.

portrayed in the
It
is
often
ing
the temple of Shiva,
at
this colossal bust are
identified as the
of Shiva
faces;
on the
right
on the
Uma
left is
the face of
the beautiful wife, or Sakti.
with fluted
captials
of
shafts
and
the
pillars
follow a
circular, fluted
cushion
contour deeply homhe.
later
forms of Hindu structural temples, so
many
survive that only the major types can be indicated here.

is
Shiva the destroyer, and balancing

it
Shiva, and several large
almost entirely absent, and
Of the
supreme form
in the centre
of the three
is
single type
Elephanta.
The heads of
god
panels representing Shiva's legends. Purely decorative carv-
latter,
rarely in the former as in this
Trimurti
presenting three aspects of the
is
At Somapura (Paharpur)
in east-central India, there
been discovered the remains of

temple
(c.
colossal,
It
is
in this region
most
up
likely that this
was
until the tenth century,
similar design survive at
At Bhitargaon,
It
large terra cotta panels of rehef
architectural ideas in south-east Asia.
dhist).
have
brick-built
700) with a high pUnth of cruciform plan.
was faced with many

sculpture.
common
type
and influenced
Other remains of
Ahichatra and Nalanda (Budlarge
brick pyramidal temple
stood on a square, terraced plinth.

Buildings in north-western and central India suffered
great devastation at the hands of Moslem invaders.
the groups of temples that remain
is
the
Among
famous complex
361
THE HINDU TEMPLE
139
362 Alampur temple

Twelfth century.
Door
carving.
This fa(;ade of a temple in the
south-western Deccan
certain features
characteristic
which
illustrates
are
both of the period
and the region, in particular

the pyramidal structures with
deeply incised ornament above the
windows and doorways.
ba
INDIAN
140
366 Khandariya (Shiva) temple,

Khajuraho. c. A.D. 1000
The cella or shrine is crowned
with
spire.
There
massive buttressed
is
no intention of
searching for structural
The
spire
is
economy.
an emotional
symbol, a vehicle for displaying
deep homage to the gods in

the
form of elaborate
craftsmanship.
366
367 Khandariya temple,
Khajuraho
Sculptural detail.
Few surfaces of this giant

man-made stone pinnacle
without
ritual carving.
are left
THE HINDU TEMPLE
Hindu temple developed more
conservatively. Relatively
small early shrines, like the Parasuramesvara
Muktesvara
and
800)
{c.
900, at Bhuvanesvara), preserved the cella-
(c.
141
369 Lingaraja temple,

Bhuvanesvara. A.D. 1000
According to Brahmanical
temple was built in
tradition, this
portico form, with the portico consisting of a long rec-
the seventh century, but
tangular chamber,
archaeologists have dated
the
spire curvilinear
high-shouldered.
tically
and characteris-
rhythmic
External
decoration
The main
1
was mainly on the
spire,
pierced stone
some formed with
lattices,
The Muktesvara
The faces of the
The
absent.
figures in relief.
series at
in
toraiia.
of decorative and
spires bear cartouches
Orissan temples,
in
pillars
are
Bhuvanesvara includes: the eccentric
which the
cell-spire
transverse pavilion, imitated
with
Rajarani
the
fine figure carving
is
from
replaced by a strange
a south Indian motif;
multiphcity of buttress-spires,
its
and perhaps the world's
later.
80 feet high, a masterpiece of dry
stone masonry.
It
still
shows the
form
vestigial
As Indian architecture slowly

evolved from the reed and
timber building to the cave, and
thence to the free-standing stone
building,
Deul
Vaital
it
over
is
of the primitive reed-built shrine.
has an interesting stone arched
As usual
figure carving.
portico-chamber having
the
shikhara
never
it
lost its
strong conservative
backward-looking
tradition.
its
finest foliate
rehef panels; and the great Lingaraja (A.D. 1000). This

has, in addition to the cella
and portico-chamber, a dance-
and
a large offering hall, all aligned
hall (for ritual dancing)
in a continuous structure.
The most famous Orissan temple

Black
(the
Pagoda,
completed.
ruin, never
plan, the
Konarak
that at
century),
huge
was conceived on an ambitious
It
whole building
is
thirteenth
early
in the
form of a chariot dedicated
to the sun god, with six ornamental wheels
and colossal
carved draught horses and elephants to pull
it.
terraces bear colossal free-standing sculptures
of musicians,
its
number of figural
walls a vast
Its
upper
mostly of an extrav-
reliefs,
Bhuvanesvara
Section and plan.
The
cella
agantly erotic character.

In western India
and Rajasthan, medieval temple forms

appears
as
Khajuraho.
at
Characteristic developments were: the treatment
of the interior with
pillars
tiers
Udayaswara,
(Kiradu,
sculpture
in
though
were derived from the same type
many
plan of Lingaraja
grouping of
of
of the
relief figure
hall,
is
an axial
antechamber and
one architectural unity,

is marred today
this
piecemeal addition of
by the
later
shrines
and kiosks
at its base.
Note also the small

volumes relative to
interior
exterior bulk of masonry.
Modhera)
Udaipur,
the multiplication of verandahs (Larger Sas Bahu, Gwalior)
the treatment of the outside of the spire with a regularly

multiplicity of
banded
Kiradu)
miniature
spires
and the elaboration of the
interior
(Udayeswara,
with
a multi-
tude of bracket figures and panels of relief (Mount Abu).

general the evolution here in time tended towards
In
greater decorative elaboration

motifs,
and a
stiffening
by
of
repetition
identical
both of the ornament and the
technique of the figure sculpture.

In
the
Deccan during the earher Middle Ages,
temples bore
many
India, especially in the use
main
spire.
in such a
of banded
around the
These were arranged one above the other
way
Bhuvanesvara
Free-standing buildings.
These in turn are
give the appearance of a bundle of
way up
the structure
pinnacles.
The
c.
1050 and 1300,
highly indiosyncratic architecture was developed under
the Hoyshala dynasty, built in a greenish choritic schist,
somewhat squat
in proportions.
The
plans and
ornament
display 'rococo' features: stellate plans for the spires; a

vast
multiphcity of mouldings,
eaves;
the
massive
monohthic polished
whole temple and
its
e.
pillars
g.,
even under the
of great complexity;
polished, sensuous figure sculpture
enveloped in lush fohate ornament, undercut often to a

depth of eighteen inches.
They were
great stone
carved in
level (Sinnar, Jhogda).
Further south, in Mysore, between

a
as
as
the
caves or carved natinal
as to
pimctuated ribs running the whole
from plinth
spirelets
the
of western
close resemblances to those
built as
mounds, shaped and
situ.
enclosed spaces, the chapels
and chambers, are tiny in

proportion to the mass of stone
surrounding them.
Not only manpower, but highly

manpower, must have
skilled
been very cheap.
INDIAN
142
372 Brihadisvarasvamin
temple, Tanjore. 985-1018
Like the Kailasanatha at Ellora,
the Brihadisvarasvamin
is
phn.
built after a unified
The Chola emperor

commissioned
it
Rajaraja
commemorate
to
further victories of unification
southern India.
The
principal shrine
enormous
on an
is
being
scale,
82 feet square, and surmounted by
tower of
a stupa
feet high.
190
thirteen storeys,
Madura
373 Great temple,

The
great shrine itself tends to be
dwarfed
Madura by
at
the
massive subsidiary buildings in the
temple precinct.
The temple grounds are

surrounded by a high boundary
wall surmounted by towers.
374 Sri
Ranganatha temple,
Mysore
Between iioo and 1350, old and
new
temples received the addition
of huge pyramidal gateway towers.

or gopurams, arranged in
and
built first
tiers
of stone and
of brick rendered with
later
plaster.
375 Plan of the Great temple,
Madura
The
great temples of southern
India are the cities of the gods.
They reproduce
in their plans
the main features of the ancient
Aryan sacred town lay-outs.

The inner temple is the equivalent
of the god-king's palace.
The
chapter house
the council
is
chamber. They are approached on
two main
axes.
the Rajah's
way and
the south
way, the south being the
abode of the
spirits
and therefore sacred
of the dead,
as
an
exit.
TTie plan contains a bathing tank

for purification,
and teaching
bazaars,
halls
debating
and pavilions.
law courts and gardens.
376 South gopuram.

Great temple, Madura
Sculptural detail.
The smothering of
the towers
with deep carved relief must be

seen as having its function as
an act of worship in
effort
itself,
in the
and expense of
its
creation.
Its
actual content as doctrinal
storytelling
is
secondary.
377 Hypostyle pavilion,

One of
the
the flat-roofed pavilions
main compound
surrounding the central shrine.
THE HINDU TEMPLE
Under
much
the Vijaynagar empire (1350-1565),
was made,
tecture
The
related to but a
work
archi-
ornate than
less
little
however, destroyed by the Moslems, who put an army

of men to work for a full year on the wrecking. The
ruins at Hampi are a famous tourist spot, and the few
remains, such as the 'elephant stables' and one or two small
the Hoyshala.
have
shrines,
Hampi), vWth
at the capital was,
Vellur,
(e.g.,
composed of bundles of
pillars
of complex groups of figure sculpture cut

In the far south,
on the Tamil
Its
greatest earlier
of a square
portico and
work
The
shrine.
is
The tower
is
more
domical than usual and the
ctirves
echoed by the walls
are
and
their
engaged columns.
not yet extinct.
is
It
con-
spire,
hall,
aligned within a court.
all
a feature of Shiva temples,
is
cella
is
surrounded, under
and con-
tower, by a
its
which are some of the
dark, recessed corridor in
surviving medieval wall-paintings.
The
on
pilasters,
best
the relatively
379 Hypostyle hall.

The
colossal hypostyle hall has
corridors
up to 500
feet long.
The pillars, or piers were

as enormous complexes of
treated
figure sculpture in the roimd, with
roofs are tiered
pyramids crowned by bulbous domes, and the
scidptiure
leaping horses, lions, royal

retinues, often painted
and gilded.
plain exterior,
much over life-size. A characteristic moulding

a row of gryphon-heads. The abacus of the
mostly
is
stretched into a
the Brihadisvarasvamin temple
Nandi-pavilion,
between the
or
monolithic sculpture of Shiva's bull facing the
portico
long rectangular chamber.
in the roinid.
with purely pyramidal
alia,
The Nandi-paviHon
tains
The
Vitthela,
shafts,
Tanjore (985-1018), of stupendous dimensions.
sists
Twelfth century.
another distinct
plains, yet
which
architectural tradition evolved,
at
378 Vidyashankara temple,

Sringeri
romantic appeal. Specially characteristic
evolution of huge halls
the
is
greatest
143
of
consists
spreads wide, and combines wdth the lotus-form
pillars
beneath
it.
Pure ornament
composed from purely
is
at a discount; the
decor
is
and figure
architectural features
sculpture.
Between iioo and
1350, a
new
(Chidambaram,
the goptiram
building-type emerged:
Srirangam).
Old and new
temples received the addition of the colossal pyramidal
gateway-towers to their surrounding courts, usually
at
The tiers of the pyramid above the

volume were of stone only on the earlier
The
examples.
gopiirams
later
composed of brick with

painted
external
upper
basic
tiers are,
sculptures
usually
thus,
volume was pierced by
huge
system.
set
these
refurbishings.
The
turmel, treated with
rehef sculpture; the exterior panels between the
bore a
pillars
of iconic figures embracing the whole Saiva
The
gopurain was
crowned by
a transverse barrel,
often treated with ornamental projections.
The
its
381 Great temple,
further development of south Indian architecture
took place
the period.
well-known
crowded onto
modern
a
Contemporary with Madura, this

is a further example
of the intricate stone carving of
had these upper storeys
plaster facings; the
figure
colonnade
the cardinal points.

basic rectangular
380 Pillared corridor,
Ramesvaram
in the sphere
of the temple court, and reached
apogee in the seventeenth century. The concentric
Madura
Entrance to the Sundaresvar shrine.

This
doorway
to the shrine
gives access
of Sundaresvar, an
mcarnation of Shiva, and
rectangular enclosures were
multiplied, the gopurams
of
each succeeding enclosure increasing in size to nearly 200

feet in height.
main
Srirangam has
shrine, usually
five
such enclosures. The
an old temple of great sanctity, lay
and the imiermost courts were gradually

while hundreds of subsidiary shrines and build-
in the centre,
roofed
ings
in,
came
to
occupy the
the flat-roofed courts
(Madura,
others.
were the
The main
features of
colossal hypostyle
Ramesvaram) and corridors up
to
500
halls
feet
The pillars themselves, or rather

piers, were derived from the Vijaynagar columns, and
were treated as enormous complexes of figure sculpture.
long, lined with pillars.
IS
guarded on each
figures
side
of dwarapalagas
or demons.
by huge
INDIAN
144
382 The Black Pagoda.
Konarak
Temple of
the sun god, or
Surya Dcul. Erected
in
the reign of Narasimhadcva

(1238-64). the
whole building was
intended to represent
a gigantic triumphal car.
The
tiered
p>Tamid
covered
is
with sculptured figures, often of a

highly erotic nature.
383 Sun temple at Modhera,

Gujarat, western India
shrmes, dating from
The Gujarat
1025 to 1298, arc of particular
and delicacy.
richness
Built of soft golden sandstone, the
carving
once
at
is
and luxuriant.
restrained
384 Plan of Modhera temple

Eleventh century.
The temple
pillared
consists
of an open
porch connected by
narrow passage
to the assembly
building and thence to the
The
sanctum.
plan
is
entirely
organic with each part of

the shrine related logically to the
whole.
385 Ornamental wheel.

Black Pagoda, Konarak
The wheel did not only represent
one of the chariot wheels.
It served from early Aryan times
as a sacred symbol of the sun,
whose daily course was analogous
to the course of divine law.
386 Interior of the Dilwara

shrine.
Mount Abu
Tenth century.
The &mous
Jian shrines at
Mount Abu
represent the final
culmination of the Gujarat
syle.
Built entirely of white marble,
the Dilwara can be
considered
among
the architectural
wonders of the world.
387 Tower of Fame,

Chitorgarh. c. 1200
These Hindu towers of victory
are the lineal descendants of
the pillars of victory.
here
is
The form
almost completely
obscured by carving.
388 Great Sas Bahu temple,

Gwalior Fort, Gwalior. 1093
The temple is divided into three
open loggias
by heavy architraves.
storeys with
separated
The deep
balconies penetrate the
mass of the building

to render
it
elegant and Ught.
THE HINDU TEMPLE
145
389 Kesava temple,

Somnatbpur. 1050-1300
The Mysore temples of this
period have certain chararteristics
which separate them from the

mainstream of Indian
architeaural development.
Among
these
is
the star-shaped
ground plan with temples grouped

round a central shrine.
Also characteristic
the high
is
podium and the intricate grill

windows with polished pillars,
and
in particular
the unbelievable richness of the
decoration.
390 Sibsagar temple, Assam

Eighteenth centxiry.
This temple, built to the Bengali
pattern, consists
of
a small shrine
with a single tower above
The
stone imitates the
it.
form
of thatch, and the top is

surmounted by the ceremonial
umbrella.
Temple
391
Nizambad,
at
in the
Deccan
Thirteenth century.
Although partly ruined, the

features of the building can
still
be clearly recognised:
monumental form, the absence
the
of
soft decoration, the
massive
base.
392 Panchachura temple,

Vishampur, Bengal
Eighteenth century.
This temple takes
Its
its
name from
five-domed towers - the
five
jewels.
Tnese are arranged over a shallow

corbelled 'domed' roof
on
a central plan.
393
Temple
east
Deccan
at
Palampet,
Early thirteenth century.
As
at
Nizambad
building
is
the base of the
deep and heavy,
elaborately divided into horizonul

tiers.
INDIAN
146
394 Surya temple, Padun,

Nepal, c. A.D. 1000
Typical of the period
ulrimately completely in the round, with leaping horses,
and often painted. The courts contain
lions, royal retinues,
the
is
enormous stepped
form above the

window, and the heavy
triangular
surrounded by
tanks,
with
cloisters,
small island pavihons (Srirangam, Suchendram). Temples
architrave.
of
many
bring into their orbit
like these
facets
their corridors are used as bazaars,
men,
ing-places for rehgious

that
modern craftsmen
skill in
One
etc.
in the south
of
some
life;
workshops, meetinteresting
fact
is
have developed great
imitating old styles for the purposes of restoration
and development.
Three further
mir, during
must be mentioned.
In
Kash-
the early Middle Ages, stone temples
were
made (Martand,
local styles
eighth century; Avantipur, ninth century),
and
related perhaps to central Indian types
en prototypes. They consisted of plain,
on moulded
pilasters,
plinths.
close to
tall
wood-
stone shrines
Rudimentary porticos supported on
with high triangular hood-moulded pediments,
adorned the four

rehef panels.
One framed
faces.
The high-pitched
them, recalling the
a door, the others,
stone roofs had a step in
of originally wooden gables. They
tiers
stood in a cloistered court with a single gateway building

395 Angkor Wat, Cambodia.
III2-52
The grandest and most famous
monument
of the
Kmer
civilisation.
It
was designed
to celebrate the
Soleil,
like Versailles
power of
its
Roi
Deveraja.
from the jungle, this vast

temple-mausoleum is nearly two
that
was almost an exact repHca of the
In Bengal, a large
a half miles in circumference.
cells with curvilinear, moulded towers above

them were, and still are, built. But the most characteristic
Bengah building is the square brick temple, with a high
a thatch (Jor
Bangla, eighteenth century).
of these buddings bear many
faces
tured panels, often

last
tecture
stories.
post-Moslem archi-
the
of the Rajput palaces and related buildings.

size
and have been
The most famous monuments

the
is
1730's at Jaipur
The
terra cotta reUef sculp-
humorous or propaganda
type to be mentioned
of these are of enormous
Wat
are the
little
Many
studied.
group executed
in
by the then maharaja. His famous
Ascent to the main shrine
concrete and marble observatory consists of enlargements,
and attendant buildings.

The main entrance is along
to a
balustraded causeway leading
to a great gateway,
which
is
beyond
monumental
struments.
scale,
of the
His famous palace,
facade of five diminishing
tiers
dials
of astronomical
Hawa
in-
Mahal, presents a
of hooded balconies with
a gallery richly decorated
stone
with rchefs.
392
pitched brick roof of curvilinear contour imitating the
form of
The
396 Ai]gkor
shrine.
small shrines that consist
simply of
Risiiig
and
number of
lattices.
stairway leads up to a square
crossed
by
galleries,
staircase leads
the turreted
and a further
up again to
pyramid
that
supports the innermost shrine.
Thus the whole temple
is
a vast
step pyramid.
397 Mingalazedi, Pagan.
A.D. 1274
The shrine resembles
certain
Javanese buildings in
its
relationship of square terraces to
circular superstructures.
Fretted
window
in the
Medersa Ye'-Klian, Shiraz
ISLAMIC
148
398-400 Great mosque^

Damascos. Began 707
?R^K3*5r?^^î^^
Exterior, interior, and plan.
The
oldest congregational
mosque
to survive.
It
contains converted Syrian
and
temple buildings,
Hellenistic
both the
hall
and the comer
towers becoming minarets.
The
with
from the
a triangulated
wooden
aisled basiHca,
truss-beamed
roof.
A mosque
for services
a
shows the
interior clearly
deviation
which was used only

and meetings was
large simple hall.
These
entered
long
along one side of

and were usually
halls ran
a courtyard,
by doors
sides.
in their
THE TYPES OF BUILDING
401-403 Dome of the Rock,

Jerusalem. Begun 643
The Types of Building

The
major work of Moslem architecture was
earliest
undertaken in the Ufetime of
149
Mohammed
632). This
(d.
The earliest exiitmg monument

of Moslem architecture stands on
the
IS
site
from which
said to
journey to heaven.
probably an Abyssinian from a wrecked ship, in
Abraham's
his native
For Arabia had then nothing worthy of the
style.
The waDs were decorated with

Abraham, prophets, angels and
architecture.
Mary,
Jesus,
name of
paintings of
trees, as
the
It
and was enshrined
tury,
The
in the Hadith, not in the Koran.
principal architectural types of Islam are the
the tomb, the fort and the palace.
and
PubHc
mosque,
ployed features drawn from the major types. The mosque

is
fundamentally an enclosure for prayer, and the focal
point for the brotherhood of Islam.
be roofed,
as
was not
it
It
need not necessarily
in early times or later in India.
Along one or more walls may run roofed or vaulted colonnades, which attracted architeaural invention. The entrance
gate and doors were also subject to architectural elaboration,
and the form of many of the Islamic tombs

Mahal)
from
derived
is
Inside the
mosque
(e.g.,
the Taj
the type of the gate pavilion.
are five principal features: the mihrab,
the miiibar, the screen, the massive desk to support the
The
Koran, the foimtain for ablution.
at
it
is
a niche in
Madina, 707), toward which Moslems direct their prayer;

was most frequently adorned with bands and panels of
ornament. The miiihar
with a
staircase.
inilirab,
and
is
is
screen
said to
a raised pulpit, often canopied,
may form an
frequently appended outside
The Koran desk
is
enclosure roimd the
provide protection, while he
prayer, to the sultan or governor,

is
mihrab
marking the direction of Mekka (introduced fust
the wall
on
to
whose
official
is
at
residence
one wall of the mosque.
frequently a stone structure supported
on pillars, and the fountain may have its arcaded canopy.

The earliest great mosques were built in Iraq, at Basra
and Kufa, by native craftsmen, as were most of the early
mosques in conquered territories. They were roofed, with
archless colonnades whose columns were taken from preIslamic buildings
It
was
in
another very common practice in Islam.
Egypt, however, about 673, that the four comer
minarets seem to have been
first
added to the complex.
They may well have been derived from
the
comer towers
of the Syrian Hellenistic temple temenoi which had been

converted into mosques, as in the case of the great mosque
of Damascus, the oldest congregational mosque to survive.
Elsewhere
(e.g.,
the
mosque
at
Qairawan), a single huge
minaret towered in the centre of one of the enclosing walls.
The
earhest existing
monument of Moslem
architecture
(begun 643), the work of craftsmen from all over the Islamic empire, is the Dome of the Rock at Jerusalem, said
to be
en
the
site
from which
journey to heaven.
It
by Christian churches
of octagonal
Rock
is
in
Mohammed made
supporting, on four piers and twelve
wooden dome.
It is
his
night
of the 'rotunda' form followed

Jerusalem, the outer lower storey
plan, the inner circular colonnade
clerestory with sixteen
windows, domed
legendary
sacrifice,
site
of
and of the
is
one of the oldest sacred
sites
in the world, Judaic,
Christian, as well as
is
one of the
compositions, too.
golden
dome
is
Moslem.
finest
The
set
great
over an
octagonal rotimda, echoing Graeco-
Dyzantine form and technique.
baths, fountains
domestic architecture above peasant level em-
lesser
also the
his night
Great Temple.
It
[r
anti-iconic bias of Islam only arose during the eighth cen-
is
Mohammed
have made
was the rebuilding of the primitive sanctuary of the Ka'ba

since replaced. It was carried out by a carpenter,
at Mekka
around the
columns, a
originally with a
remarkable both for the extreme clarity
The
site is
distinguished
by
The
sheltered
a small
by
a well,
domed
relation of fresh
any holy site, both for
refreshment and purification, is an
essential factor in Middle
lupola.
.vater to
Eastern architecture.
ISLAMIC
150
404 Dome of Che Rock,

Jerusalem. Begun 643
The well-proportioned
exterior was origiiuUy covered
with rich mosaic.
A dome
signified either a
tomb
or a shrine, and only occurred in
mosque which was or

intended to be a burial place.
405 Desert palace, Mschatta
Onumental
The zigzag
fiieze.
trace
Eighth century.
ornament
is
balanced by symmetrically
placed rosettes and covered with
finely
The
have
worked floral scrolls.

and rosette motifs
line
their
origin back in Persian
Archaemenid
times.
406 Qairawan tower, Tunis.

Begun 670
A smgle huge minaret tower
occupies the centre of one of the
enclosmg
a
walls,
development of the
gate
combined with
fortress
landmark
that indicated the sheltered
enclosure for travellers,

the 'caravanserai', the basic
of Moslem plan.
form
7,
THE TYPES OF BUILDING
of
proportions and for the richness of
its
407 Blue mosque, Isfahan
ornament.
its
151
Eighth century.
Originally the exterior, like the interior, was covered with
Fretted and inlaid
window.
mosaic. Capitals were carved with typical formahsed acan-
The
thus scrollwork; there was marble 'veneer'
advantages in a scorching.
saic inside
work; the mo-
were metal
plates
worked
The intricate decoration carries

on from the Byzantine tradition.
This was given added
of the semi-circular arches
same manner.
in repousse in the
impetus by the
Sassanian and Coptic, as well as Syrian, elements can be
strict
observance
of Mosaic law forbidding
recognised in the ornament.
men
iconographic reference to
The Dome of the Rock was a 'shrine'. The

mosque extant, that of Damascus (begun
earliest
stone
on
707)
and animab. Instead,
however, survive the
floral
and
geometric patterns were developed
the
to the ultimate degree.
rectangular plan of the temenos, preserves traces of a similar

rich internal decor. Here,
has functional
arid climate.
followed a wide variety of abstract and scrolled
patterns; under the tie-beams
window
fretted
known
first
examples of what was to become one of the greatest

ornamental glories of Islamic architecture, the pierced
407 stone window-grilles, laid out on complex geometrical

schemata another extension of an older Roman-By-
405
409
zantine conception.
The
group of Syrian desert palaces
earliest
the
lays
foundation for further developments. Quasayr'Amra, the

earliest
low
and a
much
palace
Masjid-i-Jami, Isfahan
domed with pend-
stone pointed arches, vaulted and
entives, not squinches, in stone,
frescoes
408 Mihrab o Sultan Oljeitu,
was a modest complex of buildings with
715),
(c.
The niche with
ornamented with figurative
pilasters
mosaic paving. This was a type of
glass
on various
repeated,
most impressive of them
in
scales,
Mschatta. This
is
on
The
Syria.
its
decorative
arches and non-structural

is
yet another variation
the symbolic door or
gate to heaven.
a square,
is
walled enclosure of brick (eighth century), with corner
towers and five half-round towers to each

buildmg, including a three-apsed
side. Interior
remained in various
hall,
of completion. The most striking feature
stages
is
its
luxuriant bands of highly formalised relief ornament.
Under
Baghdad was
itself originally
762, thousands
The
began.
a city planned from scratch. In
of workmen were assembled and the work
plan
said to
is
have been
of ashes on the ground, so that

see
clearly.
it
It
was
circular,
with four gates named
The
they opened.
were
at least
Baghdad the most inwere laid down.
the 'Abbasid dynasty in
patterns for later architecture
fluential
with
some
brick walls
entries
roofed with a
gilt
Al Mansur might
2,638 metres in diameter,
towards which
bonded with reed matting
after the provinces
finished within four years.
bent
traced with lines
first
KJialif
had
Each of the
an audience
dome. Isfahan was
gates
above
hall
also said to
it,
have
been founded originally on such a circular plan, approx-
408
409 Gate section, Baghdad.
imately 3,000 metres across. At the centre were the palace
and the great mosque. The
palace,
with
its
Begun 762
huge tunnel-
vaulted hall and green dome, was built under the mfluence
Baghdad was built

on a circular plan with
of Ungering Sassanian conceptions of regal glory. These
at the cardinal points,
were
probably responsible
for
'Abbasid
the
four gates
form which occurs again and

Temple of Heaven,
from Asia Minor to China.
The gates had a bent entry for
a
fondness
again, as the
for palaces
with such great audience chambers, usually
domed, and ranges of pubUc rooms.
Under the
The
wadely.
'Abbasids, the
form of
older archJess type was
the
adopted by the Crusaders.
and elsewhere, roofs rested on arcades. Some,
mosque
at Susa,
mosque
at
Over
The
Samarra
exterior wall
(842), like that at
of
is
pimct-
uated with half-round towers resembling the fortifications
of a
city.
ment.
Samarra
Some
is
also notable for
its
stucco relief orna-
are in a style clearly derived
from
that
Baghdad
gates
credential examination.
the colossal
Raqqa,
the
were
audience halls for customs and
like the great
were vaulted, with a dome crowning the
area before the mihrah.
brick
defensive purposes, a device
mosque varied
common. At Raqqa
of
409
ISLAMIC
152
410 Ibn Tolon mosque,

Cairo. 878
The
driving force behind Islam
was the nomad, and nomadic

influence
clear in later
is
development. The form becomes

non-urban, based on the
walJed, fortified enclosure
a well
round
oasis architecture.
411 Qairawan mosque.
Begun 670
The
of the North African
earliest
mosques outside Egypt.

Being desert architecture, the
mosque
is
essentially
an arcaded
courtyard, blank to the outside,

elegant and well proportioned
within.
The
aisles
use antique columns.
411
412 Ibn Tulun mosque, Cairo.

878
The pointed Moslem arch and
dome derive from the use of brick
rather than stone.
The
brick
corbelled rather than
is
segmented as a true arch.

The opposing sides of the arch or
dome
one against the other.
'lean'
quicker converted
The
thrust
into
downward dead
is
weight,
and less massive buttressing

is needed to uke side thrust
than with the semi-drcular arch.
413 Ibn Tulun, the minaret

is developed from
the watch tower and landmark for
The nunaret
the traveller's shelter.
The
crenellations. vestigial
fortifications, are
than functional.
more
decorative
EGYPT
153
Mschatta, with
its rosettes and triangles filled with floral

Sonie exhibit features (stepped crenellation with
rosettes) that hark back to Achaemenid times.
scrolls.
An
development that took place
especially important
and ninth centuries, during the 'Abbasid
in the eighth
^v^^;\v^vv\^v^^v\v^vi^^^^-\\v^
414 Plan of Sultan Hassan

mosque, Cairo. 1362
The cruciform mosque was
introduced into Egypt by Saladin.
The
four arms were related
to the four
rites
of orthodox Islam.
Khahfate, was the evolution of ranges of roofed arcades at

right angles to the wall in
producing the
mosque
which the
of an
effect
in Jerusalem
was
fiiihrab
an outstanding example
is
thus
set,
The Aqsa
sanctuary.
aisled
760).
(c.
This can be traced westwards through the mosques of Ibn
Tulun (Cairo) and Qairawan (Tunis) to Cordova. The

square minaret of Qairawan was likewise carried to Cordova to become the pattern
for western Islam.
Egypt
The mosque of Ibn Tulun contains the most important
early construction (878). The arcades of the enclosure and of
the east end, which are in brick, are of 'Abbasid date. They
of extremely elegant pointed arches
consist
of round pQlars engaged
pairs
The arcade
piers.
that
run
that spring
in broad, plain
united by bands of stucco palmettes
is
dados, and continue around the arches.
as
from
and strong
On
the
of the arches appear sophisticated geometrical de-
soffits
signs. Into the spandrels
windows. As
is
of the arcade are
characteristic
of
small arched
set
the early Egyptian
all
mosques, the brick construction was given sumptuousness
by
surface treatment
in
Syria,
with stucco, paint and gold, whereas
Byzantine tradition of precious marbles,
the
ornate metal panels on walls, arches, doors, and mosaic

prevailed. In
both regions, however, antique columns with
capitals
their
were re-used. In Cairo, the mosques of
Amrou, El-Azhar and

El-Azhar
is
of the
employ them.
begun in
others
greatest interest;
971,
it
frequently restored or rebuilt. Here was set up in 974

is
now
was
what
the oldest university in the world. Attached to
whose sanctuary was used for teaching, were

many auxihary rooms to accommodate the students. Two
especially important features are found here, which became
the basis for much later development. First, below the
the mosque,
oldest pointed
the transition
dome
slightly ogival
415 Ibn Tulun, Cairo.
Mihrab and minbar

The mihrab is a niche
directed towards
The minbar
staircase,
is
in the wall
Mekka.
a raised pulpit
with
often canopied.
Tulun mosque,
was set in a system of
arcades which gave
In the Ibn
the mihrab
the effect of an aisled sanctuary.
above the entrance,
from the square volume
to the
octagon
treated neither with true squinches nor pendentives.
is
The
diagonal faces of the octagon are opened by deep arched

niches,
actites.
which have
Uke
their ends standing in space
stal-
Second, there are long continuous bands of Kufic
which foUow the architecture.

The last Fatimid monument, the small, stone-built mosque
of El-Akhmar in Cairo (begun 1125), exhibits a later
inscription in stucco rehef
stage of these features. Flanking
its
arched pediments are
panels of inset stalactite ornament, and beneath the projecting balcony
from
Here
of the minaret are similar forms derived
the false squinches;

is
introduced a
of deeply
fluting
inset
which
the
stone-cut
new ornamental
Kufic
feature
is
filling
pediment-arches with shell-hke angular
radiates
from
a circular cartouche. This
is
dome
at
connected with the fluted squinch-arches of the
Qairawan. The unusual stone construction,
temporary
superb.
the
fortifications
of Cairo,
is
like the
con-
derived from Syrian
examples, through the intermediacy of Syrian architects,
who employed
Byzantine methods.
416 Qalawun complex of

buildings, Cairo. Begun 1284
The site contained two mosques,
two mausoleums and a hospital.
All the buildings correspond
to
one form or another of the
cruciform plan.
ISLAMIC
154
417 Qaic Bey mosque, Cairo.

1436-80
This funerary mosque for
The next
Qait Bey uses two-toned materials
plan, to
in horizontal bands.
the
This technique became typically

Cairene.
The minaret
has three concentric
tiered galleries.
The
of Egyptian history was marked by the
era
accommodate
jutting out machicolations
rites
of orthodox Islam. At
mosques, two tombs and a hospital, built by Qalawun

1284),
an outstandmg work.
is
All
in
416,
the
buildings correspond to the cruciform plan.
The crowning
prototypes.
fortifications are their
the four
same time, the development of the centrally planned

mausoleum of the ruler took place. The complex of two
Cairo (begun
developed in Byzantine
mosque of cruciform
introduction, under Saladiii, of the
Egypt, however,
achievement of Islam
architectural
is
work
the
Some was devoted
(1436-80).
in
for
Qait Bey
to refurbishing
El-Azhar,
carried out
417
but the most distinctive was the construction of his palace
and funerary mosque. The

is
another banded structure,
latter,
dominated by the huge pointed horseshoe-arch of banded
number
stonework before the mihrab. The
interior contains a
of the arched niches hned with
stalactite; the exterior
the
dome and
geometrical
of
part of the towering minaret bear rehef
surface
ornament. The
great
made of
use
two-toned material and the double arch are both strongly

reminiscent of Spanish Moresque.
The former technique
evolved into the typical Cairene black-and-white
later
geometrical design
Bordeini mosque, 1628).
(e.g.,
North Africa and

The
Spain
mosque of Qairawan (begun
great
building of this school.
670)
rectangular buttressing. All
its
members
are of
as well. Just
under
external
massive proportions, the square minaret;

is
occupied by the sixteen-
The colonnades
that support the sanctuary
half the length of the plan

aislcd sanctuary.
the earliest
is
external walls are plain, with
Its
roof are of superb and delicate proportions, resting on

antique, cylindrical columns, and the arches are the
round
horseshoe kind characteristic of this region, resting on deep

dies
418 Qalawun mosque, Cairo.

Begun 1284
Detail of columns and window.
The numerous Roman
ruins pro-
above the
faience
tiles
in the wall
side
of
its
capitals.
The earliest known Islamic glazed

no doubt, from Persia are set
imported,
around the front of the mihrab, and on
doorway
stands a unique pair of
red and yellow porphyry
either
columns of
from Carthage.
vided columns, capitals and
In several later
ready-made building materials.
Roman
capitals
to their
own
were adapted
use by Arab
craftsmen, sometimes in a
rough and ready or

incongruous way.
structurally
mosques are found colonnades of
design to those at Qairawan, though of

portions
for
example, at Sfax
less
similar
elegant pro-
(ninth century), in the
mosque of Algiers (1018) and Tlemcen (1240). At the

last
two places, however, there occurs, as well, the
extraordinary Moslem invention, related aesthetically to
great
stalactite
ornament: the deeply scalloped arch
horseshoe.
One fmds both
here
the
arch types of the structure
combined to frame the head of the mihrah at Tlemcen

mosque. In the actual arcades of Sidi Bou-Medina, also
at
Tlemcen, there
is
scalloped arch as a
both
a yet later adaptation
moulded enclosure
set in a flat rectangle
of ornament. In
nade became exceptionally important
the use of the
for the horseshoe,

fact the
colon-
in western Islam,
because the roofed areas of sanctuary and cloister came to
predominate
court.
than
much
in
size
over the area of the open
At Tlemcen, for example, the court occupies

one-quarter of the area of the whole.
typically, bears
on
the
flat
frieze
above
its
The
arcades a
timbered roof, with low domes incorporated
at
less
rest,
flat
sahent
points, e.g., over the bays before the mihrab, the entrance,
occasionally elsewhere.
An
especially characteristic feature
420
NORTH AFRICA AND SPAIN
155
419, 421 Qairawan niosque,

North Africa. Begun 670
Interior
and plan.
Nearly half the plan
is
taken
up by the sixteen-aisled sanctuary.

The brick arches rest on
antique columns.
arc part
The
tic
bars
of the original structure.
ISLAMIC
156
421 Gate at Chell*.

North Africa
of North African work, perhaps originaring

the
Twelfth century.
The octagotui towers were
built
small,
porch-likc roof projecting
flat
Its
bombardment and battering.

They are capped with square
dina, thirteenth century). This
platforms which overhang
out modestly in
form of machicolation.
is
permost part of the door-setting, high above the entrance.
with obtuse angles to deflect
as a
in Spain,
from the up-
underside
treated ornamentally (e.g., Sidi
is
A number
wood on
of
houses
(e.g.,
the Kasbah, Algiers).

secular
Among them
Africa.
Bou-Me-
found carried
still
is
medieval
ftrst-class
North
survive in
form
structures
are the massive
walls of Marrakech, with their colossal rectangular but-
tress-towers; the bridge
and
dam
Morocco; and the superb
the fortified gate of Mehedia,
whose
Chella,
gate at
plain
octagonal flanking towers
support rectangular summits, the projecting angles being
underslung with
423 Buttress tower, Marrakech
The enormous walls are buttressed

by equally massive towers.
The decoration may be compared
interlacing
is
and
tracery.
The lower
an interlaced form of
the reverse curve or ogee arch.
stalactite niches.
Arabs were able to employ not only archi-
from the Visigothic buildings they de-
tectural fragments
The
Cordova
stroyed for their purposes, but also their techniques.

earliest
with European Gothic

arch
In Spain, the
monument,
surviving great
(begun 786),
mosque
the
at
of actual fragments and technical
full
is
reminiscences. Here the arcades resemble in design those
of Qairawan and Sfax;
An
tones.
Rome
their
stonework
is
banded with two
interesting technical resource that harks back to
aqueduct
(e.g.,
at
Merida) was adopted to give the
necessary height to the vast expanse of
roof.
flat
The
ar-
cades were doubled, a second arcade standing clear above

the
Only
first.
the inihrab
chamber was vaulted, with an
octagon based on intersecting horseshoe-arches. Exceptionally interesting
the inihrab.
Its
is
the structure of the enclosure before
colonnades are not only doubled, but the
lower arches are scalloped, and the spaces of the upper

arcade are occupied by scalloped half-arches springing
from the
of the lower
centres
bUnd
lavish:
geometrical
arcades,
some
window
floral invention,
arches.
interlaced,
grilles,
The ornament
of Hvely
areas
The
since.
is
of scalloped arches,
formahsed
if
and some areas of Spanish repeat-pattern.
The Alcazar of Seville was originally the palace of

Umayyid commander, and reached a peak of finish in
twelfth century.
has,
It
oldest part
the
the
however, been repeatedly reworked
is
probably the Hall of Ambassadors.
This architecture preserves the relatively simple general
forms of older North Africa: antique columns supporting

plain horseshoe-arches.
The whole
interior,
however,
Hned with an enormous variety of polychrome
is
Some
tUes.
fragments of old carved stucco are preserved. The exterior

exhibits high projecting porches -with stalactite ornament.
The Alhambra, Granada (begun

rulers
of
of Granada,
Moslem
classical
1230), the palace
most sumptuous
it
it
displays the
design, laid out vidth gardens
and enclosed
with luxurious chambers and a mosque. The whole
interior
is
incrustcd with painted plaster ornaments, and
with stretches of glazed and lustred
however,
ings,
Externally
Spain.
architecture in
resembles an imposing fortress; internally
courts,
of the
perhaps the most famous of the works
is
is
light,
tUes.
The
structure,
of mud-brick with burnt-brick
fac-
and the roofs are of wood with plaster revetments. The
dehcate arcades follow

horseshoe,
some
several
arch-patterns:
are liigh, sUghtly pointed
the most characteristic, however, are
flat,
some
are
round arches;
almost triangular,
pointed arches, from which depends an extraordinary

rcsccnce of plaster stalactites.
423
Tebourba, Tunisia;
at
cfllo-
The upper comers of rooms
422
NORTH AFRICA AND SPAIN
157
424-427 Mosque
Begun 786
Cordova.
at
The
great arcaded hall
that
of Qairawan.
The
structure before the
is
based
on
mihrab
not only has double arcading

but the arches are scalloped.
The second
&om
of arches springs
tier
the crest of the
The dome over
before the mihrab
on two
in
first.
the enclosure
is
earned
intersecting vaults, square
plan.
They complement each other

as
binding arches and produce an
octagonal centre.
Structure and decoration arc
combined
in exceptional comity.
428 Alcazar, Seville,

Hall of Ambassadors
Twelfth century.
Parts of the structure of the
Hall of the Ambassadors are the

oldest part of the Alcazar.
It
is
lined with later
polychromed
tilework in rich
geometrical patterns.
The most comphcated

patterns
were
built
interlaced
up from
simple repeating units.
429 Plan of the Alcazar, Seville

The plan is simple.
Chambers are arranged round an
arcaded, lined courtyard with the
inevitable running water.
The whole
is
inward looking.
ISLAMIC
158
430 Court of the Lions,

Alhambra, Granada
Some
arc sinularly incrusted, as are the brackets of beams.
Second half of fourteenth century.

Shelter from hot sun by day and
cold winds by night,
of the
of
ornamental panels of plaster work give evidence
flat
By
invention.
substantial
of the
the larger part
far
ornament, however, consists of hundreds of identical re-
with fresh ruiuiing water nearby,
was the
of
petitions
desert dwellers'
a single motif.
Spanish traditions, in
idea of Heaven.
Mosques and palaces were

round this theme.
built
the
alive.
Down
origins.
and sixteenth centuries the tradition
fifteenth
remained
Africa,
as the Sultan's pal-
Moresque
ace in Tunis reveal their Spanish

into
North
lingered on in
fact,
Morocco. Such buildings
especially in
The ornamental
and design was subjected to
however,
style,
geometrical
stricter
stiffened,
restraints.
Outstanding buildings are the palace of Hussein, Tunis,
of Arsat-ben-Abd-Akath,
palace
the
large private
Even
houses.
many
and
Fez,
these later buildings
in
one
finds arcades sporting superb ancient pillars, Byzantine or
complete with
classical,
Corinthian
their
capitals.
Mesopotamia and Persia

In
region,
this
a generally consistent architectural style
developed for the mosque. This was marked by a fondness

for large areas
431 Court of the Lions.
Alhambra
'Stalactite' detail.
The
is
The
mented balcony. Punctuation by columns and
capitals
is
derived from the corbelled
sqmnch made up of
layers
smooth and
are
minarets are round and tapering, with a single orna-
piers,
so-called 'stalactite'
detail
Domes
of plain surface.
pointed, arcades favour the pointed arch with massive plain
successive
discountenanced, and huge continuous stretches of ornament
shallow
of brick.
were
individual layers
first
sectik, etc.
scalloped out for lightness both in
stucco
briUiant glazed
relief,
came to be applied to
tiles,
ceramic opus
domes and
walls,
arches,
both inside and out. Following the techniques of pure
weight and space.
brick construction, each bay of arcades
with
its
own
small, shallow
developed a virtuosic
domes and
is
facility in the
The mosque
vaults.
colossal arches
framed
is
frequently roofed
dome; indeed
Persian builders
construction of brick
entrances arc set under
in a plain rectangular fatjade,
virtuosity of Persian building in
was
essentially
Complex
its
pursuit
which
However, the
often flanked by a pair of circular minarets.
of exotic patterns
ornamental though carried out in structure.
vaults or
domes following
stellate plans,
squinches developed after complex curves, so
as
tiered
decora-
tively to fdl a colossal arch, were, in fact, subject to a drastic
quadratic simplicity.
432 Salon de los Ajimeces,
In
Alhambra
Detail of ceihng.
built
successive layers of
brick
flat
up of
courses laid concentrically and
harmonious proportion of simply

of the design.
basis
Shah of Tabriz (fourteenth cen-
stupendous faces of bare brick reveal the funda-
mental power and simphcity of Persian invention. The

extravagant and fantastically varied polychrome ceramic
ornament, with which the sixteenth- and seventeenth-
gradually closing
in.
The
dome was
of the
was the
the Masjid-i-'Ali
tury), the
The Isbmic dome was
inside
faced masses
work
century
at, say,
the Blue
Mosque
Tabriz, or the
at
therefore stepped in appearance,
but these
tiers
were usually
filled
Masjid-i-Jami
at Isfahan,
is
covered inside and out,
up and smoothecl out in plaster.

It later became the practice
to leave these steps of brick which
allowed to disturb the tenor of the main
were fancifully carved

and scalloped. The squinches or
comers where the dome is
that
The mosques of Persia were

there
Khana
at
is
really
little
Damghan
squat,
married to the right-angled walls
were
first
treated in this
manner;
eventually the technique
spread to the whole dome.
The
arch.
Mosque
never
so repeatedly reconstructed
early
work
The Tarik
intact.
(eighth to ninth centufies)
form of arcade
carhest
is
features.
round
plans varied a great deal.
pier
shows the
and pointed
Some were
broader
than long, with as
many
as at the sanctuary
end (Nayin, tenth century). Others may
vaulted
aisles
along the side walls
resulting patterns
form diminishing
to the surfaces
or pineapples.
of
spirals, similar
fir
cones
have emphasised the tumiel-hke approach to the mihrab.
(Naynz,
also tenth
Malik
Kirman
the
at
is
century.)
The
court of the Masjid-i-
vast in proportion to
great Masjid-i-Jami
at
Isfahan
its
(tenth
arcades,
century
whde
and
MESOPOTAMIA AND PERSIA
IJ9
433 Entrance to the MasjidUJami, Isfahan

Tenth century and later.
Persian
Moslem
architecture
ornament
which spreads everywhere.
The exotic patterns, however, are
is
noted for
its
elaborate
never allowed to dominate

the structure, but are subordinated
to
In the entrance to the
it.
Masjid-i-Jami, tiered squinchcs are
used one above the other to

the arch and transform
fill
it
into
an enormous geometric apse.
434> 436 Masjid-i-Jami, Xsfahan

Entrance gateway and pbn.
The
and
sheltered courtyard
ceremonial gate are
still
complex plan,
and added to over
the essence of this
much
rebuilt
nine centuries.
435 Masjid-i-Jami, Isfahan

Detail of apse.
The Moslem
inscriptions
use of architectural
both
in cursive
and the very geometric Kufic

scripts
in
have never been paralleled
Western
architecture.
437 Vault deUil

A further example of Persian
vaulting, showing the elaborately
devised frets to the windows.
Gowhar Shad mosque.

Meshed. 1418
The shrine of Imam Riza,
438
an Islamic martyr, was built

continuously from the eleventh to
the nineteenth centuries.
This mosque
biiiJt at
the order
of Queen Gowhar Shad, with

intense colour,
is
finest buildings in the
complex, which
several
and
its
one of the
Imam
consists
Riza
of
mosques, colleges, Ubraries
offices.
ISLAMIC
i6o
439 Masjid-i-Jami, Yezd,

Persia. 1362
This finely proportioned entrance

ii
based on a geometrical
pattern three squares high.
Arch and pinnacle height, and

other elements, are based on
the 'golden section*.
440
Tomb
of Chab Chiragh,
Shiraz
Founeenth-fifteenth centuries.
The dome is of a flamboyant

bombe shape, covered in tiles.
The basic angular unit of these tiles
a design matching
of the stepped patterns of the
produces
that
Shiraz carpet.
441 Door of mosque.

Indjeminareli, Konya, Turkey.
1251
Interlaced
and palmette designs
the arcade above a range
fill
of engaged columns like those

flanking Western church porches.
Both may derive from

S>Tian and Armenian
early
church architecture.
442 Tomb of Timur

(Tamerlane), Samarkand. 1405
Persian and central Asian
domes resemble
the Cairene but
with an additional
at
slight swell
the base.
In section they are of the shape
of
Saracen helmet.
They were sometimes gadrooned,

ribbed or fluted like giant melons.
443 Portico. Chihil Sutun

palace, Isfahan, c. 1700
This porch with
its
trabeated
construction comes directly from

the Graeco-Pcrsian tradition.
TURKEY
on a cruciform
lacer) is
domed and
l6i
plan, extended into a vast scries
The
vaulted arcades.
shrine of the
Meshed, perhaps the best-revered spot in
at
more than one mosque.
It
of
Riza
Persia, contains
complex of
a vast
is
Imam
courts,
buildings and corridors of such extreme lavishness of orna-
444 Plan of Masjid-i-Jami,

Nayriz
Tenth century.
The entrance
to the forecourt
is
insigniiicant.
On
an
with the well
axis,
at
the
centre, the great aisled hall leads
ment with
silver
and
built
from
In
huge gold dome and minarets, gold gateways,
from
was
to the
mihrab
at the far end.
The enormous
of the arcade
piers
almost form a tuimel to the niche.
there survives a great deal of architecture
many
the mosques. There are, for example,
niausolea of the great,
The
in their design.
Bukhara
(907) at
It
the eleventh to the nineteenth centuries.
Persia,
apart
doors, as to transcend description.
gilt
which display exuberant invention
early
mausoleum of
Ismail the
Samanid
a battered cuboid, with pillars at the
is
comers, and a low dome, whose wall
geometrically
is
were frequently made for several
rusticated. Similar t)'pes
centuries. Especially interesting,
however, are certain fu-
neral towers with conical domes. These are gadrooned,
or triangularly buttressed cylinders with various
fluted,
of the vertical features (Gurgan,
solutions applied to the ends
Gunbad-i-Iabus, 1006; Varamin, Ala-ad-din, 1289; towers
Ghazna,
at
Masud
e.g.,
dominated by
is
The tomb of Timur
11 14).
III,
which follows the general pattern of the mosque,
(1405),
There,
is
massive circular tower crowned by
dome of sHghtly bombe
a gadrooned
from those of vaulting
entirely different structural principles
and brick arcades. This

of wooden
flat
The
roof.
tall
pillars are
narrow and tapering,
The
carved bases.
ancient, reflecting the pattern
is
hypostyle
hall,
carried
domestic design.
(3
the peristyle portico or cloister
and architrave construction, with project-
and stand usually on
known
but
is
445, 446 Masjid-i-Jami, Isfahan

Vault plans.
pillar
ing eaves and
type
contour.
however, one type of building which employs
in
down
ancestry of this
of the Achaemenid
the ages at the level of humble
method much used in Turkestan,

Samarkand (Koh-Tach) and in Isfahan,
It
was
for example, the palace of Chihil Sutun (rebuilt
Placing a
dome
was always
The
over a square plan
problem.
original Islamic solution
was
to use intersectmg arches

to reduce the square to an octagon
and then corbel inwards from that.

Examples can be found from
Spain to Persia.
1700).
c.
Turkey
Turkish architecture proper begins
in the fourteenth cen-
tury,
with the estabhshment of the Ottoman empire.
owes
its
origins to Persian types, but
It
was subject to
it
strong influences from Byzanrium. Indeed, as their pene-
of previously Byzantine provinces progressed, the
tration
Ottoman empire took over

Christian St Sophia, with
for
its
its
mosques the pattern of
variants.
The
chief Turkish
elements of design can be found on the Seljuk
of Konya, which otherwise follow Persian
monuments
traditions.
These
elements are: plans showing several parallel arcades, which
tend to reduce their number
as
time goes on;
circular minarets flanking the portal
triangular
niches;
arches
pairs
rectilinear or prismatically faceted stalactite
faceted columns with stalactite capitals.
sides;
is
Persian sense
absent,
a plastic emphasis
and
which
they were never pernutted in Persia.
441
The gateway of the Indjeminareh

this
tendency most
though
fill
clearly laid
the arcade
umns,
and
its
clearly.
out,
{125
Here,
interlace
1) at
Konya, shows
massively projecting
and palmette designs
frame above a range of engaged col-
like those flanking the portals
The Turkish
of western churches.
solution to
was taken
from the Byzantine,
and this is hardly surprising with
the vaulting problem
such an example
as
Sophia
St
ready to hand.
The
corners of the square were
filled in
masonry
with corbelled brick or

to give a
warped
plane.
was eventually
reached whose diameter was the
same as the side of the square.
circle
The dome
from
ornament; and
The
of superbly proportioned massive volumes
on
tall,
porches with flanking
with sUghtly scalloped
the ornamental motifs take
of
447 Plan of the Green niosque

at Bursa. 1414-24
and
is
itself really
springs
this ring,
generally shallow.
ISLAMIC
1 62
work
448-450 Suleiman mosque,

Constantinople. 1557
Exterior, interior and plan.
Occasionally in early
After the conquest
certain
of Constantinople in 1453 many

great buildings of Byzantine
the north portal of the great
of the
dome
Egyptian buildings. The entire framed arcade of
sharp change
mosque
sparingly used,
at
two-toned stone
the Cairene manner.
consisting of
The
rest
One
of the most interesting
things about this great building
had been
this
with domes over
The Green Mosque
built.
dome, and
Iznik (1379) had a single
a frontal stone
The Green Mosque
arcade with sparing ornament.
at
Bursa (1424) was roofed with two main and six subsidiary
domes. After the conquest, however, many great buildings
mainly inscriptional.
is
of purely Byzantine design with multiple domes, half-
that a purely Byzantine structure

scale
mosque. Before
the design of the
sanctuaries, entirely roofed
a rectangular plan,
is
work.
part of the plan.
be erected
curvi-
(1453) brought about a
The conquest of Constantinople
carried
event,
of a vast
many of the
the frame. This type of decorative treatment seems to be

a constant feature of early Turkish
forecourt rather than an integral
is
(1228)
at all corners
The great central dome is

on four huge piers.
The courtyard has become
bands in
mosque of Divrigui
Imear fohate motifs occurring only once on each side of
by smaller domes.
Ornament
Armenia, the small niches
have the elements of the design grown,
in
flanked by four half domes,
and capped
in
contain the shell-hke striations noted on
could be called a symmetrical stone-cut sculpture, so large
design were erected.
The Suleiman mosque is square

plan, crow-ned by a central
stalactite
dome squmches and
should
as late as
stone arcades were erected in Constan-
and elsewhere.
tinople
the mid-sixteenth century.
In these
new mosques,
was
integral enclosure
were
The most
that
in
From two
set
to six free-standing
out around
this forecourt.
impressive of these earher mosques
of Sultan Bayezid (1497). The
fiat
perhaps
is
Byzantine domes
the cloisters of the courtyard
tiers;
an
as
and the courts became mere
forecourts to the sanctuary.

pencil-like minarets
mosque
the idea of the
lost,
are
rise
roofed
also
with domes. The arcades within are supported on cyUndrical
columns of
late classical
type with
is
ornament.
Two
later
mosques of
stalactite capitals,
There
a cornice of stalactite.
and there
is
Httle other
similar plan, the
famous
Suleiman mosque (1557) at Constantinople, and the SeUm

mosque at Edirne (1570), show two of the possible ground
Both are square overall and butThe centre dome, however, is carried on four mascompound piers in the Suleiman; on eight smaller
plans for such structures.

tressed.
sive
octagonal piers in the Selim.

In the great
lavish.
Suleiman mosque, ornament
The round
is
not unduly
arcades are of banded stonework.
entrance door and the niche of the mihrab have
which
gular arches filled with stalactite,
stylised foliate or calligraphic,
carried
lights.
is
there
as
is,
reserved in cartouches, or
out in the stained-glass of pointed or circular
The tombs
plans, were,
employed
on
of'the sultans,
similar but smaller
however, more lavishly adorned,
palaces. Linings
as
also adorns the
Such ornament
pendentives of the domes.
The
tall trian-
of Turkish faience
tiles
in the private apartments
on roofed fountains
set
up
were the
as
were exuberantly
of the
rulers, as
well
in the cities.
India
The
earUest substantial Islamic buildings in India to survive
are
mosques and tombs of the
Kutb-ud-Din's
mosques
tapering gadrooned tower
at
early thirteenth century
known
as
:'
<-
-f
<.
452,
Ghaznivid funereal towers. These were constructed
The
straight-
sided pointed arcades of five and seven arches,
formmg
by Indian craftsmen, of
'.'
454
Kutb Minar,
mosque related
the
actually the free-standing minaret to the

to the
Delhi, and the
Ajmer and
local reddish stone.
the facâde of the sanctuary, are constructed
x,xii 5fii
by
the native
Mdria
la
Blanco, Tolcd,^
\'>>i/< (I
y^
^^^-^1
^r, i/.
.'
Ji/^-
r".,.'
W^t^S
^Wf'/i,
'
\'.
.^
>
vSi
'/-T^j
'i^Mm
%
ffiitt
#>^'^'"î^Bi.
INDIA
The beauty of
corbelling mcchod.
165
these buildings
is
in
451
Kutb Minar, Delhi.

bands of superbly cut reUef ornament, and of Kufic

and Arabic script. These were cut from Persian patterns
Detail.
by native craftsmen. Islamic
decoration are uncoloured, the
their
architecture in India eschewed

polychrome designs of Persia. Beauties of material
and sheer design were expressly sought.
the lavish
Elsewhere, the use of native resources produced extra-
The Ataladcvi mosque injaunpur equipped with early radiating arches exhibits a doorway
ordinary
results.
by square strongly battered towers, with rows of

open arcades within the main arch above the doors. In
flanked
The minaret
tor
its
effect.
rcUes on pure form

The bands of
ornament being both

.ind
script
Kufic inscriptions.
452 Kutb Minar, Delhi

One of the earhest surviving
Islamic buildings in India.
The gadrooned sides and tiered

galleries show influence of native
tope building.
Ahmedabad, domed mosques were built out of the highly

wrought fragments of medieval Hindu temples. Entire
colonnades of Hindu columns were deprived of their figure
The mosque of Mahafiz Khan (c.

by a huge pair of exotically wrought mi-
sculpture, or re-vamped.
14.90) is
flanked
with two projecting balconies in pure Hindu
narets,
Other mosques
Ahmedabad
in
among which
ornament,
style.
are remarkable for their
windows of
the fretted stone
the
453 Fatehpur Sikri, Near Agra.
1556-1605
Sidi Sayyid are exceptionally beautiful.
Early in the sixteenth century, the
employed an Ottoman
architect,
foreigners to be called to build
Moghul, Babur,
first
Detail of bracket.
who was the first of many

in India. To this source is
The bracket capital is of the same

Hindu design as those at Sanchi.
of dome-construction
turned into an abstract arabesque
but the
the
attributed
extraordinary
skill
exhibited by Indian Islamic architecture.
Akbar (1556-1605), devoted much

of a complete
The
near Agra.
The
buildings of this
Moghul,
figure has been
for iconoclastic reasons.
effort to the construction
of pink sandstone
city
third
human
complex
454 Arcades of the Great
Fatehpur
Sikri,
display the
most
at
mosque, Ajmer
Contemporary with the Kutb
extraordinary and extravagant invention.
Minar, these straight-sided, pointed
The mode of
construction favoured for the buildings
arches are corbelled.
was by piUar and canopy. The long projecting eaves of the

century are here developed in such struc-
earlier sixteenth
Panch Mahal, of
tures as the
The throne of
storeys.
invention.
(the
axis
From
five,
unwalled diminishing
Diwan-i-Khas
is
unique
the lowest level rises a lone central pillar
no doubt)
mtindi,
moulded
the
stalactite
spreads
that
by
thirty-six
brackets to support the throne. Four
bridges cross the open space diagonally to the gallery,
where stood the
domed with
Many
courtiers.
of the buUdings are a-
exquisite pierced grilles,
and with elaborate
serpentine brackets at the eaves* corners.

is
adorned with a colossal doorway
The Jami mosque
76 feet high, banded
with hght stone and crowned with canopies and large
Both within
palmettes.
the arch and
on
its
faces
it is
opened
into arched balconies.
Most
beautiful of the later
(the
Pearl
mosque,
eaves-like drip-moulding
mosques
is
the
Moti Masjid,
1650).
runs
above the arcade; three
onion-domes and nine small arcaded canopies adorn the

the roof.
Only
the scantiest of relief
moulding adorns the
white stone.
Numerous mosques and

high
most
artistic quality,
effort
palace buildings in India are of
but perhaps the
and money on
their variety
Sixteenth centiu-y.
The mode of building was
pillar,
hntel and canopy, with heavily
The single-storey colonnade around the court supports, on its slender columns,
projecting eaves. The facade of the sanctuary shows seven
low-pitched scalloped arches on square piers. A long
Agra
455 Diwan-i-Khas,
Fatehpur Sikri
their
Moslem
own
rulers spent
tombs. These, for
and egomaniac majesty of invention, must

among the most magnificent tombs
certainly be reckoned
in the world.
an Masjid-i-Vakil, Shiraz xxiv Bah Zuwela, Cairo xxv
LtitfiiUa
mosque, Isfahan xxvi Court of the Lions, Alhambra, Granada
bracketed balconies and
overhanging roofs in the Indian

tradition.
The symmetrical
much
four-square building owes

to
Hindu
palace tradition.
ISLAMIC
i66
456 Pearl mosque, Agra. 1650

The simple colonnade supports
a
low-pitched roof with wide
The white
unadorned. The scalloped
stone
projecting eaves.
is
edge of the arch
of shaped corbels
yas-ad-Din,
is
the Delhi sultans are
of Persian
That of Ghi-
types.
a massive, battered cuboid of red sandstone,
banded with white marble, and crowned with a dome of
really a series
is
The fourtccnth-ccntury tombs of

solid structures reminiscent
in tiers.
The tomb of
feet high.
white marble, eighty
Delhi (1547), has an octagonal base beneath the

is
Khan,
Isa
dome and
surrounded by an arcade with long eaves, and crowned
by eight ogival canopies on

long in northern India.
tomb of Sher Shah,

Deccan,
In the
It
at
pillars
reached
type that endured
apogee in the enormous
Sahasram, Bengal (begun
The
457
154.5).
tombs displayed the most
at Bijapur,
extravagant fantasy.
its
basic Persian pattern
of cuboid
and dome was preserved, but the tomb of Ibrahim Raiiza

(161
5),
small
like
for example, has a narrow-necked
bulb-dome of
the neck encircled by everted petal-
proportions,
forms. Four ornate minarets with bidb-domes
the comers, and a
number of
small pavilions the
crown
fiat
roof
Under the eaves, especially around the corner buttresses,

crowd clusters of serpentine stalactite brackets.
The most famous tombs, however, are those of the
Moghuls.
457 Tomb of Sher Shah,

Sahasram, Bengal. 1545-50
The Afghan chieftain ruled
Hindustan from 1540 to 1545.
His tomb was built on an island
in
an ornamental
which
he and
could
The
giant lotus-shaped
dome
derives
but
structural, not a stone
is
from the
stupa,
tumulus. Like early stupas,
on
surface like the
in a rectangular
set
door to a Persian mosque, flanked by
octagonal volumes,
whose
faces
huge bulb-dome,
central area under
raised
tall
opened by arched
are
on
which the bodies
458
drum, crowns the
repose, and canopies
devoid of minarets. The Taj
is
of overwhelmingly white
marble, and has four, large circular minarets crowned with
is
completely symmetrical,
a circle
four sides presents a towering arch
is
it
tombs of Humayun
on columns crown the" massive octagons. Humayun's

tomb is banded and panelled with two tones of stone, and
his chief followers
lie.
the greatest are the
560) and
balconies.
lake,
the centre of a paradise in
Of these
of Shah Jehan's wife, the Taj Mahal (1632-53)

the two share substantially the same pattern. Each of the
(c. 1
canopies standing free at the comers of the phnth.
a square.
emperor beggared
In building the Taj, the
his
empire.
Turk to the
design of an architect from Lahore (not a Frenchman or
Venetian, as has often been said). The calligraphy was
According to
inscription,
executed by a Shirazi.
458 Taj Mahal, Agra. 1632-53
Shah Jehan's tomb for his wife
has become one of the best-
known
The bulbous dome crowns

a
where obscures
Its
restrained
out, contains
and elegant
is
imbued with
ing for vegetative Hfe. Although
mosque gateway.
Indian
production,
its
it
architectural
fundamentaUy Persian 'sense of
floral
precious stones, and no-
the architectural features.
fundamentally geometric,
type
derived from the characteristic

Indian
and
was bmlt by
The
fretting
the screens, especially those around the central area,
hldian buildings.
symmetrical building of
inlay, inside
it
is
of
459
though
the Indian feel-
certainly a native
success
inteUigible
rests
on
its
and undisturbed
proportions, apphed to clean, uncompUcated surfaces.
459 Screen at the Taj Mahal

The screen of pierced trellis work
marble
is
inlaid
precious stones.
in
with semiIt
is
strictly
geometrical.
The meandering
pattern
is
reminiscent of the border
decoration of
Moghul
illuminations.
Rose iVindow, North Transept, West Front, Notrc-Dame, Paris
'fî
>
w^-<%
i^'y,
^"^
?R.^.
,-l
m^
_^CII*
liî
.w>iS
*^
["ii*
U-
!.
MEDIEVAL
<
:-
.-<
ii^îS^
^'
m mm mm
MEDIEVAL
i68
460 The Pantheon,
Rome.
A.D. 120-24
This temple was crccd by
Hadrian on the base of an older

temple of Agrippa.
The
plan
is
dome with
drcular. covered
a height
diameter each of 142

the concrete walls
by
and
feet;
were once
marble faced.
461, 463 Sca CosCanza,
350
Pbn and
exterior.
Here one
finds the
Rome,
c.
development
of a plan based on a double

one inside the other,
circle,
with niches in the walls that hint

at
an octagonal plan.
The surrounding
vaults
which
thrust of the
aisle is
roofed by
also absorb the
dome
that tops
the columns of the inner circle.
ROMAN VAULTED BUILDINGS
Roman Vaulted Buildings
169
importance of the inner man, the soul rather
stressed the
man
than the body, and which urged
There are many branches and many types of architecture

that can be considered under the general heading of medchurches, and nearly
their structure
from
distinctions
the feature that
one of arches and curves and
basically
is
common
have in
all
of vaults or domes, and
later
we know were
but the majority of the buildings
ieval,
it is
in this that the principal
classical architecture are to be found.
There, regular plans based on the rectangle and elevations
which were
horizontal
were the
universally vertical
rule,
while the
with triangular pediment above,
architrave,
was
the essential feature
style
on the other hand,
of the
the straight line
rather than the rule, plans
were
In the medieval
fa(;ade.
irregular
mortar,
down
come
new
type.
which was
On
third quarter of the fifth century.
on
form
plan
some of the rooms
to
a larger scale.
is
Roman
the Imperial
composed of an
however
of columns which
enclose an inner apsed square consisting
many of
Domitian
in
poised. Like the
buildings, this
is
groined vault. The walls
intersecting
and the vaulted roof of the surrounding
support and buttress the central area, taking up and subtly
in classical building large blocks, care-
compensating for the thrust of
The
one another, so that every part of the
became an
way which was
element in an organic whole, in
essential
never called
for,
never conceived
In medieval architecture each part
in classical building.
every other part; in the
in relation to
This system of balance characterises

it
classical style
by mathematical proportion.
the results were achieved
work, whether
of,
truly medieval
all
be Byzantine or Carolingian, Romanesque
or Gothic, and whether the
dome
It
was
important to a degree never dreamt of in any previous
and hardly ever
called for or paralleled
since
in
second,
is
structure has
its
and balance some other
become an
become
entity,
and in the
right,
organic, in that each part
but also serves to support
itself
part.
own
its
It is
medieval
in fact a truly
provides adequate,
it
even impressive, housing for a Christian church, but more,

because
architecture in the true sense of the
it is
word and
not mere building.
But
when
these buildings there
all
vaults are
of concrete, and
is
Roman
and the
to use
same time. And
it
was
sphere fairly narrowly
knowledge was
this
domes and vaults had
factor; the
was only possible
knowledge of how
present at one and the
Rome
one hmiting
their erection
the correct materials and a
them were
speaking that
and methods
building, significant not only because
are countless 'medieval' elements in Renaissance building)
materials
from those of
but there has been great advance,
not only important in
only in
modem
clear,
independent and standing
subsequent styles like that of the Renaissance (though there
or those of today, where
roof.
its
for in the first place the building has
or the vault, the round
or the pointed arch was the characteristic feature.
is
serve to
aisle
derivation of the plan of this building
Imperial times
Elsewhere
available.
to be built of stone or brick,
of
and to
their construction
have to some extent removed the necessity for the subtle
stand entirely as a result of the
compensations of thrust and countenhrust that were re-
and not primarily because of the strength of the concrete
quired
if a
building
made
entirely
St Sophia at Constantinople or
to
Amiens Cathedral, was not
ment of such
dome, and
earliest
and
necessary to begin the enquiry with an
examination of certain buildings of pre-Christian use and

nature, notably the great baths and palaces of Imperial
Rome;
for
it
is
there that
many of
problems that characterise the medieval
on an
extensive scale (see section
the
constructional
style
on Roman
were tackled
architecture, pp.
vaults
seemed
buttressing.
distinct
similar
origin and a
Christian prototypes
the Eastern
ing of octagonal plan.
One of
the
architecture
to tally with the teaching of the Church,
which
Ravenna
examples
is
The
stage in the evolution of the plan
in
first
the
circular
chambers
next the simple circle

four
in
which
which hint
is
is
(326-48).
Domitian's palace; in the
elaborated by adding or including
circles,
at
virtually
468-470
to be seen
on plan the
circle
an octagon. In the next the inner
virtually
plan consists of two

walls
at
exhedrae, so that
semi-circular
becomes
is
The
to be seen in Sta Costanza at
whole essence of the
most highly developed
the church of San Vitale
is
stressed
evolution from pre-
similar
above and use of apses or exhedrae on
the
In
from those of Rome were
to be traced with regard to build-
is
included in an outer one.
rather than the outside, had an especial appeal to Christian
Indeed,
methods
is
plan, and where the importance of the interior was
patrons.
structural
which
55-79)- This architecture, the characteristic features of
were the
world
one
develop-
essential features as the arch, the vault

it is
and the massiveness of the
skill
developed; more will be said of them below.
understand the story of medieval architecture
must know something of the origin and

the
like
to the ground.
fall
To
of brick or stone,
462, 464
an apsed
it is
solid outer walls
Its
support the structure on which the roof

roofs of
built in the
were well nigh universally
thrusts balanced
style,
that has
to us in Italy belongs essentially to this
the San Lorenzo at Milan,
is
evolu-
be briefly examined, for one of
stone and occupying almost
were used, almost without mortar. But the

most imponant difference of aU lay in the thought behind
the work, for in the medieval world thrusts and counter-
hved
may
type
most important of the early churches
the
fully squared,
new
tion of the
It
basilicas later; here the
of these conservative
said
as the
hard
employed, whereas
structure
the
the wall space,
itself as
much of
not surpris-
It is
was soon adopted by patrons of the
it
faith for the use
palace but
also differed, for in
to seek salvation
earth.
of the Christian community, even if

more conservative form of the basilica, with
timber roof, was more usual. Something more will be
new
at first
square, similar in
the medieval style bricks or small stones set in cement or
as
ing therefore that
was the exception
the roofs consisted of arches, vaults and
domes. Further, the building material
heaven rather than on
in
and varied, curved
exhedrae or apses were frequent, while in developed medieval buildings
and glory
result
circle
of these elaborations
Rome
(c.
350),
where the
an outer one with niches in the
an octagonal plan, and an inner one
an octagon. The surrounding
aisle
is
roofed by vaults which also serve to support the thrust of
461. 4^3
MEDIEVAL
70
465 Church of San Vitale,

Ravenna. 526-48
The capicab of this church arc
of the
known
new Byzantine
impost
as
type
capitals
and
arc remarkable for the delicacy
of
their carving.
dome
the
columns of the
tops the
tlmt
In the next stage,
which
inner
circle.
represented by Constantine's
is
Church of the Resurrection at Jerusalem (c. 350), the inner

of columns is surrounded by an octagon, and in the
final and most elaborate form the inner and outer rings
circle
have both become octagons. San Vitalc
variations
Bacchus
and
Sergius
SS.
on the theme. The
but inside
this
made
is
latter has
snoaU niches in the comers and
is
which
ajid
represent
by
the inclusion of
further elaborated
from
projects
by
the eastern
The former is more elaborate, for the inner octagon

and more deUcate, and the eastern side is open, to
wall.
is
Ravenna
a square plan outside,
into an octagon
the addition of an apse
at
Constantinople
at
taller
provide a long presbytery; the main portion of
this
is
included within the waU-space of the surrounding outer
octagon, though here too there
There
from
is
Roman
their
Milan;
it is
a small projecting apse.
prototypes and from San Lorenzo at
that they are roofed
wdth domes, not groined
Pantheon was roofed with a dome, but
vaults. True, the

it
is
one feature that distinguishes these two churches
was poised over
a circle, a plan
which
was moreover a
sibility for elaboration. It
with a great mass of concrete
affair,
act as a counterpoise to
colossally
heavy
at its extremities to
whereas the domes of SS.
thrust,
its
offers httle pos-
Sergius and Bacchus and San Vitale are of brick, or even
of hollow
466, 467 SS. Sergius
Bacchus, Constantinople. 527

Ground floor plan and interior.
The plan
is
simple square
is
an elementary apse on the
eastern wall,
and the
seventy-foot-high
dome
and
are light
delicate
and are sup-
system of buttressing, which serves to compensate the
and carry
thrust
it
down
at
an angle to the ground. Here
the principles of organic architecture have been developed
enclosing an octagon.
There
They
vessels.
ported not by a great counter-weight but by a subtle
and
is
given
and thought out to an advanced degree, and San Vitale

not only a wholly organic building but also an outstand-
is
externally a unique ribbed
ingly beautiful one, for
treatment.
fine
its
and balanced. Here an
was
artist
But
it
at
proportions are exceptionally

architect
who was
also a great
work.
was not
either in
San Vitale or in SS. Sergius and
Bacchus that the most important architectural invention

of early Christian times was made, but in cenain other
buildings,
where the dome
circular basis, but
how to
rests
not on a circular or nearly
poised over a square.
dome was probably
the
most important of
those that confronted the early Christian architects, and
here the evidence as to the role played by
renzo
at
much
Rome
in solving
precise.
San Lo-
Milan, San Vitale at Raverma, and the
rest, are
problem
the
all
The problem of
transform the square of a ground plan into a circular
base for the

all
is
buildings
is
very
less clear
and
which can be explained
as
being the direct
outcome of ideas which were thought of and developed in

Rome, and the evidence can be documented by the study
of buildings which actually survive. But there are not
present in Italy any actual examples of early date that show
that the
problem of poismg a
circular
dome above
a square
base was solved there for the first time. For that the surviving evidence is to be found elsewhere, more particularly
in the eastern Mediterranean.
The Dome and the East
We
have already encountered buildings of square plan,
both for pre-Christian and Christian usage,

baths and palaces of Imperial
Rome
as in the great
or in the church of
460
ROMAN VAULTED BUILDINGS
171
468-470 Church of San Vitale,

Ravenna. 526-48
Here the plan has developed
into a
more sophisticated double

The light dome rests on
octagon.
pendentives but
the outside
and
tile
church
by
roof.
is
is
obscured from
a protecting timber
Although the
Roman
in inspiration,
Byzantine elements are everywhere

evident, particularly in the
mosaics that adorn the

sanctuary, and in the
contrast
between the richness
of the interior and the

simple brick exterior.
MEDIEVAL
172
Tomb of Gaila PlacidU,

Ravenna, c. 540
The present structure formed
part of a much larger complex
which has now disappeared.
It was intended
471
mc
for
It
as a funerary chapel.
cruciform in plan,
is
by
the crossing roofed
The
exterior
is
a vault.
a plain
brick building devoid of

all
architectural
ornament,
providing a striking contrast with

the highly decorated interior.
All the vaults are covered
which flows
entirely with mosaic
from one
without
surface to another
a break.
472 Diagram of squinch

Virtually an arch or arches built
across the corners of a square
at the
upper
level,
which
serves to
turn the area into an octagon
on which
dome
constructed.
is
473 Squinch in the

palace at Firuzabad
Third century. This
is
one of
the earUest examples of the use
of a
dome
to roof a building
of square plan. The transition
from square to circle is effected

by means of a squinch, a series
of arches corbelled out from
the corner, serving to turn the
square into an octagon.
474 Le Puy Cathedral.

Auvergne
Twelfth century.
The squinch
form of
here takes the
semi-dome or conch,
The coloured
as in
an apse.
tufas
of the region arc used
to produce a decorative effect.
THE DOME AND THE EAST
San Lorenzo
at
173
475 The evolution of the

domical vault and the
pendentive
The area that can be roofed by
Milan. These were elaborated in various
ways. Sometimes the square was extended by the addition
of semi-circular exhedrae on three or even

sides;
four of
all
its
the domical vault
sometimes square projections were added, so that
limited
the building automatically assumed a cruciform plan. This
could in turn be elaborated by adding columns
comers
is
directly
of the square
(b,
c,
d)
serves as an admirable transition
from the square below to the

circular base of the dome. Its
open square
so providing an
inside the square,
(a)
size
below. The pendentive
four
at the
by the
within the closed outer wall, on which the central portion
spherical-triangular shape serves to
of the roof could

elaboration
Syria,
is
known
An
rest.
important early example of this
Musmiyah
to be seen in a building at
Praetorium:
as the
it
dates
from
below
transfer thrust to the pier
and not on to the arch
in
itself,
as in the squinch.
the second
century A.D. and shows in embryo the idea of cruciform
dome
church with central
supported on columns. For ob-
vious reasons this plan appealed especially to Christian

patrons,
and variations on the cruciform plan probably
began
become important soon
to
after the official
adoption
of Christianity early in the fourth century; though
was
it
only during the sixth century that any really serious devel-
opments were made. The
form of roof
satisfactory
We
first
problem was
find a
to
for the square base.
have already encountered instances of the roofing
of buildings of rectangular or square plan by means of

groined vaults. The evidence suggests that the domical
vault over square
it
consists
was
also
known
Roman
to the
architects
of a vault of which the uniformly curved sur-
faces reach
out a break.
down into the angles at the four corners withThough it provides a more satisfactory type of
roof for a square building than the groined vault,

is
height
its
limited in direct relation to the size of the square below,
and there are no
of
possibilities
on the Httle building

Mausoleum of Galla Placidia
exists
Such a roof
variation.
Ravenna known
at
and though
(c 540),
the
as
it
vides a satisfactory area for decoration with mosaic,
proit
475
is
unduly limited, and moreover makes impossible the in-
any windows
clusion of
476 Tomb of Theodoric,

Ravenna, c. 530
This structure is in two storeys,
directly illuminating the central
area.
The dome
proper,
on
structure set
to
form an
on the other hand,
is
in height
external as well as an internal feature
which windows can be
a circle
an independent
drum, which can be varied

inserted, as they were, for
and into
4.5
f-
surmounting
make
the construction of this
drum
to convert the square of the area
tial
But
possible,
below
it
One enormous convex
in order to
feat
essen-
into a circle.
This was the great problem that confronted the architects
of the
fifth
and sixth
Two
distinct
enough
centuries,
was not arrived
solution
first
Egypt.
The
is
at
It
dates
of both appear
at
we know
the
but in the East.
side
Abu Mina,
from between 400 and
simplest system
virtually
far as
Rome
methods were discovered, and curiously
early examples
same building, the church

in
and so
at in
is
that
known
by
side in the
near Alexandria
410.
as the squinch.
This
an arch biult across the comers of the square
an upper
level,
which
serves to turn the area into an
octagon: by recessing the masonry over the salient points
on each
side
of the square and oversailing the arches
comers, a more or
less
at the
adequate circular foundation could
be provided for the drum. But
it
was not a wholly
satis-
factory solution, for the springing of the squinch arches
was
set a third
or half-vi/ay up the main arches that topped
the square, and this
slab
of
Hke an inverted dish 35

Its transportation was a
remarkable technical
roof,
example,
was
decagon
stone weighing 470 tons forms the
across.
in Justinian's St Sophia at Constantinople.
feet in diameter.
was a point of weakness rather than

476
for
its
time.
feet
MEDIEVAL
174
477 Church of the Nativity,

Bethlehem. 527-65
Constantinc's first church on the
traditional site
was
It
is
of Christ's birth
rebuilt in the sixth century.
remarkable tor
its
high
Corinthian columns and
of Strength. The squinch was however used quite extennot only in early times but also
sively,
late
We
date.
Egypt;
thus
see
it
of Soter
in the baptistry
at
Abu Mina
at
Naples in
Siman
in the fifth century at Kalaat
a comparatively
at
example
for
in
Italy (465-81);
and
in Syria;
in the
stately,
tenth and eleventh centuries in churches like Hosios Lulcas
simple plan.
and Daphni
in Greece.
found
to be
The
earUest instances
and Sarvistan
the latter
is
On
(234-42).
II
use are
its
of Firuzabad
of the fourth century and the
former probably dates from

dashir
of
in Sassanian Persia, in the palaces
as early as the
reign of Ar-
the basis of this evidence the squinch
may be regarded as the Persian solution of the problem.

More ingenious, and also more satisfactory, is the second
solution, which is known as the pendentive. It consisted
in
building in the angles the
but stopping short
first
at the level
stage
of a domical
vault,
of the summits of the main
com-
arches that top the open square. This pro\'ided a

pletely circular base,
built at an
478 St Demetrius, Salonica

Filth century.
rare extant
aisled basihcan
example of a
five-
on both
a separate
occasions.
dome
could be
was more often done,
or, as
could be inserted be-
vertical walls
tween the base and the actual dome. The pendentive

provided an admirable solution, for
church in the
Greek Orthodox world. It was

burnt in 610 and again in 1917,
but the west and east ends are
original and the rest was faithfully
restored
independent angle;
drum with
a circular
on which
its
sphencal-triangular
downwards
shape served to convey weight and thrust
to the
column below it, and not where the squinch tended

to impose it, on the arch itself. Further, the vertical drums
could be pierced with windows to admit hght. Indeed,
pier or
the pendentive
ture,
is
an admirable example of organic architec-
where weights
are
conveyed to the ground and
thrusts
compensated not by mass but by a subtle disposition of

counter thrust.
No
example of a pendentive
Abu Mina
idea
would appear
Minor, and
is
earlier than that at
to have been perfected in Syria or Asia
seems probable that
it
area to Constantinople
worked for Justinian

them in most of the
may
that
(400-10) has so far been discovered, but the
be taken
by
it
was taken from
the Anatolian architects
in the sixth century-;
it
that
who
was used by
buildings done for that emperor.
as the Hellenistic solution
It
of the problem.
The Basilica
Though,
as
was
architecture
stated at the outset, the essence
was the organic
principle,
with circular and cruciform plans, with
means of
transition,
were long drawn
of medieval
the experiments
vault,
out,
dome and
and a more
conservative type of building, with rectangular ground
plan and simple timber roof, remained important, not only
throughout the centuries of evolution between the days of
Augustus and Justinian but
John of Studios,
479
Constantinople. 463
St
until a
Plan.
very
much
and even though
This church shows probable
which
it
also,
later date.
especially in the
This
plan exercised
Oriental influence in the great
width
greater or lesser degree in practically
in
comparison to
its
in contrast to the basihcas
which are much
length,
of
Italy,
was the
West,
basihca,
was conservative and unambitious, the
influence
its
t^'pe
is
to be
all
found to a
the architecture of
Christendom.
larger.
The
aisles,
simplest form, a rectangular building with three
topped by a timber roof, had been used extensively
in pre-Christian times,
Even before
especiaUy for judiciar)' purposes.
the adoption of Christianit)', the custom of
extending one end by the addition of a semi-circular apse
had become general; there was usually an entrance, preceded by an atrium or forecourt,
at the
other end.
When
THE BASILICA
175
480 St Paul's- without- the-Walli.
Rome. 385
Rebuilt 1823.
This was one of the grandest

basilicas in
Home,
surpassed only
by
St Peter's;
its
plan was similar.
481 Sta Sabioa,
The
Rome.
original charaaer
many
church has survived the

alterations-
It is
with semi-
austere,
circular arches resting
422-38
of" this
on
Corinthian coluimis.
Rome. 432
482 San Lorenzo,

This
is
a typical
Roman
Basilica,
but at the eastern end a

large crypt has
been contrived
to house the relics of the

saint, so that
the floor has
here been raised.
483 Old St Peter's,
Rome. 450
Plan.
Constantine's
first basilica
have been the grandest of
must
all
the
Roman churches, but it

was pulled down to make way
the one we see today.
early
484 Sta Maria Maggiore,
Rome. 432-547
The
single-aisled
interior
with ranges
of slender Ionic columns
and horizontal entablature

faithfully follows
the classical basiHca

the church
is
on which
modelled.
for
MEDIEVAL
176
48s, 486 St Eirene,
was adopted
Christianity
Constantinople. 532
A church was buih 011 the
site
by
the official rehgion of the
as
commended
State the plan at once
Church,
itself to the
simultaneously provided adequate space for a large
Constantinc, but the present
for
structure was built
congregation and an axis towards a sanctuary, for the
It-
was repaired
by
after
Justiruaii.
earthquake
it
was from the

first
an ingenious combination of an
tated towards the east.
apsed basiUca and a
The dome
is
set
domed
square.
on massive
dividing the
aisles
Some of
Rome were
actually
Sta Pudenziana;
but the
the earliest churches in
pagan buildings, re-used,
and supporting
the gallery rather than the side

walls and roof as in the old basilicas.
at
were not by any means always orien-
the buildings
piers,
between which arc columns
altar
times in the apse, even though
earliest
damage in 564 and again in 740.

The present building consists of
like
building of churches on a considerable scale began in the
fourth century, and
we have
virtually a
complete example
though
it was burnt
was restored exactly on the lines of the
original building of 385. Other early examples include
in St Paul's-without-the-Walls, for
down
in 1823
it
Maria Maggiore (432-547). Old
Sta Sabina (422-38) or Sta
St Peter's, set
of them, but
make way
These
up
was destroyed
it
belong to two main groups: a more
where
conservative one,
columns
the
that
topped by a horizontal entablature
the old classical temples, and a
columns are topped by
the
more
separate the
like those
of
progressive one, where
The
arches.
end of the central
apses at the
ones have
earliest
only
aisle
apsidal termina-
tions to the side aisles appeared at a rather later date,
were
all
in the fifteenth century to
for the present Renaissance structure.
basilicas
aisles are
was no doubt the grandest of
in 450,
and
developed in the East. Transeptal projections to
first
north and south just in front of the apses were however
Rome;
quite an early feature in

plan,
for
as
example
they produced a T-shaped
Maria Maggiore. Another
Sta
in
elaboration which appears as early as the fourth century
though
was unusual before the
it
of a crypt below the

remains of
saints
and martyrs and became more
and more important
One of the
in
as the cult
best examples
Rome, where
was the inclusion
sixth,
These were used to house the
apse.
is
the crypt
in the
is
church of San Lorenzo
so large that the eastern
of the church seems almost to have two

aisles
were
the central
Outside
end
side
windows could be
inserted to illuminate
aisle.
Rome
portant church
basilicas
The
storeys.
lower than the central one, so
also invariably
clerestory
that
common
of rchcs was developed.
the basdica found favour as the
form
numerous
in
Nuovo
of Sant'Apollinare
Unare in Classe
(c.
cities in Italy;
(c.
Ravenna
535) at
most imthe great
540) and Sant'Apol-
are typical.
The
plan
was used by Constantine for the churches he founded

487 St Sophia, Constantinople.
532-37
Pbn.
The plan shows three apses and
three aisles separated by coluimu
over the Christian world, hke the first St Sophia
that also support the side
never really popular
gallenes.
rests
on
The
great central
dome
spherical pendentives.
tinople and the

latter
still
rebuilt
by Justinian
in the sixth century.
examples
now
was
entirely
of the Christian
basilical buildings are to
there, for the early ones
for structures
it
But the form was
in the eastern part
world and today few
way
basdica though
as
all
Constan-
the Nativity at Bethlehem; the
Church of
survives
at
be found
were mostly puUed down
to
make
of another type. The most important
standing
Orthodox world
the
church of St John of Studios
at
are the
Constantinople (463) and
the Panaghia Achieropoietou and St Demetrius at Salonica.
The
last
of these
is
especially fine for
instead of the customary three
aisles,
and
nate with a series of columns to break the

the
main
aisle.
The
it
has five
built piers alter-
monotony of
building was ahnost completely de-
177
THE BASILICA
488 St Sophia, Constantinople.

532-37
In St Sophia a dome was used
a square for the
as a
roof over
first
time on a really large
It is
supported on four great piers
which
scale.
inside are so inconspicuous
that the
dome
appears, as a
contemporary writer
stated, 'to
be
supported on chains from heaven'.
489 St Mark's, Venice. 1042-85

Interior. The similarity m feebng
and construction between this
church and St Sophia is clearly
demonstrated in a comparison
with the previous
The
illustration.
addition of a transept to the
north and south of the central
dome, however, give

cruciform plan. In
Justinian's
it
this
a truly
it
follows
Church of the Holy
Apostles at Constantinople.
490 St Mark's, Venice. 1042-85

St
Mark's ornate
with
fa(;:ade
five portals
faces the splendid square.
The
central
dome
is
repeated in
domes on the arms of

The interior is richly
four smaller
the cross.
faced with marble and mosaics.
MEDIEVAL
178
by fire
stroyed
on
structed
but
in 1917,
now
has
it
of the
the basis
The most imaginative blend of
been entirely recon-
The church of
original plan.
John of Studios is interesting, for it is very much wider

comparison to its length than are the basihcas of Italy,
and in this it probably shows the influence of ideas that
domed
the ideas of basihca and
which produced Justinian's
that
one of
48
original buddings that have ever
p.
St
greatest foundation, St Sophia at Constantinople,
the
Minor and blended with
Asia
Rome by
brought from
Constantine
at
an
those
most glorious and
been
eclectic, in that
is
of a blend of various ideas that
consists
it
were developed previously and which came from East and
West
alike.
no doubt
is
but
true,
also true that
is
it
of quality has always owed an immense debt to
art
all
This
from
the past, and if the Byzantine architects blended ideas
form the
diverse sources to
of
basis
new
their
style,
It
replaced Constantine's church, a basilica
in the
riots
who was described by

man most learned
Tralies,
'the
as
The proportions of the budding are vast, and also unuThe span of the dome is 104 feet, over a base 250
feet
long and 230 feet wide, and the dome,
first
budt, was astonishingly
which have
most of them more Roman or more
been noted so
far,
various tentative efforts
may
Eastern than Byzantine, the story

ries
of buildings
up
set
begin with the se-
in the second quarter
of the
sixth
century under the patronage of Justinian, more especially

at Constantinople.
They belong
represent variations
on
to various types, but
all
merging of the themes of basdica,
and square roofed with a dome. Simplest and most
cross,
straightforward
group of which St Eirene
the
is
at
Con-
stantinople (532)
may be
consists virtually
of an ingenious combination of the ideas
chosen
as
the type example.
of an apsed basdica and a domed square. The dome
on massive bmlt
and support a
aisles
longer support the side walls and roof
gallery; they
the ground. The resemblance

interior
where bmlt
nica,
is
is
there
even more striking
with that of St Demetrius
with a
piers already alternate
no
they did in the
as
old basihcas, though the idea of the basdica
compare the
set
between which are columns which
piers,
serve to divide the
is
It
if
series
in
Rome
of
but hardly sufficiently secure in the East where
from time to time experienced.

length, and so approach more
nearly to the conventional basdica, this plan was elaborated
by the addition of further bays
vaulted and sometimes

ing consisting of
domed;
two domed
sometimes
in the latter case a build-
squares,
was produced. Similarly the
other,
to the west,
one
in front
central square
of the
was ex-
tended in other directions by the addition of a square

the east to
form
form
a choir
famous Church of the Holy
Apostles at Constantinople,
type; indeed,
it
may
now
be counted
destroyed, was of this

as the
the five-domed type, with a large
type example of
dome
and smaller ones on the four arms of the
was followed almost exactly in St Mark's

in the
at the crossing
cross. Its
at
plan
Venice early
eleventh century, in Cyprus and elsewhere. St John's
church
at
Ephesus,
as
remodelled by Justmian, represents
a further elaboration, for the nave
is
considerably longer
two domes, whde

and one each on the other arms.
than the other arms of the cross and has

there
at
and squares north and south to
transepts. Justinian's
is
one
at the crossing
'to
it
its
was
span,
be suspended
by golden chains from heaven', so unobtrusive were its

means of support. Never was this budding surpassed, never
even imitated, in the Byzantine world.
a
budding of exceptional genius. And
It
it
remains unique,
stands today, Httle
changed but for a few additions made by the Turks when

they turned
stantinople
it
into a
icL
The ground
support side
length, there
is
after their
conquest of Con-
plan again represents that of a basilica with
and three
three apses
also
mosque
1453.
aisles
separated
a vast
by columns which
But above, to give greater
galleries.
semi-dome,
as
it
were an immensely
enlarged apse, at the eastern and western ends of the main
and these not only give an unprecedented feeling of
aisle,
budding. Between them
the shock of earthquakes was

In order to give greater
one contemporary writer said
as
when
comparison to
we
colunms were well enough
aisles;
in
spaciousness but also add an amazing hghtness to the
columns, though they have no function other than to

strengthen the long
seeming
low
on
at Salo-
in
an earthquake.
they
ing results of outstanding glory.

set aside the
his
men of his own time, but of all men for generations back'.
He was helped by another, Isidore of Miletus, who also
rebudt the dome when it fell shortly after as the result of
sual.
we
It
of the
are called the mathematical sciences, not only
did so with genius and imagination and succeeded in achiev-
If
of 532.
under the direction of the
days,
Anthenuus of
contemporary, Procopius,
what
Nika
the
fire in
amazingly short rime of five years,
months and four
architect
has sometimes been said that Byzantine architecture
up.
which was destroyed by

ten
It
set
was completed
earlier date.
Byzantine Church Architecture
489-492
is
in
penetrated from
485, 486
square, however,
standing
is
the great central
whole
dome
on a low drum pierced by windows
itself,
to Hght the
central area.
It
is
however not only thanks
ception of
its
supreme but
also as a result
interior decoration.
leries are
to the imaginative con-
plan and elevation that St Sophia stands
The
of the exquisite quahty of the
walls
up
to the level
covered with huge marble
of the gal-
chosen for the
slabs,
subtlety of their veining and poUshed to shine like mirrors;
something of the original
effect
can
now
be comprehended
thanks to cleaning done in recent years by the Byzantine

Institute
of America. Above, the wall
surfaces, the arches,
the vaults, the semi-domes, the pendentives

itself
were
all
and the dome
adorned with ghttering mosaics. Some of
those of Justinian's day survive on the arches and the vaults
of the lower storey; they are

figural mosaics
now
above the doors,
tween the windows of the walls
being cleaned.
in the galleries
The
and be-
that close the north
and
south arches are later additions, which replaced the earher
work, torn
down
perhaps during the days of Iconoclast
supremacy (726-843), when figural art was forbidden. And,

mingling with this, to complete the picture, ran the deUcately carved cormces and,
supporting
it
all,
the richly
decorated capitals with their sdhouette-hke ornament, in a

style
wholly new and wholly
successful.
that contemporaries regarded the
It
budding
was no wonder
as
miracidous.
BYZANTINE
179
491, 492 St Mark's, Venice.
X042-85
Roof detail and plan.

The tall timber and metal-sheathcd
domes stand clear
of the shallower stone structural
domes and are a weatherproof
shield to them,.
Crowns of gold were added

timber-built domes
to the
in the thirteenth century.
493 Kapnikaria, Athens

Tenth century.
An example of a cruciform
basihca, with the prothesis
and
the diaconicon as subsidiary

struCTures
which
the corners
of the
left
fill up
between the arms
cross.
494 Kariye Catnii,

Constantinopl e
Eleventh to early fourteenth
centuries.
church with two antechambers
or narthices, with the walls

separating the
main apse from the
side chapels carried
to support the
forward
dome.
495 Katholikon> Daphnl

Ninth century. This is one of
the few churches with large
domes
dome
that survive in Greece.

is
Its
supported on squinches.
MEDIEVAL
i8o
496 Gradanica, Serbia. 1321
or that visitors at a later date were so impressed and over-
This church represents the
awed
final
form of Byzantine building with

surrounding the central dome.
The
exterior
St
of brick and stone.
is
more than one was converted
that
of
a result
domes on high drums
many of Justinian's
Sophia happily survives, but
foundations,
as
architecture
of this
centuries, for after the vast enterprises
was empty and the
great patron the treasury

late his
performances was dead. But
tacular
was done,
if
other
have
elsewhere,
much of the
possible to say
iJ it
of the next few
and
Constantinople
at
Nor
perished.
Orthodoxy
to
his visit.
spirit to
emu-
nothing very spec-
was during the next two or three
it
centuries that the Byzantine architectural style developed
idiom which was
into an
to survive conquests,
wars and
poverty, and to spread over the greater part of the Ortho-
dox world, from Cyprus in the south

the north, from Asia Minor in the cast
Novgorod
to
in
to Sicily, Venice
or Moldavia in the west.
The
essence of the plan
vault and
were rung, mostly,

497 Hosios Lukas,
Greece. 1000-25
the
The pnnapal church,

at
Daphni, has
dome
it
tive.
stands a second church with a

a
tall
on
huge
as
these
themes
But even
if
spatial unity
great feeling for dehcacy,
many
are extremely attrac-
Until the twelfth century or thereabouts, the basilical
on
idea continued to predominate
drum, of
slightly later date.
on
a small scale.
showed
proportion and balance, and
of the roof the
cross,
variations
conception of the interior
supported on squinches. Beside
dome on
true,
it is
passed, the later buildings
like that
a large
was the
dome, and countless
combined with the
subtly
plan, but
it
had been
cross, so that the exact nature
of the plan varied according to the standpoint; from the

western end
dome
it
seemed
to be basihcal;
from below the
was cruciform. Above, however, the
it
cross pre-
dominated, for the roofs of the main choir, transepts and

central aisle
were usually carried up
those of the side
made
498 Virgin Pammakaristos,

Constantinople, funerary
chapel.
The
last
is
dome marking
its
the side aisles had been
time,
after Justinian's
blind arcading,
the
the pattern of a cross, with the
the
point of intersection of the arms. Invariably however, soon
3 15
ornate exterior, with
to a higher level than
or the side chapels, so that they
aisles
made
to
terminate in chapels; they were called the prothesis and
typical of
diacoiiicoii
phase of Byzantine
in
Orthodox world, and had an essential

The dome in such churches was
the
part to play in the hturgy.
architecture as developed under
the Palaeologue emperors.
usually supported
on four free-standing columns or
piers,
the former topped with finely carved capitals, the latter
with marble impost blocks. But sometimes, especially in

Greece, the walls separating the main apse from the side
chapels
east,
to support the
were carried forward
though there were
often than not, too, transverse

499 Church of the Holy
Apostles, Salonica. c. 1312
added
The
chambers,
at
the
More
or narthices were
aisles
western end, to form a sort of ante-chamber
to the church,
church decorative
brickwork was used with great
In this
effect.
at the
dome
colunons to the west.
still
as
and
we
at
times there were even

for example,
see,
at
two such
Kariyc Camii at
Constantinople; often however the second narthex was a
patterns are either
geometric or in the form of the

Islamic script
known
as
Kufic.
later addition.
H^H^^^
*^^t2
another variant the cruciform plan predominated,
In
while the idea of the three-aisled basilica was subordinate.
That
is
as the
east,
v:m r:sr;
the case, for example, in a church at Athens
known
Kapnikaria, where the prothesis and diaconkoii to the
and the comer-areas to the west, are subsidiary strucset up, as it were, to fill in the four comers left
tures,
between the arms of the

side chapels, aisles, or
added
as
time
cross.
whatever
went on,
sometimes to serve
as
to
Other subsidiary buildings,

it
may
be,
were
also often
provide greater space
or
funerary chapels, so that the later
churches were often very complicated. Quite frequently,
xxvii St Sophia, Constantinople xxviii St Demetrius, Salonica xxix St Mark's,
.-/^
I'iif^.'i;*
>^;.
- -.
\K
.'iK
\ -^
vyi
^\
W^M
BYZANTINE
183
indeed, as in the churches of Constantine Lips and the
Pantocrator at Constantinople, or the monastery of Hosios
Lukas
complete three-aisled churches were
in Greece,
set
up beside and communicating with existing ones, to produce what were virtually double or even triple churches.
great complexity of plan so far as interior disposition
many of
concerned thus characterises
though
was not usually the
this
remained good
details
Fifth century.
Built
by Theodosius
II,
these
walls are single in depth
on the seaward
and double
side,
landward with a moat
to the
before them.
is
the later buildmgs,
initial intention.
and
end,
the
till
500 City walls, Constantinople
in
But the
the
richer
churches there were usually fme capitals and lovely cornices.
The emphasis was always on
the intenor, but the outsides
many of the later edifices often have great charm, and

the way that vault rises above vault, dome above dome,
is sometimes truly beautiful. Striking too is the way in
of
which
about 1300 the exteriors were treated from
after
arcadmg thus became
the ornamental point of view. Blank
extremely popular, as in the church of the Virgin
Pam-
makaristos at Constantinople, and bricks were also often

set to
form decorative
patterns, either
(known to the Turks

Tekfour Saray), Consunti-
genitus
as
nople
It is all
that remains of the great
Blachemae complex near the

Golden Horn. The present
structure mainly dates from
early Palaeologue times.
geometric or imi-
of Islamic writing; no better ex-
tating the Kufic script
ample of
501 The so-called Palace

of Constantine Porphyro-
be found than in the Church of the
this is to
Holy Apostles
at
Glazed pottery
vessels
Salonica, erected shortly before
were
also
13 12.
sometimes
built into the
work was
the reduction
walls to add a touch of colour.
Another tendency of
in span
this later
of the domes and also the elongation of the drums
on which they stood

were
especially popular
thirteenth century onwards, and
most extreme and perhaps

Yugoslavia, dating
most
attractive
from
The
1321.
example
of Gracanica
in
outside of this church
complex of great beauty and charm the inside

for the piers are massive and numerous,
presents a
is
Greece and the Balkans. The
also the
to be seen in the monastery church
is
Such taU
into tower-like structures.
drums appeared from the
less successful,
302 The Golden Gate,

Constantinople
the floor-space confined, and the height exaggerated.
Fifth century. Part of the city
Byzantine Secular Architecture
join the Marmara.
walls,
where the land

It
walls
is
triple-arched structure with
Very few buildings other than churches survive above

ground, but it has been possible to gather some idea of
a variant
of the
Roman
arch. Originally there
domestic buildings from descriptions and

excavations.
Roman
The
ones as
houses, so far as
we
see
them
court and rooms opening off
had two
storeys.
Of
at
it;
we
can
as a
tell,
result
two
flanking towers and represents
of
statues
on
triumphal
were
the top.
were Uke
Pompeii, with a central

often, if not always, they
the palaces, the
most important was
the Great Palace adjoining St Sophia at Constantinople.
Though
was originally probably
it
palace at Spalato,
character, for
it
similar to Diocletian's
gradually took
any architectural unity
on
that
a very different
it
had originally
owing to the numerous additions that were made

subsequently. Almost every emperor seems to have added
was
lost
and by the tenth century, when Constantine Porphyrogenitus wrote his famous description of it, it had become
to
it,
a vast
complex of heterogeneous buildings and open
churches,
living
quarters,
barracks,
spaces,
audience-halls
and
even included a covered hippodrome similar
so
fonh;
to,
but smaller than, the great Hippodrome which bounded
it
The nearest parallel is to be found m the

Moscow, which was, indeed, its lineal successor: The proportions and grandeur of some of its halls
are indicated by the massiveness and immensity of certain
it
to the west.
Kremlin
XXX
at
Baptistery and cathedral, Pisa
xxxi
Sant' Apollinare Nuovo,
Ravenna
503 Propylaeon of the

Golden Gate, Constantinople
propylaeon, or outer gate,
was added in front of the great
Golden Gate
later date.
walls
on
itself at a
The
shghtly
facades of the
either side
were
adorned with sculptures, some of
which survived
as the
as recently
seventeenth century.
MEDIEVAL
84
504 The Monastery of the

Lavra on Mount Athos, Greece
The monastery was founded
HI the tenth century,
but most of the buildings that

are
now
in
are of a later date.
it
The complex comprises one

principal church, a large
numerous chapels
refectory and
in addition to the living qiurtcrs.
505 Yerebetan Saray,

Constantinople
Sixth century.
One of many
such large underground

cisterns built in Constantinople,
with brick semi-circular vaults

built in
two
directions
supported by marble columns,
some of which are

taken from antique
ob\'iously
buildings
and others of simple

Byzantine origin.
RUSSIA
of
which have recently been excavated;
substructures
its
185
they date from the time of Justinian or just before. This
was deserted about the twelfth century for another

Golden Horn, called the Blachcrnae,
palace
the shores of the
on
which
a part of
The
stands to a height of three storeys.
still
date of this portion has been disputed, but
it
is
prob-
ably to be assigned to the end of the thirteenth century.
Somewhat
similar
structures,
by
built
Comnene
the
emperors of the East (1204-1461), survive at Trcbizond.
we know
If
more about
rather
cities,
fortifications, for the walls
of several
in their original state.
both impressive and
are
suge
in
the
of
wood
construction, indigenous
to central Russia.
The roof of
the porch, in the
form of a
woman's
'kokoshka', a Russian
was much developed

trom the sixteenth century
head-dress,
onwards.
Those of Constantinople
They were
beautiful.
a single
There are ninety-six towers
and
up by
set
II
miles a great double line of defence with
ly
first
between 413 and 447. On the sea-front there

wall; landward there extends over some four
Theodosius
is
we know
represents the
elaboration of the simplest type
notably those of Nicaea and Constantinople, survive
much
very
of domestic architecture,
httle
506 Church of St NicboUs,

c. 1600
The main portion of the building
Panilov.
in
at equidistant intervals
intervals gates
moat before
it.
each wall, spaced alternatealong
its
whole
length.
At
were provided, the most important of them
being the so-called 'Golden Gate' near where the landwalls join the
Marmara, a great triple-arched structure of
marble with two flanking towers on either side of the

arches. Originally
bronze
the
letters
Roman
was topped by
it
over the arches.
It
and there were
statues,
represents a variant of
triumphal arch, treated
as a
defensive unit.
Another important aspert of early Byzantine architecture to be seen at Constantinople are the underground
of which there are a considerable number. Most
cisterns,
of thetn are roofed with vaults or small domes supported
on
a multiphcity of columns, usually re-used
and-one columns'
12.40
It
m.
is
in height,
more
original, for the
must have been made
columns, each
especially for
the
in Syria
the Byzantine world,
monasteries, early examples of
and
more
later
ones in various pans of
especially
on Mount Athos.
Always they comprise one principal church, which is surrounded by the Uving quarters, and there are often numerous subsidiary chapels. The rooms are usually small,
the only one of signifrcance being the refectory. They do
not usually present any very distinctive Byzantine architectural features,
though some of the monasteries of Mount

as structures and because of the
Athos are spectacular both

position they occupy.
Russia
The
history of architecture in Russia begins in the eleventh
century, for nothing of earher date survives, though the
records
tell
us that
wooden
churches were
set
up
at
Kiev
by Vladimir soon after he adopted Orthodox Christianity

as the faith of his new empire in 988: no doubt there
were wooden houses and pagan temples before that. The
masonry church to be built, however, was St Sophia
first
at
It
Kiev, wlych was begim in 1018 and finished in 1037.
was apparently a
five-aisled structure
first
adoption of Christianity
by Vladimir in 988.
Twelve domes surround the
central dome, symbolising
Christ and the apostles.
The
exterior
was
rebuilt in the
seventeenth century and shows

a conservative adherence
to this use of the
reasons.
dome,
for
than functional
Although Byzantine
inspiration, the division
in
of the
compartments,
so emphasising the vertical,
St Sophia.
there are
after the
The
to be built
interior into small
signed to Anthemius of Tralles, one of the architects of
Finally,
masonry church
it.
has been, vidth a reasonable degree of probability, as-
which survive
Exterior and plan.
stylistic rather
so-called 'Bin-bir-derek' or 'Thousand-
But one, the
sites.
from other
507, S08 Sc Sophia,

Kiev. 1018-37
with central dome,
of a purely Byzantine type; the church of
St
Mary
gives
it
a native
Russian feeling.
MEDIEVAL
i86
509 Sc SophiA^ Novgorod.

I045-6Z
The domes were probably
originally of Byzantine type:
the onion-shaped
domes
which replaced the
Mongol
after the
Panachrantos
domes, to make a
and the twelve
original ones
may
Constanrinople
at
be compared. Four
number of
further aisles were added soon after, as well as a
of thirteen, symbolising Christ
total
At
apostles.
first
these
were probably
fairly
low, akin to Byzantine ones, but the church was exten-
conquests
are of a type
sively repaired after the
in
century; the
which was developed

Russia and soon became
charactenstic of that country.
Mongol
conquests of the thirteenth
drums were probably elongated and the

domes given a new form at that time. But the division of
the interior into a
of
effect
number of
small chambers and the
produced must have already
verticality that this
was
characterised the intenor before the nine-aisled plan
adopted, and
was
it
make
served to
it
impression of verticality that
this
Russian rather than a Byzantine
building.
Byzantine influence, however, was to remain important

510 Cathedral of
basic plan
as
the
is
is
dome on
Byzantine,
exterior with scidptures

a
is
new
feature.
that
south, and other churches in Kiev, such as
of the Virgin of the Dimes (Desyatinnaya), or others
drum,
a tall
Hke the Church of the Transfiguration
in the region,
but the decoration of the
relief
from the
off
1194-98
The
about 1240, when the Mongol advances cut Russia
until
St Demetrius, Vladimir.
low
The
Chernigov
was true even of the
motifs are oriental and the idea
perhaps came to Russia from the
Sophia
St
dency to
Caucasus.
were
(1017),
at
basically
though there the tenwas even more marked. The
(1045-62),
stress the vertical
same feature was
churches in the north, like
earliest
Novgorod
of other early foundations
true
at
The same
Byzantine.
Nov-
at
gorod, hke St Nicholas (1113), the Church of the Nativity
of the Virgin (1117), or that of the Monastery of St George

(11 19). AU were roofed with domes, and it was probably
Novgorod
in
on
that the typical Russian onion-shaped
drums were
tall
domes
developed, for the city was never
fu'st
overrun by the Mongols, and architecture could thus develop without interruption.
drew most of
ideas
its
Is
when
was from there
became the
it
that
Moscow
capital in the
fourteenth centur)'.
Medieval architecture in Russia was developed

511 Church of Our Lady of
Kazan,
Komolskoe, near Moscow.
Moscow, where
in
finally
the churches in the Kremlin, that
of
Dormition (1475-79), the Annunciation (1484-89), and

Michael the Archangel (1505-09) all follow Novgoro-
the
St
1649-50
The onion domes, which

probably originated in Novgorod,
Exterior.
the ancient capital, are here
seen appUed to
two elongated
dian prototypes. But the
from
Italy
two of
these
were
Russian Baroque.
into a
Church and the Church

of the Intercession on the Neri(5i2).
new manner was

of
stone,
wood;
by
built
new
ideas
and the West changed the old medieval forms
new
but basically Byzantine churches,

the Kazan
last
Itahan architects, and soon the introduction of
ideas
assisted
The development of
this
assimilation, in brick
and
by the
which had previously been worked out
the influence of
wooden
in
prototypes was indeed
one of the principal formulative influences of later Russian

church architecture. Defensive architecture,
exemplified in the towers of the
512 Church of the Intercession
of the Virgin, on the
NerL Il6
This
is
with
which
piers.
three-apsed building
single
is
drum
Art
it
many of
is
It
in
as
we
see
it
ICremltn, also
what had been done
quite a debt to
date in
supported on internal
Like
of Russia
dome on
owed
Moscow
at
an earher
wood.
the West, c 6oo-f 1050

.
cannot be claimed that the period of architecture from
the churches
extremely high in
proportion to length and breadth.
about 600 onwards was of great importance in the West,
buildmg
for such church
conservative style or
was not quite

there
as
was quite
ed by nearly
all
dark
a lot
barian inroads. In
on
as
was done was
as has
in spite
of wars and bar-
for example, basilicas
were
erect-
Many of them were extensive

new departures architecturally.
the popes.
and quite fme, but not
But the age
sometimes been held, and
of activity
Rome,
either in a very
a very small scale.
RUSSIA
187
513 The Kremlin and

Red Square, Moscow
An expression in brick and stone
of ideas originally worked out
in
wood from
native Russian
concepts.
The conception of
Kremlin,
a series
the
of independent
churches, palaces, reception halls,

etc.,
within a walled enclosure,
was derived from the Great

Palace at Comtandnople.
514 The Kremlin's

Borovitski tower,
Moscow
Late sixteenth century.
The stepping of
this stone
tower represents
very popular
fashion in Russian architecture.

It
was probably derived from
experience in the use of timber.
515 St Michael the

Archangel, Kremlin,
Moscow.
Alevisio
by an
Built
this
1505-09.
Nov!
Italian architect,
church shows an
extraordinary sensitivity
to the narive style
that clothes
from
new
ideas
and the West.

soon to change the old forms
Italy
into a
new
Russian Baroque.
MEDIEVAL
i88
5X6 Krak des Chevaliers, Syria

Twelfth century.
Described by a
Moslem
bone
as a
stuck in the throat of the

Saracens.
Krak
stands today as
one
of the best-preserved Crusader

castles in the East.
It
Western
represents the
European
manned with
fortress
Eastern defensive strategies.
With
site
the
Krak
advanuge of
is
its
an
ordered, scientifically planned,

self-supporting citadel with wells,
store houses
and Hving quarters.
517 Caernarvon Castle, Wales.

1285-1322
Begun by Edward I
Caernarvon has a single
circuit of walls strengthened by
polygonal towers carefully
designed to give cross
fire at
every
point.
518 Carcassonne, Aude

Thirteenth century (restored
by VioUet-le-Duc
in the
nineteenth century).
The problem of
enclosing
and defending a town by walls

meant the imposition of
some
sort
of external control
over a settlement which had
grown from haphazard beginnings.

The town walls or bulwarks
(boulevards) later
for
became
places
promenading townspeople.
519 Avila, Spain

Fourteenth century.
Another well-preserved walled

town. The circular tower with
its
obvious advantages over sharp

angles
when under
battering
seems to have been brought from

the East.
5x9
FORTIFICATIONS
189
520 The medieval walls,

Jerusalem
Rebuilt in sixteenth century.
The
old city of Jerusalem
fine
example of
walled
Ages.
a
is
completely
town of the late

The walls have at
^4iddle
their base
wide, sloping talus against
mming
Saracen invention.
Tower of
521 Keep,
London
Late eleventh century onwards.
The keep was

William
by
town
built
as the
citadel
and to maintain a garrison

for police purposes and for
defence. Later additions
turned the keep into a

concentric fortified complex.
522 Keep, castle of the counts

of Montfort, Houdan,
France
Eleventh century.
This circular keep would have
been the
centre of
last
resistance for a stronghold.
The
semi-circular towers at
the cardinal points were

sited to give cross fire for
mutual defence.
523 Windsor Castle

Eleventh century onwards.
In spite of much accumulated
stone building and restoration,
(mound) enclosed by
and ditch)
of the original earthwork and
the motte
bailey (rampart
palisade
still
dictates the basic plan.
524 Castello Nuovo, Naples.

1279-83
The kingdom of Sicily and
Naples was successively Byzantine,
Saracen and
upon
this
Norman, and
foundation Frederick
founded the
first
II
modem
European autocratic
state.
well proportioned and of a
It is
highly organised symmetry.
525
Bodiam Castle,
Bodiam
is
Sussex. 1386
an entirely symmetrical
building, almost square in

plan,
showing control over
building form generally associated
with axially designed
classical
buildings.
The Crusaders brought back from

the East a concept of planning
which had been developed

by the Moslems fi-om the eighth
century, and which influenced
castle building from late Norman
days until the time of Henry VIII.
526 Albi Cathedral, France.

1282-1390
This fortified church
is
closely
linked to the main defences of the
town itself.
The form of
town
gates
important
this
Gothic cathedral
and
is
that
of the
walls.
During the internecine wars

late Middle Ages Albi was
something of a frontier town,
of the
and the church was intended to

withstand a siege.
MEDIEVAL
190
527 St Martin de Canigou,

France
Early eleventh century.
example of a tri-apsidal church

with stone barrel vaulting in the
An
so-called
'first
Romanesque'
style.
HP
ART IN THE WEST
being in the main simply reproductions, on
191
somewhat
smaller scale, of the great basilicas of the fifth century.
The two main

cussed here,
types of basilica which have already been dis-
namely those where
a horizontal architrave or
were erected elsewhere

and the
Italy),
basilica
This building
is
cruciform and
seems to be Armenian in
inspiration, another
example of
the eclecticism of the Carolingians.
an arcade top the columns, arc represented. Similar

icas
532 Germigny-des-Pres,
France. 806
basil-
in Italy (especially in central
The church was

of
a large
originally part
morustery complcic.
remained the principal church type
But
until the twelfth century.
tew
in a
new
places
trends
were forthcoming the most important was the development

;
of the Lombard Romanesque
new
that
There
sr\'le.
would seem
it
were taking shape, and though the
ideas
basilical
plan was adhered to, barrel vaults began to be used for
roofing in the ninth century, and blank arcading probably
became popular
much
at
same time,
the
means of
as a
The churches of San
decorating the facades.
Pietro
at
Aghate near Monza (875) and San Pietro at ToscaneUa

may be noted. The latter was founded in 62S, but was
considerably altered
first
and then again
in 740
and the more elaborate part of
exterior
its
in
1040,
probably to
is
be assigned to the later date.
Though Lombardy was soon
to
become
workmen whom we
ence of a group of highly skilled
know
Commacene
the
as
quite important
of building, thanks to some extent to the pres-
as a centre
masons,
was probably
it
in
Spain that the most interesting developments took place
during these centuries, even
if the initial ideas
The churches of
ably transmitted from Lombardy.
period were
show
on
all
were probthe
a very small scale, but they mostly
number of original features which actually repreembryo what were to be the principal characteristics
sent in
of the next great architectural
we
style
was taken by the Ottonian

from the Carolingians,
architects
and became one of the

charaaeristics of
German
Romanesque.
examine
shall
533 Maria Laach Abbey,

Germany. 1093-1 156
The idea of a double-ended church
the Romanesque. So important are these Spanish churches,
indeed, that they were distinguished in the 'twenties by

the
name
who
Romanesque', and the Spanish scholar
'First
coined that name, Puig-i-Cadafalch, claims that the style
was more than a purely
local one.
He
in central France,
that
Germany and
traces
its
manifesta-
and even further north
tion in Italy, in the south of France
Switzerland, and maintains
had the tentative experiments that
Romanesque' not been made, the
we
see in the 'First
architectural history
of
way
western Europe might never have developed in the
534 Gatehouse of the abbey,

Lorsch, Germany. 81O
The lower portion of this
structure derives
that
it
did.
The churches of
times three,
Often there
imponant
vault
this
group sometimes have one, some-
and in the
aisles,
latter case there are three
an idea probably adopted from the Byzantine world.
apses,
it
from
Roman
arch, but the pointed cornices
is
blank arcading on the outside. But the most
feature
is
the roof,
which consisted of a stone
was not the timber structure
characteristic
of the
Itahan basihcas. In these rather low, simple, three-aisled
tunnel-vaulted churches of the

see, in fact, the
of the early twelfth century.

San Miguel de
'First
Romanesque'
style
we
prototypes of the great vaulted cathedrals
Liiio,
France the style
is
founded
Of examples on Spamsh
in 848,
is
typical. In
soil,
southern
represented by such a church as St
Martin de Canigou, which dates from between looi and

1026. There had been httle development during the century and a half that separates these
the course of the next century quite
to be taken in France,
two
buildings, but in
amazing
and these are heralded
strides
in
were
San Pedro
de Casserres (lOlo); for there the simple barrel vault has
above
may
inspired
perhaps have been
by wooden prototypes.
MEDIEVAL
192
S3S Abbey church, Gemrode,

Germany. 961
Ottoman church
wooden roof, and the
Tliis
marked by
has a
flat
crossing
Is
great transverse
arches that herald the true
diaphragm arches of the next phase

of development.
536
Worms
Cathedral.
Begun 1016
Another double-ended church
Maria Laach,
similar to
with circular towers flanking the

apses,
at
and external arcading
high
level.
537 Hildesheim Cathedral,
Germany. Bronze doors.

The magnificent bronze
10 15
doors,
with scenes of the Creation,

Fall
and Redemption, were
commissioned by Bishop
Bcmward
{993-1022) originally for
St Michael's at Hildesheim, but

are
now
in the cathedral.
538 St MichaeFs, Hildesheim.

1001-33
Intenor.
This church with a nave and

aisles also
transepts
two
and two
has
apses,
two
two
chancels.
Twc
squat towers are over the

crossings
and the nave is divided

which are
into three squares
indicated
by
larger piers.
The
design of this church proved
an inspiration for other

Central European examples.
ART IN THE WEST
193
been strengthened by transverse arches, which serve to

spht
up into a
it
series
marked by cohnnns
of bays corresponding
to those
from the floor below.

In tracing the origin of Romanesque, however, the small
churches of the Mediterranean world do not provide the
onJy evidence that must be considered. Developments in
rising
539 St Lawrence,
Bradford-on-Avoo,
Gloucestershire. 970
The plan
rectangular choir projecting at

the east of a larger rectangular nave.
The
building
the excellent
tridy developed state of the time, the Carolingian,
squared stones.
more impressive, though they

Germany rather than in France.
spectacular and
their descendants in
At
were
the architecture of the Carolingians
outset,
its
essentially
various sources of their inspiration
reflect the
Charlemagne's mausoleum
ample,
at
Aachen
a considerable monastic complex,
of craftsmanship.
clearly
survive.
still
Ravenna. Ger-
at
is
a cruciform building,
from Armenia,
to have been inspired
540 Earl's Barton Church,

Northamptonshire
Tenth century. This
type,
which must have been
part of the
Roman
proto-
though the pointed arcades above perhaps
reflect
monastery
was
there,
by
in part inspired
wood
the influence of a type of building proper to
perhaps
is
the fmest example of
Anglo-Saxon architecture
that has
vives at Lorsch and
show
simibr excellence
was
while the curious Httle building of around 810 which sur-
534
carefully
other
buildings of the period

a
migny-dcs-Pres in France (806), originally the church of
which would seem
Few
(792-805), for ex-
copy of San Vitale
a direct
is
masonry of
were assimilated from various
ideas
eclectic;
and quite a number of buildmgs which
sources,
left
remarkable for
is
the north under the patronage of the rulers of the only
more
532
follows a type very
usual at the time, with a sinatlcr
come down
to us.
has been suggested that
It
on
wooden
the pilaster strips
the surface
derive from
prototypes.
rather
than stone (see below; Earl's Barton Church). Classical

inspiration
of an even purer type
is
be seen in the
to
church of San Agostino del Crocefisso
a most
at Spoleto,
unusual building, which was at one time beUeved to be

late
Roman, but which
is
now
usually regarded as mainly
which was to become
Carolingian, while a type of plan
above any other
by
inspired
essentially
later
Roman
church with apse
basilical
CaroUngian was
architecture.
at
each end, as
also
was
It
we
probably
of the
that
see
it
around
820 in a manuscript plan of the lay-out of the Monastery
of St Gall in what
is
today Switzerland. This idea of the
double-ended church was freely developed

times
it
in Carolingian
passed to the Ottonian architects and
of the most
characteristic features
became one
of German Romanesque
eleventh and twelfth centuries, as for example at
in the
Maria Laach (1093-1156),
Worms
(1016 and
Mamz
(978; restored 1036) or
later).
541 Sotnpting Church, Sussex
Another feature which was developed by the Carohngian
architects
is
also
apparent in
these
all
buildings,
Early eleventh century.
An
e.xample of the southern
style
namely, a transept both
at east
and west and a number of
circular towers flanking the apses; there
towers
at
both
crossings, so that
were
many of
also usually
these buildings
of village church,
stone built with a single aisle
with apse, that
evolved soon
in Britain
had two large and four smaller towers, and
at
times even
more round towers were added. The cathedrals set up in

Germany in the eleventh century dif-
southern and central

fer
of course
to
in detail,
and they are vaulted
in a
way un-
from that they serve

give a very good idea of what the more important
known
in Carolingian times; but apart
Carolingian buildings were hke.
Nowhere
else in
did architecture remain so conservative as here.
Europe
The massive
western ends are termed the Westwerk in German.
Nor can it be said

in many ways
which
lingian,
that the Ottonian age (863-1024),
represented a revival of the Caro-
brought a great deal of change, though there are
some notable
buildings in
Germany
that
were
the patronage of the Ottonian emperors.
set
up under
The most im-
first
after the arrival
of St Augustine in 597.
the tower
The unusual form of

roof was
in
first
Germany.
developed
MEDIEVAL
194
54^ 543 Greenstead Church,

Essex, c. 1013
Two
The
still
views of exterior.
oldest
wooden church
that
survives in England,
churches such as Earl's Banon.

the squat, stocky
it
form
them probably
have
St
wooden
flat
reflects
when
that
these short-baulk timbers
favour rather than that of the
Gernrode
at
which herald
when
the true
marked by
diaphragm
were divided up
the naves
a series of bays
very desirable feature
was an ever-present one.
the danger of fire
(961)
Hildcshcim (1001-33). Both
at
roofs, but the crossings are
arches of the next phase,
by arches into
abbey
arc the
Michael
great transverse arches
contemporaneous with the stone

Built of oak and elm,
portant of
and the church of
be noted in passing that St Michael's
niay
It
Hildesheim
at
is
tall
stave-churches found
in Scandinavia.
remarkable because of the bronze doors and
especially
made
other features which were
for
thanks to the pat-
it,
ronage of Bishop Bernward (993-1022). They are
now
in
Hildcshcim Cathedral.
Though
it
main
outside the
falls
of continental de-
line
velopments, the early architecture of Britain deserves a
mention, for though modest in

a very individual style of
came soon
scale,
was possessed of
it
own. The
its
manifestations
first
of Christianity by
after the introduction
Augustine in 597, and a few stone-built churches of
two
age have been excavated. There were
on Canterbury, and
a southern centred
Hexham. Normally
St
this
distinct groups:
a northern,
around
the churches had a single aisle with
apse; 'porticus', adjoining structures rather like additional

aisles,
were often added, to give a
aisled
appearance.
by Alfred
foot
With
at the
bitious buildings
Norway,
c. 1
An example
They
Norman
conquest to
more or
complete smaller ones
less
arc usually very
make
of a few
larger scale, vestiges
comparison to the
in
tall
extent of the ground plan, like the church at Bradford-onof
a tall stave-church
Avon
of pine.
The type of roof shown here was
(970),
which
is
masonry. Usually
its
Banon,
and on the tower
Palace depicted
greatly developed (tenth century).
Bayeux
tapestry.
of- Earl's
that they reflect the idea of

lasters
by the excellence of
distinguished
pilaster strips decorate the outsides,
used for the early Westminster
in the
on
150
Section.
built
survive.
after the
on a
for structures
larger churches or
544 Church at Borgund,
set
end of the ninth century more am-
began to be erected, and though most of
them were destroyed
way
transeptal or three-
the cultural Renaissance
these have been very

It
has been suggested
wooden
prototypes, the pi-
representing the timbers and the stone the plaster
of half-timbered construction which was a familiar tech-
On
balance,
see here a local
develop-
nique in central England from early times.
more Hkely
we
however,
it is
ment of
the Eastern idea of blank arcading,
have noted
that
which we
Mediterranean world, and especially in
in the
Lombardy.
Wood
was, however, very important
as a
building
ma-
terial,
and one wooden structure
village
church of Greenstead in Essex. In view of the nature
of the timber available
in
still
England
at
oak and elm rather than slender pine
wooden
we
buildings assumed the
see here rather than that
usual in Scandinavia.
But
survives in the Httle
the time
it
is
stocky
probable that
form of stock work
of the
in areas
tall
that
stave-church type
where pine
trees
were
indigenous, these were very important. Early examples
Borgund in Norway (f. 1150),

number ot carved wooden doors from
other churches of earlier date; they were probably wooden
churches not unlike Borgund (a form probably developed
survive at Urnes and at
but there are also
in
pagan
times).
It
is
also
possible that the type of roof
seen on these churches was used in England, even
stave-churches were not, for

Palace as depicted
the
if tall
roof of Westminster
on the Bayeux tapestry
is
closely akin.
ART IN THE WEST
T95
545 St Bnigne, Dijon,
c.
looi
Plan.
The
plan has a circular structure
end with
at the east
vaulted
roof to the nave.
The development of
was a
result
the east end
of the growing
pilgrimage and the
interest in
adoration of reUcs, and this one

suggests the
Church of the Holy
Sepulchre
Jerusalem.
From
at
these beginnings developed
the idea of the apse
and the ambulatory plan.
546 St Martin, Tours. 918

Plan.
This is the plan of what remams

of the original building, among
the earliest of
Romanesque churches.
547 St Philibert, Tournus.
Begun
950
c.
The most
interesting
feature of this
is
Burgundian church
the roof divided into bays
by transverse arches which

from the circular
piers. Between each pair of the
rise directly
transverse arches
is
a barrel
vault at right angles to
the nave walls.
548 Frescoes at St Savin-surGartempe, France

Eleventh century.
Noah's
ark. Detail
from the
of fresco
vault.
The
nave, narthex and crypt

of St Savin were designed
to take the beautiful frescoes
known
as the 'Bible of St Savin*.

one of the finest examples
of Romanesque mural painting.
Scenes from the Old Testament

occupy the vault.
The
New
Testament
in the porch,
scenes
is
illustrated
along with
from the Apocalypse.
549 St Savin-sur-Gartempe,
France
Eleventh century.
barrel vault
from the
may
The
great
be conservative
architectural point
of view, but it provides

an admirable surface for
frescoes.
MEDIEVAL
196
550, 551 Bayeux Cathedral,

France
Interior
and
building was
exterior. This
begun
in the
eleventh century and was
added
to continually until the
central
tower was completed
in the fit'tecnth century.

It
is
remarkable for
its
twenty-two chapels and the
immense Romanesque crypt

under the sanctuary.
552 St Benoit-sur-Loire,
Begun c. 1068
France.
Known
also as Fleury,
it
was one
of the centres of Benedictine

monasticism from 655.
when
the relics of the saint were
taken there from Montecassino.
ROMANESQUE
Romanesque
Though
FRANCE
IN
553 La Triniti
France
in
197
(Abbaye aux Dames),
the CaroUngian and later the Ottonian and Fran-
conian monarchs had been great patrons of architecture,
Caen. 1062-1140
Founded by the wife
of William the Conqueror,
and though important
Lombardy,
was
it
initial
were made
greatest strides
developments were made
in northern
in the
ture in the eleventh century,
which we know
style
The
beginnings, apart
fu'st
development of architec-
and
was there
it
from
the
initial
Romanesque', can be traced
'First
two
towers.
square tower
over the crossing completes this
homogeneous
design.
that the
Romanesque reached
as
in
that the
by
most
its
around iioo.
brilliant fruition
of the
and central France
has
it
a fine western facade flanked
experiments
of St
in the plan
Martin's at Tours (918), where the bones of the patron

saint
were enshrined
at a
lower
around the
like structure
with an ambulatory-
level,
shrine.
adopted in the crypt of the church of 858

tions
of which
remain while
still
por-
at Chartres,
Auxerre the crypt of
at
was
similar disposition
was remodelled in 859 to permit pilgrims

pay reverence to the bones of St Germain. From these
small beginnings there developed the idea of the apse and
the cathedral
to
ambulatory plan, which afforded a suitable

rehcs
and
also permitted the passage
554 St Etienne (Abbaye aux

Hommes), Caen. 1066-77
An
illustration
of the remarkable
mtersecting sexpartite ribbed

vault,
with two bays included
in
each vaulting compartment.
for
setting
of pUgrims without
disturbing the services, which, in a monastic institution,

in the central area at practically
were taking place
every
hour of the day.

development of the eastern end, which
In addition to the
was the
outcome of the growing
direct
interest in pilgrim-
age and the adoration of rehcs, experiments were also

being
made
in the elaboration
respects, as well as in the
was thus
Benigne
of ground plans
in other
problems of rootmg. CharUeu
about 940 with a barrel vault, while St

Dijon was erected around looi with a circular
rebuilt
at
end and with a vaulted roof to the

end suggests the plan of the Church of the
structure at the east
nave.
The
east
Holy Sepulchre
at
Jerusalem and precedes a more general
adoption of the circular plan a century or so

result
all
the experiments of the period
church
Toumus, which was
at
is
and was a
being effected by great circular
esting feature
is
the
rebuilt in various phases
the roof,
barrel vault,
radiating chapels,
again by the abutting vaults
piers.
between the
The most
which
is
inter-
divided into
bays by great transverse arches springing from the piers;
and each bay
is
roofed by a transverse barrel vault. At the
windows which permit hght
ends of these are
provided
at
be
to
the very summit of the building in a
way
quite impossible with the longitudinal barrel vaults usual

in these buildings, such as that at
later at St Savin.
Charheu or
up
that set
Though the latter is extremely
impressive
and provides an admirable surface for a frescoed decoration, it is architecturally less progressive than the roof at
many ways
Tournus, which in
and ribbed
vault.
These were
possible to insert a
heralds the groined vault

to be the great glory
Romanesque, for there
the fully developed
also
it
of
was
window high up without weakening

by the side walls; though when seen
the support afforded
from the
east or
west the
effect
was produced of
uous vault not broken up in the
way
555 St Benoit-sur-Loire.
c. 1068
The nave wall, weakened by the
clerestory windows below the
Begun
as rebuilt at that
three-aisled structure, the division
however
by
illustrated
from about 930 onwards. Its east end

time was of an ambulatory plan, with
aisles
later as a
of the Crusades. But perhaps the most interesting of
it
is
at
a contin-
Tournus.
of the side
is
aisles
strengthened
and by the blind
arcade below the clerestory
windows.
MEDIEVAL
198
There was, however,
ment before
this
much
to be
still
and experi-
trial
important architectural feature was fully
developed, for though some Romanesque churches were
roofed with barrel vaults,
many of the great eleventhhad wooden roofs, in any

But they were, in many cases,
century buildings of France

case over the
556. 557 St Ecienne,

Nevers. 1083-97
This pilgnmagc-stylc church
has a three-storey nave elevation,
with a gallery above the
and
aisles
a clerestory
the gallery.
The
arches, has
its
its
of bays by great spanning arches
corresponding pair of piers and sometimes only

Before discussing
pair.
ing system
transverse
The
thrust partially
it
will be well to note a
earliest are to
which
front
abuts against the nave wall.
1050),
(c.
every
at
developments of the vault-
later
few of the monuments.
be found in Normandy, and Bernay
Dom-
(1017-49), Jumieges (1037-66), Bayeu.x (1049-77),
counteracted by the half barrel

vault of the gallery,
aisles.
series
diaphragm arches they are called sometimes above each

other
above
barrel vault
over the nave, with
main
divided into a
still
and the churches of
St Nicholas (1062-83),
Abbaye aux Dames, 1062-72)

Abbaye aux Homines, 1066-77)
Caen may be noted. AU are distinguished by their large
size, by the presence of two western towers and usually of
one at the crossing and by the absence of decoration; the
(also called the
La Trinite
and
St Etienne (or the
have the volutes
capitals are either quite plain or perhaps
indicated in very
at
low
rehef, while the
doorways
are adorned
most with dog-tooth or similar conventionahsed
was from Normandy
pattern.
Romanesque style came

to Britain, first introduced by Edward the Confessor at
Westminster and not by WiUiam the Conqueror.
It
that the
As one proceeds southwards through France the
style
changes, and the tendency to include a sculptured deco-
becomes more marked.
ration
A number of regional
are to be distinguished, both with regard to plan

ration.
Along
groups
and deco-
the Loire, for instance, the churches
were
and the naves were often wide, even when

aisles were present. The great abbey churches of Lessay
(1080-1178), St Benoit-sur-Loire (from c. 1068), La Chariteoften
aisleless,
sur-Loire (1059-1107), St Etienne at Nevers (1083-97) and
may
Neuvy-St-Scpulcre (1045)
be noted.
All axe important, but for different reasons. St Benoitsur-Loire, also
known
had been one of the chief
as Fleury,
when
centres of Benedictine monasticism since 655,
the
from IVlontecasNevers was a double church of somewhat unusual

recalling those of Ottonian Germany, though from
rehcs of St Benoit had been taken there

558 Neuvy-St-Sepulcre. 1045
The
sino.
plan of this church
plan,
reproduces closely that of the
Church of the Holy Sepulchre

Jerusalem,
but
it
at
the
remains wholly
French in expression.
of view
the architectural point
way
resting against the
constitute
greatest interest
what
aisles
I'ligh
wall of the central
aisle.
are virtually flying buttresses in
La Charite-sur-Loire
lies
in
are roofed with
from the summit of the outer wall
half arches, springing
and
its
the galleries over the side
They
embryo.
remarkable, again, because of the
is
obvious Islamic influence that

tectural detail; the arches
is
of the
to be seen in the archieast
end are
trilobe,
and
there are sculptured plaques of a wholly oriental character
above them. Finally Neuvy-St-Se-
inserted into the walls
pulcre
that
is
of particular
interest. Its plan
reproduces closely
of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre
at
Jerusalem,
though the building methods and the detail are, of course,

wholly French, as similar plans were often adopted after
the twelfth century as a result of the Crusades.
The next
distinctive region
the most important of
all,
is
for
Burgundy, and
it
was there
it is
perhaps
that the great
mother church of the Benedictine order, Cluny, was situThe first great church, dating from 927, was pulled
ated.
XXXII Notre-Dame, P
:r\f^^'^^?
ROMANESQUE
FRANCE
IN
down to nuke way for a second in 955; the second made

way for a third, which was begun in 1088 and finished
about
1 1
was on a
18. It
grander scale than any other,
far
with five instead of three
and no
aisles
less
than seven
559 Abbey church, Cluny.

1088-I118
The one transept that remains
of the original church, which was
destroyed in the early nineteenth
century.
aisles
apse was of the ambulatory type, the side
The
towers.
separated
from the
by columns topped
central choir
with elaborately sculptured
The
capitals.
It
makes
church of no
mean proportions on
its
own
(see 562).
was ap-
interior
parently roofed with a pointed barrel vault, and there were
with a great figure of Christ in Glory
frescoes,
end. All this stood
559
century; today no
at the eastern
the early days of the nineteenth
till
more than one
church
transept, itself a
of no mean proportions, survives
in situ,
though the choir
capitals,
greatest beauty, are preserved in the
local
is
works of the
museum. There
perhaps no greater tragedy in the
history of architecture than that of the pointless destruction
of this superb building early
in the nineteenth century.
The other churches of Burgundy, such

564
626
570
as Saulieu (11 19),
Beaunc (1120-40), Paray-le-Monial (1109), Vczelay (1104),

and Autun (second quarter of the twelfth century), all
owe a direct debt to Cluny, and so do many of the churches
which marked the staging points along the pilgrimage
routes to Santiago de Compostela in Spain, for the abbey
a great extent, afforded the inspiration for
of Cluny, to
which played so important a role

and thought of the age. St Scrnin at
Toulouse (1060-80) and the church of Stc Foy at Conques,
560 Paray-le-Monial,
Burgundy. 1109
Exterior.
The
extent to
which the 'Cluniac*
churches followed the design
and appearance of the great central
abbey of the Benedictine order

can be seen by comparing the
the pilgrimage traffic
exterior of Paray-le-Monial
in the religious life
with the remaining transept
for instance, are essentially 'Cluniac' in character.

will be said
regions
about both of them
where they
of the parent church
{559).
A word
connection with the
in
are located.
foUow
All these Cluniac churches
with chapels radiating from
it;
There
a similar plan.
was usually an apse and ambulatory
at the eastern end,
the interiors
were usually
roofed with barrel vaults, and there was usually a clerestory
with triforium below
it.
The
side aisles
were roofed with
groin vaults. There was often a tower at the crossing and
two more
louse
at the
was the
west end. But only in St Semin
five-aisled plan
at
Tou-
of Cluny repeated; the other
churches of Burgundy and the pilgrimage routes had three
-569
aisles.
Often, however, there was sculpture, and
this
was
centred on the capitals of the choir and the tympana of
Some of
the west doors.

is
to be
the finest sculpture of
found on these churches
577
and Conques
of the south,
as
roofed with a barrel vault with
by
the
more ornate
seen at Moissac or Souillac.

centre, sculpture played
its
Burgundy, for it was

monumental but more universal, and sometimes spread
from the tympana to cover the whole west front, as, for
from
that in
less
565
example, in Notre-Dame-la-Grande
fusion of ornamental sculpture
istics
is
that distinguish the churches
sions they
were generally
gundy and the
less
at
Poitiers.
pro-
one of the character-
of this region.
In
dimen-
impressive than those of Bur-
Loire; the interiors were often rather dark,
were roofed writh barrel vaults,

and there was no clerestory and no direct lighting in
the naves. The outsides were ornate but less impressive
from a distance, because western towers were rare; their
for usually the churches
place
XXXIII
was
usually taken
CflfHicjriK, îiiucns
by small
churches
the capitals of Cluny,
most outstanding, though they
In the Poitou, with Poitiers at

a rather different role
One of the many
deriving from Cluny, the nave
are equalled, even perhaps surpassed,

style
Interior.
times
all
Vezelay and Autun, and the tympana of Vezelay, Autun

are perhaps the
561 Paray-Ie-MoniBl,
Burgundy. 1109
circular turrets, built in
a clerestory
The
and triforium below.
side aisles are
with groin
is
vaults.
roofed
MEDIEVAL
202
562 Abbey church, Cluny.

1088-1118
Plan and elevation.
Now
C^'//yvr///' ercloiiT C ////intiYftJi-a
destroyed, this church was
the longest in France, 443 feet.

It
was the mother
church of the Benedictine order
and influenced
many
Burgundian churches such

at Saulieu,
as those
Beaune,
Paray-le-Monial, Vezclay and
Autun - all 'Cluniac' churches.

The apse had an ambulatory with
WSMS
and was separated

from the choir by columns
side aisles
with finely sculptured
The church was on

with five
aisles
capitals.
grand
scale,
and seven towers.
Today no more than one
transept
survives (559).
^
/
Notre-Dame- la-
563, 565
Grande, Poitiers. 1130-45

Facade and
An
detail.
illustration
of the finely
carved west front.
profusion
of ornamental sculpture, often

wittily grotesque, marks the
churches of Poitou.
The
small
circular turrets with their conical
roo& of
scale-like tiles
are also distinctive.
564 See Madeleine, Vezelay.

I 104
The nave (1120-40) of this
splendid Burgundian church
Begun
is
roofed by a groined vault with
transverse arches - a
form
of vaulting which, through

canalising much of the thrust
to the piers, faciUtatcd
the cutting of clerestory
windows
in the
nave wall.
t*
-J.',
^tj^^r^^/^t^f^
1-
5<S2
*s
^...lI..~/.'nv<U
^^
^f,J^H.
1)
-^-1
if
J^
-J
Jmrt
ROMANESQUE
IN FRANCE
203
566 Ste Madeleine, Vezelay.
Tympanum,
The
c.
1125-30
tympanum
central
of the narthex, with

Its
remarkable figure of Christ
in Glory,
surrounded by
Apostles, his garments swirling
about
restlessly
his feet,
one of the crowning

achievements of the Romanesque
is
sculptors.
567, 569 Abbey church,

SouiUac. 1130-40
Sculptural details.
The carved
or trumeau and the figure
pillar
below
it,
with
movement,
its
'dancing'
are excellent
examples of the sculptural
style
of the Toulouse regions. The

figure {569)
568
is
of the prophet
Isaiah.
Tympanum, Autun
Cathedral. 1130-40
This detail from the tympanum
shows Christ in Glory; the
whole illustrates the Last
judgment. Autun Cathedral,
with
its
tympanum and
its
beautiful sculptured capitals,
contains
some of
the finest
examples of
fully fledged
Romanesque
sculpture.
MEDIEVAL
204
570 Pilgrimage routes

to Santiago de
Many
from
which
marked the staging points on
plans too were distinrt
those usually followed in Burgundy, for there were
usually three apses instead of the apse and ambulatory with
the route to Santiago de
Compostela
The
a curious scale-like masonry.
Compostela
ot the churches
radiating chapels.
(the burial place
There are several fme churches
of St James, to which pilgrims

flocked to pay reverence and
to obtain absolution)
their inspiration to
laire
owe
in Poitiers itself
St
Hi-
{1049 and early twelfth century), Stc Radegondc (1090)
and Notrc-Dame-la-Grandc (1130-45) arc the most important

and the region also is very rich. Aulnay (1125-40),
Cluny.
Chauvigny
uoo),St Savin (1060-1115) and Melle, where
(c.
may
there are three fine churches,
be noted. That
vigny, standing on the top of a hiU,
is
while the great barrel-vaulted nave of St Savin

giushed by
from
its
series
Chau-
is
distin-
of paintings with scenes
Old Testament.
the
The
magnificent
its
at
especially impressive,
Poitiers style,
with
its
abundance of sculpture and
turrets, exercised a considerable influence
on Perigord,
571. 572 St Hilaire, Poitiers

Mid-eleventh to early twellth
the province immediately to the south, and that region
centuries. Exterior
was
in turn linked
with the Toulouse area; though in
case
any influence
that
and interior.
Although the churches of the
Poitou are usually roofed
with a barrel vault,
the nave of this church
is
covered by octagonal
domes on squinches - a device
relates
it
to the
nearly
The churches
main
though the region shares with
decorative,
the western Poitou a love of large equestrian figures
tympana; Angouleme (1105) and

Saintes
11 50) are
(c.
Ste
on the
Marie-des-Dames
at
noteworthy. In the south, the very
though superbly fme, sculptural
expressive, almost tortured,

style
are
profusely adorned. In the north the sculptures
all
are in the
domed
churches of Perigord (574-76).
this
in the opposite
most of the churches of the Toulouse area
direction, for
are earUer in date that those of Perigord.
in
fact
which
was exercised was
of the Toulouse region was adopted, and some of the
fmest examples of the school are to be found in Perigord,
notably
at Souillac (1130-40)
The most
however,
churches.
and BeauUeu
interesting architectural feature
the presence of a large
is
As many
noted, most of
neighbouring
(c.
1130).
of the region,
number of domed
seventy-seven examples have been
as
them
though they extend to
in Perigord,
example to the north,
areas, as for
at
Fontev-
on the banks of the Loire, and as far south

example San Vicente de Cordona. The domes
rault (11 19-25),

as Spain, for
vary in number, some churches having only one,
have two,
crossing, while others
Angouleme
one
five,
the cross.
domed
the
at the
At
three, four or five.
(1105) there are four; at Perigueux there are
at the crossing
The
latter
and one on each of the arms of
follows the typical Byzantine five-
by
plan, as conceived
Holy Apostles
at
Justinian in his
Church of
Constantinople and copied early in
the eleventh century in St Mark's at Venice.
The
question as to
why
of roof became popular

been
satisfactorily
in
this essentially
Byzantine form
south-western France has never
answered.
It
has been suggested that the
was brought back from Constantinople by the Crusaders, that it was introduced through Greek traders, of
idea
whom
there
brought by
sible,
was
a large
Bordeaux, that
also at
colony
it
at Marseilles,
way of Cyprus. AH
these explanations are pos-
but none serves to explain
popular
in this
and perhaps
was adopted from Venice, or
why
the
dome was so
when
region and not elsewhere, especially
other areas were nearer to the Byzantine world or in closer
touch with ports having Greek colonies.
The region between Perigord and

Burgundy, the most important
S7i
know
rather less about
its
the Pyrenees was, after
as regards sculpture.
architecture, for
We
more of
its
ROMANESQUE
573
IN
FRANCE
205
MEDIEVAL
206
579 St Gilles, near Aries.

1140-60
The west
church
is
front of this Provencal

adorned with fluted
columns and
pilasters.
Corinthian
and architraves which

might almost have formed
part of a classical temple.
But the Burgundian influence
capitals
can be seen in the sculptures
of the tympana.
580 St Trophime, Aries

Twelfth century.
Similar to St Gilles.
aisle
has a
Note
wooden
The
central
roof.
the pure classical
flavour of the
main doorway.
581, 583 St Pierre, Moissac

Twelfth century onwards.
Exterior and detail.
The tympanum on
the southern
shows Christ in Glory

surrounded by the four and twenty
portal
Elders and the symbols
of the four Evangelists.

Like
many of
the churches in this
been
and httle remains
area, St Pierre has
greatly restored,
of the original building.
Only
the cloister and porch
are truly
Romanesque,
some of the
the latter containing

finest
Romanesque
sculpture.
582 St Gilles, near Aries.

1140-60
Detail of faiâde.
This detail shows a Corinthian

capital
and
fluted
column
typical
of these Proventjal churches.
ROMANESQUE
584 St Austremoine,
old structures have vanished even
Issoire
Cluny the
583
207
churches have either perished or been restored, so that the
retained. This
IN SPAIN
the case of St Seniin at Toulouse, after
is
of the pilgrimage churches, and
largest
of Moissac, for there only the
true
have been
if the plans
cloister
and porch sur-
vive from Romanesque times, the church being
(in 5-20)
the porch
we
sculpture that
( 1
045- 1
1 1
style,
and
The
have.
remains
It is
there
is
very
Two
cluded,
less
others;
its
chitecture.
with the projecting rectangle

caused by the raising of that
These churches are often

decorated on the outside
with inlaid coloured stone.
inspiring,
examples of the
largest,
tympanum
depicting the Last Judge-
the western doors.
mountainous and was in medieval times
is
se-
prosperous and more independent than the

character
by the nature of
attested
is
churches are mostly on
Its
small scale: they are
tall
ar-
its
comparatively
distinctive feature
inside,
with barrel-
the raising of the inner part
is
585, 586 Notre-Dame-du-Port,

Clermont-Ferrand
Late eleventh century.
and rather dark
vaulted naves. There are sometimes western towers; the
The key example of Auvergnat

churches, with barrel-vaulted
nave and the curious projection
below the tower.
of the transepts to
so that
on the
a level higher than that
outsides there
The most
at the centre.
is
of choir or nave,
a curious box-like projection
example of
striking
Churches
this
type
is
and
58+
probably the church
j86
Notre-Damc-du-Port
at
Clermont-Ferrand
century). Indeed, this
is
perhaps the key example of the
St Saturnin in the
,
at Issoire.
the others, for
it is
at St Nectaire
mountains nearby are akin,
group, though today
it is less
attractive
in the midst
as
is
many of these
On
There are
the fringe of this region

its
of
and impressive than
of a noisy, crowded town,

hill
tops
fine capitals in the choirs
much
buildings, but not
of Le Puy, with
that
eleventh
(late
whereas St Nectaire and St Satunun stand on the

in secluded villages.
city
of
other sculpture.
and the next
is
the
mountain
cathedral, a large three-aisled struc-
adorned with sculpture of a very Islamic character.
ture,
however something of an isolated phenomenon, and

buildings of Provence, which is the next region towards
It is
the
the south, are quite distinct, for there classical ideas
579
580
have survived, to appear anew

(1140-60), and
in churches
StTrophimcat Aries
Hke
seem
to
St Gilles
(twelfth century). Their
west fronts are adorned with fluted columns, Corinthian

capitals
and architraves which might almost have formed
part of a classical temple.
Some
buildings
show Burgun-
dian influence; they are three-aisled and have barrel vaults

in the side aisles,
wooden
ed
if the
central aisles usually
have
Spain
in
of the work
as allied to that
stituted
even
roofs of the type usual in early ItaHan basilicas.
Romanesque
Much
northern Spain
in
is
really to be regard-
of France, for the Pyrenees hardly con-
an effective
barrier,
and the pilgrimage
traffic to
Santiago de Compostela carried the pilgrimage style to

that place
and to churches along the route. Santiago
(1078-1126)
is
at first
glance hardly distinguishable
itself
from
French church, though closer attention shows that there

are certain Spanish elements.
is set
Auvergnat
here,
other regions remain: the Auvergne and Provence.
The former
most
seen
contains a mass of fine capitals, and
tall,
an elaborate
ment over
Conques
has already
one of the purest and most
as
though by no means one of the

type.
it
is
portion of the transepts.
lovely church at
;
characteristic
tower
an outstanding example of the pilgrimage
as
it
But
later.
perhaps the greatest Romanesque
is
9) stands on the fringe of the region
been noted
also
it is
Eleventh-twelfth centuries.
The
The
eastern apse, for example,
within a square external mass, and the sculptures that
MEDIEVAL
208
S87i 589 Zamora Cathedral,

Spain. 1151-74
Exteriors.
The Urger churches of Spain
often
contained distinctively
Spanish sciUpture. and in the
region of Salamanca 2 high
dome of Islamic
ribbed
The
is
good example of
The
influence.
Zamora
cathedral at
this type.
smaller churches are
even more Islamic,
built
known
in the style
of brick
as 'Mudejar*.
588, 590 Santiago de

Compostela. 1079-I126
Interior
and sculptural
At
glance this cathedral
first
detail.
could be in France, though closer
examination reveals
Spanish elements.
The
sculptures are of a very
Spanish expressiveness
as
de
here
is
la
statues
and
shown on
Gloria
(c.
the Portico
11 80)
with
its
of apostles, prophets
elders.
S9Xt 592 Salamanca Cathedral.
xx6o
Exterior and doorway.
The dome
is
perhaps the most
notable feature of this church,
and
is
treated with considerable
ingenuity.
a high
It
has stone ribs,
drum and an
octagonal
spire.
ROMANESQUE
adorn two of its doors are
famous Portico de
essentially Spanish; those
Gloria
la
IN BRITAIN
of the
1180) are of an exuberance
(c.
quite foreign to French work, whether
Romanesque or
Gothic.
209
593 Peterborough Cathedral.

1 1 18-94
A great number of Romanesque
and Gothic churches were timber
roofed.
and the north-east there
In Catalonia
a great deal of
is
is
it
mostly on a comparatively
small scale and represents a local development of the
Romanesque
that at
repaired and restored,
Romanesque work, but

Romanesque'
Though
Peterborough has been continually
style rather than a
'First
branch of the progressive
architecture of France. In the centre, however,
French influence penetrated to some extent
as a result
it
probably gives
a fairly
accurate piaure of what a great
number of
these churches
which
have since been vaulted were

like originally.
of
wars against the Moors in which the French were associated
with the Spaniards. But
on
area took
whole the architecture of this
as a
The
a Spanish garb.
were
larger churches
adorned with sculptures of a Spanish type, and
in the re-
gion of Salamanca they were often roofed with high ribbed
domes on pointed arches, which
attest Islamic influence; the
Zamora
cathedrals of Salamanca (1160) and
the
(1151-74) are
most important examples. The small churches, which
show even more marked
are often of brick,
fluence. This half-Islamic style
Romanesque
is
know
Islamic in-
as the Mudejar.
in Britain
Though Edward the Confessor's church at Westminster

in the new Norman and not the old Saxon style, it
was
was
really as a result
new manner
of the Conquest of 1066 that the
spread rapidly through the country. During
and the turn of the
the thirty years or so between then
number of new
century a surprising
abbey churches were begun, even
if
cathedrals
and great
most were not fmished
594 Abbey church,
Tewkesbury. I08g
One of the great number
of new churches
that sprang
in
till
after
100.
The most important of
were Canterbury
601
Old Sarum
Rochester (1077), St Albans (1077), Ely (1090) and
Tewkesbury
(1079),
London
(1076),
Durham
of which were of tri-apsidal plan; and Winchester
all
(1093),
594
(1070), Lincoln (1072),
these foundations
(1087)
(1088), Gloucester (1089),
and Norwich
{1096),
all
St Paul's,
up immediately
Norman Conquest,
the new manner that
after
the
rapidly
Saxon style.
It is characterised by its massive
dignity and simphcity. The
columns were originally plastered
displaced the old
and painted with bold

geometric patterns.
of which followed
the apse and ambulatory plan so popular in the great pil-
grimage churches of France. Indeed, the early

churches of consequence were
these plans; only rather later
all
was the square
of Saxon
Norman
on one or other of
built
east end,
which
had been a
characteristic
But when
was revived, towards the end of the Norman
period,
it
it
architecture, revived.
became extremely popular and almost supplanted
from
the other systems adopted
All these great
Norman
their plain massive dignity.
over the main
aisle
the continent.
churches are characterised by
At Durham, where stone
were used for the
first
vaults
time, the great
stone-built piers are adorned with shallow-incised patterns,

as
were those of a few other buildings
in the north, but
At Hereford (1107-50) and a

the voussoirs of the arches are adorned
the capitals are quite plain.
595
few other
places
with chevron or dog-tooth mouldings, and the door arches

of
later
Norman
The
voussoirs of an arch adorned
with chevron mouldings, a typical
churches were also often decorated in a
was usually only in the small country

churches where the Saxon tradition was still ahve that the
similar
595 Hereford Cathedral. 1107-50

Detail of pillar and arch.
manner. But
it
decorative form found in
Norman
churches.
The
intricate carving
on the
capital
bears witness to Celtic influence.
tympana of the doors were decorated with

and only very rarely are sculptured
the
most important
are
figure sculpture,
capitals
some of very
early
found
at all;
Norman
date
Durham and others a little later, in

the crypt at Canterbury'. Where elaborate sculptures appear
on the larger buildings, as in the Prior's Door at Ely.
in the castle chapel at
MEDIEVAL
210
S96f 597
Malmesbury Abby.
I164
work
(1164), the
Doorway and
always
is
and the
later
sculptural detail.
than the church
Normandy.
Though it was
itself,
and show the influence of

central or southern France
rather than that
of the more austere Normandy.
at
Durham
shows the
style
and not that of
influence of central or southern France
These sculptures are bter
Abbey
or the great south porch of Mahiicsbtiry
II 50)
(f.
that the first attempt
was made
with stone, the stone vault was not
to
roof the main
at
once universally adopted in England. In a few instances
aisle
seem
the builders
to
have intended to use
but
it,
when
the
time came they did not dare. In others timber roofs were
part of the original design,
Norman
of the
cathedrals,
earlier ones.
and
was true of the
this
Uke Peterborough (in 8-94),
as
later
it
was
Perhaps the builders were deterred not
only by the span but also by the amount to be done, for
by very long naves,
the
Enghsh churches were
as,
for example, at Peterborough and St Albans.
These major buildings
characterised
all
show
dwarf the
immensely
and
large, as at Southwell;
is
three registers, lower
all
of the same height,
clerestory, are
triforium and
tier,
as at
Norwich.
work the triforium. is sometimes included below

main bay,
the
tall
triforium, as at Gloucester; sometimes they are
short and squat and the triforium
sometimes
Sometimes
great variety.
the piers that separate the aisles are
In later
the arch of
Church, Oxford (1180). Some-
as at Christ
times again arches are plain, sometimes decorated, while
vary
capitals
shape and type. But apart from the fact
in
that the later buildings
the earlier ones, there

these factors,
were more profusely decorated than

seem to be no rules that governed
and regional groups are much
than they are in France.
It is
less
marked
only in the snialler churches
of style can be attributed to the influence of
that variations
the locality, and in the regions
where good stone was
avail-
were often delightfully decorated, often reflecting the cultural nature of the area. In Kent and Sussex
able, they
the influence of France

shire
thus to the fore; in Gloucester-
mostly
is
an old, near-Saxon tradition; on the fringe of Wales
in
were popular; and
'Celtic' motifs
598, 599 Rievaulx Abbey,

Yorkshire. 1 1 32
is
and the neighbouring coimties the work

in Scotland
and on the
borders, the old interlacing patterns of 'Northumbrian' art
Exteriors.
Cistercian foundation, one
large group,
of a
of which only
the ruins remain.

It was distinguished by plainness
and absence of carving,
though fastidiously elegant in its
was the second of

the monasteries to be built, the
first being at Wavcrley in Surrey.
severity. This
re-appear. Architecturally the smaller buildings reflect, often
with a delay of a qiurter of a century, the ideas that were

earher developed in the cathedrals and great abbey churches.
One
distinct
be noted
group of larger buildings must, however,
that
distinguished
all
though they
of the Cistercian foundations, which are
by
and an absence of carving,
plainness
are also (Characterised
by what
fastidious elegance. In these the square east
and
in the earlier
absent.
end
are ruins.
tains
Cistercian foundations
The most important are RievauLx
(1135),
(1175),
Kirkstall
(1152),
Romanesque
in
were
that survive
(1132),
Foim-
Buildwas (1155), Byland
Fumcss (1175) and Jervaulx
Romanesque
almost a
universal,
ones the triforium storey was usually
No less than sixty-three
made; many have disappeared and of those

all
is
is
(1175).
Italy
architecture
is
hardly
represented
in
the
become famous as a result of

the Renaissance, but it was in Lombardy and Emilia in the
north that many of the developments which were to make
the style distinctive first took place. The cruciform pier,
which could support arches in four directions at its summit
parts
of
Italy that
were
to
ROMANESQUE
IN BRITAIN
^ \
.
'
tjLlt^HI^^^^H
212
MEDIEVAL
ROMANESQUE
was thus
first
Some
used there.
would
authorities
were developed
that ribbed vaults
ITALY
IN
hold
also
in those regions at an
some
dispute as to the exact date of the first building in which
they appear the church of Sannazzaro near Novara
which Kingsley Porter beUeves to be as early as 1040.
earher date than in France, though there has been
Ribbed vaults were, however, used

(1075-93), San Michele at Pavia
and groin
without the
vaults,
One of
well before that.
the
in Sannazzaro at
612 The
Duomo,
Assisi
Eleventh century.
An
example of hte Italian

Romanesque, also interesting
with its atuchcd campanile and
fa^de decorated with
pilaster
strips.
Milan
iioo) and elsewhere,
(c.
were of course
ribs,
213
in use
most important examples
is
Mazzone, dated about 1030.
at
These Lombard churches mostly had t%vo-storeyed
and a system of open arcaded
riors,
was developed,
perhaps
Giacomo
in St
as
at
inte-
round the apse
galleries
Como
(1095-1117),
a derivative of the blank arcading which had
as
been a popular feature in the region from early times.

Central towers were normal, but bell towers were usually
independent structures; their popularity became universal
though they were used
the twelfth century,
in
There
as the seventh.
them
early
as
example, large numbers of
Rome, though otherwise
in
and
city
are, for
the architecture of that
region was hardly touched by Romanesque
its
ideas.
Closely akin to the churches of Lombardy were those of
Emiha, of which the cathedrals
Parma
many
also
Modena
at
(i 099-1
120)
and
the most important. There were
fine churches in the region to the north, such
San Zeno
as
two of
(1058) are
at
Verona
(1070).
They were
usually built
of brick rather than stone, and were entered by

elaborate porches with
way of
columns supported on recumbent
animals. Here the interiors
were usually of three rather
two storeys, though the roofs were mostly of timber.

They constitute a clearly defined group, but though many
than
of the churches are impressive, they are hardly of the same

outstanding quality from the architectural point of view
as
616
More
those of France.
Pisa Cathedral (1063)
is
impressive
is
the group of
which
most outstanding example; for
the
though timber roofs remained more or
universal, a
less
very elaborate form of external arcadmg was there devel-
oped which gives
to examples
not only are churches
San Frediano
it,
like the cathedral at
There
614
is
little
and central
may
Italy,
distributed, for
Lucca, like the cathedral (1204),
but also a few buildings in Apuha,
Troia (1093-1127).
Romanesque
that can be called
though San Miniato
be noted, for
by great
at
and San Michele (twelfth century)
(11 12),
to be assigned to
of the group a very im-
The group was widely
pressive appearance.
its
nave
is
at
in Florence
Florence (1013)
divided into compartments
But in southern Italy there were

flourishing developments of the Romanesque; in Apulia
on the one hand and in Sicily on the other. In Apulia
the
transverse arches.
main centre was
attest links
619
Bari,
and though some of the churches
with Normandy, most of them, with San Ni-
colas at Bari (108 7- 1 197) as the type
to
local
Trani
development of the
(1098),
Bari
(late
(1175) are perhaps the

again,
way
example, bear witness
The
cathedrals at
century)
and Bitonto
style.
twelfth
most important examples. But here
though the buildings
are fme, they did not lead the
to greater subsequent developments as did those
France.
The same
is
true of Sicily,
of
though many of the
613, 614 San Miniato, Florence.
1013
Exterior and interior
The nave of
this
church
is
split
up into compartments by great

transverse arches,
and the eastern portion

has 3 crypt
to the
nave and
tomb of
the saint.
open
containing the
and exterior are notable

of banding
alternate black and white marble,
Interior
for the introduction
in
which was to become very

popular in Italy in
Gothic times.
MEDIEVAL
214
615, 616 The Pisan

Cathedra] 1063-92
Complex
Campanile II74
Baptistery
Here
153-1278
seen the whole Pisan group
is
- baptistery, cathedral and tower.
The
siting
and relationship of
the buildings and the famous
pecuharity of the campanile,
combine to
group one of the most
famous architectural complexes in
inclining at an angle,
make
this
the world.
617, 620 Motireale Cathedral,

Sicily 1174-1232.
Aerial and exterior views.
The
exterior
is
exotic and
charmingly decorated, but the

interior
is
of
a quiet dignity,
the result of the basilican plan
imposing
simple directional unity.
All the wall space
is,
however,
covered with mosaics in
wholly Byzantine
style.
617
618 Cefalu Cathedral,
The
Sicily.
building shows the same
richness of decorative
detaihng as in Monreale Cathedral,
but
it
is
more
irregular.
Here again there are Byzantme

mosaics, finer and earlier
than those at Monreale.
619 San Nicolas, Bari. 1087

The fatâde is severe and plam,
in contrast to those
later buildings
of
of the
Sicily.
),
KOMANESQUB
GERMANY, PROBLEMS OF VAULTING
IN
The cathedral
but perhaps somewhat os-
buildings there have a strange, exotic charm.
Cefalu (1131) and the larger
6i8
at
622
tentatious church of
Monreale
(i
174-1232) are the most
215
621
The Capella
Palatina.
Palermo. 1132-40
The church consists of a sanauary
in the form of a Greek domed
church, but with a
important of theni.
long nave
of Latin character. The walls
Romanesque
Developments
are covered with mosaics;
Germany
in
those at the east are the
in the early eleventh century represent
hand a natural growth from the architecture of
the one
CaroUngian and Ottonian times,

teristic
on
vidth
typical charac-
its
work
of Greeks, those in the nave by

Sicihans. The nave roof was
done by Islamic craftsmen and

a fine example of Fatimid art.
is
of the double-ended church, and show on the other
the effects of changes that had been taking place elsewhere.

In the region
of Trier, for example,
certain
Lombardic
cathedral there (1016-78).
Much more
was the influence of France,
first
cruciform aisled plan, which was

1
100,
and resulted
plan in
in the departure
many buildings of the

from
ly in a rise
Worms, and was

But
from
two-ended
the old
twelfth century, and second-
It first
appeared
thereafter adopted
more or
in the
and
at Trier
less
univer-
and
these innovations only penetrated slowly,
the architecture of the lower Rhine remained

a
of the
used at Hessau around
the end of the twelfth century
popularity of ribbed vaulting.
sally.
important, however,
in the adoption
first
fea-
on the
tures are to be observed, notably blind arcading
on
the
whole
very conservative one. The double-ended plan also re-
mained popular
in
north Germany, though cruciform build-
were perhaps more usual there than in the Rhineland.

Towers were also less popular, and most of the churches
ings
have two
western end rather than the massing of
at the
small round towers
which accompanied many of the double
transept churches of the Rhineland.
Germany
is
by
also characterised
form hke the
The
architecture of
Maria im Kapitol
trefoil, as in St
of unusual
a love of plans
at
and round and octagonal churches,
(1065),
Carohngian prototypes, were
Cologne
following
622 Monreale Cathedral,
1174-1232
The mosaics on the
Sicily.
of scenes from the Old and
New
also popular.
that
Problems of Vaulting
Though
the
France,
with
some of
the finest buildings in the world,
Romanesque churches of
plainer structures of the north, or, as

in
Lombardy,
that the
opments were taking
central
and southern
us
with
was
in the
some would
think,
provide
sculptures,
rich
their
it
most important architectural develplace, for
there,
through the
last
quarter of the eleventh century, the architects were tackling

the
problem of vaulting the nave and choir with something
more
flexible than the barrel vault.
The groined
vault,
over
a square bay, which consists virtually of four barrel vaults

intersecting at right angles,
was used
in the side aisles at
Fontevrault and elsewhere quite early in the century, but
attempts to use
this
on
a large scale over the
main
aisle
had been confronted by three problems: furstly, that of

sagging when the area to be spanned was considerable;
second, that of adequate support to counter the thrust at
the sides
and
third, that
elevation, for if the
section
of coping with the problem of
round form was used, the diagonal
of the vault was automatically of greater height
than the transverse one which spanned the nave. This could
be compensated
for, to
some
extent,
by springing the transwas awkward
verse arches at a higher level, but the result
and unattractive.
It
was only by using
a pointed arch for
the diagonal vault, in association with the
round transverse
walls
present the most complete cycle
Testaments
is
known
to us.
MEDIEVAL
2l6
arch of the nave, that the problem could be adequately
633-625 Perspectives
of Canterbury Cathedral
These diagrams show a groin
vault (623), a scxpartite
ribbed vault (625) and a

quadripartite ribbed vault (624).
The
solved.
tfelN^
it
It
Normandy
in
Lombardy,
in
was
first
arrived at
it is
may have been

regions.
It
was
example of
reached mdependently in the different
Anglo-Norman
fully exploited,
whole
scries
and Durham
Once
large-scale use.
its
been invented,
or in England that
hard to say; indeed the solution
certainly in the
was most
the idea
623
solution was reached around 1090, but whether
was
is
area that
the earliest
the ribbed vault
of developments followed
had
as a
natural consequence.
of these was the use of the ribbed vault
First
greatly facihtated the
and
made
also
of building simple arches both

625
and diagonally
laid. In this
way
wooden
the mass of
centring or
scaffolding necessary for the groin vault could be elimi-
twelfth century.
wood was scarce, each arch could be built in

minimum quantity was required, and further,
nated. If
This interior shows the pointed
turn, so that a
rooBng the nave,
the ribs could be multiplied in
with clerestory lighting.

side aisles are roofed
consisted
efficient. It
transversally
over each bay, so that they formed a frame rather like the
could be
Second quarter of the
The
it
metal of an umbrella, onto which the fJling of the vault
626 Autun Cathedra],

Burgundy
barrel vault
more
stronger and
it
for
itself,
problem of actually building a vault
with
The
strength and variety.
groin vaults.
ing over the main
work was begun

arrangement. The
as
1093.
simplest
the quadripartite vault,
examples of
this are to
1125); such vaults
(c.
example of ribbed vault-
is at Durham, where
The ribs vary in number and
form producing what is known
aisle that
in
number, so giving greater
earHest
survives
was most usual
be seen
were
at
usually
in early times;
Durham and
at
Caen
employed above a dou-
As time went on the number of ribs was multipHed
ble bay.
Tudor times, they constituted a riotous decorative

on the roof.
The other development to which these experiments led
was that of the pointed arch, though there is some doubt
until, in
pattern
whether
as to
lution or to
known
employment was due

from the
its
its
introduction
to indigenous evo-
where
East,
many
it
had
627 Perspecrtive showing
been
cathedral construction
might well have been brought back from S^Tia or Palestine

by the Crusaders. But there can be httle doubt that it was
This diagram indicates the
to Islamic architetts for
functional character of ribbed
as
vaulting and flying buttresses.
The
ribs
play
much
role as the steel
the same
a result of their
itects
frame of
It
own experiments that the Norman archto use it, and we see it appearing in
were tempted
quite a
an umbrella.
centuries.
number of buildings of the
first
half of the twelfth
century which are otherwise Romanesque in character, not
only
roofmg
as a
feature but also over the arcades
Autun
aisles;
the
same time the idea of tall multiple

transition
one, and
and
its
is
piers stretching
from
roof was developed.
floor to
The
between
perhaps the most striking example. At
the
from Romanesque
to Gothic
was
a gradual
sometimes not easy to say whether a building
it is
decoration
to be included under the
is
one head
or the other. At Sens (1144-68) round and pointed arches

are used together,
sculpture
is
and
it is
truly transitional.
wholly Romanesque in
arches. In the west front
of Chartres
spite
(c.
At Autun the
of the pointed
1160) the sculpture
Gothic rather than Romanesque, and
is
already perhaps
as
noted above, the flying buttress appears in embryo in
a completely
Romanesque form at Nevers. If a decision

it would probably be in favour of regarding
had to be made,
Abbot
first
were
Suger's
cathedral at St Denis near Paris as the
truly Gothic structure in France.

built bet\veen
Its
western portals
1135 and 11 40, with pointed arches
627
XXXIV
Cathedral, Pcterhorou
.^J^^^T-^^^"* *S?^:
ii
.'in
,M
m
'^'
*x
if?
I
-i
i:i<
**'.-,
GOTHIC
and a profusion of sculpture in which

hkc those of the west doors
and
was roofed with a
it
shortly before
tall
219
elegant figures
Chartrcs predonunated,
at
of pointed form
fine ribbed vault
consecration in 1144.
its
FRANCE
IN
was followed by
It
Chartrcs in the third quarter of the century, but only the

sculptures
of the west portal of
was destroyed by
it
Gothic
fire in
44
pointed arches and pointed

ribbed vaults that
came
to
characterise the style. This burial
place of the French kings is

one of the earhcst truly Gothic
structures.
France
in
work
in the
at St
Denis and the closelv
earlier cathedral
dating from around 1144, are
they nevertheless
tional,
building survive, for
194.
Abbot Suger's foundation
If
similar
this
628 St Denii, Paris.
This early Gothic church his the
at
Chartrcs, both
to be classed as transi-
still
show many features that are
already
wholly Gothic, namely great height, pointed arches and

pointed ribbed vaults. These features were further devel-
oped
number of churches founded soon
in a
the
after
middle of the century; most imponant are those of Notre-
Dame
at
Senhs (1156) and
was an age of great
it
many of
become hallmarks of
style,
new
style
was
11 60, for there
which were soon to
629, 630
namely three western
Exteriors.
the features
the
the
begun about
carried even further at Laon,

are to be seen
for
The development of
building activity.
but there
at Soissons (1160-1212),
numerous other examples,
are
is
portals, all
above the
The
adorned with sculptures, and flying buttresses

to support the walls of the
aisles
cathedral
however, unsual
is,
some
in
main
aisle.
respects, for
it
here fiirther elaborated,
with flying buttresses to

support the walls of the nave.
Sculpture has spread from the
tympana
has a square east end instead of the buttressed apse or chevet
and seven towers were allowed
usual in France,
plan,
for in the
which suggests the influence of German Romanesque.
In the developed Gothic
became almost an
one
possible to include
of towers
at the
it
in
was
were seldom
where
France,
where height
thereafter
found hardly
at the crossing.
ends of the transepts
in embr\'o, they
W'est end,
srs'le
obsession,
is
Though
to be seen
built elsewhere than at the
lower stages formed a
their
the idea
sometimes
of the complex of the west front
vital part
were
the upper stages
not always completed.
Next
in
in date
is
Notre-Dame
which was begun
at Paris,
163; the nave and the lower part of the west front
were finished about

1240.
The
1200,
and the western towers about
windows of
great rose
the transepts date
from
about 1225. Here already the ideas which were to dominate
whole of Gothic architecture
the
in
France are already
well developed and the chevet at the east end
most glorious
of a
gle,
forest
in France
of
stone.
it is
Uke some
sort
is
one of the
of fairy vision
The plan was conceived as a rectanto make it a cruciform
but transepts were added
church, vnth portals
at
the end of the
transepts
which
are nearly as important as the western one. Inside there

are three
sexpartite.
height,
a
more or less equal storeys, and the vaulting is

The whole building is carried up to an immense
and the wall-space has already been reduced to
minimum by
there
of
is
a blaze
the enlargement of the
of light
inside.
The
windows, so
that
wall that remains consists
more than piers between the windows, and these

made strong enough to support the roof by means of
httle
are
the flying buttresses
of the vault
at a
which take up the
high level and convey
thrust of the ribs

it
downwards
an angle by means of a subtle system of supports, until

is
taken up by the outer walls of the
XXXV Hemy VU's
chapel.
Ifi
Ahhey
aisles.
at
it
In the short
Laon Cathedral. 11 60
The new Gothic style
to other parts of the
example the
upper part of the towers.
building, for
MEDIEVAL
220
631-635 Notre-Dame, Paris.
Begun 1163
Plan, exterior views
The
plan of
this
and
interior.
cathedral was
conceived as a great rectangle,

but transepts were added
make
to
it
cruciform church.
has three portals
It
at the
west end, and transept
faijades
which
important
as
are nearly
as
the western one.
Inside there are three equal storeys,
and the vaulting
The
is
scxpartite.
flying buttresses
between the windows take

the thrust of the ribs
down
to the outer walls
of the
aisles.
The
miracle of the lightness of
stone skeleton and glowing glass,
which was the genius of

Gothic architecture,
perfection, only a
is
seen here to
few decades
after the earhest essay in this style.
The
large
windows
in
Gothic cathedral should be
regarded as glass walls,

not as big windows.
They
are a translation
into mural transparencies
of the mosaics and frescoes

of
earlier times.
631 West facade

632 View along nave
towards west end
633 Ground plan
634 Flying buttresses
635 North window, exterior
isiiradP
GOTHIC IN FRANCE
of time which separates the embryonic half-arch,
space
which was used

tre-Dame
for instance at Nevers
had reached virtual
development went hand
Its
of the ribbed
piers,
details.
hand with that
in
vault, for thanks to the ribs the
roof could be concentrated above the
636-641 Chartres Cathedral.

I194-1260
Exterior, plan and sculptural
from No-
1097),
(c.
at Paris, the flying buttress
perfection.
by
221
The plan of Chartres was

conditioned by previous structures
on the site, for the earlier
weight of the
where
it
was met
west end was re-used,
With a barrel or groined vault, where

weight was more equally distributed, this would not
the buttresses.
the
have been
sential a part
so es-
of the
piers, the ribs
vault,
built
rich
with funds provided
and poor
alike,
the result of intense general
of Gothic church building would not have
been practicable. The
was
It
by
wmdows which form
and the great
so,
enthusiasm, a church for people to
worship
and the
in rather
than a
place of pilgrimage.
flying buttress are the bones
the hght-screerung
than
skin.
its
Once
walls
again
of the building, the
glass
was
as
a crypt at the eastern end.
and
The
brilhant
sculptures and glass transform the
below the windows no more

have an example of the organic
church. Here the decoration

looks towards
we
life
with great
exuberance, rather than
character of medieval architecture. Indeed

as
was
it
in
Gothic
a whole and most of all perhaps in the Gothic of France,
were carried out to
that these ideas
The form of
simple:
atively
at
The
is
compar-
after the fire
more
more
varied, even if they
Romanesque
closely to forms proper to
to Gothic architecture.
But many of them
rather than
approach
of the
saints
and
awesome and
powerful
hymn
to man's
perfectabihty.
636 West fa9ade

637 Ground plan
rather than
are things
figures
judging, and the whole
of 1194, they are
is
more
elaborate and
characteristic
Christ are tender and sympathetic
where rebuilding probably
Chartres,
began almost immediately
Judgment
of Romanesque churches.
their fullest extent.
Notre-Dame
the buttresses at
preoccupation with
the Last
of
great beauty and delight in themselves.
The nave and choir of Chartres as we now know them

were fmished about 1230; the north and south porches,
with their famous sculptures, were completed soon after
the middle of the century, and the building was consecrated
in 1260.
The plan of Chartres was
to a considerable extent
conditioned by previous structures, for the earUer western
end was re-used, as was a crypt, perhaps

century, at the eastern end, and
more
ot the grandest
later separated
from the nave
screen. Altogether Chartres presents
one
and most impressive of all the great Gothic
cathedrals of France,
and hardly
tenth
as early as the
probably because of
elaborate services could be ac-
commodated. The choir was

by an extensive
is
and the choir of unusual
this that the transepts are large
width, so that the
it
typical
though
plan
its
unconventional
is
638 Flying buttresses

639 Sculpture
of that normal to the Ilc-dc-Francc

'
as
we
see
it
in
such
cathedrals as
(Notre-Damc),
Paris
on the Royal Portal,
c.
1 1
Rhcims or Amiens.
But Chartres
almost
all
is
typical in another
way, and shares with
the others one very distinctive feature:
it
is
cathedral church in the middle of a town, not a monastic
church within an enclosure of

the countryside. Like the others
funds provided by the

result
of a communal
cells
it
and
was
cloisters,
built
and to a great extent
laity
effort, for
which
rich
set
in
with the aid of

as the
and poor
provided their support. These churches represent the
alike
result
of intense general enthusiasm. They were churches for

the people to worship
in,
not places of pilgrimage or
monastic seclusion. As such their sculptures and their
had to encourage, help and
glas,
instruct the worshipper,
so
grew up a new system of decoration, more

universal, more humane, which directed the beholder's
thoughts to life rather than death. Scenes from Christ's life,
which represented the ideal to be emulated, or from thu
that there
lives
of saints,
his course,
tender,
who would
help the
man of the world
along
or figures of the Virgin, stressing her more
human
character, thus
took the place of the more
640 Window, west fa9ade

641 Capital detail
50
MEDIEVAL
642 'Saint Barbara*
alarming themes of Romanesque
by Jan van Eyck (d. 1441)

This Reiuissance monochrome
painting shows
all
on the
the medieval
perils
was
laid
that
awaited the wicked. Christ too,
judge, divine and awesome, but
scafTold-builders are seen,
the
and on top of the lower there

is a wooden crane operated by
comfort the
manpowered
art,
we
as
buildmg trades in the

background. The surveyors and
architect, the masons and
where
of the Last Judgement and the tortures
stress
Him
see
the outset
at
on the west front of Chartres, was no longer the aloof
Man
of Sorrows,
sinner.
who
We
human and
sympathetic,
could understand, help and
see the
of
realisation
full
this
trend in the famous figure at Amiens, done about 1220,
treadmill.
known as 'Le Beau Dieu'.

More characteristic of this new
universal
than
style
Chartres was the great coronation church of Rheims, begim

in 121
and fmished about the middle of the century.
It is
one of the very few churches of the age to be completed

designed. Usually the plans were too ambitious, and
as
when
way
another
which we
west towers
came
in the Crusades,
buildings were
the
by
the fust enthusiasm, engendered
vival of the twelfth century
is
many of
to an end,
One of
incomplete.
left
the rehgious re-
see manifested in
Chartres's
from 1506;
thus a later addition, dating
the
west front of Amiens was never finished; the nave of

Beauvais was never even begun; and Bourges was vaulted
lower
at a
level
and
more economical manner than
in a
down
planned. But Rheims was finished and decorated

the minutest detail,
windows took
progressed; rose
building
as
to
though even there changes were made

the place of
conventional sculptured tympana over the western
the
and sculptures in a newer more up-to-date style

were substituted about 1240 for some of those which had
originally been made about 1220 for the lower registers
portals,
of the west front. The old ones were transferred to two

643 Medieval tnason's
working drawings
This page from the notebook
doors on the north
side, the
and the porch of St
Sixtus.
shows the geometrical setting-out

of columns and tracery.
The medieval
architect
French Gothic, with

its
worked
by taking his
measurement from such
entirely
many ways Rheims
In
of a medieval master mason
4.
its
with
more
elegant
tall,
its
series
flying
begun
to
is
exterior.
even greater
is
floor to the springing of the vault
ridge
Hying
and
this,
It
and
would have
at
Amiens,
rather less profusion of exterior
decoration. But the height
644 Le Mans Cathedral.

Begun c. 1218
and
pillars,
and the mass of
buttresses
go further than
1218, there
in
great height,
multiple piers, which have
whole
sculpture that decorates the
seemed impossible
of dimensions.
its
its
conservative round
geometrical constructions,
not from any specified
of
represents the culmination
cruciform plan,
vast area of window space,
here replaced the
Judgement porch
so-called
140
and 200
the proportions are perhaps
more
feet
from
to the
feet
satisfaaory.
moreover, exceptionally fme carved wooden
There
are,
choir
stalls,
and
of unequalled quahty on the
sculptilre
buttresses.
detail
of the
tall,
elegant flying
buttresses that are so
longer seem
hght they no
made of
stone.
west doors and, of a rather
later date, at the
end of the
south transept. At Beauvais (1225-71) the choir and transepts
were taken up
to an even
greater
height, with
glorious forest of buttresses at the chevet. But the
new nave
was never begun, and the old one, the 'Basse Oeuvre as
it is called, dating in part from Carohngian times, still
remains. At Bourges
ambitious, for
three
aisles,
it
(i
190-1275) the plan was even
more
comprised five instead of the customary
with five western
portals.
But the scheme was
too ambitious, and the roof was hurriedly completed
lower
Bourges
as
such
is
variations
Dame
at a
level than originally intended.

is
a five-aisled
church without transepts, and
unique in France. The other cathedrals are
on the
at Paris, at
transeptal
theme
Rheims or
at
that
we saw
in
all
Notre-
Amiens. Rouen Cathedral
GOTHIC IN FRANCE
223
64s. 646 Rheiins Cathedral.
Begun X2II
Exterior and interior.
This church
is
the culmination
of French Gothic, owing

its
arrangement to
as the
its
purpose
coronation church of
the kings of Francc.

Its
cruciform
pbn
is
developed
to a height of 267 (cct in

the western towers, and
above the central portal
rose
window 40
sense
is
feet in diameter.
of immensity has been
achieved within,
both solemn and
The
regal.
clustered piers supporting
the arches over the nave

arcade
rise
up to intersecting
above the fioor.
vaults 125 feet
647 Amiens Cathedral.

Begun 1218
There
is less
profusion of
sculptural decoration in this church
than
at
Rheims,
but the vaults are even higher

- 140 feet from the floor to the
springing of the vaults.
MEDIEVAL
224
648, 649, 652 Bourges Cathedral.
Begun
190
Plan. Ulterior
The
and
exterior.
original lines along
which
the church was planned proved
too ambitious, and the roof was
completed
at a
lower
than
level
was intended.
The church
has five aisles
but no transepts, and
as
such
is
unique in France.
Inside, the
double
aisles at
different heights resemble
Cathedral.
The
east
Milan
end has
double fijing buttresses
and
pinnacles.
650 Le Mans Cathedral.

c. 1218
The chevet, or east end, of
Begun
church
is
this
remarkable for the
thirteen radiating chapels
which project from
it.
650
651 Palace of the Popes,
Avignon
Fourteenth century.
An example
that
of secular architecture
accompanied the great spurt
of church building.
GOTHIC IN GERMANY AND THE NETHERLANDS
from
dates
the
quarter of the thirteenth century;
first
The rebuilding of Le Mans was

chevet
of the
hand about I2i8;
set in
again of exceptional beauty. Strasbourg, begun
is
in 1290, represents the
Ouen
taste. St
it
and a double-storcyed nave arcade.
has three fine towers
its
Rheims
style,
Rouen, begun
at
modified by
German
one
after 1300, represents
great enterprises of this astonishing phase. In
last
the fourteenth
century
stop to nearly
all activity,
of disastrous wars put
a series
and
it
was not
until the fifteenth
work was resumed, as for instance in St Maclou

Rouen (1432-1520) and at Abbeville (1480-1539). Both
are in the somewhat exaggerated flamboyant style which
century that
at
characterised later French Gothic; the gentle progression
from
we know
as per-
which characterised Gothic architecture
in Brit-
tentative efforts to the final style
pendicular,
never seen in France. There the best
ain, w'as
nearly
produced
all
in the thirteenth century.
are unequalled, but
when
developments were
less interesting,
in
that age
work was
glories
Its
was over, subsequent

less
progressive, than
England.
Very considerable developments

ran parallel with
this
and a number of
in secular architecture
amazing burst of church building,
some of them almost
castles,
in
cities
were set up in the fourteenth century. Just as

the churches were monuments to a great age of piety, so
these were monuments to a great age of chivalry. But they
were mainly for defensive purposes, and it is in their
themselves,
planning, w^th the elaborate double entrances,
flanking
towers, barbicans and so forth, that they are most interest-
ing from a purely architectural point of view; problems
of vaulting, support and

518
less
proportion were a good deal
important. In the thirteenth century Carcassonne
is
perhaps the most outstanding example; in the fourteenth

651
the Papal palace at Avignon.
The
Gothic
from
defensive
wcU on
the way.
transition
grand dwelling place was here
castle to
Germany and the Netherlands
in
These countries are
really
only of local importance, for
they added Httle to the basic nature of Gothic, even though

distinctive styles
German Gothic
were developed
rather,
Romanesque
was imported
it
in a
number of
as a
of the region;
architecture
developed
from France
style
To
about the middle of the thirteenth century.
veloped
the
653
style
one of the
drals
is
that
is
really
but coarse copy of the cathedral
In the north, brick
was
it
tells
at
Amiens.
It
a very individual type
by
size
was completonly in 1880.
was often substituted for
also the case in
Ulm
cathe-
Utde more than an enlarged
ed, following the thirteenth-century design,
this
that at
German
the
of Cologne (begun 1248), but

it is
de-
Rhineland and
finest
The most imposing of all
rather than detail, for
this
certain local features, such as
so popular in the
spires
the centre of the country
(1377- 14 1 7).
655
were added
open-work
areas.
thus does not represent an independent
evolution from the
Belgium and Holland.
stone,
and
In Holland
of building, a great hall-church,
of great height and with long narrow windows but with

httle in the way of towers, was developed. Belgium on
the other
656
hand was
in closer contact
with France, and
Bavon at Ghent
them from those of northern
churches like Ste Gudulc's at Brussels or St
have
little
225
to distinguish
Pi
MEDIEVAL
22<S
6s6 St Bavon, Ghent
France.
The most
Thirteenth century.
These Belgian churches have
little
them from those of

northern France, though here the
to distinguish
sexpartite vaulting
is
carried
country. That
out in brickwork.
Gothic
a ver)' imposing series
is
at
Bruges
one of the fmest.
is
Italy
in
The Gothic
foreign to
of Belgium are the
found elsewhere, and the
fourteenth century, are scattered over the
the
in
are hardly
of which there
civic buildings,
built
distinctive features
which
great belfries
nonhern Europe was

and the few wholly
be found there seem somehow comdeveloped
style as
and
Italy
Gothic buildings to
pletely out of place.
Italian
in
taste,
The most important
akm
the vast cathedral at Milan (1386),
of course,
is,
some ways
in
Bourges, but over-scaled and over-omate in
More
Rome,
tion.
restrained
is
the abbey at Fossanova
to
decora-
its
1200),
(c.
more or less direct copy of a late Burgundian

abbey church. The church of St Francis at Assisi (122853) also owes something to northern Gothic, though it is
unusual in that it has two storeys. The lower is divided
near
compartments; the upper
into vaulted
is
vaulted in one
great span.
As opposed
and
to these
few other 'northern Gothic'
churches, a completely independent and indigenous type

in Italy, which probably owed
more to the old early Christian basilicas than to influence
from north of the Alps or to that of Lombard Romanesque.
In these buildings pomted arches were used, but the piers
more often than not imitated the circular columns of
of Gothic was developed
657 Grand' Place

belfry and town hall,
Bruges
Fourteenth century.
One of
the
great Flemish civic groups
with towering
belfries, in a
magnificent and ornate
style,
which were popular in this

period. These huge belfries are
curious and distinctive feature
classical times,
of Belgian Gothic.
and vaulting problems were avoided, the
wooden form of roof
old
a
adhered
to.
In
central
Siena, the buildings
on
usual
Italy,
the basilicas being
Florence and
especially at
were usually of
brick,
and the
fa(;ades
were adorned with elaborate marble revetment. The most

important examples of the
style are the cathedrals at Siena
(1245-1380), Orvicto (begun 1290) and
Florence
numerous other churches
1296); there are
(begun
in the style in
Florence and elsewhere.

Italy
was
also
with regard to
distinctive
its
secular
town haJls, castles, palaces and houses, nearly

of which are distinguished by Gothic features such as
buildings,
all
the pointed arch or the multiple column, even if most of
them
are proto-Renaissance rather than Gothic.
Gothic
in
The Gothic
Britain
cathedrals of Britain belong
an indigenous architect-iral
from
that
of France. UrJike the architecture
and the Netherlands,

658 Antwerp Cathedral.
The largest church in Belgium,

work on which was continued
into the sixteenth century.
It is
in the
mature Flemish
with
many
huge
clerestory
France are absent.
The
the
main
to
many ways
of Germany
represents a local evolution
from
features that characterise
plans are thus
much
longer in
comparison to width the eastern chevet, often the crown;
ing glory of France,

style
slender pier shafts and
windows.
it
Romanesque, and many of the
Begun 1352
different in
style,
est in
height for
its
is
absent
own
there
is
never the same inter-
were never
sake; flying buttresses
used with the same bravado as in France; nor do the interiors

present anything like the same unity. Again, the great
French cathedrals were mostly conceived

if
as a
whole, even
they were not always completed; the Enghsh were
conceived piecemeal, and
it is
only in one instance,
at Salis-
bury (1220-58), that the nave, choir and transepts

all
of one period or indeed of one
style.
But
if
of the briUiance and perfection of French Gothic
arc
something
is
lacking,
GOTHIC IN ITALY, BRITAIN
227
MEDIEVAL
228
665 Salisbury Cathedral.

1220-58
The majority of the great English
cathedrals were monastic
foundations with
all
the ancillary
They are therefore

found on the edge,
buildings.
usually
rather than in the centre,

a town. Their plans are not so
compact or restricted as those of
of
the great French cathedrals such

as Chartres, situated in the centre
of the town.
feature of
the English cathedral
is
its
multiphcity of chapels and
chambers, branching from either
of
side
a long,
narrow
axis.
These were necessary because

of the building's double
function as secular and monastic
church.
The English
builders could
afford to spread over the
neighbouring ground to meet

all
these various requirements.
Salisbury Cathedral
is
mainly
in the Early English style.
666 Salisbury Cathedral

View along nave lookmg east.
The nave
is
characteristic
of Early English.
It
has sexpartite vaulting, circular
piers
a
with attached
large
shafts,
trifonum and
httle
carved
decoration.
667 Salisbury Cathedral

The chapter house {c. 1263)
is
octagonal; the central pier
is
a cluster
of very slender
columns which branch out into

the vaults overhead like the
ribs
of an umbrella.
GOTHIC IN BRITAIN
there
is
deep sincerity about the Enghsh churches which
unequalled. Outside, the lower roof-lines give a point
is
to the
towers or
spires
which
lacking in France, and the
is
placing of the cathedrals in a secluded close seems to offer
an admirable compromise between the rural seclusion of

the French Romanesque abbeys and the hemmed-in bustle
of the setting of
Again, there
229
668 Salisbury Cathedral.

I 220-58
Plan.
The
plan shows double transepts
with a central tower.
The octagonal
(c. 1263) is on
chapter house
the south side,
together with a cloister.
their cathedrals.
a greater diversity of styles in English
is
Gothic, and whereas in France there are broadly but two.
of the great thirteenth-century churches of the
that
de-France and
of
that
their
successors
in
the
century, which are sometimes over-flamboyant, in
land there was a continuous
we know
as
Ile-
fLftecnth
Eng-
progression from the style
Early Enghsh, with
narrow slender arches
its
and restrained tracery, through the elaboration of the Dec-
where the tracery
orated, to the logic ot the Perpendicular,
And
one continuous Une from floor to roof.
rises in
was only in England

was carried to
its
of ribbed vaulting
logical conclusion to
produce the form
we know
as
Britain
also unique, for there are
is
it
that the evolution
fan vaulting. Again, the mass of material in
parish churches
of quality than
probably more small
any comparable area on
in
the continent.
Of
1
the great buildings of the Early English phase
York
190-1300) the transepts at
window
at the
known
northern end
(c.
(1227-70), with the great

as the 'Five Sisters',
and the cathedral of Salisbury (1220-58) are perhaps the

most outstanding. They represent the culmination of a
style
which was evolved
way of
directly
few prehminary
from
the
Norman, by
example
stages, as for
in the
669 Ripon Cathedral,

llgo
Even in such an example of early
Gothic as Ripon the facade
is composed of more open
c.
space than solid stone.

is austere and undecorated,
and reUes upon its structural
It
unity for
Temple church
cathedral at
in
Ripon
tion perhaps in the
London (commenced
(c.
1180).
reaches
It
Chapter House
1185) and
its
aesthetic effect.
the
highest perfec-
its
at Salisbury
{c.
1263).
These local developments, which were well-nigh uni-
may
versal,
series
etration of
new
for example,
of
170,
Sens,
be contrasted with those in a
of buildings which took place
and
limited
of the pen-
from France. Canterbury Cathedral,
ideas
which was almost
was the work of

it
more
as a result
represents a
enrirely rebuilt after the fire
French architect, William ot
development of ideas which had
already been formulated between
1144 and 1168 in the
cathedral at that place. Albeit, the English developments
were very considerable and produced ultimate solutions of

great originality
east
and very great beauty,
end of Canterbury, the 'Corona',
minster
Abbey
(1245-69), again,
is
especially at the
as it
is
called.
West-
a church of French type,
with chevet at the eastern end and flying buttresses to support

the central aisle;
But
these,
it
too was the
work of a French
architect.
both of them buildings of the greatest quality,
670 York
The Tive
The
lancets
Minster. 1227-70.
Sisters'
window
of the north transept
are attenuated to a
marked degree.
Their calculated slenderness

frames the stained glass in
are exceptions,
and the evolurion which can be traced
from Ripon through the transepts of York and at Sahsbury

was carried forward at Wells (1220-42) and in the nave
and two choirs at Lincoln (1230-80), to produce the style
we term Decorated
(c.
1300 to
c.
1380).
The
arches tended
become wider and less lancet-hke, the proportions

somewhat less elegant but perhaps sounder and more lasting, while the buildings were enlivened with tracery of
to
greater elaboration, and the doors and capitals
with a greater profusion and with a

sculpture
in
which
figures
new
were adorned
type of decorative
played an important
part.
rather unusual grisaille tones.
MEDIEVAL
230
67X Lincoln Cathedral.

Angel Choir, c. 1260
An example of the Decorated
with the arches wide and the
proportions
less
tracery
and
figures appear in the
on
France, but
elegant than soUd.
The
is
Figure sculpture,
was never
true,
is
it
and
occasions, as at Wells
as extensive as in
Angel choir
in the
style
of great elaboration,
Lincoln,
at
it
was of a quality
of France, though
Unear.
The
no way
in
was usually more
it
inferior to that
and more
reticent
of the windows showed great variety,
tracer)'
bemg based on geometric designs we

know them as reticulated the later on freehand curves,
and these we term flamboyant. This was the style used
the earher forms
profuse sculpture.
Gothic of France, and there
in the later
that
it
was
developed in France to a
The next
reason to beheve
is
introduced from England.
fu'st
was however
It
degree than in Britain.
fuller
phase, the Perpendicular,
was
employed
fu'St
at
Gloucester soon after 1330, while buildings elsewhere were
being erected in the Decorated style
still
1380, did the style
become
only
a universal one.
later,
At
about
first it
was
Norman choir at Gloucester was

simply re-faced, and a new, great east window was inserted.
confmed
The
to tracery, for the
was an amazing
result
ing achievement,
if
tour de force,
one remembers
Death decimated the population
and
also a surpris-
that the terrible Black
in
But the
1349.
choir,
nbbed vault, was finished in

1357, and the cloisters, where developed fan vaulting was
used for the first time, in 1407. The tower dates from 1450
together with
to 1457.
set
up
The
one of a
is
series
of very beautiful structures
in the fifteenth century; the central
terbury
672 Winchester Cathedral.
I079-I235
It
elaborate
its
The
1495)
(c.
is
development of the Perpendicular
fullest
and the
phase of
last
(c 1480-1600)
it
Canstyle,
sometimes called
is
Westminster
supcrimpositions (the vaulting
Tudor. Henry VII's chapel
of 1394-1450) entirely disguise

the Norman nave and choir.
George's chapel at Windsor (1460-1510) and a
is
at
however, was due to the patronage of the Tudor kings,
longest medieval cathedral in
Europe. The Perpendicular
tower
probably the most lovely of them.
at
(c.
15 12),
St
number of
churches in various parts of the country serve to represent

the style, but
crowning glory
its
is
without doubt King's
Cambridge (1446-15 15). It is beyond

question one of the world's most glorious buildings; there,
perpendicular tracery and fan vaulting combine with suCollege chapel
at
perb proportions of plan and elevation to produce an interior
which
surely unsurpassed.
is
Much of the
secular architecture
of the Gothic phase was
saw the transformation
of considerable importance, for
it
of the defensive
more or
Many
mestic house.
and
in secular
banqueting
castle into the
architectural
ecclesiastical
halls,
less
wholly do-
problems were similar
work; thus the windows of
guard rooms and so forth are closely
akin to those of churfhes, and similar vaiJting systems
were used for roofmg. But the

called for special treatment,
exteriors
and the
of the
details
castles
of defensive
lay-out and such features as machicolation, were greatly

673 Westminster Abbey. 1245-69
More French than
Westminster has flying buttresses

and a chevet at the east end.
Designed originally by French
architects
rebuilt
it
has been
much
to
Tudor
chapel, added in the early
sixteenth century.
originally
if
some of them
The
Crusaders.
as
of practical
brought back from the Near East by the

castles
were often of great beauty as well

By the sixteenth century, however,
efficiency.
the castle had virtually
times. This
photograph shows Henry
were
altered,
and extended from
Norman
developed by the Gothic builders, even
English,
VII's,
become
a thing of the past,
though
and similar buildings Gothic mannerisms surthe new Renaissance style penetrated under the
in colleges
vived
till
influence of Inigo Jones.

is
probably the
dates
from
hall stair
1638.
The
last
wholly Gothic building
of Christ Church, Oxford, which
GOTHIC IN BRITAIN
231
674 Ely Cathedral

Eleventh-fourteenth centuries.
The
Norman
original
crossing
of the nave and transept was

covered by an octagonal lantern,
seventy feet across, in the
fourteenth century.
This structure
is
mainly of
wood
and uses cross-bmding arches

with warped planes.
675 Canterbury Cathedral
The
Perpendicular central
tower
(c.
1495)
was added by the Tudors to the

original design of the French
architect William of Sens.
676, 678 Exeter Cathedral

Founeenth century. An impressive
example of the Decorated style,
11
has striking twin towers
over the transepts. The west

is completely dominated
by the enormous arched opening
fa<;ade
the
width of the nave.
full
In fact
it
simply the vaulted
is
nave brought to
filled in
sudden end,
with glass and held
in a deHcate lattice screen.
At
lower
level a solid stone
screen of figural sculpture
provides a break similar to that
of the narthex of
a basilica.
677 Hereford Cathedral

Eleventh-fourteenth centuries.
This church has a Decorated

central
tower added
Norman
nave and choir.

was completely restored
and refaced in the nineteenth
to the
It
century.
679 Gloucester Cathedral.

Cloisters. 1407
Fan vaulting was here first
The
used
on an
The
fan vaulting appears
extensive scale.
to be very complicated at
gbnce because
decorative ribbing
much importance
ribs
of the
first
the purely
is
given
as
as the central
vault.
The system
is
based
on
very wide arch with a flattened

top and
this
can be
distinguished both in the
window
openings and
cross-section of the cloisters.
679
MEDIEVAL
232
680 St George's chapel,
Windsor. 1460-1510
large west
window
with Perpendicular raullions and
traosoms
filled
with stained
of the Tudor penod.
glass
681 Westminster Hall

roof,
This
is
London. 1397-99
hammerbeam roof
a fine
example of
engineering in timber.
It
is
the
method of
building up
compound
beams out of comparatively

shon and strong
pieces of timber
to span a very
opening; in
wide
fact
it
is
form
of corbelling in timber.
682, 684 Ring's College chapel,
Cambridge. 1446-1515
Roof and interior.
In this building Perpendicular
tracery and fan vaulting
combine
with superb proportion of plan

to produce a magnificent interior.
It is undoubtedly the
example of this style
683
Henry VU's,
finest
in Britain.
chapel,
Westminster Abbey,
c.
1512
The
final
development of fan
vaulting was the dropping of
pendants from the centres
of the circular vaults in the

higher ceiling.
is
Here the structure
almost completely hidden
by the
elaborate carving and
piercing; in the
last
phase of
the Gothic arch the Gothic

principles are already
bemg
turned into a decorative form
much
closer to the
Renaissance than to Gothic.
685 Christ Church, Oxford.
Roof of Hall stair. 1638

An example of Gothic fan
vaulting executed at a date
when
the Renaissance style
was
already to the fore elsewhere.
Vitruviaii
man - drawing hy Leonardo da Vina
-t-
7^"^--4r'^^-r(4r^-^'.~^^'J;W*..^...i
J,.'
U''*^^' (.^(Mt-W *^ *-*
Uf
RENAISSANCE
li
-4
_J
l.
rH
1-
rtM p-^f
Jr^m*- Mti-'^^**AttZA^nÂ;nvm^ vw>
oiwirrf
Ul k
'^
<!.
Jvf-
n
B/rof
/JIvP.
aJTa 01 (*'
RENAISSANCE
234
686 Foundling Hospital,
Italy in the Fifteenth Century: the Early
Florence. 1419.
Renaissance
Filippo Brunelleschi
no direct
connection between classical
architecture and Brunellcschi's
Althougli there
loggia this
is
the 6rst true
is
Renaissance building in
The columns and

and
clear,
portion
line
is
spirit.
vaults are light
and the upper

clearly separated
by the
It is
him and
his fellow-artists order
order.
It
spaces,
artists'
687, 688 San Lorenzo,
was an
To
of
and not merely order but demonstrable, recognisable
art,
behind Renaissance
that Hes
this
is
essential basis
architects'
symmetrical planning and carefully proportioned
desire for
of the entablature.
of Renaissance perspective
significant that the invention
should be credited to Fihppo Brunelleschi (1377-1446).
and
their ideally patterned
town
plans, as also the
study of the anatomy of nature in general and
in particular,
man
of hght and dark, of movement, and of the
Florence, 1420.
relative proportions
Brunelleschi
Interior
The
is
and
plan, derived
by
gated
plan.
from the
basilica,
of the pans of bodies
as first investi-
the Greeks. t"he study of the interrelationship
of parts of objects (systematised
proportion) and of
as
traditional.
The feelmg of
spaciousness has
objects to other objects (systematised as perspective) pro-
been achieved, partly by the
vided the framework necessary for the Renaissance to
slender proportions of the
express itself in terms of ideals of beauty inherited
columns, partly by the arcade

line
of chapels acting
as extensions
to each of the aisles.
the ancients
and the
vironment; and
scientific
such was
as
from
examination of physical enas
important to architects
as
to artists.
Brunelleschi learnt design as a goldsmith and
is
known
have done painting and sculpture. Although he derived
to
from Tuscan Romanesque buildby studying Roman ruins and
his classicism primarily
ings,
he did add to
incorporated in his
work Roman
and planning. From

study of
an
Roman
this
this
of an
was a valued
past, a
if
not always
architect's training. In
1419 Bru-
architecture
essential part
techniques of construction
time on, until the recent
of the Foundling Hospital, a
nelleschi designed the loggia
harmoniously proportioned and detailed composition of

arches
on columns and terminal bays framed by
pilasters.
Similar elements appear in the church of San Lorenzo
(begun 1420), traditional
The columns,
in plan,
but serenely proportioned.
pilasters, arches, cornices, etc. are
of dark stone
are whitewashed. This
is
constructed
while the remaining surfaces
{pietra sererta),
a traditional Florentine
method,
used here to underline the ease and clarity of the interior.
The church of
S. Spirito
shows a great gain
(begun 1436)
is
solemnity from
in
very similar, but

its
modular
plan,
each portion of the plan being a multiple of the square
bay of the
trolled
689 Plan of
S. Spirito,
Florence, 1436.
aisles,
and the
vertical dimensions, too,
being con-
by the same measurement. Transepts and chancel

nave
are identical; the
is
an extended version of one of
these.
Brunelleschi
The
central plan, in
which
all
sections are in fact equal
Brunellcschi's S. Spirito retains
the Latin cross shape
and focus on to a
of a Gothic church, but the unit
of this demonstrable order which the Renaissance valued so
of composition
highly.
is
the Renaissance
The
central point,
the clearest expression
is
aesthetic pleasure to be
found
in such
an ar-
square.
rangement
is
partly an intellectual one, but the central
plan tends to bring wdth

geneity which
to
our age
is
as to
it
a quaUty
of complete homo-
apprehended sensually and appeals

the quattrocento. In the
little
as
orator^'
much
of Sta
Maria degli Angioli (begun 1434), Brunelleschi created the

first Renaissance central plan: a central octagon surrounded
by
a ring
of eight chapels. In 1444 Michelozzo began a
ten-sided addition to the church of SS. Annunziata, with

large niches opening off each side
the ruins of the
thus one of the
xxxvi Casas y Novoa
Roman
furst
temple of
plan derived
Mmcrva
from
Medica, and
examples of architectural borrowing
Baroque facade of Cathedral, Sanliago de Composte
'^
^^âgg
"^;;i?^
5!.*:
î .,JSU:^
^^S0^
'^Wf.
ITALY IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY
from
on
690
is
often characterised as the rebirth of
forms. Such a description hardly
and
nelleschi
although
his generation,
The
to their intentions.
Roman
all its parts,
The
are proportional to the
groimd
was Al-
by
peculiarly suited
his training
plan.
cism in precept and practice.
He
among
wrote,
known
English version
is
that
manuscript.
in
in
San
whitewashed
walls.
other things,
on painting, sculpture and architecture. The

was pubhshed in Florence in 1485, but written in
and known to many
as
underlined by the dark
classi-
treatises
1450S
and
cornice, etc..
against
of Renaissance
is
ease
interior,
stone of columns, arches,
with the writings and the monuments
to lay the foundations
of antiquity,
The
of the
Lorenzo,
mathematics, music and law, and by his
in the Uberal arts,
close acquaintance
vertical meastircments, for
clarity
man
harmony and
insunce, the height of columns.
whose work goes
architecture
achieving
spaciousness.
work of Bru-
may approximate
it
designer
first
towards a re-creation of
(1404-72), a
the
fits
church the same system
of proportion runs through
of classicism and the revival of antique
the antique spirit
S. Spirito, Florence, 1436.
Brunellescbi
In this
The Renaissance
berti
based
same prototype.
the
far
may have been
anriquity. Brunelleschi's church
237
The
last
the
best-
of James Leoni (1726). More
than any other quattrocento production, it contains the essence
of
and of early sixteenth-century architectural
fifteenth-
thought, and
remained the starting point for
it
own
treatises. Alberti's
vius, using
ing
it
it
with great
whenever
later
the
is
runs counter to his
it
many
book by Vitruindependence of mind and discard-
starting point
own
experience and
sense. Nevertheless, Alberti accepts Vitruvius's valuation
691 Sta Maria Novella,
of
Florence,
the architecture of ancient times: architecture as an art
began
in Asia,
Romans
the
imtil the
was developed
an
of
article
the designer of buildings
is
day.
this
derfull
from
From now
the mason's craft.
Art and Method,
is
this,
who, by
sure
And
to
from the
Florence,
The
use of classifical forms such
and two
substantially incomplete,
\\
But each of them
The Palazzo
and unstable
(half the
the
whole and
quarters for
its
by superimposed
arms, and stabhng.
on
the ratio
much
cxvii Michelangelo and Rainaldi: Palazzo
at
The
The few windows on

floor are high
about
Re-
first
:
Roman
the
family
the
groimd
and heavily
as
orders. Since the
with the Doric on the
ground
copied in succeeding
Rome
form
and the
the ctirious
first,
Corinthian on the second.
and linking the
del Senalore,
floor,
of Ionic on the
pUaster), their use
i :2,
Orders in very shallow
one above the other,

they were used on the Colosseum,
reUef,
narrower upper storey to the broad lower storey by the

insertion of scrolls, a device
by guardrooms,
and household proper lived

on the first and upper floors.
of Sta Maria Novella, proportioning
parts
men
barred- Alberti here used the
width of column or
facjade
cUmate
political
yard, surrounded
provided Alberti with a controUmg system for the measurements of the whole facade. For the same patron he completed the Gothic
town-
of the time. The ground

floor was a heavily defended
dimensions of the parts of the orders are interrelated by a
module
1446. Alberti
c.
great Renaissance
because of the violent
an important part of
Rucellai, designed
naissance use of a system so familiar to later centuries

fa(jade
later.
houses had to be semi-fortified
ere considerably altered
is
1446 for a rich Florentine merchant, shows the
of a
copied
692 Palazzo Rucellai,
Beauty comes from proportion-
of God and His universe.

most important works, two are addiand alterations of earlier structures, two were left
articulation
much
device
be able to
Alberti's five
architeaural history.
old.
all
bolise the perfection
since his time.
storey has been
both with Thought and
able,
which have ornamental value; the simplest

geometrical forms, the square and the circle, and their
immediately related shapes, are the most perfea and sym-
tions to
new with
The upper
and won-
as the orders
Of
of the older
problem was to
can with the greatest Beauty, be
...
Sciences.'
ing and, secondarily,
are parts
harmonise
scrolls, a
he must have a thorough Insight into the noblest
and most curious
doorways
connected with the lower by
adapted to the Uses of Mankind:
do
added to an
building, and the
writh
Invention, to devise, and, with Execution, to compleat
those works, which
small
window
on, for better or worse, the
call Architect,
a fai;ade
is
under pointed arches and the rose
the white-collared professional he remains to
'Him
This
The
al-
this treatise elevates
lowly connection
his
Battista Alberti
already existing Gothic church.
not seriously challenged
faith
middle of the eighteenth century. As he had
ready done for the painter, Alberti in
architect
and perfected by
in Greece
1456.
c.
Leone
XKxmi Juan
Bautista d: Toledo and
Juan de Herrera :
Escorial,
Madrid
RENAISSANCE
238
693 *Ideal City*, c. 1475.

Piero della Francesca (attrlb.)
nuy
This tempera painting
be
The
2 theatre design.
use of
makes the
perspective
parallel
Urbino.
Marches,
Gallery of the
one observation
picture valid for
point only.
Here we have
centrally
planned building on
a central
axis directly related to the
spectator through use of a
The
natural eye-level.
spec-
tator can identify himself
of the build-
with the
scale
ings and
become
of
a part
the picture.
694 Palazzo Medici- Riccardi,

Florence.
440-60.
Michelozzi
The
of the fifteenth-century
first
Renaissance Florentine palazzos.

Its
the medieval
from
descent
can be seen in the sobd
fortresses
stonework of the lower wall

and the living space confined to
the upper storeys.
The
rustication
is
graded in
each storey.
695 Palazzo Strozzi, Florence.
Begun by Benedetto da Malano,

1489
The
typically Renaissance
articulation of each part of a
building
The
is
here clearly shown.
straight lines
of
rows of windows
mark out the stages which
mount to a crowning cornice.
entablature and
The
use of
ornament is
rusticated stone as
also typical.
696 Palazzo
Florence.
Pitti,
Begun
1458.
Brunelleschi or Albert!
The middle portion of
this
palace has been attributed to
both Brunelleschi and Alberti.
From
1550 to 1859
residence of the
it
of Tuscany and during

period
it
was the
Grand Dukes
this
was greatly enlarged.
Typically Florentme in
its
use
of rusticated masonry and arched
window
recesses, the Palazzo
Pitti far
exceeds the other palaces
in
its
massiveness and scale.
219
697 San Francesco,

Rimini. 1450. Alberti
Albcrti's task was to modernise
an existing church, turning
it
monument to the local

Sigumondo Malatcsta,
into a
ruler,
and
his mistress
following
his
of humanists. Alberti clad the
Gothic church in
a layer
Roman
antiquity,
more tnJy
classical
than anything achieved by
the Renaissance hitherto.
of the church was
of
The
front
incomplete
left
and an enormous hemispherical

dome was to have covered the
east
end of the church.
698 San Francesco, Rinum.i4S0.

Alberti
Side wall.
Along the
flank wall, Alberti
arranged a
series
of arches and
contammg
recesses
the
sarcophagi of scholars and poets
prominent
in the
Francesco,
7*30 ^^11
<^99i
Ducal court.
Rimini. 1450.
Alberti
Arch and column

These
careful use
details.
show
details
of
Alberti's
classical
motifs in his
architectural detailing.
701 Sant'Andrea, Mantua. 1470.

Alberti
This
is
deliberately based
the classical
Roman
on
temple front,
with columns, entablature
and pediment. The columns are

changed mto
pilasters,
appropriate to the character of the

wall.
arch
The
is
single-bay triumphal
reminiscent of the
Arch of
Titus.
RENAISSANCE
240
702 SaiiC*Andrca, Mantua. 1470.

Albert!
The
side walls
have been
broken by recessed chapels, but
no
there are
to take
Roman
the
side aisles
away from
the expanse ot
with
hall
roof and coffered
its
barrel
ceiling.
703. 704 San Sebastiano,

Mantua. 1460.
Albert!
Exterior and plan.
The
is
form of San Sebastiano
basic
square and shows clearly
the porportion
so
much
in
which appears
2,
Renaissance building.
(The width of the chapels

equals half one of the sides of
the square.)
It
IS
the
first
Renaissance church
to be designed
cross plan.
been well
on the Greek
The
building has not
preser\'ed.
705 Church of the Certosa,

Pavia. 1481.
Giovanni Antonio
Amadeo, one of the
first
Renaissance architects to
appear in northern
gave
Amadeo
his
Italy,
churches an elaborate
veneer of Renaissance
ornament which was

soon imitated by architects
in
Germany and
France.
241
706 Florence Cathedral.
Begun
1296, finished 146X
This cathedral took so long to

build that
it
spanned the transition
from Gothic to Renaissance.

The body of the church
shows the calm and spacious
Gothic style typical of Tuscany:
the
dome, by the Renaissance
architect Brunelleschi,
is
Gothic in form but Renaissance

in detail.
707 Francesco di Giorgio:

study of proportion, c. 1482
One
of several studies
of proportion in an architectural
treatise
by
di Giorgio.
Ideal proportion can be taken
from the human body and

appUed to architecture.
This follows the philosophical
conception of man being the centre

of creation and all else
being in
harmony with him.
708, 710 Florence Cathedral
dome. 1420-34.
Brunelleschi
Sectional
and construction
diagram.
dome is oval and

was designed in the medieval
maimer with an inner and outer
shell, to be erected without
Brunelleschi's
scaffolding.
It is
a great feat
of
construction as well as design and
was thought to be impossible

to erect.
709 Francesco di Giorgio:

capital with head
of man c. 1482
Another study from
column
di Giorgio's treatise
There
is
on the words
(head).
709
on proportion.
scholarly punning
'capital'
and
'capita*
RENAISSANCE
242
711 Plan of Sta Maria delle
bays.
them without regard to the spacing of the lower

The first Renaissance architects to appear in northern
designed in the Gothic style by
Italy
were
Giovanni and Guinifortc
Antonio Amadeo, whose CoUeoni Chapel
spacing
Grazie, Milan. 1472-85

This Milanese church was
and Bramante
latet
Solari,
added
1440s and range from Giovanni
in the
and Church of the Certosa
(1470)
the choir and chancel in singular
bom
ticularly rich anthologies
juxtaposition.
became
fruitful
Bergamo
in
Pa via (1481) are par-
in
of Renaissance ornament and soon
hunting-grounds for designers from France
who
and Germany, to Donato Bramante
is
one of the
of Renaissance architeaure.
greatest figures
Italy in the Sixteenth Century:
High Renaissance and Mannerism

712, 713 Tempietto,
With Bramante
Rome,
Begun 1503.
Donato Bramante
E.\terior
A
in
and
Montorio which
Roman
interprets
tects.
More
who
died thirty years before the
it
first
High Renaissance
Bramante was
between pagan past
bom in
Urbino and was
a successful painter
before he turned to architecture.
and modern Christianity.

This
is
a perfect
Alberti thought
church should
shape, in the
example of what
in
Christian
be, in circular
dome which
free-standing
its
which
raises
he knew
who worked
painter
San Francesco in Rimini, and whose painted architecfirmly Albertian.
are
settings
tural
could
likely that
It is
Umbrian
Piero deUa Francesca, the
In
Bramante
1485
designed the east portion of Sta Maria delle Grazie in
elevate the thoughts, and in the
out of
the fruit of Alberti's efforts,
is
building was designed.
Renaissance saw no essential
conflict
particularly,
circular
temple.
The
High Re-
into the
of utterly harmonious architecture
based on the research and performance of quattrocento archi-
plan.
chapel in the cloisters of St Peter
the ancient
we move
(1444-1514)
naissance, a brief period
Milan, a Gothic church begun by Giovanni and Guiniforte
it
surroundings.
on
Solari in 1472. In plan he based himself
Sebastiano, and there
Alberti's
something Albertian
is
San
about
also
the sharp detailing that unambiguously defines the internal
To move from the
space.
and chancel
is
Gothic nave into Bramante's choir
to recapture
something of the excitement the
building must have caused in
was
to
Milan
in
in the 1480s
know more
about
the
between him and Bramante,
day. Leonardo da Vinci
its
and
and one would wish
90s,
relationship
that
developed
six years his senior. Certainly
Leonardo was much concerned with architectural problems.
man
His drawing of a
in a square
and a
circle
is
an inter-
pretation of Vitruvius's influential passage relating the pro-
portions of the
During
human figure to
his stay in
the proportions of temples.
Milan, Leonardo
made
several sketches
which hint
for centrally planned churches
at
Bramante's
subsequent masterpiece, his design for the church of St

Peter's in
In
Rome.
1499 the invading forces of Louis XII of France
captured Milan. Leonardo went
mante went
to
home
Rome. There he
Bra-
to Florence;
studied ancient ruins,
and there he designed the most important buildings of the
High
way
Renaissance. This phase belongs to
with one significant difference

ised
Rome,
in
the
that the early Renaissance belongs to Florence, but
great artists and
herself
Rome
attracted
and patron-
architects; she did not bear
phases of the Renaissance. In the fifteenth century

efforts
them
and both statements remain true for subsequent

had been made to rescue
Rome from
some
her medieval
impoverishment, and the rebuilding of St Peter's was considered. Albcrti played
some
part in both; the courtyard
of the Palazzo Venezia (begun 1455),

him, must have been influenced by
if
not designed by
his spirit.
This and other
palace buildings, such as the Cancelleria (1486-98; often,

in defiance
of
its
dates, attributed to
swallows that herald the

713
summer of
the
Bramante), arc the
High Renaissance.
ITALY IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
243
Rome.
714, 716 Tempietio,
Begun
Bramante
1503.
Dome
and cornice.
7IS St Peter's. Rome.

Bramante's plan. 1506
The original plan passed by
Pope Jubus II was never executed.
The symbol of the cross
combines with the symbohsm of
centralised geometry.
The dominatmg Greek cross

with its dome is accompanied by
small repetitions of the same
in the diagonal axes.
6gure
The whole
into a large square
fits
from which the four
apses project.
Rome.
717 St Peter's,
1506-1626
Aenal view.
The work of many architects,

from Bramante in 1506
who
to Bernini,
finally erected in
1667 the entrance piazza
surrounded by 284 columns.

It
incorporates designs
by Sangallo, Raphael, Peruzzi,

Michelangelo, Fontana, Vignola
who added
and Madema,
the
rather inept long nave to
Michelangelo's central plan.
But despite the
resulting
somewhat confused plan
it
is
undoubtedly one of the most

impressive buildings in the world,
most
certainly the
important building of the period.
718 St Peter's, Rome.

1506-1626
West view.
This photograph indicates
what Michelangelo's church

would have looked like had
Madema's nave not been added.
Seen without Madema's
fa(;ade
its
massiveness and fluid
outline has an almost sculptural

quality as if
in
was hewn
it
one piece from some gigantic
rock.
719 Raphael. 'The Marriage

of the Virgin'. 1504.
Brera, Milan.
This painting
contemporary
is
Tempietto by Bramante,
which was greatly admired for
writh the
its
simplicity and perfection.
Raphael's painted church shows

generation's interest in the
his
central plan but lacks Bramante's

feeling for the solemnity
of
Roman
classicism.
720 St Peter's, Rome

of dome.
The construction of the present
dome was planned by
Interior
Michelangelo,
who
set
himself
the problem of supporting
piers
wall.
With
the
719
it
from the ground on four

rather than on a circular
250
feet
dome
is
its
lantern
452 feet in height.
RENAISSANCE
244
721 Raphael, School of

Athens*. 1511.
Vatican Palace.
Bramanlc, who was commissioned
to rebuild St Peter's in
Rome,
designed a building involving a

central plan.
Nine years before
his death
the foundation stone was laid, and
although the crossing picn
and arches had been constructed

in the next thirty years there
was much
altering of his original
design.
Raphael's setting for the great
philosophers of antiquity
is
closely related to Bramantc's
Arms forming
intentions.
Greek
large
is
cross
meet under a
dome. The
architecture
severe, with statues
and massive coffering

setting off" the simplicity
structural
722 St Peter's,
1506-1626
Rome.
View from east.

Madema's fa<âde
cast
of the
framework.
(1606-12) at the
end of the lengthened
nave serves to obscure the
effect
of the dome.
722
Bramantc's Tempietto, a
chapel in the cloisters of
little
An
original
it
at
Montorio, was begun in 1503.
St Peter in
245
interpretation of the ancient circular temple,
is
723 Palazzo Vidoni Cafiarelli.

Rome. c. 1515-20. Raphael
The two-storey pabzzo,
once
an act of homage to the great past and, in its function and

symbohsm, a Christian monument. The Renaissance saw no
between the pagan
conflia
essential
Madonna
Christianity: Botticelli's
he designed another, in Rorence,

for the
Pandolhni fanuly.
This one
the sister of his Venus;
is
Michelangelo's Christ of the Last Judgement
of Apollo and Hercules;
appealed to Raphael, since
and modern
past
is
a s)Tithesis
in Raphael's frescoes
The School
as in the
must have
original design,
Rome,
is
similar to his
own
in
the fa(;adc echoing the
importance of the 'piano nobile'.
of Athens and the Disputa, Plato and Aristotle, and Christ
and His
apostles face each other across the papal apartment.
Contemporaries hailed the Tempietto

capable of holding
own
its
the ancients. Small in
size, it is
could be enlarged without
Pope Juhus
as
masterpiece
against the great buildings of
monumental
in scale
and
of coherence.
loss
some of the credit

High Renaissance on
(1503-13) should have
II
for the magnificent crearions of the
account of his enthusiastic patronage of Bramante, Mi-
He
chelangelo and Raphael.

greatest
of St
entrusted Bramante with the
commission Chrisrianity had
Peter's.
It
almost goes without saving that Bramante's
design should have involved a central plan.
Combining
MU44H
planning ideas sketched by Leonardo with styUsric ele-
ments from Alberri,
of the High Renaissance. The
tions
is
the fullest expression of the aspira-
it is
a square. Inscribed in
it
form of
basic
the plan
and projecting beyond
it
dome. Between
these
arms He smaller Greek
crosses
diag-
onally beyond them, in the four comers of the square,

stand four towers. These elements coalesce to
j.iiL'iiiiii'iMiiiUiiAiUHAiiU^
are
the arms of a great Greek cross, meeting under a large
form one
724 Palazzo Farnese,

1534-45.
Antonio da Sangallo and
Michelangelo
A patnaan family's aty house
with coat of arms in the centre.
Its dignified opulence later became
the accepted style m Europe
tor clubs and banks.
The ground floor windows are
Rome.
to offer: the rebuilding
^-t-'^-rl
'g
larger than in the past,
but this floor was

stables,
outdoor
servants only.
still
offices
occupied by
and
The top
storey
^nd entrance were designed
by Michelangelo.
composition without losing their integrity. Similarly Bramante's elevation shows a building divided vertically into
is broken down into humanly
The crown of the whole composition was
725 Plan of Villa
Rome.
c.
storeys; the vast building
The
accessible units.
Renaissance
dome
to be a semi-spherical
with
similar to that
of the Pantheon,
on a uniform ring of columns. The foundation

stone was laid in 1506, and work proceeded swiftly, but
resting
died in 15 14, although the crossing piers
and arches had been constructed, there followed about
What
much
of
years
redesigning
shown
like
gave
his ancient philosophers in
One
as
and
Httle
the interior of Bramante's cathedral
been
is
progress.
Raphael
by
importance: the house of Raphael
the painter in 1517).
was
It
consisted of
two
sto-
and massive, and
acted,
aesthetically as w-cU as physically, as a base for the
upper
storey with
its
rusticated
columns, pedimented windows and bal-
Here we meet for the
piano nobile, the
floor
first
first
time the concept of the
which contains the most im-
portant
rooms and
tance.*
This invention was soon imitated,
is
given the greatest aesthetic impor-
by Raphael
himself in the Palazzo Vidoni CaffareUi (c 1515-20), and
by Renaissance
architects
everywhere.
Raphael was responsible for other buildings, such

little
'in its
Greek
cross
of
its
* Throughout,
as the
church of Sant'Eligio degli Orefici which
pure whiteness,
clarity
Gardens were treated formally,

in
geometric shapes,
rather hke outdoor extensions
of
The
villa itself,
with circular
courtyard and apsed and niched
rooms,
is
reminiscent of
might have
best in the architectural setting
historical
the lower
ustrades.
be planned
Roman
baths.
726 Villa Madama, Rome,

1516. Raphael
c.
Painted decoration was used
by the anaent
Romans. Raphael studied it in
detail, and the decoration of the
e.xtensively
of great
reys:
villas to
garden lay-out.
the grandeur of
The School of Athens.

domestic buildmg by Bramante must be mentioned
(acquired
of the great
the houses.
when Bramante
thirty
first
Madama,
1516. Raphael
its
austerity
of forms, and the abstract
geometrical scheme epitomises the reUgious

the
first
floor or storey
is
that
above ground
level.
Villa
Madama
is
taken directly
trom Nero's 'Golden House*,

the remains of which had been
discovered below ground. For
this
reason this type of decoration
was known as 'Grottesche', and

was used extensively.
RENAISSANCE
246
727. 728 Laurentian Library,

Florence, Begun 1524.
Michelangelo
Interior, section
The Ubrary
and plan.
long and
is
and narrow.
Instead of a Renaissance balance
between the two rooms there

is
a deliberate contrast
heightened by the different
levels.
Decorative elements are used

in an entirely
ing-and-garden lay-out, formally planned and embodying
comparatively low; the anteroom

is tall
(if the Renaissance' (Wittkowcr), and the Villa

Madania on the Monte Mario near the Vatican only a
small part of what should have been the first great biiild-
feeling
new way.
some of Raphael's considerable archaeological knowledge.

CHmaxcs arc brief; complete harmony may end in bore-
dom.
Political events
in
were soon
Italy
to
shatter the
Rome, but even bewere turning away from harmony as
shining image of High Renaissance

fore that the arts
an
The period
ideal.
The coupled columns in the anteroom (sec 730) do not support
as the
the cornice for instance.
recently,
that followed used to be described
Mannerism,
labelled
it
great interest, not least because
of expression are in some
has been studied with
defming
nerism
it
briefly.
is first
way
Perhaps the best
movement by
Man-
to describe
in negative terms, as a denial
of the
The
characteristics.
positive corollary of this
qualities
many of
of the High Renaissance by means of inverting

its
modes
conditions and
its
comparable with our own.
cases
not possible to do justice to a complex
It is
More
beginning of a long process of cultural decay.
that this
is
attitude w-as consciously adopted in order to create an art
more
expressive and personal, that brought with
dom
from
classical
investigation
resulting
free-
it
canons and bred inventiveness. The
means
expressive
into
led
to
greater awareness of the affective potentiaUtics of space, of

the quality of surfaces, of light and dark
(all
echoed
in the
painting of the period), that provides the basis for seven-
teenth-century
communication. Freedom
artistic
dangerous to the creative
much Mannerist work
and there
artist,
more than
is little
the idiosyncratic creations of one
nerist architecture
New
Sacristy
this
though
sought self-protec-
architects
Generally speaking, there was a retreat from fundamental,
Michelangelo designed
capricious, while
could become the
tion in discipline.
the church
in
of San Lorenzo.
be
that
turned into a dry, impersonal exercise
in classical design, as
The
may
no doubt
of another. Towards the end of the century Man-
cliche
729 Medici chapel, Florence.

1521-34. Michelangelo
artist
is
and
timeless principles of design, such as clarity
of
stability
structure, subjugation
visible
of ornament to struc-
building to correspond with

Brunelleschi's Old
same church. Here
Sacristy in the
is
the
first
manifestation of Mannerism,
and the shaping of environment to accord with man's
ture,
natural rcquircnicnts.
The new freedom could be used for

two outstanding exam-
frivolous and for serious ends, and
the interior treated sculpturally
may
serve as illustrations of both categories
the vesti-
with the main features
ples
being the tombs of Giuhano
bule and Ubrary of the monastery of San Lorenzo in Flor-
de'
Medici (seen here) and Lorenzo
ence,
by
that
most
serious
of all
artists,
Michelangelo (1475-
dc' Medici.
The recumbent nudes under
1564),
and the Duke of Mantua's pleasure-house, the Pa-
Te
near Mailtua, designed
the sculptured figure of
lazzo del
represent
assistant Giulio
Giuhano
Night and Day.
Romano
by Raphael's
chief
(1492 or 1499-1546).
Michelangelo designed the Laurentian Library in 1542.

It
had
from
to
fit
into a long wing,
a vestibule
on
and
a lower level.
it
had to be reached
The long shape of
the
library being given, Michelangelo decided to underline
dramatically
by prefacing
it
the anteroom: square in plan

all
the
more emphatically
it
with the contrasting form of
and uncomfortably
vertical for being ht
tall,
and
by windows
near the ceiling (Michelangelo had intended to use roof

lights).
Its
walls are treated in storeys, with niches and
decorative panels suggesting windows, and columns rising
from what could be the
first
floor, i.e. the piano iiohilv.
But the niches are not windows, and
their
detailing
is
designed to contradict the conventional equilibrium of pilasters
and pediments; the columns arc recessed into the
247
730 Laurentian Library

of anteroom.
Interior
Columm
and corbels have no
functional significance whatever.
They
But
are recessed into the wall.
this
IS
Mannerism
subhnic form,
in a
highly
artificial
system upheld by the severest

discipline.
731 Palazzo del Te, Mantua.

1526-1531. Giulio Romano
Classical
Mannerism appUed
to the
great palazzo.
The house comprises four long

low wings surrounding a court, and
with
garden
its
it
suggests
more open
the beginning of a
ground
plan.
Classical
canons have been flouted,
pediments on
for instance baseless
the court side, and
on
the alteration of the
the garden
a, b, c,
motif to bring forward the three

centre bays. Rustication,
instead of denoting structural
strength as in the fortress-palazzo,

is
used
as
background ornament
behind the order.
RENAISSANCE
248
732 Palazzo del Te, Mantua.
carr)'
Detail of courtyard.
The
are apparent
large,
on
this
the building; the floor space
and
strange
absence of logic and the
eartfabound quality of the building
The
wall in denial of their aesthetic function of appearing to
Romano
1526-31.
courtyard wall.
weighty keystones,
comparatively harmonious, but here too
itself is
the diifcrent sized block stones and
found the quaint device
columns and the pointless

niches, arched and square,
architecture that
arc
all
Above
ing.
classical order.
wc
of a wall
surface
infringements of the
by
filled
hardly notice
though
as
is
from subsequent
(so faiiuliar to us
of treating the inner
it)
were the outside of a build-
it
dado the sanic height
(not fmished
stairs
flow heavily from the library door. The
until 1552) that
hbrary
almost
is
form of
entirely original
reading desks
as the
(which thus provide the visual base) are windows with
and cornices, and above them, panels suggest-
architraves
ing mezzanine windows, flanked by

the anteroom and hbrary together
pilasters.
is
The
effect
of
strange and disquiet-
and unaccommodating.
ing, austere
The Palazzo dclTe,
built
between 1526 and 1531,
consists
of four long, low wings forming a square court. The

earthbound quahty of the house
of surprisingly large
come
keystones that
is
such
details,
emphasised by the use
as
enormously weighty
into conflict with pediments
and other
adjacent items, and oversized fireplaces. Rustication
is
used
almost everywhere with wild illogicahty, so that a surface

treatment conceived to suggest strength comes to suggest
733 Palazzo del Te, Mantua
Main entrance.
This triple archway leads to the
courtyard,
its
smooth facade
belying the irregularity of the

It
is
like
an unadorned
decay and unrehabihty. In the Doric entablature on one

side
of the court, some of the triglyphs have sUpped a
few inches downwards

minent. There are
though disintegration was im-
as
columns of the same order
difiierent sized
rest.
Roman
temple.
placed side by side, baseless pediments, and

similar infringements
den
is
of
classical
more
side demonstrates a
canons.
The
many
other
elegant gar-
Mannerism.
sophisticated
It
based on the repetition of a design motif found through-
out the history of man, but particularly favoured by the

Renaissance (we have seen
used
frequently)
it
small, a large
more
motif, or,
effect
of
and
it
unit
consisting
a small element, often called the 'a
obscurely, the 'rhythmic travee
facade arises
this
already in Alberti; Bramante
the three-part
from
of a
b
the architect's refusal to
repeat the motif: he gives the impression of repeating
but changes
a'
But the
it,
continually, and thus, so to speak, forces
it
the various sections of the faijade out of step with each

other.
The
three centre bays of the facâde
larger
734 Palazzo del Ti, Mantua
fai;ade,
it
motifs:
it is
more or
think of
it
as
working
in
It is
as the creations
a period
better, perhaps, to
style,
rooms, for example.
(originally offices,
now
forming three
of a
by Romano and
paintings arc
sides
its
of collapsing conventions.
square doors in high, vaulted
The ornaments and
and of
of differing person-
Other outstanding Mannerist buildings are

a
much
plane.
playful, obvious or latent;
an attitude rather than a
varying productions
alities
to project
on the same
less
tends always to be disquieting.
but here too there
are details of illogicahty - the short
a'
Mannerism can be sober or
Interior.
The rooms of the palace have been

executed with more
symmetry of plan than the
'a
seem
of the side-bays because of the use of
far in front
museum)
Vasari's Uffizi
in Florence (1550-74),
street-like court
and using simplified
his pupils.
classical
elements in shallow,
courtyard of the Palazzo

rustication,
Pitti,
brittle
forms; Ammanati's
Florence (1558-70), where
changing from storey to storey, impartially
covers walls and colunms; Vignola's Villa Farnesc
at
Ca-
prarola (1547-59), * pentagonal castle around a circular

court, approached
by elaborate
steps
rated internally in a sub-Raphael

chitect's Villa Giulia near
Rome
and ramps and deco-
manner; the same
(1550-53), with
its
ar-
elaborate
court and garden buildings; and Pierro Ligorio's Logetta
of the Casino of Pius IV
in the Vatican gardens (1560-61),
249
735 Villa Famese
at
CapraroU.
1547-59. Giacomo da Vignola

A Mannerist fantasy.
pentagonal fortress built round
a circular court with, outside,

a complicated system of
and
The
of
flights
ramps
steps.
walls of the inner court are
decorated with balconies and

figures inside niches.
IVs
Rome.
736 Courtyard of Pius
Casino, Vatican gardens,
1560-61
Designed by Pierro Ligorio, this
small paved courtyard is
simple in plan, but the loggetta on
the right
Mannerist in
is
its
addition of irrelevant relief

sculpture to the adjoining walls.
737 Jacopo da Pontormo,

'Descent from the Cross',
1525
Church of
c.
Sta FeUcita. Florence.
This deposition by the Florentine
Mannerist painter shows

the development in pamting
which
runs parallel to the
Maimerism which influenced

architectiue.
With
of movement
fluidity
its
and ambiguity of space it contrasts

sharply with the classicism of,
for
example, Raphael's
"School of Athens' (721)-
738 Uffizi court, Florence.

1550-74. Giorgio Vasari
Mannerism was concerned
much with
the treatment of space.
These two
tall
down
the eye
narrow
wings lead
the length of the
court, through the
pierced loggia to the
The
contrast
Ughtness
in
is
Amo beyond.
between mass and
dehberate, and
the original design,
first
floor
where the
of the loggia
was colonnaded,
marked.
it
was even more

RENAISSANCE
250
739 Palazzo Bevilacqua,

Verona. 1530.
Micbcle Sanmicheli
One
ot the palaces
simple enough in form, but almost covered with discordant relief sculpture.
This same period saw Michelangelo's greatest architec-
which
SanmichcU built m Venice and

Verona under the Mannerist
influence
tural achievements, the laying-out
of Rome.
Rome
pidogho
in
work on
St Peter's (from 1545).
of Mannerism
of the Piazza
Cam-
del
(from 1536) and the continuation of
These belong to the world
some of their details, but in other respects

Baroque (as does Michelangelo's Last Juilt>-
in
foreshadow the
The
perspective effect of the tra-
piazza,
and the consideration of the
mait fresco, 1536-41).
pezium plan of the
changing views of buildings and sculpture on the piazza

as
one mounts the ramp leading up to
concentrated plan of St Peter's,
dome and
and energetic
lantern
it
the sculptural,
meandering outhnc
its
prepare
ground
the
for
Bernini and the High Baroque. Highly original in general
form
well
as
as in detail (notice particularly the use
two or more
giant order, running through

740 Teatro Olimpico, Viccnza.
on the piazza and on
Begun
anguished note of
1580.
Andrea Palladio and Vicenzo

Scamozzi
The seating was like 3 classical
Roman
On
No
whole
the
the stage a permanent scene
is
works and sound
instead a
mention has
would be
been made of Venice, but.
so far
the prototype for
and opera houses
was
Bellini, Giorgione, Titian,
Veronese and Tintoretto were
my
all
theatres
With
to be found lacking in fme architecture.
her econo-
based on Oriental trade and her oUgarchical republic,
Venice
in
many
from
respects stood aside
the rest of Italy,
since.
but could not
fail
of
dispersal
north.
The
parochial,
artists
sack of
and
all
the creative activity
Rome
in
1527 resulted in a
architects,
many of whom
architecture of Venice, until then
now
it
and more joyous
into a richer
Jacopo Sansovino (1486-1570) arrived
work
1527 to
as
travelled
somewhat
High Renaissance
received the imprint of
grandeur and converted

style.
by
to be affected
The
further south.
in
Venice
This
is
no longer
getta at the foot
art
of
highly organised kind.
The
figures
have been made
room by
illusionist
trades,
tricks.
In
light
its
it
has the additional aim of
representing to the
owner and
villa
countryside.
cheli (1484- 1 559) also
came
his
shadow
set
from Rome
to Venice
but he had been born in the Veneto,
guests the sort of idyllic pastoral
of the
deep mouldings and arches to
against
these arc the counterpart of Titian's painting. Sanmi-
way
as stylised as "Grottesche,' but
is
with Venetian sensuality: coloured
to
various
it
life
man monu mentality
marbles, sculpture in relief and free-standing, lacy balus-
appear part of
the
of the tower of San Marco (1537-40) and

Marco (1532-54), he fused Ro-
the adjacent library of San
just wall
decoration but pictorial
(e.g.
Palazzo Corner della Ca' Grande, 1532), and in the Lo-
Maser
Frescoes of Veronese.
in
He gave High
sculptor and architect.
Renaissance form to the traditional Venetian palaces

741 Interior of Villa Giacomelli
at
it
surprising if the city and state that produced
in.
built in false perspective.

It
St Peter's), these buildings lack the
his earher
note of vigour which was echoed by the next century.
or Greek theatre, arranged
a tiered horseshoe,
in
roofed
of a
both
storeys,
he was placed in charge of
from then on
the carUest of
Venetian
all
built a fine series
them much
at
fortifications,
fortified,
designed some noble palaces for the
(1530),
among which
is
the
and
of city gates for Verona
more
the later ones
symbolical than functional in their massivcness.
Venice,
in 1527,
Verona. In 1535
cities
also
of Verona and
Palazzo Bevilacqua,
particularly important for
He
Verona
introduction of
its
Mannerist tendencies into north Itahan architecture.
The most important
architect
sixteenth century, however,

for the quality
is
of his work but
his buildings, his treatise
and
of northern
Andrea
Italy in the
Palladio, not only
also for the influence

his
countries and other centuries. Palladio (1508-80)

respects Albcrti's successor: he too
of
classical learning
ture
in
particular,
which
drawings had on other
was a
and of Vitruvius and

and he too leavened
is
in
many
serious student
Roman
his
architec-
antiquarian
knowledge with
practical intelligence
work
kinds of buildings
includes
all
and
sensibility.
town
the basilica in Vicenza in 1545, clothing the medieval

hall
with a two-storey
known
sometimes
is
and
II
tecture
in
is
arcading
a'
motif
domestic, both
motif
this
as a result
as palaces
and
o(
villas
His larger churches, San Giorgio
ecclesiastical.
giore and
'a
as the 'Pilladian
of it)
his frequent use
of
frill
His
remodelled
civic (he
Mag-
aji
742 Palazzo Massimi, Rome.

Begun 1535. Baldassare Peruzzi
The architect plays otT flatness
against curve and hollow,
small scale against larger scale,
light
elements against heavy,
in a
way
mock
that seems to
the classical appearance of
ground
the
storey.
Redentore, are in Venice; his domestic; archi-
and around Vicenza. The fame of
and country houses
such that
is
has tended to
it
town
his
overshadow
that of his churches, but these
were so highly regarded by
of Venetian
architects as to inhibit the
later generations
spread of Baroque expressionism there, and they greatly
impressed the Neo-classicists of the eighteenth century.
Their facades are adaptations of what Palladio believed
Roman
was an ancient
way he
orders and pediments. In this
more
or
device, the interpenetration of
the researches of Alberti, and if there

nerist about the very coolness of
the passionate desire to
two
continued
something Man-
is
his designs
(disguising
One of
Palladio's larger churches,
fully the architecture

his studies), Pal-
Michelangelo, and unlike any other architect of
much
the middle of the sixteenth century, stands as
time
as in
it,
architects (most
who
by him
outside Italy)
Behind
his
outside
reaching back to Alberti and to antiquity,
and forward to the legions of
were
were
Palladio's churches
highly regarded by generations of
although
his
11
his
to be guided
of them
fame
mainly on
rests
country houses.
Redentore
side chapels
his
Venice.
1577-92. Palladio
Venetian architects,
comprehend
of the ancients that must have impelled

ladio, like
n Redentore,
743
is
as
cruciform with
with all
his buildings,
there are the principal and

subsidiary orders and pediments
used
on the
fatâde.
in the future.
domestic buildings, even more than behind
his churches, lay his archaeological studies. In so far as he-
in his reading
had to interpret the evidence he collected
and
travels,
he tended inevitably to give them original
six-
teenth-century quaHties, but no one in his time, nor for
some time
Roman
after
him, had
translating
modem
that
design.
as
profound an understanding of
more important,
design, nor,
fme
as
gift
for
understanding into a practical basis for
Thus the
many ways
Roman town house, as shown,
of a Roman house he drew for
palaces are similar in
to his reconstruction of the

for example, in the plan
Daniele Barbaro's edition of Vitruvius.
his friend
lazzo Chiericari (1550) has
superimposed open colon-
its
Romans had
nades because Palladio beHeved that the
rounded
their squares
The Pa-
with such covered walks. His
main
usually have temple fronts framing their
sur-
villas
entrances,
projecting as porticoes or flush with the fa(;ade (again, so

familiar a feature that one takes
its
existence for granted,
but the product of Palladio's decision that
Roman
design must have been derived ultimately
house design). The most famous of these
Capra
(or
Rotonda, 1567) on
villas is
a hill near
temple
from Roman
the Villa
Vicenza. This
has a remarkable central plan, so harmonious that one
almost omits to question the necessity for the four porticoes
and
winged
flights
villas in
of
steps.
which
More
however, are the
typical,
Palladio gives intelligent and
mental form to complex functions. The
weekend
retreats
and farm houses to
chant owners, and
and from
it
is
clear
their
from the
Palladio's writings that he
villas
monu-
were both
wealthy mer-
existing buildings
gave careful consid-
eration to the practical problems this duality raised.
Hence
the noble, sometimes richly decorated, always symmetrically
planned houses, and hence the extensive low wings
of many of them, sweeping symmetrically away from the
744 San Zaccaria, Venice.

1458-1515. Pietro Lombardo
Lombardo was one of a family of
architects
who worked
Venice. This church
of
his early
shows
traces
Renaissance
in
is
work and
in
an example
still
of medieval planning.
forms appeared
Venice than they did
later
in Florence.
RENAISSANCE
352
745 Villa Capra (or Rotonda)
Begun
near Vicenza.
1567.
Palladio
Palladio always designed his villas
with reference to their setting.

This one on
to
a hill is built
command views from

The
sides.
flight
each of its
of steps and
temple front are taken from
Roman
ancient
context
They
building, but their
entirely original.
is
arc not used merely as a
single
frontage, as in
English Palladian, but repeat

four
on
all
sides.
746 Palazzo Chiericati,

Vicenza. 1550. Palladio
Palladio introduced
the coloimaded loggia into the
palazzo facade, a link between the
house and the outside.
He
based
ancient
it
on researches into
Roman
architecture,
domestic
from which he
thought their temple architecture

derived.
The
coolness and serenity
are offset
by the sculptures on the

theme of
roof, a favourite
Palladio's, seen to great effect
against a Mediterranean sky.
74*
THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY OUTSIDE ITALY
main approach
accommodate
to
horses, stores, etc.
Pal-
and high ideaUsm
ladio designed these houses with the care
253
747 Plan of Villa Capra,

near Vicenza. Begun 1567.
Palladio
architects
had previously reserved for churches. Not only
within their simple forms are they laid out symmetrically
(sometimes symmetrically about both axes), but the proportions of each
by
are calculated
on
mathe-
a simple
rooms of
the house are
these ratios. 'Those proportional relation-
which other
ships
essentially
as a cube.
Palladio brought to domestic

architecture the idcaUsm that his
room
matical ratio, and the different

interrelated
The house was designed
had harnessed for the two
architects
predecessors had brought to
church design. Internal
symmetry
houses, which
as external
to his
be cubic or
at least
as
is
well
common
also tend to
very compact.
dimensions of a facade or the three dimensions of a single
room were employed by him

Wittkower,
ture' (R.
to integrate a
whole
Humanism, London 1949, p. 113).

Vinccnzo Scamozzi (1552-1616),
struc-
Age of
Architectural Principles in the
Palladio's pupil, carried
his master's classicising style into the seventeenth century.
His book Idea
del' Arcliitettura
with Palladio's Quattro

their designs to the
tects
and patrons
drawing
all
Genoa and Milan
Universale (1615), together
brought
Libri di Architettura (1570),
and
tables
of archi-
libraries
New
over Europe and in the
World.
flourished architecturally in the six-
teenth century, particularly at the hands of Galeazzo Alessi
who knew Roman
(1512-72),
ture at
first
hand and
sixteenth-century architec-
1569-1652
some fme
built
He
also designed the centrally
ria
di
748 San Fedele, IViilan.

Pellegrino Tibaldi.
palaces in both
cities.
planned church of Sta
Ma-
Carignano, Genoa (designed 1552, begun 1577),
This fa(;ade
It
good example of
is
northern ItaUan
late
Marmerism.
represents a last stage
before the arrival of the Baroque,
basing himself on Bramante's plan for St Peter's. Pellegrino

Tibaldi's facâde of San Fedele in
of northern
Italian late
Httle boring,
Milan
Mannerism:
is
good example
a Httle disquieting, a
with a dryness that tended to
affect
Manner-
ism everywhere before the upsurge of Baroque vitaUty

swept
it
aside.
The Sixteenth Century outside Italy

Fifteenth-century Europe, outside Italy, allows only occasional glimpses of Renaissance design as slow corollaries
and
to the spreading of Renaissance literary concepts,
it is
not until the sixteenth century that one can speak of native
attempts at Renaissance design in these countries.
Spain, France, the
Low
Countries,
Germany and England
differed considerably in their receptivity to the Renaissance.
Geographical position, pohtical and reUgious conditions,

the strength or weakness of medieval traditions, these and
other factors gave great variety to the adaptations and
749 Colegio de San Gregorio,
transformations to which the rest of Europe subjected the
Valladolid. 148S-96
Plateresque decoration.
Italian Renaissance.
One common
In
element, however: everywhere the Renais-
sance was received at
first
as
httle
more than a
styUstic
novelty to be worn lightly without consideration of the

principles and ideology involved. Late Gothic design de-
Ughted in rich decoration on simple structures

fered a treasure-chest of
new and
Italy of-
fascinating ornaments.
This produced a fashion-consciousness that one does not

expect to
fmd
before the end of the eighteenth century.
For ej^mple, Charles

Ustic conflict
was worried
between Diego de
in 1528
by the
sty-
Siloe's ItaUanate design
recently built Royal Chapel.
for
Granada Cathedral and
In
1529-30 the cathedral authorities of Seville received
from the
architect
its
Diego de Riano designs
for three
in three different styles, Gothic, Plateresque,

less
High Renaissance.
Charles's
rooms
and more or
son and heir Philip
II
Spain
type of decoration,
this
Plateresque (silversmith-like).
was used extensively.

It is
a curious
mixture of Gothic,
Mohammedan
and early
Renaissance, and
was spread over
walls with httle relation to
what was underneath.
RENAISSANCE
254
750 Granada Cathedral.
at first
Begun 1528.
Diego de Siloe
This cjchcdrsl, one of the great
like,
Spanish churches, has elements
'adjectival'
of Gothic, Renaissance and even

Baroque, but
is
mainly an
patronised Plateresque design and then
more
and the name
what
indicates
quaUty of the
style
demanded
means silversmith-
Plateresquc
ascetic classicism.
has been called the
ornament only loosely

town
lated to the structure. Riano's
some
hall in Seville
re-
(begun
work
extent, but both his
extremely good example of the
1527) illustrates this to
Plateresquc style of decoration.
and that of Siloe show a firmer grasp of Renaissance design
Siloe's Italianate design
for the interior
is
a Renaissance
adapution of the medieval

cathedral at Seville.
than that of their colleagues. Charles V's palace

(designed 1527
at Granada
by Pedro Machuca, who had studied paint-
ing in Italy)
unique
is
time for
at this
mature handhng
its
of High Renaissance forms.
The beginnings of Renaissance design in France are simA wave of chateau building in the Loire area was
ilar.
carried out in basically traditional- terms, but with orna-
ment
learnt
from north Itahan
buildings.
During the
first
decades of the sixteenth century, the French were involved

in
wars
borrow
northern Italy and took the opportunity to
in
styhstic ideas as well as Renaissance objects
few Renaissance
artists.
But
versions of the Renaissance they appreciated

at
front of Francis
more
and was continued by Louis XII

who added the east wing,
which shows remarkably

building
now
for example,
and entablatures,
by
Frani;ois
in
is
ornamental
different in
its
its
Blois,
detail
and
grid of shallow pilasters
not only the same
essentials
as
as
the unequivo-
Gothic chateau of Jossehn (1490). The dehght
with which the masons of the chateau of Chambord heaped
the south embellished (1515-24)
north
Italian
built (1635-38)
ornament on to
its
elaborate roofscape belongs
to the late Gothic spirit of ornamental

1
and the west
wing (1515-24) of the chateau of
Louis XII's wing (1498-1503) but also
being commissioned and

Francis
I's
though
neatly organised with
cally late
forms an
irregular quadrangle, the north side
by
facile
Certosa
httle
Renaissance influence.
The
the
Pavia rather than Alberti's Mantuan churches. The court
751 Chateau of Blois.

East vving. 1498-1503
The chateau of Blois was begun
the thirteenth centxiry
and a
was the more
at first it
30s progress
was
fast.
largesse.
In
the
Important Itahan designers came
worked for the king and estabhshed a court

The Florentine painter Rosso Fiorentino arrived in
1530; two years later came the yoimg Primaticcio, who
had worked under Giidio Romano on the decorations of
to France,
Mansart for
style.
Gaston d'Orleans.
worked
the Palazzo del Te. Rosso died in 1540; Primaticcio

in
France until
his
death in 1570.
They and
the assistants
they collected and instructed evolved for the royal chateau
of Fontaineblcau a novel decoration

(interior
of gallery of Francis
I,
known
as
strapwork
about 1533-40). Later,
Primaticcio was responsible for projeas and buildings of

considerable importance, such as the
752 Chateau of Blois.

Court a9ade. 1515-24
The
with
in
its
Cheminee'
court fa9ade,
famous spiral staircase

open tower, was Francis
at
wing
'de la Belle
Fontainebleau (1568).
Elsewhere, the
of the Renaissance were com-
stages
first
its
plicated further
by
a variety
of
cross-influences. Countries
!'s
Low
addition to the chateau.
such as England, the
The windows
Belgium and Netherlands, united by Charles
here have panelled
moulded mulhons,
and the dormers and chimney
many (meaning
stacks are attractively carved.
are geographically
instead of
Countries
more remote from
style
known
as
rise
ItaJianate ideas
In England,
third hand.
Italy and,
as
the
least partial barriers against
through the
direct ItaHan influence
and thus tended to use

Gothic
modern
the
V), and Ger-
the German-speaking middle of Europe),
century progressed, raised at
ond or
(i.e.
for
Perpendicular
of Protestantism,
and
m.otifs at sec-
example, the
(see p. 232)
was
late
still
much alive, and produced in Tudor architecture a style

which owed nothing to the Renaissance but was in many
very
ways concordant with

for the English
it.
court in the
handful of Itahans worked
second and third decades
of the sixteenth century, adding touches of Renaissance
ornament to Tudor
buildings, as at Wolsey's
Hampton
255
755
.''
.
RENAISSANCE
256
758 Sao Vicente de Fora,

Lisbon. 1582-1605. FUippoTerzi
This church was
the
Portuguese design of
first
the Itahan architect Filippo Tcrzi.

In
restraint
its
and austerity
can be seen the influence of the
Esconal on Portuguese building.
759 Fontaine bleau. Cotir

de rOvale. 1528 onwards
The Cour de I'Ovale is the
court of the medieval castle
to
which GiUes
added
Breton
le
Renaissance gateway
(the Porte Doree)
and a portico and cxtenul
staircase (seen here
its
present fragmentary state).
This indicates a
of
command
classical details
new
and form
to France but spreading
rapidly in the 1530s.
760 Fontainebleau. Gallery of

Francis
I.
I533-40-
Rosso and Primaticcio

After the successful ItaUan wars
Francis
called over to France
many
Itahan painters and designers,
chief
among them Rosso and
Primaticcio.
The decoration of
this gallery
is
mixture of painting and stucco,

reminiscent of the Vatican Loggia
and the Palazzo del Te.
The
fine
carved
woodwork
is
probably French or Flemish.

This gallery besides being a great
reception
room was
to house
the classical antiquities Francis
brought back from the wars.
Coun
(begun
where Giovanni da Maiano conRoman emperors and probably
15 15),
tributed the rchcf busts of
the panel of Wolscy's arms,
761
Already
in
King's College chapel, Cambridge was made, the credit
must go
Itahans,
764
in terra cotta.
all
middle of the 1530s, when the wooden screen
in the
to French or possibly
Dutch workmen, not
and when Henry VIII
Nonsuch
built his
artificers, architects,
own
his
Miiiidi
in the decorative
arts
of sculpture and carving.
This
wooden
screen
was the work
of French or possibly Dutch
to
workmen.
employed
'the
men
country' (George Braun, Urbium Praecipiianim
Theatrum Qtiintum, 1582).
we know
in so far as
and hardly
first
carvers and sculptors
of diverse nations, Itahans, Frenchmen, Dutch and
of
761 King's College chapel,
Cambridge, Screen, c. 1530

The Renaissance reached England
new
bombastic
Palace in Surrey (begun 1538), he
most outstanding
257
it,
Little
wonder
if
the result,
quite un-Itahan in character
is
Italian in detail.
The middle of the century shows
in
many
places a
much
firmer grasp of Italian design, often fused with traditional
elements rather than haphazardly imposed
on them.
In
Spain an extreme form of Itahan classicism was required
by Phihp
II
unless
traits,
style,
in fact, almost devoid
austerity
its
may
an expression of the Spanish character

236
mentation. The chief
one of the
rial,
ance.
It
as
monument of this
is
as natural
prolific
phase
is
oma-
the Esco-
great palace complexes of the Renaiss-
first
was not
of national
be taken to be
strictly a palace:
on
a slag-heap (escorial)
near Madrid, Philip constructed a building to be a monastery
virith
abbey church, a mausoleum for Charles
a large
V, and a palace for the king and
commanded Juan
Madrid
rial
coun,
his
all in
He
one.
Bautista de Toledo to leave Naples for
in order to
draw up
from
his plans. In lay-out the
derives ultimately
late
Roman
as in Diocletian's palaces at Spalato,
but
Esco-
palace planning,
its
many
straight
wings and rectangular courts focus on a magnificent centrally
planned church.
Work
began
in 1563,
and the build-
ing was completed in 1584; meanwhile Juan Bautista died.
His place was taken in 1572 by Juan de Herrera (c 153097)
who made some
alterations to the origmal design
and
almost completely redesigned the church, shghtly amelintended austerity without loss of
iorating the palace's
dignity. Styhstically the finished building belongs to the
High Renaissance
for
its
for
dry use of the
In France too this
classical
was
details
tradition
and
to
Mamierism
canon.
a period of climax. In fact, the
of the 1540s
classical buildings
hshment of a
most of its
to 1570s
mark
the estab-
of classicism which continues
through French architecture into the twentieth century,
and which
is
never
Pierre Lescot, but

in France in
Serlio,
its
1541
PhiHbert de I'Orme and
architects,
estabhshment was aided by the arrival
of another
who had worked
best
remembered
and
rich in illustrations,
fruitful (because
of for long. This tradition
lost sight
was created by two
in
Italian,
Sebastiano Serlio.
High Renaissance Rome,
is
for an architertural treatise, brief in text
which became one of the most
one of the most
of information and
easily assimilable) sources
ideas for architects all over
'59
during the next 150 years. Serho also
'67
among which
left
some
Europe
buildings,
the chateau of Ancy-le-Franc (begun 1546),
with four equal wings around a square court and four
comer pavihons, all with steeply pitched roofs, best

showed how the language of the High Renaissance could
taller
be adapted to French usage.
762, 763 Hampton Court.

Entrance front, after 1515;
interior of Great Hall, 1533
Renaissance ornament was added
by Wolsey to a Tudor building
m the relief busts of Roman

emperors by Giovatmi de Maiano
and the terra cotu arms.
The Great Hall
is
entuely Gothic
but with Renaissance putti and
fohage in the roof spandrels.

In
England the influence of the
Renaissance was
still
confined
ornament; building construction

remained unchanged.
to
RENAISSANCE
258
764 Nonsuch Palace. Begun 1538

The English version of the ideal
Renaissance palace commissioned
by Henry
VIII.
curiously mongrel building,
quite un-ltalian in fccUng

despite the lavish use of external
ItaUanatc decoration.
were employed from
Workmen
Italy,
France,
Holland, as well as from England.
765 Louvre, Paris.

Pierre Lescot's wing, 1546
Lescot's
work on
the medieval
palace established a classical

tradition in French architecture
which bsted
until the twentieth
derivation
century.
Its
from the
Italian
but
it
palazzo
is
obvious,
has French
characteristics
of its own: the
balance between the verticals and

horizontals, the steep-pitched
roof and the dwarf order for the
lower top
storey.
766 Ancy-le-Franc, Bourgogne.
Begun
1546.
Sebastiano Serlio
SerUo, coming from the Italy
of the High Renaissance,
imposed a more rigorous

concept of symmetry and
order on a building that
in other respects continues
the traditions of
French chateau architecture.
mi,ATt
Ur.GIWV IN ANGU- RFX.no Ari'KI.r.ATVM \o\vi\

/tv
r/7
<9ij^m
timtir
ir,
THE SIXTEENTH CENTUHY OUTSIDE ITALY
Lescot began in
546 to rebuild the medieval royal pal-
The
ace in Paris, the Louvre.
wing
three-storey
that he
completed shows an astonishing grasp of Renaissance
more
and, perhaps even
mode of
259
767 Ancy-Ie-Franc,
Bourgogne. Begun
54.
Courtyard.
detail
Sebasdano Serlio
astonishing, a completely French
expression that shows through the southern vo-
judgment may be based
cabulary. This
in part on the debt

owes to this buildmg, but a
comparison between Lcscot's Louvre and any Itahan palace
shows a different sense of form and composition (in Lescot
that later French classicism
many
an intricate play of
but broken horizontals,
dynamic balance of
is
verticals against a
few strong
as agaijist the usually relaxed,
Italian
un-
Renaissance palaces), and there
the northern steep roof as well as Lescot's usefiil inven-
dwarf order
tion, the
Philibert de
I'Orme
for the
sive figure, partly because
of varying character,
Inventions pour
low top
1510-70)
(c.
he
storey.
an even more impres-
behind more buildings
left
well
as
is
two
as
hatir et a pelits frais,
hieii
Nouvelles
treatises,
and Premier
1561,
I' Architecture,
1569. The attachment to common
impHed in the fu-st title is evident also in the second
book where it is combined with a real understanding of
Livre de
sense
The
ancient and Renaissance theory.
work
quality of his
is
very high. Offspring of generations of skilled masons, and
adding to
rOrme became
de
mistress
Diane de
Henry
chief architect to
Poitiers
and
Rome,
period of study in
his native training a
H, to Henry's
and widow
to Henry's wife
Catherine de Medicis. In 1547 he designed the sepulchral
monument
to Francis
I,
erected in the cathedral of Saint
Denis, a free adaptation of the classical triumphal arch,
wonderfully detailed in finely cut marble. In the same year
mak-
he began the chateau of Anet for Diane de Poitiers,
ing particularly free use of Renaissance forms in the project-
wmg
ing entrance pavilion, and attaching to the right
centrally planned chapel that not only proves hina to be
with
fully conversant
but
the four
also, in
developments in
Italian design
through space, anticipates Baroque space modelling.
ally
The house
the
latest
main arches curving three-dimension-
is
out in three wings forming a court with
laid
stepped wing of the entrance pavihon closing the
fourth
side.
The
mam
entrance to the house
(now
a projecting bay, a frontispiece
is
marked by
in the courtyard
the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris) that
invented in the sixteenth century;
fruitfid motifs
pears, copied or adapted, in
most
areas
of
one of the most
is
reap-
it
of Europe. In 1563
de I'Orme began the palace of the Tuileries, near the Louvre

but outside the city walls.
intended, but
as a
it
We
know
of what he
building of four wings around a court, one of which
greatly dominates over the others
early seventeenth-century
eration
in
France
the
Luxembourg
his attitude to classical canons,
and
typical also
on the
classics
equal value of the French language
see
jrancoyse,
Du
Bellay's Deffense
1549)
is
prototype of the
Palace. Typical
(which included the
called the Pleiade, fed
an
httle
seems hkely that he designed the palace
his
et
of
of his gen-
group
literary
but insisting on the
as
a vehicle for high
Illustration
de
la
langue
invention of a specifically French
order of columns, used on the Tuileries, their vertical
flut-
ing interrupted by horizontal bands of decoration.
The
ancients, he argued, invented different orders as they
seemed
necessary: France lacks the marble quarries to produce
768, 769 Chateau of Anet.
Begun
1547.
Entrance and chapel cupola.

Philibert de rOrme
Anet was begun in 1547 by
Philibert de I'Ornie for Diane de
Poitiers. He makes personal use
of Renaissance fotms in the
projecting entrance pavilion
and on the house
The chapel
is
itself
centrally
planned, with four main arches
curving three-dimcnsionally
through space.
RENAISSANCE
260
770 Bruges Palais de Justice.

1520
In the early part
monolithic
of the century
joints, therefore
Renaissance influence in
the
Low
Countries shows
on
a late
to be constructed
it is
orJy reasonable to design a column that
niakes positive use of these divisions instead of ignoring
itself in
the imposition of Renaissance

ideas
columns have
shafts, so that
out of several drums of stone leaving visible horizontal
De I'Orme
them.
Gothic form.
by the
traditions
considered
it
essential to
of reason, and
light
view
classical
in this he set the
tone of French architectural thought for centuries.

In the
Low
Countries
ing building, and
most flourishing
was centred on
economic
were
years later, the northern provinces
Hague
On
less
imposing
Antwerp town
scale
Justice
than
hall, this
into the
at this
to
Amsterdam
of the
as,
fifty
to look to
The
for trade.
of 1561-65 with the Bruges
Comde
Palais
first
imposition of Renaissance ideas on a

later
tradition, but also
aristocratic
late
absorption of Renaissance ideas
and
between the com-
ecclesiastical
atmosphere
of
Bruges and the busy materiahsm of Antwerp. Formally not
commercial building took place

Countries
hall
body of local
paratively
outburst of public and
Low
town
Gothic form and the
tradition of bixilding.
in the
government and
life
way
of 1520, and you have the contrast not only be-
tween the
equally
shows the fusion

of Renaissance elements brought
from France with the native
An
for
pare the
hall.
town
the
The government of the coun-
Brussels, but the
provinces focused on Antwerp, in the same
771 The Hague town

1564-65
is
of Europe through her port and
cities
extensive continental trade.

try
period produced one outstand-
of Antwerp. Antwerp had recently become one of
hall
the
this
with symbohc rightness,
this,
unlike the earher
time
town
halls
Low
of the
Countries
(e. g.,
Bruges, fourteenth century, and Middelburg, fifteenth cen-
of great prosperity.
of Antwerp
tury), that
is
so coherently conceived in terms
of Renaissance elements received from France rather than
from
Italy that there
remains httle sign of
On a much less imposing scale,
stylistic duality.
town haU of The Hague

(1564-65) shows a similar styUstic fusion. The town hall
in Leipzig (1556) is a comparable German example. It is
the
reasonable, then, to speak of a northern Renaissance style

in architecture that belongs to
both the old and the
worlds and which must be assessed in terms of
its
new
own
inherent quaUties and not in terms of Italian classicism.

In
England the position was much the same. After the
flamboyance of Henry VIII came the cooler cultural
at-
mosphere of the Protectorate, Edward VI and Mary
I.
Here too the middle of the century was a moment of
Old Somerset House
relative classicism, seen in
(begun 1547; in
eenth century) and even

shire, built
by
Sir
more
1553), although only
hmited use was made of Renaissance elements.
During
the last third of the sixteenth century France and
often descnbed as Mannerism. In
with arcade by
nerist,
the northern countries experienced an architectural phase
a designer
Low
London
Longleat House, Wilt-
in
John Thynne (begun
772 Cologne town hall. 1569-73.

Wilhelm Vemukken
A two-storey Renaissance addition
imported from the
in
destroyed in the eight-
partial use 1557;
Countries.
but in so far
as
some senses it is ManMannerism presupposes the prior
establishment of a classical canon, only in places where
Decoration was lavished on
the canon
the adjacent walls.
ing of
it
was
sufficiently firmly established for the break-
to be meaningful can
Mannerism
in the Italian
sense be said to have obtained. Otherwise Mannerist phe-
nomena
in these countries
facts as that at this time,
should be explained by such
when northern
looking more and more intently to

architects
were developing
their
designers
were
Italy for ideas, Itahan
Marmerist idioms; that a
playful use of Italian motifs, fundamentally akin to the
previous use of Gothic motifs, can produce an appearance
of Mannerism without involving the

essential to true
772
Marmerism; and
anti-classical attitude
also that the
atmosphere
261
773 Antwerp town hall. 1561-65.

Cornelius Floris (or de Vriendt)
By now Renaissance ideas were
absorbed into the body of local
tradition.
The
inspiration
in this building
than
Italian,
is
French rather
but the result
something new and indigenous,
is
as at
Longlcat in Wiltshire.
774 Amsterdam town hall

(now the Royal Palace).
Begun
X648.
Jacob van Campen

The Netherlands' equivalent
classical
to the
royal palaces of the
of Europe.
Dutch architects excelled not
rest
in buildings like this
but
in the
merchants' houses of small
was the
becoming the
proportions. This building

original
town
hall,
royal palace in 1804.
RENAISSANCE
262
775* 776 LongleaC House,

Wiltshire. Begun 1554, burnt
down
1567, rebuilt 1568
onwards.
John Thynne
Sir
Exterior and plan.
Longleat represents a more
indigenous achievement.
symmetrical
It is
in plan,
with
Renaissance elements
and subdued
in the balustrades
portico.
The type of
looking
window
modem
look, as docs
large fiat-
has a curiously
the four-squareness of the building.
777 Hardwick Hall gallery,

Derbyshire. 1590-97
The
idea of the gallery as chief
reception
Italy.
is
room was
Hardwick
taken from
gallery
166 feet long, with Italian
coffered ceiling.
runs the
It
full
length of the building and

is
hghted here by
continuous
row of enormous muUioned

windows which
are typically
English.
778 Hat&eld House,

Hertfordshire. 1607-11
Hatfield
is
E-shaped. and although
strong influence from the
continent can be seen in the cupola
and stonework decoration,

the structure, \sith
reminds one of
its
its
turrets,
descent from
medieval architecture.
779 Plan of Hardwick Hall,

Derbyshire. 1590-97
The
hall
placed
is
on the
axis
of the main entrance
and
in that
marks
departure from
other country houses.
Off the
hall
buttery, and
was the pantry and

from the latter
one reached the chapel.
of
decades was liable
political aiid religious strife in these
through discordant architectural gestures,
to find expression
Mannerism. The Protestant northern
superficially akui to
Low
provinces of the
Countries fought for and achieved
from the southern
independence
and
provinces
Spanish rulers; France suffered the disaster of
their
war be-
civil
tween Protestants and Catholics; England was faced with
by the
the threat of invasion
of the Counter Re-
forces
formation, headed by Spain, and stood in a state of emer-
gency. In
Germany
century,
too forces were grouping, and there
came
the actual conflict
from 1618
at the
beginning of the seventeenth
until 1648.
France was the country to

ism, and in Jean Bullant
Mannerist architect.
He
come
Manner-
closest to real
1520-78) she produced a major
[c.
studied in
Rome
and contributed a
Rcigk Genhale d' Architecture (1563), and a more techwork. Petit Traicte de Geometric et d' Horolofiiegraphie
treatise,
nical
(1564), to the growing flood of architectural hterature

coming out of western Europe. History was against him,
from
in that the almost continual strife that racked France
1560 until 1598
left
more opportunity
for paper
than for the execution of large buildings, and
it
is
work
notice-
able that Bullant's projects, as well as those of his con-
temporary Jacques Androuet du Cerceau the Elder, conan increasing clement of fantasy,
tain
as
though
practical
considerations were at a discount in this period of pohtical

chaos. His
scheme for the enlargement of the chateau of
Chenonceaux
Catherine de Medicis (1576; original
for
chateau 1515; bridge added by de I'Orme for Diane de

Poitiers)
such
is
as the
vast in extent
and includes colossal elements
hemicycles forming a courtyard in front of
the old chateau and the triumphal arches leading into
The
added to de I'Orme's bridge
gallery he
is
it.
decorated
externally with a system of overlapping panels and ped-
iments very close to the recent framing of paintings in
by Daniele da
the Sala Regia in the Vatican,
Du Cerceau
eral
was responsible
Voltcrra.
for the publication
of sev-
books of architectural engravings, among them two
volumes recording the most important French buildings

of
his century.
He
also designed
chateaux, at Verneuil
neuil
was of the kind
(c.
and began two
influential
1565) and Charleval (1573). Ver-
initiated
by Anet: three wings
plus
an entrance screen and gateway. Charleval was intended

to be far bigger.
The main
part of the chateau
wings around a square court, but
this is
is
of four
preceded by an
enormous enclosed court flanked by more wings forming
two large churches. It

would have been considerably larger in area
subsidiary courts complete with
executed, this
than the Escorial, and the formal plamiing of the chateau
would have been
e-xtended
out in formally patterned
du Cerceau's intentions
were to have been
by means of a
vast garden laid
parterres. In so far as
we know
for the chateau's elevations; they
rather restless compositions involving
large sculptures, giant pilasters, strips of rustication

vertically linked
In the
ration
Low
and
windows.
Countries, the late Gothic emphasis on deco-
overshadowed developments
and the greatest
efforts
in architectural form,
were put into the publication of
ornamental pattern-books by Frans
Floris,
Vries and others (and again others in
Vredeman de
Germany, such
as
263
RENAISSANCE
264
783-786 Wollaton Hall,

Nottinghamshire. 1580-88.
Robert StnythsoD
Exterior, plan and details.
The architecture of Elizabeth I
at
its
It is
most vigorous.
intcntioaally castle-likc, and
makes
self-conscious use
of
medie\'3l motifs.
It is
nearly square and
no longer
inward-looking, which marks

a departure
from the
building tradition of the time.
There is no courtyard, the centre

of the house being occupied by a
large windowless hall,
light for
which comes from a

Above that is a huge
clerestory.
chamber with
turrets.
Renaissance decoration
by
is
Flemish and Dutch craftsmen,

the
Dutch gable
(785)
and
strapwork (786) being

typical of the period.
787 Burghley House,

Northamptonshire. 1585
Courtyard.
Another adaptation of the

classical
England
arch as
it
Roman
reached
via France.
The
niches
between the columns are typically

French.
The
three orders are
correctly used, but the
bay window
looks incongruous, and

the style changes again with
the Flemish
decoration at the top.
ITALY IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
Wcndcl
that of
Here too
Dicttcrlin).
clement of fantasy and extravagance
is
found a strong
some
(in
Dietterlin's case
ture
so extreme as to suggest a psychotic origin),

cess
of these books was great throughout northern Europe.
Decorators from the
Low
Countries were in great
Germany and
demand
in
England,
at
Heidelberg in Germany, to which the Elector Palatine
Fredenck
781
and the suc-
Scandinavia. Already the castle
(1544-56) added an arcaded block, and his
II
owes
successor Ottheinrich (1556-69) a three-storey wing,
more
ornament of such craftsmen than
to the busy
basic architcaural form,
by the
which may well have been given
Wilhelm Vemukken came
electors themselves.
Low
Cologne from the

arcaded loggia of
The same ornament
Antwerp, Deventer
ijssel),
is
town
on the adjacent
and
walls
appears on the gables of
Wollaton (England) and
Danzig;
far east as
as
Overit
based on the Italian-French invention 'strapwork', trans-
forming
it
more geometrical and
into a
flatter
WoUaton, near Nottingham, may be taken
-786
hall
the northern province of
(in
to
Countries to add a two-storey
classical character to the
lavished a wealth of novel decoration

(1569-73).
to the
the architerture of Elizabeth
Aggressive,
orous.
self-conscious use
I's
England
intentionally
most vig-
and making
castle-hke
Gothic architecture made out of
it
would be more
chitect deploys
classical elements,
exact to say that the Baroque ar-
classical
elements to achieve ends
ing of the Baroque style and the creation of
monuments happened
finest
but
it
com-
with those of Gothic architecture. The pioneer-
parable
was the work,
painters
many of
in seventeenth-century
enough, of
significantly
and sculptors from other parts of
its
Rome,
architects,
Italy
and from
other countries.
We have already
We have also seen
met Vignola
Mannerist architect.
as a
that Michelangelo's later architectural
works, the Piazza del CampidogUo and
his contribution
went beyond Mannerism to a more vigorous

The building that marks most completely the transi-
to St Peter's
style.
from Mannerism
tion
Baroque
to
by
the church built
is
the Counter Reformation, the Society of Jesus.
of the Gesu (begun 1568)
is
based
on
The plan
by
a plan prepared
of medievalising motifs, Wollaton ex-
Mantua: nave and chapels (no
domed
aisles),
and short transepts and chancel, the same width
The
of the Gesu
internal effect
Sant' Andrea: there, the size
crossing
the nave.
from
different
is
as
that
of
and windows of the chapels
hibits a
rough
rhetoric,
created strong cross-currents counteracting the axis of nave
that
well into one's picture of the period (1580-88).
and chancel; here the chapels are smaller and dark, and
fits
of barbarian
strength, a quality
External and internal decorative details
tell
788-790
Vignola to be the mother-church of that strong arm of
Michelangelo and derived from Alberti's Sant' Andrea in
motif.
to represent
at its
Baroque architec-
truth in the fanuliar remark that
is
but
265
of the employ-
ment of Flemish or Dutch craftsmen.
the lines of the building lead the eye to the crossing and
to the hght that
falls
from the drum
into the chancel.
Later decorations inhibit this internal focus, but the con-
Italy in the Seventeenth Century
The
decline of
Mannerism
with the calm balance sought by Albcrti and the
trast
academicism coincided
into
High Renaissance
clear
is
enough. The facade of the church
with the Council of Trent and the organisation of the
was the work of other
Counter Reformation.
design, but both the design
It
was a period of austerity
the function of the arts in reUgion
in
which
was questioned and
architects departing
from Vignola's
and the facade have elements
which the Baroque develops and transmits
to
Baroque
The period of art that followed, known as Baroque, seems far removed from the severe note struck by
the Council, but it is more directly reUgious than art had
church design everywhere: the facade steps forward and
been since the Middle Ages, and
Florence,
defined.
demand
for an art
sible the doctrines

it
is
an
art
which
will
make
real
theoses; in architecture
More
it
is
an
art
of
fits
many
aspects
and mystery
of glorification and
in the
its
its
affec-
surroundings.
the
The
note of puritanical
of Baroque architecture:
an architecture of presentation
trine
and apo-
symbohcal and
withm
his building,
adjective 'theatrical', used without

aversion,
ecstasies
perhaps than in any other period, the
architect concerns himself with the

tive content
and comprehen-
of the Church. In painting and sculpture
of miracles, martyrdoms,
transcendence.
the Council's
fulfils
it
it
is
presentation of doc-
Church, and in the palace, the
presentation of taste and wealth and the mystery of the
divine right of kings.
The language used by
Baroque architecture continued to be
that
international
of ancient Rome,
but Mannerism had shown the expressive potential residing in deviations from
strict
observance of
was now used
grammar and
increases in
plasticity
from
sides
to centre,
and
scrolls,
derived from Alberti's facade of Sta Maria Novella in
man
hnk
storeys
of the
fa(;ade.
exaggerate
from
its
the Gesii that
importance, but
it
it
would be
still
difficult to
belongs in part to
world of Mannerism. In subsequent
Roman
churches
based on the Gesu model, such as Sant' Andrea della Valle
(begun 1591) and Sant'Ignazio (begun 1626), Mannerist
ments are gradually dropped or given
ele-
new meaning. The
further development of the
by mention of
Sta
Susanna
small,
(i
Gesu fagade can be outlined

few important examples. The facade of
596-1603,
by Carlo Madema), although
makes fuU use of the
plastic
Gesu, emphasising vertical elements and adding a balustrade

to the top of the pediment, as
with a hard
line or
even to end
though reluctant to end

at all.
That of SS. Vin-
cenzo e Anastasio (1646-50; by Martino Longhi the Younger)
makes
overlapping pediments and sculpture, almost independent
of the structure of the west end of the church. The facade
tinued use of classical forms was accompanied by a tend-
of Sta Maria
ency, consciously or unconsciously, to abandon the clas-
stepped violently forwards and back and emphasises this
premise of a man-centred architecture, varying
degree with different architects and places. Thus there
m
is
794
a powerful crescendo of free-standing columns,
to create a tran-
sical
791
innovations of the
scendental rather than a humanist environment, the con-
syntax. Since architecture
691
So many Ro-
Catholic churches budt during the next 100 or 150
years derive
the
two
the
in
sculptural gesture
CampiteUi (1636-37; Carlo Rainaldi)
by continumg
broad pediment, with the
is
the recesses through the
effect, again,
of making inde-
795
RENAISSANCE
266
78S-790 Church of the Gesu,
Rome. Begun
1568.
Vignola
Fa(,ade (1584). plan
The
plan
and
interior.
based on one by
is
domed
Michelangelo, a
crossing
with short transepts and nave
and chapels (no aisles).

The cross between the Gothic and
Renaissance
set
the pattern
for churches until the present day.
The
interior
is lit
by windows
above the chapels, and

light concentrated
by windows
For the
first
in the
on the
dome.
altar
time the architect
has treated lighting as a
dramatic problem.
decoration
is
of
The
internal
later date.
The fa<;adc is later also but based

on Vignola's design.
The same problem arises as always
type of church:
combine a classical two-
with
this
how
to
tiered fatâde with the tall
and lower
The
aisles
tiers are
behind
nave
it.
linked with Alberti's
device of the scrolls at

Sta Maria Novella, but here they
are
more clumsy. Decoration
begun
to
has
smother form.
790
267
791 Sta Susanna,

1596-1603.
Carlo Maderna
This makes
full
Rome.
use of the plastic
innovations of the Gesu.
The verticals arc emphasised.

The heavy roof Hne used
by Renaissance architects has gone,
and the building ends in a
balustrade
on top of the pediment.
792, 793 Palazzo Barberini.
Begun 1628
Entrance and plan.
break-away from the block-Hke
The plan has opened up.

wings jut forward each side
palazzo.
Two
of the
front, and the centre

opened in wide loggias.
There is a Palladian elegance
which hitherto had only appeared
is
in
country
villa architecture.
The entrance front

is by Gianlorenzo Bernini, and
plan by Carlo Maderna.
the
794 SS. Vincenzo e Anastasio,

1646-50.
Rome.
Martino Longhi the Younger

The Baroque church facade
tended increasingly to become a
piece of theatre.
The
architect has exercised his
imagination in terms of
free-standing pillars and sculptural
effects, like the
pediments.
793
794
overlapping
RENAISSANCE
268
795
Su
Maria
in Campitelli,
Rome. Fa^de.
Stepped
\-iolcntly
and back,
more
forwards
an even
this facade has
sculptural quality.
recesses are
The
continued through the
what would have been
cisivc
1636-37.
Churches such
Carlo Rainaldi
development within the
Other
a strong concluding line.
however, represent only one
these,
as
rich
field
Roman
of
from
architects, often starting
Baroque.
the time-honoured
concept of the central plan, gave entirely original forms to
broad pediment,
their churches,
breaking the skyline, and
power
conveying again the impression of

the fa^de growing upwards
the Baroque,
into space.
Susanna,
and to
that has
marked by
the joyousness and virility of Sta
followed by the rich summer, the High Baroque
is
from 1625
period, lasting roughly
by
an expressive
their internal spaces
seldom been matched. The springtime of
and dominated
to 1675,
Cortona and
three great architects: Bernini, Pietro da
Borromini. Bernini
working
sculptor
(i
598-1680) was the son of a Florentine
m Naples
he achieved international fame
sculptor and architect and was also an
accompUshed
Cortona (1596-1669) came to Rome from Florence
1612 or 161 3; he achieved equal fame as architect and
painter. Borromini {1599-1667) arrived in Rome from
as
painter.
in
as
Lake Lugano about 1614 to w'ork under
Madema,
more and
his uncle
primarily as a carver of decorative detail but
more
as
draughtsman
as such,
he was employed by Bernini
796, 797 Sant' Andrea

al Quirinale, Rome. 1658-70.
Gianlorenzo Bernini
work
in 1634.
three
men
is
The
add the enthusiasm and

(at
gives a scenic effect, reminiscent of
churches were dedicated
new
and new
modes of expression.
The fmest churches of
the
It
counterpoints the convex oval
of the building.
The Baroque made great use of
pilasters rather
than columns.
producing
is
Europe was
activity
whom new
to
saints
rehgious imagery and
are
Sant'Andrea
al
comparaQuirinale
altar
concave half-oval. screen-wall outside the church
axis.
upwards inside to dome

and lantern.
leads to a majestic portico
and plays counterpoint
convex Qval form of the church

of the oval
cross-axis
is
a broad entablature
St
Andrew
of a
which
suffers
series
of
pediment of the chancel screen

piitti
with
in the painting
heavenward
dome and lantern,
in the
over
in the
and cherubs await him. The architectural
elements are severely
In the
classical.
lower part of the
church dark marble glows warmly, but

heavenly sphere,
in the
church of Sta Maria dell'Assunzione

the
dome, the
white and gold. Bernini modelled
all is
Rome (1662-64) on
of the exterior
it
pilasters carrv'ing
leads the eye to the chancel
martyrdom
the altar and, in sculptural form, floats
sculptured
to the
Inside, the strong
itself.
counteracted by blocking
pilasters at either end, part
his
-must
planned on an oval lying across the door
Here they help to lead the eye
where
we
of a succession of
High Baroque
tively small buildings. Bernini's
(1658-70)
architectural
this
the papal authority in
and enthusiasm,
at St Peter's.
To
and the mounting wave of religious
leading up to the portico
Bernini's far larger colonnade
Rome's
this period.
lavish expenditure
when
a time
fast declining),
as designer,
independent
his
coinciding, in time and place, of these
splendour and influence in
popes
he began
part of the reason for
Fat^de and plan.
The concave half-oval screen-wall
and occasionally
until
in Ariccia near
Rom.an Pantheon. Hence the severity
(particularly the use,
on
body of
the
the
church, of vertical and horizontal strips suggesting pilasters
and entablature reduced to diagrammatic terms), and the

bold juxtaposition of geometrical volumes. In another
church, San
Tomaso
Villanova at Castelgandolfo, also
di
near
Rome
first
used in 1485, but gave
Cortona
(1658-61), Bernini used the
rebuilt the
Luca (1635-50),
della
it
much
Greek
taller
church and crypt of SS. Martina
built the facade
in
ferent
from the
Via Lata
(built 1658-62).
others: the fust
XXXIX
and piazza of Sta Maria
Pace (1656-57) and also designed the
Maria
cross plan
proportions.
owes much
Loiigheiia
faijade
Each work
is
of Sta
quite dif-
to Cortona's
Sta Maria della Salute.
VenU
ITALY IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTUKY
origin in Florenrine Mannerism;
the second approaches
more closely to the usual idea of the Baroque

use of space; and the third
Inside
and
coming
Martina
out, SS.
forms and
large
its
surprisingly
is
its
ingenious
classical.
Luca has a tenseness
detail that
in
calm and
makes
in
its
appear reactionary,
it
The same
thirty years after Sta Susanna.
tension
is
noticeable in the facade of Sta Maria della Pace, but here
of a sweeping reorganisarion of the environment
part
it is
and a bold disposition of several curving planes
that
marks
building as one of the climaxes of the High Baroque.
this
The fa^de of Sta Maria in Via Lata is much more restrained

in spite of some idiosyncratic details. Here, as also in Sta
Maria dell'Assunzione and other buildings,
we
see a tend-
ency towards extreme or comparatively extreme forms
of classicism which seem to
outside the usual notion of
fall
the Baroque. But the student of Baroque culture, and of
Baroque painting
particularly,
is
familiar with this apparent
duality: the great classical tradition runs through the Ba-
and the study of the remains and writings of
roque,
antiquity
was considered
as essential as
it
had ever been.
This appUes even to the churches of Borromim, although

in
many ways
the buildings of this strange
cally
from the traditions of humanist
fore
were denounced
Rome
temporaries in
as bizarre
and by
man depart radi-
architecture
and there-
and extravagant by con-
later generations elsewhere,
name of Borromini stood for all that was against

good judgment and taste. The Uttle church of San Carlo
until the
alle
67)
It is
Quattro Fontane {'San Carlino', 1638-41, facade 1665-
was
his first
one of the
inside
significant
seem
is
main
is
church
this
of St
piers
way
the
its
is
Peter's;
intricate plan
what
is
an
it
and internal elevation
so
come, and the elevation echoes Michel-
divisions
Over
angelo's giant order and massive entablature.

ers
it.
would fit
perhaps more
so small that
from Michelangelo's St Peter's. The plan of

comphcated that it is not easy to tell where
to spring
the interior
the
commission, and he lavished great care on
often said that
it
hov-
dome, coffered with unusual, deeply cut
elliptical
forms that look hke an ingenious invention of the architect's
but are borrowed from a
Roman ruin. The church
Sant'Ivo della Sapienza (1642-50)
Borromini had to
courtyard;
insert
it
is
in
some ways
of
similar.
into an existing sixteenth-century
gave him the lower part of the exterior,
this
Above this there thrusts forward a sixdrum which gives way to a stepped, conical roof
deceptively calm.
lobed
leading up to a
led
columns
crowned by
tall
lantern with six concave sides and coup-
(similar to the
temple of Jupiter
at
Baalbek),
a diminishing spiral that fades out in an iron-
work cusp. The plan of Sant'Ivo, hke that of San Carhno, is

based on interlocking isosceles triangles. The complex shape
that results
pilasters
is
imderlined by the severe sequence of giant
carrying a deep entablature.
taken up by the
dome and
The same shape

lantern.
The
only partially by Borromini,
who
smooth ring which forms the base of the

church of Sta Agnese
worked on
it
is
is
gradually transformed to the
between 1653 and 1657: he created the wide,

tall drum and dome and the west tow-
concave facade, the

ers,
but these were shghtly altered. The faijade
Carlino was bmlt long after the church

mini's last work.
The
itself
and
is
of San
Borro-
three bays, concave, convex, concave,
of the lower storey are turned into three concave bays in
271
RENAISSANCE
272
801*803 San Carlo alle Quattro

Fontane, Rome. 1638-41.
Fa^de. 1665-67.
Francesco Borromini
Renaissance
plan
circle, this
based on the oval and
with an
elliptical
is
crowned
dome.
said that
into
one of the
The
faiâde in
is
it
so small
can
piers
two
it
it
is
of St
Peter's.
is
rich
movement of
the whole.
The
ideal Renaissance
hght, with
its
interior
church was
harmonies
plainly exposed to view.
The
small Baroque San Carlo,
on the other hand, is particularly

dark. Light comes from a
small source at the apex,
the lantern illuminating the
comphcated
rest in
mystery.
effect
at the
is
it
moves upwards.
(bronze, 1624-33), a semi-
altar
commission
of
architectural
his
career;
marks the
that
thirty
years later
(1656-66) he created the Cathedra in the west apse of the
many ma-
church, a fusion of architecture and sculpture in
make
designed to
real to us the divine institution
Maria
in Sta
della Vittoria (1645-52)
presentation and persuasion by
and Ught. The
enacted above the
Comaro
altar,
is
of
Comaro Chapel
a similar act
means of paint,
stucco,
of
mar-
of Sta Teresa, rcahstically
ecstasy
observed by members of the
is
family on the side walls; above them, the vault
of the chapel penetrates into heaven. The oval and trape-
formed outside
zoidal piazza Bernini
St Peter's out
architectural elements (designed 1656-57) brings to
Rome
of sobre
Baroque
the spirit of ancient Greece, triumphing over great
difficulties
of
and programme. His Scala Regia (1663-
site
66), a staircase constructed in a
very constricted space, re-
sculptural decoration
of the dome and leaving the
The
bcgmnmg
ble, space
subordinated
to the passion and
as
works of the High Baroque
the papacy. Bernini's transformation of the
in sculptural ornament,
but
dacchino over the high
has
fit
tiers
great
can be mentioned. In St Peter's, Bernini erected the Bal-
terials
inside area
and looser
freer
sculptural, semi-architectural
architects.
been
becomes
Only a few of the other
is
There is a flowing sculptural

quahty in the whole construction,
which was the greatest
contribution of the Baroque
The
entablature forms a strong
horizontal line in an otherwise dominantly vertical organisation that
and cupola.
Instead of being based on the
Exterior, plan
The dividing
the upper storey.
dramatic and aimed
ceives
drama and magnificence from the use of exagger-
ated perspective Unes and controlled Hght. Bernini, Cor-
tona and Borromini also produced iniportant domestic and
onlooker deliberately.
institutional buildings.
The
of the seventeenth century show a decline
later years
Rome
in artistic activity in
men
available to
fewer great commissions were
of unexceptional
(1634-1714), trained by Beniini,
Like
talent.
master he incUned to the more
his
Baroque and handled
this
Carlo Fontana
dominant
the
is
architect.
classical side
of the
kind of architecture with aplomb
but Uttle originahty. His project for the completion of the

piazza of St Peter's (1694)
work.
By
perhaps his most impressive
is
adding a trapezoidal forecourt, he intended to
present Bernini's piazza and the church as an

stage-set
from which
the speaator
separated
is
jecting ends of Bernini's colonnade.
enormous
by the pro-
similar sccnographic
works of this period and

eighteenth century; by contrast, the High Baroque
trend
tert
is
noticeable in other
sought to place the spectator within the work of
Comaro
but Bernini's
ciated only
heralded
from
art,
Chapel, which can be fully appre-
the nave,
i.e.,
from outside
the chapel,
this trend.
Outside
Rome
the
High Baroque period showed
of provincial pursuits usually of small

tects
in the
archi-
interest.
a variety
Most
archi-
looked to Rome, without necessarily imitating the
best or the
most revolutionary. There were two outstanding
exceptions :Longhena and Guanni. Baldassare Longhena
remembered
Maria
for
one
della Salute in
the splendid scrolls

are left with a
brilliant building, the
Venice
from
its
(built
is
church of Sta
1631-85).
Take away
picturesque outhne and you
remarkably austere building fuU of reminis-
cences of Palladio.
The plan of
the
main body of the
church, perhaps derived from the Byzantine church of San

is unique in the Renaissance. Longhena
form of the octagon with ambulatory and chapels
to offer a set of lucid views to anyone standing at the
centre of the building, and a vista of arches from the en-
Vitale in Ravenna,
uses the
273
RENAISSANCE
274
809 Piazza del Popolo,

Piranesi). c. 1660
Rome
(from
This entrance 10 the city
is
an
cximplc of the 'rond-pomt'.
early
used extensively in France.
The
PortJ del Popolo
from which
leads into the 'place'
radiate three
main
Their
marked
start
by Carlo
is
streets.
Rainaldi's
iwm
churches.
l.;^,
!v/;/
\\//,, .':-V,/:;w
,;/,'/^/',./
810 Palazzo Pesaro, Venice.
Begun
1679.
Baldassaie
Longhena
Rusucation and small recungular
wmdows
of the lower floors
set
off the upper part.
This
is
open
so
that
it
resembles
two supenmposed loggias.

The sharply diminishing size of
the columns and the
hovering putti deepen the
and give
recesses
a theatrical effect.
811 Sta Maria della Salute,

Venice. 1631-85. Longhena
One
of the few churches not on
the Gesu pattern of the
High Renaissance.
It is
octagonal,
and the ambulatory
and chapels
offer a set
of lucid
views from the centre
8X2 Palazzo Carignano,

Turin. Begun 1679.
Guarino Guarini
Guarini here apphes the three-
dimensional form pioneered by
Borromini
(see 801) to a
pabce.
Bctwfeen the rectangular end-umts
of the building the fai;ade swings

backwards and forwards in a
double S curve that
the pediment
The form and
is
echoed by
over the centre.

detail
of
building influenced early
eighteenth-century palace
design in Austria.
this
^5h
trance door to the high altar. Here again
is
the scenographic
Guarino Guarini, Theatinc monk, lecturer
interest.
in phi-
275
813-815 San Lorenzo, Turin.

1668-87. Guarini
and cupola.
form is a square, but
half-way up there is inserted
an octagon whose sides
bend alternately in and out. This
Interior, plan
losophy and mathematics, dramatist,
well as architect,
as
belongs to a younger generation than Longhena, and the
men of the Roman High Baroque
great
further. This
makes
cribe briefly.
Roughly speaking,
minesque, while
pecuharly
his buildings
He
(1624-83).
of Borromini, and took
in fact, the disciple
difficult to des-
planning was Borro-
his
basic
serves as transition
to the complicated
effect
depends on the interaction of the two. The
in innite space.
The whole thing
interiors
cribed as a square with incursions, an octagon with excursions, or a
curvihnear Greek cross, but none of these for-
mulations hints at the spatial ambiguities

strange rib-vaulting
which
Spain but
ish vaulting in
in
Lisbon,
Cathohc
and
Prague;
Europe
central
of light and space. Guarini
made
in Turin, but
Paris
at the
used by Guarini, quite differ-
is
ently, to create mysterious effects
worked mainly
nor
set,
compared with Moor-
often
is
designs for churches
particularly
his influence
was
Roman
in
The
decisive.
pubhcarion of Guarini's papers, Architettura
civile
(1737;
edited by Vittone), confirmed this influence.
France
in
the Seventeenth Century
the turmoil of the
After
civil
wars came a period of
reconstruction and rationahsation, mirrored in the architecture
of the
first
decade of the century. While a few pri-
vate buildings continued the Mannerist tendencies of the
preceding decades, the scene
dominated by
is
practical
schemes for the improvement of Paris and by unpretentious
whose simple harmonies
buildings
refmed classicism of the
later
clear the
ground
for the
The
seventeenth century.
Pont Neuf was completed, the Rue Dauphine planned, the

Place
Dauphine and the Place des Vosges
Royale) were
units,
built.
These
(originally Place
'squares' are enclosed residential
but the Place de France (planned 1610; not executed)
was intended
a city gate
to provide an imposing entrance to the city:
would have
led into a semi-circular space
to eight radiating streets
named
and
the provinces of
after
France, symbolising the hoped-for unity of the country.
The first great building of the century is the Palais du

Luxembourg in Paris, designed by Salomon de Brosse (begun 1615). De Brosse based himself in his planning on the
chateau of Verneuil and on de I'Orme's intentions for the
Tuileries palace, while his elevations are
acter
by
his use
courtyard of the Palazzo
Pitti
Marie de Medicis's, home). The

mass and soHdity.
trated also
by
governed
De
in
Florence
result
is
tall late
When
effort
was
of great
is
illus-
Gothic nave, he adapted the

influential type
de Brosse died in 1626,
premier architecte to the king
most of whose
I'Orme
church of St Gervais (1616)
Anet frontispiece and thus established an

front.
patron's,
(his
a building
Brosse's debt to de
his facade for the
in order to cover the
of church
in char-
of rusrication derived from Ammanati's
went
spent,
his post
of
to Jacques Lemercier,
however,
in service
king's chief minister. Cardinal RicheHeu. For
of the
him Lemercier
designed and buQt the chateau of Richeheu, a large formal

lay-out between Charleval and Versailles, the httle
town
of Richeheu on a chequerboard plan, and the church
of the Sorborme
in Paris.
With
this
church (begun 1635),
this
one gets an
impression of network hanging
plan of San Lorenzo, Turin (begun 1668) could be des-
of his
dome above
of intersecting arches.
Looking through
was highly personal the
his vaulting
is,
invention
his
The
has been achieved
architecturally, not, as later,
with trompe-roeil painting.
RENAISSANCE
276
816 Palais du Luxembourg^

Begun 1615.
Salomon de Brosse
The planning was
based
rT
ijf.
on the
chateau of Verneuil and the

elevation echoes in
rustication
its
the courtyard of the Fitti palace.
The
result
a building
is
of great mass and
solidity.
817 Houses. Place des Vosges,

Paris. 1605-12
Housing development in Paris,

Amsterdam, began
to be planned. As well as the large
as in
hotels, the equivalent
of the
ItaUan palazzos,
smaller houses began to be built in

squares, like the Place des
Vosges, which were enclosed

residential units.
818 St Gervais. Paris.

Facade. 1616.
Salomon de Brosse
This taiâde had to correspond
to the
De
tall
Gothic interior.
Brosse adapted for
this
purpose
the French Renaissance frontispiece
used by de I'Orme at Anet

and Lescot on the Louvre (765)
and thus established a new kind
as
of church front that was
much
imitated in France and elsewhere.
819 Val-de-Grace, Paris.
Begun
1645.
Francois Mansart and
Jacques Lemercier
longitudinal
centrally
church with a
planned crossing.
Mansart was responsible for

the planning of the church
and
up
execution
Its
to the
first
cornice;
Lemercier completed the building,

the
dome
particularly
revealing his style

(see the
dome of the Church
of the Sorbonne,
822).
820 Church of the Invalides,

1680-91.
Paris,
Jules
Hardouin Mansart
There
is
a fluidity here
which the
earher Baroque of the Sorbonne

lacks, particularly .-.pparent
in the handling of the base of the
cupola.
The west
in bays
towards the centre,
front projects
and the columns

arc very freely arranged.
821 Hotel Lambert, Paris. 1640.

Louis le Vau
Increasing prosperity in France
led to the building
of magnificent
town houses.
The general pattern
consisted
of
hving quarters shielded from

the street
by
a forecourt
with garden, and sometimes other

courts beyond.
1I
\t
tl fi s7
={
FRANCE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
of
a ^rcat age
France.
Rome
of
to the
and combines with
that seems reactionary, but
it
this
an emphatic verticality
heralds later
Baroque develop-
contemporary
ments, and a remarkably cool
classical interior.
there
The middle of the seventeenth century in France

a culture at once classical
marked by the flowering of
national, that echoes the classical climax
earher but far exceeds
in
syncratic
on
Greek
cross
two elongated arms.

age of Baroque church
building in France.
Together with the Val-de-Grace
and the Invahdes, it made

Paris second to Rome as leader in
pre-eminently, of Francjois Mansart
modem
church design.
generally classical but embodies idio-
is
and Baroque elements. The Hotel de

shows Mansart imposing
a building type
churches,
This church foreshadowed
598-1666). In his mature works Mansart succeeded in
Paris (1635),
Roman
considerable freedom
its
a great
the age of Descartes, ComeiUe, Poussin and Claude,
creating a style that
825
with
and refmement.
and
architecture,
is
in the handling of the
and
of a hundred years
in breadth, depth
it
is
It is
(i
822, 823 Church of the

Sorbonae, Paris. Begun 1635.
Jacques Lemercier
Exterior and plan.
Restrained compared with the
Baroque church-design opens in

contemporary early Baroque
classical
owes much
It
277
clarity
la
troubled by planning
still
and by Mannerist elaboration of
surface.
He
Vrilhere,
and dignity
difficulties
contributed
of Blois a wing (1635-38) that retains the
to the chateau
massive monumentality of a de Brosse building but replaces
weighty detailing with a surface of unprecedented
his
nesse; in
from
824
ground
different
and garden
the court
fi-
planning he solved bnUiantly problems arising
its
and different centre axes on

The chateau of Maisons (begun
levels
side.
and apparently designed and rede-
1642), completelv his
signed with great freedom, represents Mansart's genius at
Two
height.
its
logis are
short returns at either end of the corps de
the only remnants of the traditional wings, but
two modest
front
ant
marked by
is
some
buildings stood
flanking the approach to
it.
distance
The
from
the house
centre of the entrance
a frontispiece, a sophisticated
of that of Anet; other elements, such
descend-
as the high,
divided roofs, help to break the building into pavilionlike
held
units,
together
The oval rooms
treatment.
by
unifying
elevarional
in the one-storey
end bays of
the
the short returns suggest kmship with the Baroque, as does

the open-centred, coved ceiling over the staircase, through
which one looks
The
dome
into a
lit
from hidden windows.
entrance hall and staircase are white throughout: col-
824 Chateau of Maisons.
Begun
umns, mouldings and occasional pieces of carefully placed
and individual value
sculpture are given full

in
which they
sart
exist. In ecclesiastical architecture, too,
made important
contributions.
church of Ste Marie de

is
at
older E-shaped house.
The
(begun 1632),
which the wings swing out

in two main and
classically demarked storeys.
in Anet. In the httle chapel
and the same artangement,
transepts,
derived from Palladio,
is
entrance-front has a
magnificent centrepiece, from
1645) he uses a central plan with three apses
(c.
forming chancel and
819
Mansart entirely remodelled an
Man-
centrally planned
la Visitation, Paris
development of the chapel
Frcsnes
The
1642.
Fran9ois Mansart
by the Hght
used for the eastern portion of
the large longitudinal church of Val-de-Grace in Paris (be-
gun
first
The upper
1645).
porrions of this church, above the
cornice, are not Mansart's, but his
is
825 Hotel de
the splendid plan,
the projecting porrico, the fine detailing of nave
and
trio
Designed for Louis Phelypeaux

later
de
of Parisian
as a centre for
Louis
and
le
Vau
his fine
made Paris second to

monumental, modern church design.
detail,
but through his
more
har-
Illlfl
monious nature and greater adaptabihty he was acceptable

world of
time.
The Hotel Lambert
821
to
826
(1640) and the College des Quatre Nations,
the social
his
now
It
and simphcity which

has rarely been surpassed.
a clarity
(1612-70) lacked Mansart's inventive genius
handUng of
la Vrilliere, this
town house was to serve as

the model for many others.
seventeenth-century churches which
Rome
la Vrilliire,
1635.
Francois Mansart
aisles.
Val-de-Grace joins the church of the Sorbonne and the
church of the Invahdes to form the great
Paris.
the Institut
825
ha
RENAISSANCE
278
826 College des Quaere Nations,
Begun
Paris.
l66i.
Le Vau
An uudmtional
Each portion
library)
is
building conceived
manner.
in the classical
chapel and
(e.g.
concealed
symmetry of
in the
the overall
design.
The
designer's chief concern
fa^de and the
scenic effect
The
the cour d'honneur.

is
now
is
the
of
building
the Institut.
827 Chateau of
Vaux-ie-Vicomte. Begun 1657,
Le Vau
Here the open
style
brought for the

to
its
The
of chateau was
time
first
logical conclusion.
steep roof contrasts strangely
with the
classical cupola.
Classical portico
and pediment,
the giant Ionic pilasters,
and symmetrically placed windows
compose
a f^âde
appearance has
whose
little
strurtural
rooms behind it.

Here IS embodied an experiment
which was later developed
relevance to the
at Versailles.
828 Versailles
An enormous undertaking which
took nearly a hundred years to
build and which still remains
in the
imagination
the pattern for a
supreme palace
of an absolute monarch.
Originally a hunting lodge,
it
was enlarged by Louis le Vau,

later by Jules Hardouin
and
Mansart.
The gardens were begun in 1667

by Andre Le Notre.
The roof line is severely horizontal
instead of steeply pitched.
The repetition on this

windows and classical
scale
of
orders, in
symmetry,
monotonous. As in Vaux-leVicomte the gardens and park are
an integral part of the design
and are plaimed along a central axis
perfect
is
springing from the centre
of the building.
SPAIN IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
(begun 1661), show

827
his
Baroque concern with the expressive
shaping of space, and in the chateau of Vaux-le-Vicomte
mon-
(begun 1657) he created one of the most magnificent
uments of
rich
this
sculptural mass,
age in French culture.
wing-less
by the
has splendid interiors decorated
it
279
829. 830 Royal Chapel,

Versailles.
1699-1707.
Robert de Cone
and Jules Hardouin Mansart
Even
this
royal chapel
is
treated
most grandiose
classical manner such as was used
in the
foremost
artists
by Le Notre
of the age and stands
in a park designed
of the house. All
to continue the axis
this
manifested an ideal of courtly splendour which was soon
on an even greater
to be realised
scale at Versailles.
Something of France's growing self-confidence

tural matters
831
came
the royal palace. Bernini
to Paris
make
designs for
and made
Bernini departed. Almost at once
his de-
new
of the
signs; the king laid the foundation stone
work
build-
stopped.
committee consisting of Le Vau, the premier
Le Brun, the premier
chitecte,
in cul-
XIV's chief minister
Colbert invited the renowned Bernini to
In 1667 a
The exterior decoration is far

more exuberant than Mansart's
earher work at Versailles.
can be gauged from the story of the comple-
tion of the Louvre. In 1665 Louis
ings;
for large churches.
and Claude
peiiitre,
physician and amateur architect, produced a
ar-
Perrault,
new
design
which was in fart carried out, which is radicaUy different

from Bernini's or any ItaHan Baroque building, and which
new
estabhshed a
type of semi-traditional, semi-Baroque
but entirely French, secular architecture.
9ade
The long
east fa-
broken by central and terminal projertions, but
is
low roof
is
hidden by a balustrade
{a I'italienne),
its
and the
horizontal division of the facade into a massive base and an
upper portion recessed behind coupled columns lend to the
whole
-830
which reappears
a horizontahty
at Versailles.
There Le Vau encased and extended an early seventeenthcentury hunting-lodge (from 1669) and
later Jules
Hardouin
Mansart (1646-1708) added generously to Le Van's already

large building.
With
the
all
lavished
skill
on
its
intenor,
and the Cyclopean gestures made over the unpromising
by Le Notre, with
terrain
the several splendid buildings
ererted in the park, not to mention grottoes and fountains,
paradigm of regal magnificence, which
Versailles
became
rulers all
over Europe were tempted to emulate.
Hardouin Mansart was much more than the en-
Jules
larger of Versailles he
;
chitert than he
is
was
in fart a far
more impressive
ar-
often given credit for, even if he did not
quite prove his artistic right to the use of his great-uncle's
820
name. His Invalides church (1680-91)

detailed
and
is
handsomely
and very dramatic example of French Baroque,
his Place
Vendome
of Baroque town
(1698)
architerture.
is
one of the masterpieces
Baroque
in
its
a square as setting for the statue of a king,
conception of
it is
classical in
the design of the house facades, and adventurously practical

in the
arrangement that the uniform fagades were
the city authorities
who
could then
the fa9ades to individuals to build
make
possible his great activity,
a large
eral
architertural
of the leading
office,
J.
sell
on
as
built
by
the plots behind
they wished.
To
H. Mansart organised
out of which emerged sev-
architects
of the next generation.
831
The
of Ribera,
over Bernini,
Murillo, of Cervantes, Tirso de
MoUna and
Cal-
deron, produced surprisingly httle of architertural interest.

Pohtically she
is
in decline,
and
this decline turns into a collapse.
as
the century progresses
On
all sides
who had
been brought to France especially

to
make
designs
for this part of the

finally
built,
Louvre
this
structure
within French traditions
Zurbaran, Velasquez,
Cano and
wing
represents the total assimilation
Spain in the Seventeenth Century

the century
design of this
of the Louvre represents

a triumph of French architects
as
Spain, in
The Louvre. East
fafade, 1667-70
she
is
beset.
of the
classical
idiom.
RENAISSANCE
28o
832, tI33 Queen's House,
anil
Greenwich. 1616-35.
Inigo Jones
ilinost be sufficient to say that architecturally Spain
Extcnor and
first
by 1701 she
is
of
distant province
floor plan.
a phase
of the century but
in contrast
with the Baroque.
Italy.
shots of
Baroque
of this
is
An
imusually magnificent illustra-
the chapel of San Isidro added to the church
or saloon, a fatâde of great
of San Andres
in
In the later part
of the century Unks with
which was originally bmlt

astride the old London-Dover
road. This building
now
is
the National Maritiine
Museum.
occasionally injected with invigorating
spirit.
tion
entrance being inside the building
is
After Hcrrera's classicism comes
This has a large central gallery
symmetry and simplicity with

rusticated ground storey,
flanked by unadorned wings.
The staircase shown is the
garden entrance - the main
would
It
of looser Mannerism which continues through most
Inigo Jones based his classicism
on PaUadio and the north Italian

architects. His lack of ornament
is
the property of the Bourbons.
IS
Madrid (1642-69, by Pedro de
ened by the increasing employment of
Torre).
la
Rome are
strength-
on out-
Italians
standing commissions and by the closer study by Spaniards
of contemporary work in
Italy.
Carlo Fontana himself de-
Regium
signed the great Jesuit Collegium
Loyola (1681)
and almost
at
a large plain rectangular building interrupted
dominated by
a circular
much
but
in Venice,
church (hke Sta Maria della Salute
What
duller).
saves this period of
Spanish architecture from utter provincialism are the occa-
beginning to re-assert
sional signs that native traditions are
When
themselves against styhstic domination.
Francisco
Herrera the Younger designed the church of Nuestra Se-
nora del Pilar in Saragossa (1680) he sought to
and splendour and planned
naissance in size
even
traditional lines;
church, with
in its
much
it
on
essentially
altered execution, the
azulcjo-covered domes,
its
rival the
Middle Ages and the early Re-
great churches of the late
in
is
many ways
a non-Renaissance building. In the following century this
affirmation of Spanish taste coalesces with Rococo and other

influences to present a brief flowering
of inventive design.
Palladianism in Northern Europe

work of
Palladian elements have been noted in the

(jois
Fran-
Mansart and can be found elsewhere, but in northern
Europe, particularly where Protestantism produced some

834 Banqueting House,
aversion
from Roman Baroque splendour,
Wlutehall. 1619-22.
Inigo Jones
Such a building as this was
acceptable to countries
revolutionary in England.
of
ple provided an alternative tradition
Classicism suddenly replaced the
conglomeration of Tudor
and medieval styles which up
then had
shown
till
classical
influences only in their decoration.
where
exam-
classicism,
hitherto the understanding
design had been partial at best.
classical
In England, Palladianism
tomed
Palladio's
of adaptable
to a melange of
was imposed on a public accus-
Tudor and northern Renaissance
elements by one man, Inigo Jones (1573-1652).
It
true
is
wave of humanism
associated with the names of Ben Jonson, Francis Bacon
and George Chapman, but there is nothing in English architecture to make a transition from the mixed style of
that the Jacobean age
brought with
House (1607-11)
Hatfield
of Jones's Queen's House
it
to the Mediterranean classicism

at
Greenwich (1616-35) or
his
Banqueting House (1619-22). These buildings suggest not

835 Houses on Priazengracht,
Amsterdam
The seventeenth century saw
merely
real
understanding of Palladio's work, which
Jones had studied in
an enormous planned development
of classicism was
of Amsterdam.
Palladio to the
Built along canals in a continuous
Italy,
they also show that Jones's grasp
sufficient to
allow him to range beyond
High Renaissance,
him
to enable
to distin-
guish between classical and Mannerist elements in Italian
facade, the brick houses

tall and thin because of lack
of room.
are
The house
faiâdes are
harmonious
but different, unlike
design,
The
and to permit him to handle them

Palladian style
creatively.
to the Netherlands in the 1630s,
possibly under English influence. There too
the uniformity of Parisian
a sharp departure
and English
Hague
'squares'.
came
as a
from current
style:
it
it
represented
emerged
in
The
comparatively aristocratic fashion, whereas ar-
chitectural activity
had
until then
been dominated by
sterdam and by Hendrik de Keyser.
De Keyser
Am-
(1565-1621)
had transformed the medieval Dutch house into a Renais-
ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE FROM THE RESTORATION TO GEORGE
sance building by applying pilasters and strapwork.
He
had
by
also built the first iniptirtant Protestant churches
281
836 Mauritshuu,
The Hague. Begun
1633.
Pieter Post
adapting medieval plans and using Renaissance detail: the
Zuiderkerk and Westerkerk
planned on the Greek cross
of Protestant
series
(1603 and 1620
His third church, the Noorderkcrk (1620),
respectively).
is
Amsterdam
in
and
basis
the
is
planned
centrally
of a long
first
and Jacob van Campen

This building suggests Palladio
seen through the eyes
of Inigo Jones because

of its restraint and elegance.
The
churches.
Netherlands had also experienced a short period of Frenchinspired architecture connerted with Prince Frederick
of Orange and
his court: Honsclaarsdijk Castle
Henry
(begun 1621)
clearly inspired by de Brosse.

The new classicism is announced by two town houses
in The Hague, both of them begun in 1633: Constantin
is
Huygens's house, designed by Huygens with the architect

836
and the nearby Mauritshuis designed
Pieter Post (1608-69),
by
Pieter Post
and the gentleman-architect Jacob van
pen (1595-1657). Neither
is
Cam-
simply imitated from Palladio:
Huygens's house inclines to contemporary French planning, while the Mauritshuis suggests Palladio seen through
mark
the eyes of Inigo Jones, but both
assured
Hall (both
774
837
soon followed, such
Others
classicism.
Sebastiansdoelen in
The Hague
by Arent
civic pride
van Campen
monument to
van's Gravesande). In 1648

hall, a
1648-As.
Jacob van Campen

Main entrance hall.
The classical style which
is
the
chief characteristic of the plan and

fatâde
is
of the palace
{see 774)
perpetuated in the interior.
and thus the Netherlands' equivalent to
the royal palaces of other countries
Dutch produced
the
as
(1636) and the Leiden Cloth
began the great Amsterdam town
Dutch
the arrival of self-
837 Amsterdam town hall

(now the Royal Palace).
to a real palace
is
the nearest thing the
modest Huis ten
the
Bosch, designed by Post (begun 1645).
The building of the
848
great
Augsburg town
can be taken to mark a Palladian
Designed by
Elias Holl,
it
hall (161 5-1 8)
moment
in
Germany.
makes an extreme contrast with
the almost purely medieval buildings that stood around
but
its stylistic
than Palladio in particular.
two other
HoU
himself designed one or
but no Palladian
classical buildings,
followed, and the Thirty Years
German
it,
debt suggests northern Italy generally rather
War
movement
(1618-48) left the
scope for ambitious architecture for
states httle
most of the century.
English Architecture
FROM THE Restoration to George
1649-56.
Although the
in the second
This attenuated Baroque church
838
New
Church, The Hague.
Van Bassen and Noorwits
chmate of England
cultural
half of the century
is
very different from that of the
first
type
is
more common
in
Belgium
than in the Netherlands.
half the classicism of Inigo Jones continues

design.
The long
of the English court
of
The
plan
is
composed of two
in the
Nether-
overlapping squares with six
lands and in France encouraged wide eclecticism,
and the
apsidal bays.
exile
Roman High Baroque
influenced England directly and
An
through French adaptations.

to the Netherlands
Kent
(1663), but
is
seen in
more
typical
Wren
extreme example of debt
Hugh May's Eltham

is
influences as often seen in the
work of
ing and practical sense of a great
London
(1666), he
Sir Christopher
scientist.
As
a result of
found himself engaged
on replarming the whole City, designing

as
Lodge,
the interweaving of these
(1632-1723). Wren brought to architecture the learn-
the Great Fire of
-841
as the basis
fifty-one churches
well as rebuilding the cathedral of St Paul, apart from
many
other commissions from kings, universities,
Greek
cross project for St Paul's (1673)
England a more exciting
etc.
His
would have given

and more Baroque buildmg than
the clergy could accept, so
Wren produced
a deceptively
RENAISSANCE
282
839-841 St Paul's Cathedral.
traditional (design (1675)
London. 1675-1710.
execution.
Sir Christopher
Extcnors and
Originally
Greek
He was
designed
form
parts although
its
cross.
Wren dominated
The needs of
The
less
proportionately small
to the original central shape
crowned by the dome.

The building is serenely
not satisfactory in
its
is
many of
great in
styles,
and a
totality,
remarkable victory over conservatism.
the traditional longitudinal shape.

is
to alter in
Protestant cathedral,
first
conglomeration of Renaissance
forced to adapt this to
aisle
which he was allowed
the
result,
interior.
Wren
St Paul's in the
of
Wren
The
classical.
learned
lesser
both church and court architecture.

patrons were met by, on the whole,
in
hmitcd hold that
London
The end of
had outside court,
still
circles.
saw the creation of
the century
that can be called
Edward Jerman, whose

some idea of the
as
(1671) gives
design
classical
church and university
the
such
architects,
Royal Exchange
Baroque but
new
style
considerably from
differs
Baroque of kaly and France and has some of the
anti-
authoritarian characteristics of Mannerism. Individual ex-
Icanmg on picturesque
pression, the
effects
and extra-ar-
chitectural associations, warrant such descriptive
names
as
'Romantic Baroque' or even 'proto-Romanticism'. The
most obvious
of the
characteristic
style
is
its
emphasis on
physical mass and weight. This was hinted at in
Cambridge
library;
his assistants
made
Wren's
appears clearly in the designs he and
it
for a
new
Whitehall Palace (about 1699).
Something of the kind already appears
in
WiUiam
Tal-
man's additions to Chatsworth, Derbyshire (1687-96). FuUy

exploited,
it
way.
and
London churches between
John Vanbrugh.
Vanbrugh (1664-1726) came to
1723,
and
171 2
Sir
architecture the amateur's
In 1699 he built a very original,
for himself
keep-hke
house
Uttle
and was commissioned by a friend to build
Howard
a large country house, Castle

1
who
marks the work of Nicholas Hawksmoor,
designed a group of
in Yorkshire.
In
705 he was commissioned to design another large country
house, Blenheim, near Oxford. In both cases he had the
Hawksmoor,
help of the experienced
masterpiece of the style
monument
to the
to
whom
some of
must go. Blenheim
the credit for these buildings
a palace and a
castle,
Duke of Marlborough's
the
is
and a
vast
victory over the
French in Bavaria. At Greenwich, Vanbrugh buUt for him-
and
self a httle brick castle, turrets

rically placed entrance
similar plan
is
all,
with an asymmet-
and otherwise an Ehzabethan
Vanbrugh's fmest Independent work,
(1720),
sense of
plan.
used for Seaton Delaval, Northumberland
drama and
of
full
his
the superhuman.
Netherlands: Later Seventeenth Century

842 Royal Exchange, London.
Some
167I (burnt 1838).
England's massive Baroque style
Edward Jerman
later
buUdings
seventeenth-century
suggest
may have been
the Netherlands, at least in part.
that
from
learnt
The Trippcnhuis
Am-
in
In spite of the classical
buildmgs of Jones and Wren,

classicism apart
from court,
church and university architecture,
was
still
sterdam (Justus Vingboons, 1662) suggests the direction of
Talman's Chatsworth. The
New
a strange
idiom, handled without real

understanding of
or principles.
its
syntax
Am-
Lutheran church in
sterdam (Adrian Dortsman, 1669) has something of the
town
English architects' aggressive monumentality. The

halls
of Enkhuizen (i686,
S.
Vennekool) and Deventer
(1693, J. Roman) have some of

Hawksmoor.
By
this time,
the tough detailing
however, the Netherlands are already
ing under the spell of France.
Soon
it
is
difficult to
of
fall-
distm-
guish between provincial French and Dutch architecture,
and the Dutch contribute
little
to
European architecture
between 1700 and the end of the nineteenth century.
THE NETHERLANDS: LATER SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
283
843 Gfecnwich Hospital.

166Z-1814.
Webb
and Wren
Inigo Jones's Queen's
House
(see 832, 833)
forms the centrepiece of
this great
symmetrical composition (right
John Webb, a pupil of

added the 'King Charles
centre).
Jones,
Block' (1662-69) by the river

(lower right).
The enormous Corinthian order

was echoed by Wren in his
complete plan which
constitutes a large-scale, composite
building in the classical manner.
The
buildings are
now
the
Royal Naval College.
844 Chatsworth House,

Derbyshire. 1687-96.
William Talman
is Talman's most important
work, although he was not
This
responsible for the whole.
The
plan, living
round
groups arranged
a courtyard,
rather dull, but the Ionic facade
is
and other enrichments are

magnificent.
84s Clarendon Library,

Oxford. 1714.
Hawksmoor and Towoesend
Townesend, a mason-architcct
who had a hand in most of
the Oxford buildings at this time,
built the University Printing
House (now Clarendon Library)

to Hawksmoor's design.
most
Its
distinctive feature
is
the
giant Doric ponico.
846 Blenheim Palace,

Oxfordshire. Begun 1705.
Sir
John Vanbrugh
by the nation
Presented
Marlborough,
this
to
was to
rival the
great palaces of the continent.
great cour d'honneur
by two
is
blocks, each built
flanked
round
secondary court,
the
whole
perfectly symmetrical.
The curved colonnade
decoration
of the entrance front

and its broken line are
in contrast
to the otherwise rectilinear form.
There
is
Baroque profusion
of decoration, which
heavy and clumsy

as
handled here.
is
particularly
RENAISSANCE
284
France trom about 1715 to about 1760;

Rococo AND the CLASSICAL TRADITION
847 Vanbrugh castle,

Greenwich, c. I717.
Vanbrugh
Vanbrugh
built this 'basliUc' for
himself about six years after

his
house
at
Eshcr.
Built of brick with pointed roofs

and round towers,
it
the emergence of a
reaction against the formal magnificence of the
The
Versailles court.
much domestic
new style,
Rococo. In many ways
followiiig decades see
building activity in Paris and the climax of a
has asynunetrically placed
entrances and other 'medieval*

features,
The death of Louis XIV permitted

growing
primarily one of decoration, the
although with an
Rococo
the
Elizabethan plan.
contradicts the
was developed:
and formal
solid
marked by
it is
Baroque
style,
out of which
qualities
of the Baroque. Architecturally
simplified fa<jades, using the orders only
with large windows and comfortable
rarely,
it
opposes Hghtness and fluency to the more
it
scale
and pro-
more gracious than imposing, and

great advances are made in convenience and hygiene. As
a style of domestic architecture, the Rococo was widelv
portions. Planning
848 Augsburg town
hall.
1615-18.
Eiias Holl
Palladian influence
showed
In
Germany
cut short
the
imitated; in central
Europe
Baroque to
joyous
movement was
by the Thirty Years War.
create a
Although
itself
throughout northern Europe.
is
was combined with ItaUan

of church architecture.
it
style
architects in France continued to support clas-
of design, the Rococo
sical principles
Soon, however, a return to the

itself
The
1733)
is
severely classical in
the
its
may
Rococo cenainly EngUsh
their praaice.
showed
classical tradition
facade of St Sulpice in Paris
temporary Palladianism
did imply a
style
weakening of the hold of these principles on
lower
(J.
N. Scrvandoni,
storeys.
EngUsh con-
have aided the exorcism of
work
influence appears in the
of the greatest French architect of the period, Ange-Jacques

Gabriel
non, Versailles
owing
building,
use
the
its
simple proportions and the external
of columns to Enghsh example, square
linear in
in
whose buildings give httle indiRococo had ever happened. The Pent Tria(1762), is his most perfect work: a modest
(1698-1782),
cation that the
internal divisions
its
Rococo had
Paris
in plan, recti-
and external forms, where
The Ecole MUitaire
liked to use curves.
(begun in 175 1) adds
French type of
to a Palladian porticoed block. Nevertheless, the
of Gabriel's work
characteristic
a return to the
is
dome
dominant
French
tradition as defined eighty or ninety years earlier. This
the quality, for example, of his Place de

1757)
and
its
buildings,
la
which should be compared with
the contemporary, but Rococo, town-planning

849 Heerengracht, Amsterdam
First
of the three
great concentric canals to be built

in the
seventeenth century,
is
Concorde (begun
scheme
Nancy by Here de Corny (begun 1752).

The 1750s and 1760s witnessed also an international
in
de-
bate questioning the principles and practices of Renaissance

design, to
which France made important contributions and
the others being the Kcizcrsgracht
and the Prinzengracht. The
which
spelled the
end of the Renaissance period.
romantic combination of buildings
and water, the elegance of the

bridges, have made later
travellers call
Amsterdam
'Venice of the North*.
the
Baroque and Rococo
in
Central Europe
Baroque architecture came to the Catholic countries of

central
Europe
in the last decades
tury, usually at the hands

hi northern
rily to the
Germany,
Netherlands.
The end of
outstanding by any standards,

to coincide with a great
The
is
first
in this part
brandt. Schluter
saw the
some of them
who had the good fortune
wave of
architects,
building activity almost
German and
Austrian architects
von Erlach and Hdde1674-1714) worked in Prussia, endeav-
Scliliiter,
[c.
was prima-
the cerftury
of Europe.
generation of
dominated by
Italian designers,
architectural allegiance
emergence of a number of native
everywhere
of the seventeenth cen-
of second-rate
Fischer
FRANCE FROM ABOUT I715 TO ABOUT I760
285
850 Flemish Academy, Ghent.

1745-
D.
Kint
't
At a time when the Low Countries

were under Austrian tutelage,
Flemish architecture was
inclined to
show
characteristics
of
Austrian and French as well

as native styles.
The Flemish Academy
presents a
synthesis of the various
elements, yet for the period

it
is
more Flemish than
otherwise.
851 St Sulpice, Paris.

Facade, begun 1733.
J.
N. Servandoni
combination of tower and
two-riered portico.
This
is
an early example of the
stricter classicism
that succeeded the
Rococo.
852 Trippenhuis, Amsterdam.

1662.
Vingboons
Justus
Built for the
two brothers Tripp,
and more
grandiose than most Dutch town
houses of the time. It is
this
larger
IS
similar in design to Vingboons's
Stockholm Riddarhuset.
853 Ecole Militaire, Paris.

1751-53Ange-Jacques Gabriel
Gabriel's plan for the Ecole
represents a
marked development
in the planning
of
complex pubhc
buildings.
The
large,
facade culmirmtes in a
portico surmounted
by
huge
four-sided version of the
Roman
dome.
854 Enkhuizen town

S.
hall. 1686.
Vennekool
Typical of the
late
seventeenth-
century Dutch work, which

turns
more
directly to the
Baroque and was soon
to
become
very close to provmcial
French building of the period.
855 Hotel Soubise, Paris

1705-09. Delamair
This represents a transition between
the older, grandiose hotels
of the previous century and the

smaller, more intimate ones of
Louis
XV.
Externally the old palazzo

features
of pediment and portico
are
there, joined here with
still
colonnaded formal garden-court.
RENAISSANCE
286
8s Royal Palace, Berlin.

1498-1707
Pan of south
for Frederick
his Berlin
something of the
facade.
by Andreas
Built
curing in
for
Schliiter
of Prussia, the
Roman
Royal Palace (1698-1707) to express

power.
rising state's
own
grandeur; his
villa,
He consciously strove
the Landhaus
Kamecke,
near Berlin (1711-12), shows a curiously naked kind of
Berhn Schloss is an impressive

example of Baroque classicism.
Borrominesque Baroque. Opportunities were greater
(Now
Vienna,
destroyed.)
now
playing the role of imperial capital.
J.
in
B.
von Erlach (1656-1723) had spent about fifteen years

Rome and was parricularly familiar with the High Ba-
Fischer
in
roque of Bernini. But
enormous
his
project for a royal
Schonbrunn (about 1695) seems intended to rival

French architeaure, and in fart his architertural style hovers
palace at
between the French and the

strates
erable
Italian, as well as demonsome knowledge of English architerture and considknowledge of the ancients'. His familiarity with
Roman Baroque
appears in the four churches he designed
for Salzburg, including the large Kollegienkirche (1696).
The Batthyany-Schonborn Palace, Vienna
(1700),
is
subtly
shaped building, using deUcate ornament and a sUght pro-
The suburban
jection with great effert.

857 Schonbrunn Palace,
Vienna. Begun about 1695.
(1710)
more
is
severe
may
Palladianism which
von Erlach
von Erbch had spent fifteen
years in Rome where he came
Palais
Trautson
and suggests a tendency towards

have been caused by a
visit
to
Fischer
Fischer
under the influence of Borromini
England. Generally, however, Fischer von Erlach's

buildings are comparatively severe.
na (1716-37)
The
later
Karlskirche in Vien-
an extraordinary building, combining Ba-
is
and Bernini.
roque plaiming with strong
His enormous project
Schonbrunn seems however

hover between the Italian
for
to
classicising
ing
it)
Blenheim, the Karlskirche

as a
is
buildmg, fuU of symbohcal content
it
flank-
Like
as well
shows some-
more
fully repre-
A Plan of Civil and Historical Architecture (1721).
sented in his
last
effert.
monument
a sculptural
thing of Fischer's historical scholarship,
His
columns
and organising these to great scenic
and the French.
work, the Vienna HofbibUothek (begun 1722)
shows him again
most elegantly
858 Karlskirche, Vienna.
elements (such as
the temple-front entrance and the historiated
at his
in a
more
dehcate, detailing the exterior
predominantly French manner;
nally he fashioned an essentially
Baroque
inter-
space.
I7KS-37-
Von
Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt (1668-1745) is the more

and the one most imitated by con-
Erlach
Here Baroque planning
combmed
with strong
ingratiating architert
is
classicising
He had
temporaries.
served as mihtary engineer under
elements such as the

temple-front entrance and the
historiaced
columns flanking
it.
Prince Eugene in northern

that he
Italy,
and
it
was for the prince
undertook to design the Lower and Upper Bel-
vederes (1714 and 1721) in the suburbs of Vienna.
more pamterly
architect
varied surface for his
than
fa<;;ades
Fischer,
and
He was
dehghting in a
in rich interiors.
He made
important contributions to church architerture, introducing, in his
church of St Lawrence
(1699), Guarini's
dirtine
at
Gabel in Bohemia
modelling of space, and, in the Bene-
abbey of Gottweig (begun
1719), setting a
new
standard in magnificence for these great religious palaces.

In Bavaria
there
developed two
distinrt architertural
streams, that of the court, firmly inclmed towards French
859 The Upper Belvedere,

Vienna. 1721-24.
L. Hildebrandt
The
a
ideal
of
a palace adjoining
landscaped park
set
became widely sought

This
summer
by
Versai'les
after.
residence built for
Prince Eugene of Savoy
architerture,
that
of the Church, inclining more towards
one of the
cois Cuvillies (1695-1768),
signers
anywhere, seen
finest
his best in the
at
Rococo de-
dehghtful httle
in the grounds of the Nymphenburg Palace

Munich (1734-39). Church architecture was dominated
by the brothers Asam Cosmas Damian, 1686-1739,
Amalienburg,
is
dehberately fantastic and Romantic.
and
and embodying
local traditions. Court architerture

was dominated by the Flemish-bom, Paris-trained FranItaly
near
first
and Egid Quirin, 1692- 1750; painter-architert and sculptor-architect respectively

who had studied in Rome;
XLI Hildebrandt : St Peter's,
Viei
r^
'^x'
-^
IB
i'
f-'^
EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: ITALY, SPAIN, ENGLAND
and then by Johann Michael Fischer (1691-1766). The
Asams made
Baroque forms of
use of
full
central plan-
ning and Baroque purposeful lighting, together with great
of
displays
how
Baroque problem of
865
sculptor. Fischer
is
inventive planner, tackling again the famihar
more
the
and
their skills as painter
tudinal elements.
combine
to
central
and longi-
Thus he turned the church of Ottobeuren

which had already been laid,
(1748-66), the foundations of
somethmg approaching
into
by various highly
formed
comparable compromise
of Rott-am-Inn
church
the
in
spatial
formed space under
a centrally
dome, and achieved
the drumless
skilled artists,
Decoration,
(1759-67).
is
subjected to the clearly
There were other church builders
units.
many of them
active in Bavaria at this time,
comparatively
simple men, capable of producing churches of great beau-
(168 5- 1 766; the e.\aCT
Dominikus Zimmermann
contemporary of Bach, Handel and
Domenico
Scarlatti),
whose pilgrimage church
(1746-54)
one of the most briUiant creations of the period.
The most famous of them
ty.
2,
864
is
These architects took
is
complex space
interest in the
little
Wies
at
modulation that Hildebrandt had learned from Guarini
and exploited
Gabel church.
in his
by the Dientzenhofers
863
church of
shows
at
Banz
in
its
monument
greatest
near Banz
ligen,
heim (begun 1747)

suggests
classical
861
is
done again
in the church of Vierzehnhei-
(designed
and exploring
1744),
The
several other churches.
and
this
the hero of this spatial polyphony, creat-
is
large
Neumaim was turning

his last years. Neumaim also
that
phase in
it
in
abbey church of Neres-
comparatively simple and
is
calm
more
to
one of
built
Wurzburg Residenz
of French Rococo with Austrian
the greatest palaces of the period, the
(begun 1719), a fusion
Baroque. There, and in the palaces of Bruchsal and Briihl
and
(1728
Neumann
1741),
created three of the
most
In
Saxony there was
between the archi-
a similar spUt
and of the
others.
Augustus the Strong
commissioned the Baroque extravaganza of the Dresden

868
Zwinger from Matthaus Daniel Poppelmann (1662-1736),

and
sent
for the
him
to
867
Rome
Vienna and to
to prepare himself
work. But when the Protestant city council wished
commissioned the
to build a great church, they

penter,
Georg Bahr, who produced

is
at
Dutch
The middle
Palladianism, was achieved
years of the century in fact
stylistic
ferred to again below, but

to the Gothic
confusion that will be re-
may
be indicated briefly here
Neuen Gate
in
Potsdam
designed by Frederick himself), the surprisingly
874
Potsdam town
hall (1753),
in 1750 in imitation
XLii Maiisart:
Galilei
is
Fontana Trevi,
(the
(faiâde
pact.
Ferdinando
1732-62),
Fuga
of Sta Maria Maggiore, 1741-43), and Alessandro

(facade of San Giovanni in Laterano, 1732-35). It
significant that
scenic
hands of
all
works whose value Ues in their environmental imPiedmont produced two outstanding architects: Fi-
hppo Juvarra
(1678-1736),
who
designed the vast royal
monumental church
palace at Stupinigi (1729-33) and the
of La Superga near Turin (1717-31); and Bernardo Vittone (1704/5-70), the editor of Guarini's papers,
sought to fuse the

best
and the
New
(1755,
classical
Palace, designed
of English and Dutch buildings.
Grand Trianon,
870
these could be described as primarily
work
is
of Guarini and Juvarra. Vittone's
styles
Bra (1742). In
the church of Sta Chiara at
Naples and Sicily a light
Baroque was followed by a
late
phase of Baroque classicism which found
its
climax in the
by Luigi Vanwas at this time
great royal palace at Caserta (begun 1752,

viteUi).
871
who
This kind of Baroque classicism
869
becoming an increasingly international style for palace

architerture and can be found in later eighteenth-century
Europe from London
to St Petersburg.
Early Eighteenth Century
Spain:
The
court style of Spain's
royal palace in
pupil
Juvarra's
Bourbon
rulers, as seen in the
Madrid (begun 1738

G.
B.
to the designs
represents
Sacchetti),
Itahan synthesis devoid of Spanish characteristics.

interesting, therefore, are such provincial
of
Franco-
achievements
as
Toledo Cathedral (1721-32,
the Transparente chapel in
Narciso Tome), and the sacristy of the Charterhouse in Gra-
nada (begun 171 3, decorated 1742-7). Here Spanish enthusiasm expressed
itself in a free richness that
than
this
to, say.
closer
Bavarian Rococo. Other striking examples of
great flowering of Spanish architeaural genius
last
of the cathedral of Santiago de
Sta Clara
eradicate
(c.
1750).
Com-
same town, the gate'nouse of
postela (1738-49), and, in the
royal edict of 1777, designed to
regionaUsm from Spanish architecture, ordered
the submission of all designs for civil

to the
comes
of early Renaissance northerners
to the paper inventions
academy
architectural
classicism
and rehgious buildings
for approval.
Thus Neo-
was imposed on Spain.
England: 1715-1760
Versailles
xliii Burlington:
Chiswick
tural atmosphere.
against
Almost
at
once there
Hawksmoor, and
new
is
a sharp reaction
of Wren, Vanbrugh and
English Baroque
the
movement
Palladian
is
estabhshed
with the powerful backing and example of Lord Burlington

(1694-1753).
of
Through
his associates,
ladian
It is
style
is
his
own
and through
designs,
his
and
firmly estabhshed
through the designs
their books, the Pal-
all
over the country.
a style that provincial squires and provincial designers
can learn to handle almost

architects,
and there
results
as
weD
as
the metropoUtan
a remarkably high level
of
architeaural production everywhere, supported by fine
Villa,
London
872
More
throne was accompanied by a considerable change of cul-
witnessed considerable
by reference
Salvi
at the
1723-25), Nicola
Stairs,
north a fme synthesis of southern Ba-
according to Voltaire), the French Rococo style
for his dwellings.
Francesco de Sanctis (the Spanish
city car-
a magnificent centrally
by Konrad Schlaun (1695-1773). In Prussia the Francophile

Frederick II demanded, and in part suppUed (fifty years
late,
quarter of the eighteenth century,
The estabhshment of the Hanoverian dynasty on the EngHsh
roque, with French and
too
first
once Baroque and northern
planned building which

in character. Further
the
lull in
enjoyed an architectural revival
are seen in the fa9ade
splendid staircases in an age of great splendour.
tecture of the ruler
Rome
Bfevnov, near Prague (1709-15)
Johann Dientzenhofer's abbey church

northern Bavaria. But Balthasar Neumann
a larger scale in
ing
at
developed longitudinally, and
it
on
(1687-1753)
866
experimented with
Christoph Dientzenhofer's abbey
Margaret
St
It is
Century
Italy: Early Eighteenth

After a
289
877
RENAISSANCE
290
860 Anulienburg,
Nymphenburg
palace,
near Munich. 1734-39Franfois Cuvillies

Built in the grounds of the royal
Nymphenburg.
palace of
this
shows strong French
influence.
CuviUies. Dutch-born, trained

in Paris before
working
for the
dukes of Bavaria.
861 Wiirzborg Residenz.

171SH44.
Johann Balthasar Neumann
Neumann
consulted with French
and Austrian
architects over
the plans for this episcopal palace.
862, 864
Church
at
Wies.
Bavaria. 1746-54.
Dominikus Zimmermann
Extenor and interior. One of the
many Bavarian churches built at
this time by German architects
showing the influence of haly.
This pilgrimage church is one
of the most
brilliant.
663 St Margaret abbey church,

Brevnov, near Prague. 1709-15.
Christoph Dientzenhofer
The spatial experiments which
culminated
in the
in
Germany
church of Vierzehnheiligen
were carried out
to
some
extent longitudinally in this
work
of Christoph Dientzenhofer.
865 Church at Ottobeuren,

Bavaria. 1748-66.
Johann Michael Fischer
Longitudinal foundations had
already been
laid,
but the architect
achieved something like a
formed space under
centrally
a
drumless dome.
866 Church at
Vierzehnheiligen, near Banz.
1744.
The
is
Neumann
interplay of spatial relations
brought to a pitch in
late Baroque German church.
thb
The
plan, at
ovals.
first
sight simple,
of overlapping
At vault height they are
does in
fact consist
separated
by three-dimensional
transverse arches.
EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
291
867 Frauenkirche, Dresden.

1726-40.
Georg Bahr
magnificent centrally planned
building, the Frauenkirche,
unfortunately destroyed, was one
of the best examples

of eighteenth-century Protesunt
building.
The
dome was
oval
built
of stone,
and the whole was arranged

somewhat like a pyramid.
868 The Zwinger. Dresden.

1711-22.
M. D. Poppelmann
This orangery and grandstand for
pageants was meant to be part
of an enormous electoral
palace for the rulers of Saxony.
It
has the most exuberant
swarming putti and

broken and swinging pediments Roman Baroque reduced
decoration,
in value.
869 Royal Palace, Caserta.
Begun
1752.
Luigi Vanvitelli
In Naples and Sicily a light late
Baroque was followed
by a phase of Baroque classicism
which found
its
cHmax
in
the great royal palace at Caserta.
870 San Giovanni in Laterano,
Rome.
Facade. 1732-35.
A. Galilei
Two
superimposed porticoes are
the basis for this fa<;ade.
The
idea of a wall has gone; the
fa(;ade
more
is
dropped
It IS
like a screen
in front
of the building.
broken into balconies.
871 La Superga, Turin. 1717-31.

Filippo Juvarra
The whole church

so that the
come
An
is
turned round,
dome and
apse
to the front.
entirely different kind
facade
of
therefore possible. This
is
north Italian architecture
remained nearer the
was
less
classical
Baroque than the
southern.
and
RENAISSANCE
292
87a Royftl paUce, Madrid.
Begun
1738.
G. B. Sacchetti
The coun
of Spain's Bourbon
style
rulers, as seen in the royal
by
palace, designed
of
a pupil
Juvarra, represents a Franco-Italian
of Spanish
synthesis devoid
characteristics.
873 Plan of Chiswick Villa,

near London. 1725.
Lord Burlington
Burlington has based
on
his building
Palladio's Villa Capra,
with apartments ranged round the
domed
tall,
hall.
The dome is octagonal with

arched windows in the drum.
874 Potsdam town

Germany. 1753
hall.
surprisingly classical building
for the time
Within
and
of
there appeared
the Gothic
New
place.
five years
this
building
Potsdam
Nauen Gate and
the
Palace.
an imitation of Castle Howard.
875. 876 Holkham HaU,

Norfolk. Begun 1734.
William Kent
Exterior and plan.
Palladian architecture in England
belonged par excellence

to the large country house, where,
unhke
in France, the
nobUity
spent most of their time.
The
central portico, as here,
was
widely used, giving importance

to the entrance-front.
These houses were designed

to be surrounded
by parkland.
877 Trans par en te,

Toledo Cathedral. 1721-32.
Narciso
The
Tom^
greatest excesses
of
illusionist
were reached
window was
architecture
Spain.
made
in the existing
in
Gothic vault,
the aperture concealed by
from behind and

from the top the sculptural
scenes above the altar.
sculpture, to hght
The sacrament
over the
altar,
is
Ht in a glass
box
hence "transparente".
878 Assembly Rooms, York.

1730. Burlington
Typical of the reaction against the
Baroque of Wren,
Vanbrugh and Mawksmoor
is
Neo-classical building based
on Vitruvim's account of the

Egyptian Hall.
this
DISINTEGRATION OF THE RENAISSANCE
craftsmanship and extraordinarily reliable
the moral intensity
John Wood the Elder

The greatest contribution
to
domestic architecture was
made
ing, via Palladios
architecture and scholarship, a revival
by the architect-speculators
working in Bath and London.
The Palladian faqide with
Roman
288,
of truly
873
as yet seen.
his fellows
London
(1725),
Palladio's
is
pediment
Roman
cover
is
here stretched to
row of
small houses.
terms of Palladio's reconstructions of the
in
classicised
baths.
Holkham
Norfolk (begun
Hall,
tempts something similar on a larger

878
had not
classicism such as the Renaissance
His Chiswick Villa,
Capra purified of sixteenth-century elements and
Villa
876
879 Queen Square, Bath. 1728.
taste.
by virtue of
with which he pursues his aim of achiev-
Burlington himself stands above
1.
293
1734), at-
The York
scale.
Assembly Rooms (1730) were based on Vitruvius's account

Hall, again interpreted with the help of
of the Egyptian
Palladio.
From Burhngton and
the concept of the English
his circle there also
landscape
emerged
garden, equally a
Twickenham. 1748 onwards
of the Georgian country house, but of particular
lines
importance
in that
involved the
it
first
most town planning and much
Exterior, plan and interior.
The Gothic
systematic explora-
of informal, 'piauresque' designing,
tion
880-882 Strawberry Hill,
formal
classicising invention, ideally suited to set off the
style
was
adopted by Horace Walpole for the
the basis of
still
enlargement of
architecture.
his cottage.
Until that time
role
its
Romantic movement had

been confined to foUies and
in the
Disintegration of the Renaissance
ruins.
The middle of the eighteenth century saw
the demolition of
the fundamental principles and assumptions of Renaissance
and
archaeologists
the
who
architects
AcropoUs and found there a
studied the
ruins
different and, as
aiming
Roman
architecture
architertural development,
and
of
Roman
East remnants of a
were
of
architecture
and
freer
less
an asymmetry of layout,
which manifest the hand of many

separate designers.
The
ceiling in this gallery recalls
the vaulting of the
Henry VII
chapel in Westminster Abbey.
Near
in the
at
and long gaUeries,
many
was only one phase of an
that there
from the
with medieval towers
maintained, a superior kind of beauty. Others discovered

that Imperial
selfnTonsciously
classical rectilinear plan,
The primacy of Rome was questioned by
architeaure.
This 'Gothic' house
depaned
880
The photograph of
the
exterior includes
Soon
austere design.
brought back sketches of
travellers
Egyptian, Indian and Chinese architecture, while nationaUst feeling
related
little
new
encouraged a
ings, until styles
came
structure
the
to
medieval build-
interest in
to be treated as ornamental surfaces
interchangeable according
and
beneath
the taste
to
therefore
of patron or
its
supposed appropriateness to the building's function.
At the same time writers questioned the function of

mathematical proportions, of symmetry and uniformity,
of
rules as such.
argued over the
While
architects, artists
rival merits
and men of
of Greek and
Roman
taste
design,
philosophers demolished the basic assumption that beauty
was
any way related to objective
in
criteria.
On the whole architeas were not hasty to exploit the freedom these tendencies suggest the rule of taste continued
:
after
its
premises ceased to
phers like
Hume
and Burke, and
played a leading part in
where Renaissance
in the
exist. In Britain,
artists
where philoso-
hke Hogarth, had
this assault
on the Renaissance, and
had
just flowered so finely
classicism
work of Burlington,
the Palladian tradition continued
without serious challenge for some decades,
gradually
being transformed into a more personal, more Romantic,

style.
By
John Soane, what looked Hke

become a means of highly Romantic
the time of Sir
cool classicism had

subjectivism.
exploits:
Britain
played a large part in peripatetic
Robert and James
Adam
measured Diocletian's
palace at Spalato; James Stuart and Nicholas Revett

the ruins of Athens
Roben Wood's
Baalbek and Palmyra

others.
The Gothic
(all
style,
drew
party did the same for
in the 1750s).
And
there were
always available in England for
nineteenth-century additions.
RENAISSANCE
294
883 Lacock Abbey,

Wiltshire. Hall, 1753-55.
Sanderson Miller
In England the Gothic Revival
caught the inugination
more than
the cult of chinoiscric
or any of the other Rococo
fads.
was an expression of Romantic

sentiment which affected
It
the
all
arts, particularly literature.
884 Ecole de Mêcine, Paris.
176^86.
J.
Gondoin
Only
of Gondoin's elaborate
a part
was
project for this institution

realised,
but that has
all
the dignity
of French Neo-classidsm.
by Berruer,
The
relief,
was
substituted
1794
one representing Louis
for
XV.
885 Palladian bridge,
Stowe House,
Buckinghamshire,
c. 1775
Such pa\'iliom and bridges
were non-functional and were
sometimes one-sided
like stage
scenery and were used

solely to
compose
classical
landscapes like
those in the pictures of
Claude Lorraine.
886 Pagode de Chantelcnp,

Foret d'Amboise. 1775-78.
Le Camus
Chinoiserie often appeared
in garden ornament,
sometimes
as
bridges as well as pagodas.
This setting in the French forest
provided just the note of

exotic
that
romance and unlikelihood
made
furniture'
all
such 'garden
one of the crazes
of the Romantic Revival.
887 Casina
at
Marino, Dublin.
1769.
Sir
William Chambers
little
pleasure house for the
'pastoral Ufe' built for the Earl
of Charlemont near Dublin.

It is
based on Palladio's ideal
symmetrical
his idea
villa
and develops
of the temple fai^de
to run round the building.
888 Chinese teahouse,

Sanssouci, Potsdam. 1744.
Von Rnobelsdorff
In the gardens
of Sanssouci,
designed for Frederick the Great,

this building copies the
French
fashion for chinoiserie.
Tea-drinking was
new and
fashionable, as tea in central
Europe was
a recent
commodity.
885
DISINTEGRATION OF THE RENAISSANCE
special purposes,
was
established as
a style suitable for
Wal-
gentlemen's residences through the success of Horace

)-882
Twickenham
who
(1748 onwards). Those
now
idiom could
use a classical
Hill,
continued to
of
use a variety
on one source and exploit
classical
The former is
work of Robert Adam
with archaeological
that
889-891 PancheoD, Paris.
Begun 1752.
Germain Soufflot
Exterior, plan and interior.
The
reaction against the free
Baroque use of
temperament, could fasten their
sources, or, according to
attention
of Strawberry
enlargement
asymmetrical
pole's
295
elements
is
expressed in the Pantheon.
Columns
most
classical
which was biought

in by the Age of Reason
are
no longer used
thoroughness.
seen
in the
(1728-92), famihar with a
they support a giant portico.
well as sixteenth-century
Soufflot attempted a
variety of ancient
Roman
sources
780s,
was
and
great
in
his
skill,
and
demand
composite
a decorator
the
in
style, as
its
fruitful
Enghsh Palladianism.
architecture and heir to
domestic planner of great
Adam
as
at
1760s,
of genius,
decoration
(as in
as
the Invalides);
return to the classicism of Greece
and Rome, but the
effect
was self-conscious and cold.
and
1770s
many
used by himself and
dominated domestic design for three decades and
imitators,
Germany. His contemporary Sir WilChambers was of the more single-minded kind.
influenced France and
liam
His classicism had been tempered by close contact with
French contemporaries such

887
and
as Soufflot,
in the Uttle
pleasure house at Marino, near Dublin (1769), he created
one of the most perfect buildings of the Renaissance.

In France, for a time, reason
have gained the day
and objectivity seemed to
when the Jesuit Abbe
Laugier, develop-
ing thoughts recently put forward by the Venetian Padre
Carlo Lodoh, pubhshed a widely admired book, the Essai

sur
I'
Architecture
demanded
In the
(1752).
name of
reason, Laugier
a return to a funrtionally justifiable use of the
language: the function of columns
classical
not to decorate
low from
to support,
of stone in the entablature (Re-
lengths
the
is
the size of intercolumniarions must fol-
naissance intercolumniations
were habitually much wider)
pediments represent the gabie-ends of low-pitched roofs
and are not to be used
Germain
so on.
-891
(begun 1752),
Paris
ornaments over windows, and
is
now
the Pantheon, in
a reahsation of
to a large extent
Laugier's hopes and
seemed to
Greek simplicity to
Roman
del, a
his
contemporaries to join
detail.
Jacques-Franfois Blon-
powerful figure in French architecture through
Academy, encouraged
teaching at the
ism, and
884
as
Soufflot's church,
we
can see
his influence in
his
this severe classic-
such buildings
as J.
Gondoin's Ecole de Medecine, Paris (1769-86), and in V.

Rodriguez's School of Surgery in Barcelona (1761).
whether
Ever^'\vhere,
intensity
any
this
was superiority to the
would
rules,
mark of
from the
Let us remove
architecture wrote: 'Let us learn
ancients to submit even the rules to genius.
servitude and imitation that our buildings
display' (Clerisscau, Antiquites de la France).
So too thought
Piranesi, the Italian archaeologist
and
reassemble or distort
buildings to
overpowering or
terts
style
independence from them. As the French author of a
book on Roman
that
fol-
still
architects sought a greater
of personal expression. For
serve; the essential premise

if not
were
classical principles
lowed or had been abandoned,
demanded
creators.
And
became
classical
horrific.
the
Whatever
architect,
style
part
of an
make them
they used, archi-
of the Middle and Far East.
However,
is
its
main development
Middle Ages
parallel to the
of western Europe,
Spanish conquerors after 1492.
The resemblance between

ancient America and other
civihsations
its
of architecture
architect's
ancient civilisations
only coming to an end with the
prints
freedom presumably enjoyed by
so the study of the history
necessary
whose
Pre-Coluinbian
(see next page)
The architecture of ancient
Central and South America
somewhat resembles that of the
grounding.
lies
in the
development of the pyramid,

stepped, terraced and even circular,
both
as cairns
and sun temples,
great trabeated halls
and Cyclopean masonry.

Relief sculpture and frescoes were
freely used.
PRE-COLUMBIAN
296
892 TeotUiiucin. 300-900

is one of the few
Teotihuacin
real
ancient Mexico,
cities in
other comparable groups
of buildings being purely reserved

as religious centres.
The
an area of some
city covers
seven square miles.
and
All except the great temples
were adobe buildmgs
palaces
which have reverted to mud.

893 Circular pTramid
in Calixtlahuaca,
Mexico
This pyramid in 'coiled' form
is
dedicated to Quetzalcoatl,
the mythical
who
plumed
serpent,
took the form of
rattlesnake clad in the brilUant
green tail-feathers of the beautiful

quetzal bird.
894 Great pyramid

of Teotihuacan, Mexico
Built of
adobe bricks faced
with volcanic stone and covered

with plaster or pre-conquest
cement, the pyramid

at
is
700
feet
base and 200 feet high.
There are five tiers, on top of

which was a temple to the ciJt
of Teotihuacin, god of the sun.
895 Temple of Kukulkan,
Chichen
Also
Itza,
known
as
YucaUn
El Castillo,
temple has been carefully
this
reconstructed.
It is a
180
square-based pyramid,
feet
nine
by 78
tiers.
side are
with
feet high,
Large stairways on each
guarded by great
serpent heads.
The temple measures about

20 by 15 feet and has a door
each
in
side.
896 Machu Picchu, Peru.

1000 onwards
A mountain stronghold. Machu
Picchu was said to be reserved for
the king, priests and a nunnery of
virgins.
The
wheeled
traffic,
had no
and communication
Incas
was by llama or on foot

along stepped mountain roads.
897 Temple of Warriors,
Chichen Itz^, Yucatan
The entrance pillars represent
serpents whose heads form the
base, the bodies the column itself,
and the
tail-rattles
the capital.
898 Temple of Warriors,

Chichen Itz^, Yucatan
Chichen was founded at the
beginning of the sixth century
by the
Itza
developed
and
finally
in the tenth.
This temple, together with the

the Thousand Columns,
bounds one side of the
main square.
Group of
899 Fortifications
of Sacsayhuaman, Cuzco,
Peru. 1400 onwards
The cyclopean stone walls of
this
mountain stronghold contain

single polygonal blocks
of
sometimes more than sixteen

in
feet
one dimension.
Eiffel
Tower, Paris. View
into tou
^1^.
.^t
7-^-\
29?
MODERN
INTBODUCTION
wards formal
The
closing years of the eighteenth century
anticipation
endeavour
new
helped in directing the
and of upheaval
witnessed
ni political, social
period of
and economic
of creative events that her-
a scries
new
alded the appearance of a
Nearly a century
commentary and
way provided an index of
art.
Paradoxically, one of the initial breaks with the senescent
humanist tradition of the Renaissance took the form of a
to-
simplicity.
another impassioned
Laugier,
after
amateur, John Ruskin, produced a

architertural
movement
architectural
and geometrical
clarification
unwieldy body of
vast,
which
crftidsm,
in
its
own
the aspirations of mid-nine-
tcenth-century architecture and
its
public. In his writings,
the famihar and accepted criteria of beauty and of aesthetic
when not
return to a remote past, as a series of revivals of earlier
value arc implicitly,
came about. UrJike the architects of the Renaissance,

whose chief mterest' in the past concerned the forms of
exhorts architects to rediscover goodness and truth in their
Roman
of a code of ethical and
styles
the
antiquity,
of the
architects
eighteenth
late
century proceeded with encyclopedic objectivity to resuscitate Grecian as well as
accomplishment with
Roman
paradigms, capped
thorough revival
this
associative
and, finally, caused the introduction of architectural
styles
of the Near and Far
East. This plurality
of mode
relatively uni-
process were identical with the estabUshment
The sentimental
spiritual behaviour.
values of the eighteenth century were
now
transformed into moraUstic ones.
More
of medieval
styles,
and manner supplanted the established and
art, as if this
expUcitly, rejected. Ruskin
than
anything
these ideas reflect his basic
else,
with the characteristic appearance and con-
dissatisfaction
dition of contemporary architecture,
new phenomena
and
as the railroad station,
especially
of such
or of such radical,
tary style of the late Renaissance-Baroque period, a style
unheralded structures
which
Exhibition of 1851, which Ruskin despised. However, his
formed
for centuries had
hving heritage and had
maintained a creative vitaUty until
eighteenth
late in the
do provide
criteria
architectural
century.
These scholarly and re-creative
efforts to recapture the
past provided, at least until the middle
architecture could be sustained.
of the day, and
spirits
inevitably
it
and resentment among the more
nurtured frustration
independent
However,
after the
middle of the
a reasonably accurate indication of the
were
values that
instinctively cherished
by
In contrast to the irascible
impatient strictures of the
Of
le-Duc.
troversy,
temperament
and the
Ruskm, there
French
are the equally
medievalist, Viollct-
that easily gravitated to con-
of the rational architectural
indirect heir
thought of the 'Enlightenment',
as represented
by Laugier,
century, these pent-up energies were released in a series
he was in a position to develop the more materialistic
of radical movements. Indeed, the
aspects
tecture,
of archi-
evolution
both in the nineteenth and in the more radical-
of that
attitude.
was proclaimed
as
VioUet-le-Duc
did
of tradition and convention tend to be present,
most
of iimovations.
radical
innovations that took place in architecture
more
new
related to
materials and
terinwing factor in the creation
commonplace
that
time were
at this
many of
uniquely characteristic of
of a new
con-
of novel forms. The
steel
and of reinforced
somewhat over-emphasised
concrete, has been
only
of the
new methods of
struction than to a preconceived vision
introduction of iron, and later of
if
Many
style, yet
as
it
a de-
remains
the forms and spaces that are
modern
architecture
would not
have been rcaHsed had the Industrial Revolution, with

manifold technological,
social
and architecture was the

eighteenth century, with
its
poHtical idealism,
its
One of the
was the
Essai sur
first
pubUshed
in
I'
in the evolution
intellectual
its
of modern
ferment of the
new attachment
to nature,
direct
forms of ex-
manifestations of this tendency
Architecture
1752.
of Marc-Antoine Laugier,
Laugier's ideas,
rational leanings of the period, appear to
typical
of the
have influenced
such diverse personalities as the startlingly original Eng-
John Soane, on the one hand, and Goethe

Without doubt, Laugier's doctrines contrib-
lish architect Sir
on
the other.
the chief virtue of this style.
not
rest
with
the
historical, archaeological interpretation
distant past, but rather
appUed
it
assertion
of a
style
to a theory
of contem-
new
style
out of an analytical study of the
past,
and the
appUcation of rational constructive principles to the

technical
material,
teenth
century.
In
and
this
industrial potential
new
of the nine-
way, VioUet-le-Duc developed
an architectural theory that approximated to the popular,

imprecise,
notion
of functionalism,
whereas
if
Ruskin's
method of its inner structure.

Both contributed to the development of a more searching approach to the judgment of a building, in which
the visual phenomena, whether they be related to the
skeleton of the building or the material raiment of
are stressed
exterior,
considerations. Correctness of proportion or detail, or the
inner meaning of the design, exclusive of

ities,
building's ultimate significance

so
much upon
upon
its
physical qual-
becomes a matter of secondary importance. The
expressed technical concept, and
its
physical
now comes
embodiment. These new
and
to
depend not
a generative idea or concept of design,
doctrines,
upon
both
as
real,
in specific
ideas current at the time, materially affected the
in their
its
widespread reflection in the climate of
movement
of the eighteenth century, and
its
almost to the exclusion of other
texts
the end
of
from the
porary architecture, and particularly to the idea of crearing
uted to the anti-Baroque tendencies of the Neo-classic

at
structure
However,
appearance of architectural construction, and not with the
scepticism in the face of tradition,
earliest
accomplishment
endeavours were primarily concerned with the outward
and admiration of simpler and more

pression.
specific
an understanding of Gothic
its
Another contributing factor
late
at
and economic consequences,
not taken place.
art
was the
which the integration of form and
architecture, in
faced character of modern art as a whole, in
as foils, in the
It
of Viollet-le-Duc to arrive
seeming twentieth century, has reflected a certain Janus-
which elements
92
the bourgeois nineteenth century.
of the mneteenth
which the development of
century, sufficient fuel with
the Crystal Palace of the Great
as
thought
9:
ROMANTIC CLASSICISM
and work of many diverse creative
personaliries at the
end of the nineteenth century: Louis SuUivan, Frank Lloyd

Wright, H. P. Berlage, Henry van de Veldc, Viaor Horta,
Antoni Gaudi, and Auguste
Perrct. All represent various
of progressive architecture
facets
juncture. In turn,
at this
group of pioneers opened the way for the second

radical generation of the twentieth century: Gropius, Mies
this
van der Rohe, Le Corbusier, Oud, Lurât, and others
known
helped shape what subsequently became
two
International Style. In effett, these
the
as
generations of archi-
multitudinous elements that the
terts synthesised the
who
modem
tradition had been gradually accumulating over a period
299
buildings into papery abstract planes,
in
with the linear screen concepts of the authentic Gothic.
were reduced and simplified,
In effect, the medieval styles
the sense of the
'classicised' in
word
as
understood
at that
time. Equally the details of Gothic architecture
might be
appUed with gusto and abandon, but often
unseemly
and with
places,
in
sense of scale or usage. Here, indeed,
little
one discovers that the period's concern with a building's

character
and appropriateness often tended to be remarkably
superficial.
label to
The awkward
specify these
phrase. Romantic Classic,
a useful
is
ambiguous style-tendencies of the
1800 period, and, in addition,
of more than a century.
which were more
keeping with a Georgian or Neo-classical attitude than
has gained a degree of
it
general acceptance.
Romantic Classicism: the Style of 1800

An
its
which
architecture
The
takes for
point of departure the historically oriented Revivalist
obliged to
well
their
as
occasional
new
associations
dependence upon
specific sources,
and
their
Significant as
imitation.
literal
buildmg from
symptoms of
means a
related
which inaugurated
the disturbances
tradition.
architectural
the past, they are merely
There was no universal
period,
this
unless
group of abstract visual
by
style
characteristics
one
which
remain constant, irrespective of the decorative vocabulary

and
historical pedigree
The admired,
ing.
were simplicity and

respect to character
The
architects
employed
in the individual
sought-after
clarity, as
of
qualities
this
Greek
art (and, for that matter, in
perceived the order and clarity of

purity of
palette
sicists
its
temperamentally
aD of
this
overlooked the Hfe-Hke
classic art)
discipline,
its
supposedly white forms
of nature. However,
manages to transcend
they
and the
set against the rich
generation of Neo-clas-
and the sense of
vitality,
lee
and Claude-Nicholas Ledoux. Occasionally
were
with
distorted
results that
of antique
forms of Neo-classicism, whether
art tends to ex-
their derivation, tend to be
more
over-simplified, in contrast to the
of their prototypes. In
ferts
literal
or
The
general
rigidly geometric
more
their build-
in
and
subtle, vivid ef-
this respert, the architecture
of
might
scale
relationships
contrasts,
subUme,
better be characterised as
of these
tendencies
series
of variations upon a
set
theme, which provided the
architea with one of his best opportunities. His ideal
of Chaux was
city
at least in part
constructed at Arc-et-
Senans, in a remote distnct of the Franche
of
certain
more novel
its
for the surveyor
projects
for
of the river Loue
example, the house
were never
further instance of the creative side of

is
to be
a
icated to the
enment,
memory
Sir Isaac
revolutionary
found
spherical,
budt.
Romantic
work of Boullee. His 1784
in the
planetarium-Uke cenotaph, ded-
of one of the heroes of the enlight-
Newton,
style.
indicates the potential
The sphere
from the Roman precedent of
derives in
all
a hemispherical
of
dome
provided a foretaste of
its
is
hteral expressiveness as a
of the
century, and of the overtly original International Style.
eighteenth-century rationalists,
In picking
and choosing other sources of inspiration from
late
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were equally
arbitrary.
Although
tempestuous
their imagination
qualities
of Gothic, and
its
was
stirred
by the
evocation of both
nordic and Chrisnan sentiments, they tended, especially at

first,
to
convert the wall surfaces of their Neo-Gothic
universal
By
microcosmic representation
world-machine,
the severe geometries chararteristic of the early twentieth
the myriad styles of the Middle Ages, the architects of the
very nearly a pure mathematical concept, and sim-
ultaneously a flaunting of architectural convention.
it
900
form which appears in other projects of the same epoch

by Boullee. However, it has been transformed into a shape
that
of simple forms. In addition,
this
Ukelihood
concerned the admiration of primitive-seeming,
well as
902
Comte, though
1800 reflected certain ideals of the enlightenment, which

as
are
Ledoux's Paris Barrieres, or Toll Houses, of 1785-89, a
project for
revival
unfamdiar
by
than beautiful. Typical
Classicism
aggerate the purist, abstract and academic element.
stylistic
more commonly
ings affected a Uteral Neo-classicism, but
of each form, which was an essential feature of Hellenic
Hence the
superficial
The most spectacularly inventive architects at this time

were two forgotten French designers: Etienne-Louis Boul-
individuality contained within the universal impUcations
classicism.
of the
several
contradictions of the period.
and the use of exaggeratedly simple geometric
they were endeavouring to revive. In
historical styles
of the original was
they
equipped to absorb mto their work the innate character

of the
spirit
maintained. Consequently, the idea of Rorruntic Classicism
rather
not
process in
regularising,
i.e.,
but not the
letter
budd-
well as appropriateness with
were
1800
subjerted to a 'classicising',
which the
Romantic by virtue of its

and mysterious sort, was
irrational
period
and expression.
of
of an
Romantic,
is
of a modern point of
of antiquity, while the Gothic
aesthetic
the original features of the styles, as
which dominated
style
view upon the
stress
ing of a specific
represents the projection
architecture of 1800, already
penchant for
of this period
'Neo-classic' architecture
it
Neo-classicism or the Gothic Revival,
such abdications of creative responsibility are in the copy-
negative
since
as
movements, such
is
modem
interpretation of
it
as
conceived
necessarily
by the
becomes con-
structively preposterous.
The mysterious and evocative projects of

German architert, Friedrich Gilly, typify
the precocious
the
Romantic
extreme, and their creator did not survive his thirtieth

year,
dying in 1800 without having the opportunity of
executing a single significant budding.
would seem
that
some of
his
On
potential
the surface,
it
was reaUsed by
903
MODERN
300
900 Etiennc-Louis Boull^.
the scholarly and prolific Karl Friedrich Schinkel during
Newton Cenotaph. 1784

An example of the extremes
the
could go. Dedicated to
memory of Sir
the
Isaac
its
spherical form, reminiscent

a
plancunum,
world apart from the
is
Newton,
of
three decades of the nineteenth century, but in
first
rcahty, the subjective, emotional quality in Gilly's projerts
which Romantic Classicism
to
we
successor. Instead,
manner of
aloof, rational
his
Romantic tendencies of the
find the
youthful prodigy better realised in the occasionally startling
expresses the
typically eighteenth-century
designs of Peter Speeth (in the most unusually scaled fa-
view of the world- machine.

It was never built.
cade of the
the better
Other
Women's Prison, Wurzburg,

known Danish Neo-classicist,
achieved distinction in
architects
'international style'
el's disciple,
1809-10
The Romantic
of Friedrich Gilly were partly

Peter Speeth. with his sometimes
The heavy
rustication
of
it
similar effects
work was done in Athens and Vienmode. However,
individual contributions to the
revolutionary
frequently
is
all
tonic
work
that saves their
Of all
Neo-classicists,
non
H. H. Richardson, around 1880.
work from
works of this
the
none
more
is
Klenze's Valhalla at Regensburg, a
of the American architect
spirit
of the
and a learned simplicity and
classicists,
to the perfunctory.
foreshadows
the
made
clarity
typical of the bolder designs
of 1800, and
whose most
first
the round-arched basement was
St
brothers Theophil and Hans Christian Hansen,
de
none displayed the adventurous, pioneering
starthng designs.
of the
architect
the Danish
na, all
work of
realised in the
mittclcuropa
Thomon; and
conspicuous Neo-classic
tendencies
Hansen.
F.
Persius; the Bavarian court architect,
Thomas
Petersburg Bourse,
WiirzbuTg Women's Prison.
C.
this
of the early nineteenth century. Schmk-
Ludwig
Leo von Klenze; the French-born

901 Peter Speeth.
1809-10), or of
strict
a descent
pleiade
of Teu-
remarkable
than
copy of the Parthe-
above the Danube, on a massive podium
set
that
nearly engulfs the temple above.
By way of contrast, the employment of a Romantic Classic

United States immediately after the War of
style in the
Independence,
was, thanks
to
of Thomas
the activity
Jefferson, a pohtical as well as aesthetic decision. Jefferson
902 Claude-Nicholas Ledoux.

Arc-et-Senans. 1775-79
Entrance to the enormous salt
works which was planned to
include a model village
for the people working
there. The whole conception
was highly Romantic;
the stones were heavily
rusticated
and carved
spouts of water, stalactites
and stalagmites and artificial

rock grottoes were used freely
as
symbohc
made
arm
use of the antique
mode with
pohtical intent, hoping
thereby to provide an architectural backdrop for the revival
of other republican aspects of ancient
^fr^^
literal-nundedness
with
respect
life
and thought.
prototypes
the
to
employed, coupled with a hesitancy to assume creative

responsibdity, inhibited
United
signers in the
outgrowth of
drawback
many of
States.
the classic revival debookishness, an
certain
amateur's background, was a considerable
his
to Jefferson's architecture, even in his inventive
lay-out for the University of Virginia, in which a kind
of
decoration.
museum of classical styles was essayed. Of aU the archiof the new repubhc, only Benjamin H. Latrobe, with
tects
his
Enghsh background, keener
engineering
make
well
as
taste,
a distinctive contribution to the
typical
of the American achievement in
work of Thomas U. Walter, whose

temple, serving
as
monument,
yet one
is
which
Great. 1797
Gilly's Doric temple, posed
on
mammoth
owes
overscaled
Romantic
sublimity to the example
of fioullee and Ledoux and
foreshadows Leo von Klenze's
stylobate,
its
Valhalla at Regensburg.
this
was able
to
More
style.
vein was the
octastyle Corinthian
'correct'
is
replica
of a pagan
significant chiefly as a cu-
riously inappropriate quotation out

striking an
new
an academic building for Girard College,
Philadelphia (1833-47),
903 Friedrich Gilly.

Monument to Frederick the
and concern with
as architectural projects,
of context. Far more
example of the adaptation of antique temple
forms to an academic programme
is
to be
found
in
Thomas
Hamilton's picturesquely sited and complexly massed Royal
High School, Edmburgh, begun

There
is
of the otherwise
tecture in the
busiest,
tect
of
in 1825.
an improvisatory quality that distinguishes
much
classically inspired design in British archi-
first
years of the nineteenth century.
The
most ingenuous and most royally favoured archiperiod was John Nash. Much of his work is
and drawn from a bewildering variety of sources.
this
slapdash,
ROMANTIC CLASSICISM
301
904
Thomas
Jefferson.
Library, University of Virginia,

Charlottesville. 1817
Bookishness, the product of an
amateur's background, was the
weakness of Jefferson's architecture.

It
is
evident even in his lay-out
University of Virginia,
for the
which many classical

styles were reproduced.
in
90s Thomas Hamilton.

Edinburgh Royal High School.
Begun 1825
This
IS
an examples of a strikingly
adaptation of antique
successful
temple forms to an academic
programme- The
symmetrical
for
the
also
evokes
Doric
stern
temple form provides
fulcrum
fatâde
and
determined classicism.
906 Benjamin H. Latrobe.

Roman Catholic
Cathedral, Maryland.
Executed project, 1805-18
Interior,
Among
the great outcrop
of formal and public building
produced by the
birth
of the
new
republican state in America,

Latrobe's
work ranks
as
the most
distinguished.
Here, there are obvious echoes of

the Pantheon in Paris.
907 C. F. Hansen.
Vor Frue Kirke, Copenhagen.
I
81 1-29
The head of
a family
of architects, C.
first
F.
Hansen was the
notable exponent of the
Neo-classic style in Denmark,

where the Copenhagen Academy
had taken it up to the end
of the eighteenth century.
MODERN
302
James Wyatt.
Abbey, Wiltshire.
908, 909
Foothill
1796-1813
Extcnor and plan.
Built for the great eccentric and
connoisseur, William Beckford,

Fonthill
Abbey
realises
the Picturesque and Sublime
Gothic
in the 'cardboard'
style.
Just as the architects of the
revolutionary generation in France

their antique
had modified
source material, so the architects
of the Gothic Revival reduced

its Gothic intricacies to mural
details
and
its
structural flow to
four-square, typically late
Georgian companments.
910 Sanderson Miller.

Hagley Park,
*Castle' at
Worcestershire. 1747
Miller was an architect-squire
who
started
by providing
designs for his friends. This pseudo-
medieval
is
'ruin'
only one of
built
at
Hagley
many which he
throughout England,
as the
Gothic movement spread.
work
His best
is
Lacock Abbey
new
the
(see 883).
911 John Nash.

Cottage, Blaise,
Diamond
Gloucestershire. 1803
One of
hamJet of nine cottages
designed by Nash for

J.
S-
Harford, and built on his
estate.
Each cottage was of
different design,
a
picturesque
and each was given
name
such
Sweetbriar, jessamyn, or
as
Diamond.
912 John Nash.

Brighton Pavilion. 1815
Nash rebuilt and embroidered
the
Royal PaviUon into something

impossibly exotic, part
Moslem
and part Indian. Cast iron was

freely used in this building.
The
kitchen has cast-iron columns
which sprout palmcttes

staircases
at
the top;
everywhere are of
cast-iron sections
and
a great deal
of the fretted decoration found
throughout the building
is
cast iron.
ROMANTIC CLASSICISM AND REVIVAL
was Nash, and, to a
In spite
of
gree, his
contemporary, James Wyatt,
this quality,
it
303
913 John Nash.

York Gate, Regent's Park,
London. Begun 1812
The most ambitious project of
similar de-
who effected
a blend-
ing of the stem, severe Romantic Classicism of the continental architects with the looser,
Romantic,
John Nash's was the redesigning

of frontages in London, from
Anglo-Saxon Picturesque
which developed out of the pre-
tradition. This tendency,
Regent Street to Regent's Park.
of the eight-
naturalistic landscaping practices
His Neo-classic ideas arc best
eenth-century, provided the basis for a gradual revolution
expressed
least
first
its
and estabUshed a
cism,
complementary
phase, the Picturesque provided a
for the formal precision inherent in
foil
setting in
which
Romantic
Classi-
abstract
forms
its
these eclectic
but impressive
against the geometric regularity of the classical revivals. In
which
faijadcs,
at
give unity
where there was none
before.
could acquire a sentimental or expressive significance.

Nash's unique projea for Regent Street and Regent's Park,
London, begun
combines elements of the rigid
in 18 12,
architeaural vocabulary of the day with a sequential ar-
rangement, that
partly formal and axial, yet frequently
is
914 John Nash.
devious and serpentine. Nash's preferences are also to be
All Souls Church,
seen in his popularisation of the 'Itahan
Place,
mode
esque architectural
par excellence.
villa',
It
the Pictur-
Langham
London.
1822-25
was a type of
Constructed of Bath stone,
vernacular domestic architecture which, at

the timeless villas
its
source, in
already possessed a blend of irregular,
Italy,
this classical
II
and farmhouses of central and northern
of the
at this
accidental
many
temple building
less classicising details.
These principles were developed in such

Hcations of the period as
illustrated
The lower
pub-
town
portico
and the conical
populations.
is
spire
Ionic,
ringed
is
by Corinthian columns.
B. Papworth's Rural Residences
J.
one
time to serve
the increasing
more or
features in conjunction with
is
churches built
of 1818, in which a variety of styhstic tendencies, medieval,

rusticised Neo-classic or simplified
fitting
and plausible
Regency appeared
The most impressive monuments dedicated

ploitation of the Picturesque taste were,
more dramatic
912
in
association.
Nash
kind.
rebuilt
to the ex-
however, of a
and embroidered the
Royal Pavihon, Brighton, into something impossibly exotic,
being part Moslem, and part Indian. The whole bi-
was
zarre confection
colunms on the
with the aid of cast-iron
erected
interior, thus
introducing a novel material
which M-ss ultimately destined
to help revolutionise struc-
was used here
tural aesthetics later in the century, but
a carnival-like atmosphere.
The
Picturesque, since
it
in
was
not a style but an attitude, could be encouraged through

the development of a taste for the Middle Ages as well.
In
910
1747,
sham medieval
castellated
erected as a hermitage in Hagley Park.

trived decay
was to be found
EngUsh garden
fabrics
would appear
these
built as a residence
in
'ruin'
The
many
had been
taste for
French
as
of the period. The most
artful
of
column
to be the colossal 'ruined'
by M. de Monville
con-
well as
in the 'Desert de
Retz', near Paris, in the 1780's.
However, the most breathtaking reahsation of the Pic915 H. L. Elmes.

George's Hall, Liverpool.
turesque and the Subhme, on both a formal and ideational
St
,909
was James Wyatt's Fonthill Abbey,
level,
eccentric
built for the great
and connoisseur, William Beckford,
Wyatt, sometimes
known
as
Designed 1839-40; completed

after the architect's death
in 1796-18 13.
in 1849
the 'great destroyer', because
by C. R. Cockerell
Typical ot contemporary municipal
of
his drastic
and over-enthusiastic restoration of
EngHsh medieval
certain
cathedrals, created a colossal garden
in a styUsed 'cardboard' Gothic. Instead
foUy
of the rich tex-
building
TjRV kI m I IOC.
MttlH^^^^^h^.
and hnear patterns
as the
most fundamental
buildings, at Fonthill,
that
we
are in the habit
visual features
Wyatt
gives
of seeing
of genuine Gothic
us a series of four-
in
the
by the new
industrial wealth. This design

is
tures
produced
niidlands and north
based on the tepidarium
of the baths of Caracalla

in
Rome
with additionally
colonnade design. Elmes's

design was also influenced
square, typically late Georgian spaces, that are only shghtly
by the Berlin
modified by the cautious,spindly
Karl Friedrich Schinkel.
efforts at
Gothic detailing.
architecture of
MODERN
304
916 Sir John Soane.

Dulwicb Art Gallery, iSii-14.
Founder's mausoleum
Ai times Soanc's design bordered
on mannerism.
The scale and shape of
objecu and
details
been warped, and
familiar
have
nominally
one
modernism
Neo-classical design
sees heralded a
where
familiar elements are re-
used in abnormal or inverted ways.
The
was designed
gallery
to house both the collection
and the tomb of
its
donor.
The mausoleum,
shown in the picture,
was dramatically toplit
through amber glass \^^ndows.
Thomas
917
Telford.
St Katharine's docks,
London.
1824-28
This remarkably simple
utihurian design in stock brick

is
carried
of
on
stout cast-iron piers
very archaic Doric shape.
This derivative use of a
new
industrial age material
typical
is
of the conflicting character of

architeaure
at
that time.
Nonetheless, the simple elevations
worthy of
companson with the later
in brick are
American buildings of
Richardson and Sullivan.
918 Peter
Ellis.
Oriel
Chambers, Liverpool. 1864-65

Iron
the
is
not only used for
framework of this
office
block;
there are ca5t-iron panels used

as
cladding.
Pre-fabrication
is
than ever before.
carried further
Eft''
ROMANTIC CLASSICISM
of its development. The inaugural monument of

movement was the work of the Shropshire ironmaster,
Abraham Darby III the elegantly arched cast-iron bridge
in the line
this
Coalbrookdale, nominally the design of the architect
at
Thomas
Prichard, in
F.
1777.
Its
span of 100 feet was
305
919 J. B. Bunniag.
Coal Exchange, London.
1846-49
one of the
This,
finest
Victorian iron-and-glass buildings,
now been demolished.

was on a circular plan with
galleries on all three levels.
The interior had decorative panels
of fossils found inside coal.
has
It
soon outclassed, both in distance and in elegance of design,
by
the graceful arches of
Thomas
Telford's
numerous
bridges of the 1800 period, culminating in the
two mas-
of early suspension bridge
over the
terpieces
Menai
Straits
tellated
one
at
of 1819-26, and the more
Conway. While
that
art,
superficially cas-
were
the piers of the latter
concocted in a superficial Gothic, out of deference to the

castle, the Menai bridge is one of the most expresmonuments of EngUsh architecture in the whole period. Its splendid silhouette formed by the pylon-like
rusticated towers, contrasted with the long, low curve of
nearby
sive
the supporting suspension chains, themselves brillantly detailed in iron,
EngUsh
work of any other
unequalled in the
is
of the day, with the exception of Soane.
architect
which some have deigned to

an early instance of the funrtional tradition
This same expressive quahty

interpret as
is
be found in Telford's St Katharine's docks, London
to
where smooth brick
(1824-28),
punctuated by re-
walls,
920 Dutert and Contamin.

Galerie des Machines,
Paris. 1889
Part of the Paris Exhibition.
This was the largest

free span
The
attempted
at
gularly spaced segmental-arched openings, inserted in five-
arches rest
and six-storey round-arched embrasures, are perched upon
building an appearance
widely spaced, but archaic-looking, cast-iron Doric columns.
The presence of conventionally
this
time.
giant metal three-hinged
on
of extreme
points, giving the
Ughttiess.
'styUstic' features in the
engineering structures of the nineteenth century should
not be viewed
a matter
as
of
Indeed, if these bridges, market
either surprise or alarm.

halls, railroad
sheds and
similar structures are subjerted to an art-historical analysis,

as
opposed to a simple technical commentary,
will be
it
seen that their development follows an evolutionary path
consonant with the more famihar architectural idioms of
From
the day.
the classicising utilitarianism of Telford, the
development leads to the more frankly non-styHstic
rail-
Derby
Tri-
sheds of Robert Stephenson at Euston and at
junct in the 1830's, or his tubular Britannia bridge over the
Menai
ton's
Straits (1845-50),
and culminates
in Sir
Joseph Pax-
imique stroke of inspiration, the original Crystal
Palace for the Great Exhibition of 1851. This superb, if
over-famihar,
monument
represented a niajor instance of
921 E. E. VioUet-Ie-Duc.
Project for concert hall
with iron-ribbed vault. 1864.
(From 'Entretiens
r Architecture',
sur
Volume
mid-nineteenth-century Victorian architecture which reflect-
2, 1872)
Bridging the gap between
ed the traditions of regularity and simpUcity of the ar-
traditional historicising
of 1800. Simultaneously,
chiterture
fuU
utihses to the
it
architecture and the

structural nationalism
the principles of assemblage and re-use of elements that
machine age are
was made
projects
by
possible
early techniques of mass-production.
In this respect the Crystal Palace refleas not so
period in which
was bmlt, but rather an
it
point of view that shares elements in
immediate
em
past (the
first.
Romantic
and of the future
architecture),
much
aestheric
common
Classic phase
(in the
the
and
with
its
of mod-
more frankly
modernistic architecture of the twentieth century).
More
typically
and immediately Victorian
in their style
of the
of
by the pioneer medieval
a series
archaeologist of the nineteenth
century. VioUet-le-Duc.
Although he was
the heir of eighteenth-century
and the
Notre-Dame, Paris
nationalist doctrines
restorer of
(begun 184$),
his
seem bizarre
only because of
their
if
schemes
uncompromismgly
national tone
were such iron
London
result
of
structures as
(1846-49),
J.
B. Bunning's Coal E.xchange,
and Paddmgton
a collaboration
between
Station, the latter the

I.
K. Brunei and
M.
D. Wyatt (1852-54). Indeed, Brunei was the most characteristic engineer-artist
way
that Telford
of the mid-nineteenth century,
represents
the
early
in the
industrial-classic
and
their blatant structural
expressionism.
The
diversity
of
VioUet-le-Duc's preoccupations,
ranging from the past to the

future, are a vivid
reminder
of the various conflicting

ideals of the
mid-nineteenth ccntiu-y.
MODERN
3o6
922, 923 Sir Joseph Paxton,
designer.
Fox and Henderson,
builders.
Crystal Palace, London,
1850-51; demolished and

re-erected at
Sydenham, 1853;
destroyed by
fire,
The
first
that
were
1936
of ihc great glass palaces

feature of
nineteenth-century international
Promoted with
exhibitions.
the
of Prince Albert,
assistance
who
designed by Paxton,
had
been gardener to the Duke of
Devonshire
Chatsworth, where
at
he had constructed conservatories
and
it
out farm villages,
laid
strained the resources of the
then-developing iron and glass

industries in Great Britain.
Both the intenor and exterior

views show the
of industrial
result
methods of standardisation and

pre-assemblage.
The
interior
îew of the transept {whose
wooden
prefabricated
arches
were made necessary to preserve

a tree on the site) shows the
even, regular repetition of the
same
structural elements
iron
column and
The
exterior
of
truss.
view shows the
Crystal Palace as re-erected

at
Sydenham,
its
bulk and
by the
massiveness increased
addition of a barrel vault
over the length of
its
nave.
This addition represents a
compromise between the purity

of Paxton's earUest concept
and the prevalent
taste
of the
day for bulkier, more

ostentatious forms.
While we
work
for
rightly admire this

its
technological
precocity as well as for

striking anticipation
its
of the
glass
architecture of the mid-twenrieth
century,
we ought
to recognise that
of
of
is
its
its
as
equally
the purity
forms and the regularity

detail Paxton's masterpiece
much
a belated manifestation
of earher Romantic Cbssic

taste as
it
is
an expUdt
foreshadowing of the machine age.
ROMANTIC CLASSICISM
period. Brunei's
style, as
shown
in the sheds
307
of Paddington
924 Gustave
.vi>.
Station, his colossal steam-sail transatlantic ark, the Great
Eiffel.
Tower. 1889
Erected for the Paris Exhibition of
Eastern, launched in
1858, or in the Clifton suspension
bridge (designed 1829, but not begun until 1837 and
W.
by
pleted
1889,
com-
The
links, the
H. Barlow, the designer of the shed of St
984
it is
feet high.
arches are merely decorative
tower being formed
of four immense pylons which
Pancras, in
1864),
and more recognisably Vic-
richer
is
flow into one.
torian in effect than that of his predecessors, without achiev-
This
ing the breath-taking, spidery monumentality of Gustave
engineering than of architecture.
is
Eiffel
Eiffel.
and
If the Crystal Palace represents a
of a simultaneous throwback
as
in the
form
was
a feat
of
a bridge-builder,
his genius
is
expressed in
this
edifice.
It
harbinger of things
should be noted that
metal structures such as
come, much the same
to
well
as
paradox
of course more
true of the
is
contemporary
thjs
are not very durable in
round-arched facade of Lewis Cubitt's King's Cross Station,
comparison with conventional
London, and of Henri Labrouste's Bibliotheque Ste Ge-
buildings of stone and timber,
and the tower only
nevieve, Paris, (1843-50). Here, a sober-elegant procession
survives as a result of constant
of round arches on the exterior houses a twin-naved, bar-
maintenance and repainting.
rel-vaulted space
brouste, the
century,
and
is
fabricated
in
cast-iron.
most thoughtful French
However, La-
architect
of the mid-
rather conventionally academic in his detailing
domes of the BibUois a puzzhng if
in his later multiple cast-iron
theque Nationale, Paris (1861-69), there

effective blend
of modernistic with conventional
technique. Labrouste
as the
was recognised by
his
taste
and
contemporaries
founder of a rational school in France, and some of
these tendencies
found
in
of a markedly
England
materialistic sort are to be
in the writings
of the 1830's and
'40's
of Augustus Wclby Northmore Pugin.

Pugin, whose publications antedate those of Ruskin and
of VioUet-le-Duc, represents a curious blend of
ideals re-
took place
lated to the ecclesiastical, rituahstic revival that
both within and without the estabhshed church in England,

during the nineteenth century, and of an architectural philos-
ophy which hews
a path to functionalism
expression of structure. All of this
is
and the
logical
conceived within the
context of a renewed and purified Gothic Revival, in which
Romantic
the fashion of the earUer,

its
extravagances hke Fonthill and
its
Classic 'Gothic',
with a furor that matches
phernalia, are castigated
denunciation of the classically inspired
were only partly achieved

churches designed in
was cut short by
Only
in his
own
with
chic decorative para-
in the bewildering
his
His ideals
styles.
number of
his all-too-brief active career,
which
death in 1852, at the age of forty.
his
house,
and the neighbouring
St
The Grange, Ramsgate
(1841-43),
we find
mode of
Augustine (1846-51), do
a completely new, characteristically Victorian
Neo-Gothic: severe, harsh and aggressively pious. Here,

924
the sentimental, romantic aesthetic of the later eighteenth

925 Eiffel
century
is
1850, a
bud
transformed into the self-righteous 'realism' of

that will soon burst into the fuU
red-brick-and-polychrome High Victonan
bloom of
style,
in
the
Tower under
construction, 1888
This shows clearly the four bridgelike
pylons which form
the tower, before the decorative
hands of Butterfield,
Street, Scott
and Burges.
The new Gothic Revival of Pugin could not have come

about without the Industrial Revolution, its influence upon
the arts and crafts, and impact upon the patterns of urban
hfe and society, nor without the particular rehgious revival
of the period. Paradoxically, while
his ideals indicate a
profound nostalgia for the better days of a vanished medieval world,
many of his
in their simple, direct use
inchfferent appearance,
characteristic buildings manifest,
of brick and stone, often of an
something of the sober materialism
arches were added.
This form of ornamentation
over a solid construction occurs

later in
Art
structures.
Nouveau
MODERN
3o8
926. 927 Henri Labrouste.

Biblioth^que Nationale,
1861-69
and view of book sucks,
Metal and glass have been used
Paris.
Interior
here to great
The book
storeys, aH
ceiling.
plates
to
effect.
occupy four
surmounted by a glass
stacks
The
gridiron floor
allow light to penetrate
all floors.
928 Henri Labrouste.

Bibliotheque Nationale,
Paris. 1861-69
Detail of pillar and vault.
The twelve
slim columns which
support the domes are

decorated very ornately in pseudoCorinthian, which also runs
along the arch
soffits.

Bibliotheque Ste Genevieve,
Paris. 1843-50
classicising
building using
an interior metal frame,
although the exterior
is
conventional masonry.
is
hybrid but has
of
The
style
a quiet
attractiveness suitable
to the buildmg's use.

Bibliotheque Ste Genevieve,
Paris. 1843-50
Thick stonework on the outside
enclosed an iron construction
which
The
is
self-supporting
first
attempt to use
and wrought iron
in
cast iron
an
important public building,
from the foundation
to the
roof
NATIONALISM AND IMPERIALISM
of the Lidustrial Age. This
whom WiUiam
of
933
His
and most
tlrst
London
Street,
of those church
also true
is
of the post-Pugincsque High Victorian phase,
architects
Butterfield
both typical and unique.
is
lasting masterpiece. All Saints,
Margaret
309
931
F.
Chalgrin.
Paris.
One
of the
built,
and
a feverish pitch, which, in the garishiiess of
its
raises
it
to
constructive
the
of
first
but never surpassed.
later equalled,
Its
new
kind to be
its
Roman
using the
commemorate
imperiahsm.
This was one of the
many
monuments
by Napoleon
to
colouration and a Pre-Raphaelite-like precision of detail,
I'Etoile,
1806-36
ttiumphal arch, to
upon
(1849-59), seizes with a vengeance
the latent niatcriaUsm of Pugin's aesthetic,
was
J.
Arc de Triomphe de
erected
the glory of the
"Grande Armê'.
decorative effort
would have been gratuitous had All Saints not been intended, from the start, to be the model construction of
the High Church party, and the intricacy of its decoration
comprehensible only in
historically
is
though
effects can, today,
stunning
its
ostentatiously devout generation, as a
less
anticipation of the violent colour of

ing.
tal
These atonal colour
found
in such
domestic interiors
paint-
strident,
massing and occasionally exaggerated structural
are to be
932
most curious
much modern
echoing the
effects,
even
this context,
be appreciated, by
bru-
detail,
as those created
by William Burges for his ovm residence of the 1870's,

or, on a more monumental scale and in the context of a
commemorative, pubUc monument, in Sir George Gdbert
Scott's Albert Memorial, London (1863-72). However, in
arriving at this most personally Victorian of
we
teenth-century monuments,
well
as
nud-nine-
to
the con-
pubHc buildings of great
sideration of a series of official
symbohc,
come
also
all
importance.
as styUstic,
932 Sir George Gilbert Scott.

Albert Memorial, London.
1863-72
Considered by
many
the perfect
example of the High Victorian

style.
On
the death of the
Prince Consort,
competition
memorial was won by

Scott who produced this typical
work which took nearly ten years
for a
to complete.
Nationalism and Imperialism

of pohtics made
two
century,
In the nineteenth
tendencies
in
upon
their presence felt
the
realm
architecture in
unique ways: nationaUsm and imperialism. With the coming of the French Revolution, and the ultimate and
transformation of this
resistible
of Bonaparte,
character.
Style'
It
is
official
movement
patronage of the
arts
ir-
into the empire
took on a
new
probably no coincidence that the 'Empire
was oriented towards an orderly 'reform', one that

against the more permissive aspects of the
was directed
haJf-bourgeoise, half-aristocratic
Rococo of the eighteenth
933 William Butterfield.

All Saints, Margaret Street,
London. 1849-59
century.
Butterfield's
In
its
Napoleonic formulation,
this
movement seems
to
have discouraged even the more personal of the revolutionary classic efforts. Napoleonic Neo-classicism, exception
is
States
Schinkel,
it
is
931
style. It
is
colours were intense
up
called
easy to appreciate
and Latrobe
in the
fell
to
design the ironically
ponderous
how
if
fashionable
far short the architects
in their efforts,
when one con-
Temple de la Gloire, now

the church of the Madeleine, begun in 1806, but not completed under Napoleon. The Bourbon restoration that
siders the puzzliiigly ineffectual
followed brought a reaction that was neither colourful nor

a true reversion to the old order
a pause, this epoch went to
work
of
things. Indeed, after
to complete those very
Napoleonic monuments that had been

the events of 1815.
interior
overpower.
atonal.
I'Etoile, in a
of Napoleon's empire
details
The
bookish and overly learned. Old routiners,
triumphal Arc de
and structural
and
or the Teutonic classicism of Klenze or
hke Chalgrin, were
Revival reached fever pitch.
The highly ornamented
and Fontaine,
the repubUcan classicism of Jefferson
United
important
and self-important. Even more than
for the best interiors of Percier
made
pedestrian, cautious
first
building in which the Gothic
left
unfinished
by
MODERN
310
934 Sir Charles Barry and

A, W. N. Pugin.
Houses of Parliament, London.
1840-65
Barry was responsible for the layout and river
both clearly
fa(;adc,
classical in origin.
work
Pugin's
is
the Gothic
inspired decoration and detailing.
The
result,
satisfactory fusion
of the two main

in
England
styles
in the niid-ninctccnth
century.
935 Godde and Lesueur.

Hotel de ViUe, Paris. 1837-49
At a time when France was
concerned
and
monuments,
the Paris Hotel de ViUe was
being rebuilt and expanded by
two minor architects
restoring
\vith preserving
its
in
an early Renaissance
It
was an attempt
style.
to create a national style for
better or worse,
down
Burnt
in 1871, the Hotel
de Ville was rebuilt 1874-82
by Ballu and Deperthes.
936 L.
J.
Due.
Palais de Justice, Paris. 1857-68
This western
fa{;^3de
shows
certam
mannerism
appearing in the Second
Empire
style
during
its
reign in
France. Consider the archaicising
of the
details in
conjunction
with large segmental-arched
window
openings.
937 Charles Garnier. Op^ra,

Paris. 1861-74
The most ornate Parisian example
in the
when
Second Empire vein

Baroque element had
the
begun to appear.
Here the exaggerated ornateness
of the
style suits the nature
of the building which
was
to
house entertainments of the
most splendid and rich type.

This is a view of the side.
.^__^,
Opera
321, 937 loved

is
by
struck
dc Justice by
was
more sombre mode
of 1861-74, an alternate,
on the Place Dauphine of the
the facâde
Due, designed
L.-J.
of
to substitute the classical
was per-
or Second
On the other hand, there

of Due's
Originally Neo-Gothic, Scott was
persuaded by the government
destination
its
that the quip 'architecture as frozen Meyerbeer'
to the various parts
938 Sir George Gilbert Scott.

Foreign Office,
London. 1860-75
0^
in 1857. Garnier's theatre
so aptly designed to catch the spirit
haps inevitable.
Palais
is
a certain /roirfeiir
by
Palais that can be attributed
window
style.
France
in
now become
had
it
the accepted style
Europe for all pubUc

and bureaucratic buildings.
in
conjunction with the large segmental-
in
details,
arched
Empire
Origmating
to the disturbingly manneristic handling of archaicising an-
tique
3"
openings, and by an aggressively con-
of the elements of the domical vault on
structive handling
the interior.
The exportation of
led to
940
This
938
War and Navy
the case with the State,
is
(now
other countries
this official style to
frequent application in bureaucratic programmes.
its
Washington
the Executive Offices),
Building
939 Gottfried Semper.

Burgtheater, Vienna. 1874-88
by
(1871-75),
Arthur B. Mullet, or with the extraordinarily controversial
Typical of the theatres built
Foreign Office, London, a more or
this time,
imperial design
less
at
closely alUed
all
to Garnier's Paris Opera.
by the habitually
loyal Gothic practitioner.
The
Gilbert Scott.
was the
latter
Sir
George
Though Semper
outgrowth of an
distant
he was
1857 competition, in which designs in the Second Empire
far
more
in construction
well
as
Gothic manner were received
as
opposed to
(as
earlier).
The machinations of
ultimately secured approval of his
when
design,
interested
and
engineering than most architects
the 'national' style sought for the Houses of Parliament,
twenty years
kept to the
fashionable pattern,
of the time, and adopted

the Renaissance styles
the wily Scott
because of the soundness of their
own
Gothic-inspired
construction.
the results of the competition were set aside.
His Gothic scheme was, in turn, disposed of by the
whim
of a new ministry which prevailed upon the hapless med-
result
perfunctory, though
is
more
produce something
ievaHst to
its
style
classic.
is
no
less
The fmal
appropri-
ately official for that reason.
The
massive, super-scaled Second
noteworthy
939
successes in other
Empire
major
style
enjoyed
capitals as well.
In
Vienna, there was Gottfried Semper's Burgtheater of 187488 in Brussels, Joseph Poelaert's
;
The
combined the
latter
spirit that
apest,
mammoth Palais
de Justice.
familiar scale-inflations with a
nearly Piranesian in dramatic power. In
is
Imre Steindl designed and
built the
940 Arthur B. Mullet.

Former State, War and Navy
Building (now Executive
Offices), Washington, D.C.
Bud-
massive Par-
liament (1883-1902), utilising a supercharged and academ-
Neo-Gothic up
icised
rises a
to
its
formidable Second Empire dome.
the rather
work of Thomas U. Walter
model of
a
mode
By such standards,
jumbled sequence of constructions comprising
the U.S. Capitol in Washington, with

the
beyond which
pinnacles,
styhstic coherence,
its
cast-iron
dome,
even though
it
is
was begun
a
in
and proceeded
through a Classic Revival face-Hfting by Latrobe, before

thoroughly imperial
its
scale
through Walter's
additions of the mid-nineteenth century. Indeed, the very
nature of this thumping, oratorical style of European im-
periaUsm was
Perhaps
its
tieth century,
941
House,
New
exportability.
happiest offshoot
its
comes
in the early
twen-
with the designs of 19 12 for the Viceroy's
Delhi, India. Here, the clamorous hyperbole
of the mode, in
its
late
subdued by the broad,

detaihng of Sir
Edwin
nineteenth-century examples,
restful horizontals
Lutyens's
manner
is
and simplified
quahties which
hark back to the Romantic Classic era of a century before,
and which
also
reflect
1871-75
These bulky forms derived from
the
new works of Second
Empire
Paris,
but with an
important difference
more
they
were
loyal to their seventeenth-
century prototypes than were
(finished in 1863),
partly late Georgian in derivation,
attaining
.<?r
two noteworthy
tendencies that
had crystaUised in American architecture around 1900: the
such buildings in France
Mullet built post

office
offices
itself.
and
federal
buildings in principal
American
cities at this
time,
often resembling this

bureaucratic
monument.
MODERN
312
941 Sir Edwin Lucyeiu.

Viceroy's House, New Delhi,
1912
later,
Anglo-Indian version of the
Imperial style in which the
hyperbole of the nineteenth

century has been simplified.
Although the central dome is

used in the European manner,
its form is based on the Buddhist
stupa, and Lutyens tried to invent
typical 'Indian' detailing to
replace Renaissance decoration.
The
horizontal accents of the
design
may
be compared with
the Prairie Style of Frank Lloyd
Wright, especially
as
manifested
in the Imperial Hotel,
Tokyo.
942 McKim, Mead and White.

Pennsylvania Station,
New York. 1906-10
The
familiar glass-and-metal shed
leading to the trains was fronted
by
a great hall in
almost
literal
imitation of the tepidarium
of the
The
Roman
baths of Caracalla.
station has
recently been demolished.
ground-hugging horizontal planes of Frank Lloyd Wright's

prairie style ajid the dignified,
almost puritanically sober
Nco-classic version of the Imperial mode, popidariscd
by
work of McKini, Mead and White, Carrere and Hastings, and a host of minor followers. As for the new 'official' movement in the United States, it was a branch of
the
the academic Beaux-Arts 'export style' and had received

its first
stimulus
from the
White
so-called
World's
City, the
313
943, 944 Frank Lloyd Wright.

Imperial Hotel, Tokyo. 1916-22
For
official
tradition
most carnival-hke
dantic, the
newly
in
setting,
Chicago
From
(1893).
whose tone was
this
al-
ironically pe-
Although
purified Imperial style spread.
number of
applied to a
most
and
typical
New
Station,
York, 1906-10,
in
almost
Roman
literal
its
was
Pennsylvania
which the
tamiiiar glass-
building
and-metal shed, leading to the

hall in
programmes, perhaps
different
effective
trains,
is
fronted by
great
imitation of the tepidarium of the
intricate,
highly ordered, symmetrical plan.
Wright's knowledge
of engineering was put to good use
which took
seven years to complete.

In the earthquake
hit
Tokyo
had been
942
for the
development of an
in this building,
Columbian Exposition
Tokyo,
this hotel ni
Frank Lloyd Wright drew on
of 1923 which
the hotel,
built
which
of concrete
on concrete piles,
was one of the few large
buildings to survive. Wright
avoided any expression
of Japanese motifs, employing
slabs carried
instead
personal idiom.
baths of Caracalla.
Such text-book apphcations of the Beaux-Arts principles
of design involved very carefully studied sequences
of symmetrically disposed spaces and masses, sequences
which modifications
in scale
and
were
size
in
instituted for
reasons of circulation or of change of function. Ultimately
such planning techniques deri\'e from Renaissance
Italy,
but the direct thread of this tradition, in which the plan

itself
was the generator of design, goes back to another
book by J.-N.-L. Durand,

ttire
of 1 802-05, the
'Petit
the Precis des Lcfoiis d'Arcliitcc-
Durand', to differentiate
it
from the
'Grand Durand'. These two-dimensional confeaions of
upon the more

movements of the early
upon the more perfunctory-
hypothetical space have had their influence
independent, creative architectural

twentieth century, as well
as
Imperial modes.
In this respect,
,
944
mention must be made of Frank Lloyd
Wright's Imperial Hotel, Tokyo, of 1916-22, a building

for
which the
label 'export style'
is
likewise fitting. This
was not the only occasion on which Wright drew heavily
upon
methodology of official
the
opment of an
cal plan.
To
intricate
tradition for the devel-
but highly ordered and symmetri-
further complicate the stylistic
melange
here,
Wright has avoided the expression of any kind oijaponismc

in the elevations, employing instead an idiom of his own,
which some have seen as an outgrowth of certain indigenous Pre-Columbian American
'imperiahsm' takes on a
styles.
In
this
context,
new meaning, one which
that will
become
very
is
nearly tangential with the idea of international, a
word
the label for a subsequent avant-garde
phase of twentieth-century architecture.
Towards
The
creative
architecture
tween two opposing

the other can be
turesque.
945 Henry Bacon.

Lincoln Memorial, Washington,
New Architecture
forces:
of 1800 was
suspended
be-
one was Romantic Classicism;
summed up
under the heading of Pic-
dynamic balance between the two was
and an cquihbrium between
their
competing
possible,
forces
was
maintained until the 1840's. At that time the Picturesque,
having worked
at the
as a
kind of solvent or
regular geometric surface of
a generation or so,
acid, eating
away
Romantic Classicism
fmaUy transformed
for
itself into a style.
This mid-century metamorphosis of the Picturesque into

a specific
mode of
architectural expression
is
represented
D.C. 1917
strange harking-back to a
modern
classic
theme,
to the
mausoleum.
equivalent
MODERN
3U
9a6 PhUip Webb.

The Red House, Bexley Heath,
Kent, 1859-60
Built tor William Morris,
this continues the line of
Picturesque residence designs
but
is
important for
its
simple,
rather vernacular, exterior
which
contrasts with the flamboyantly

'stylistic'
designs of the
more
brash Victorian architects.

Its
rustic materials
and
local bricks, tiles
produce in
effect that
and timber
was
almost revolutionary in
947
F.
its
time.
A. Voysey.
The Pastures, North Luffenham,

Rutland. 1901
While Voysey's work was
founded on local rural
building traditions, the
smooth
surfaces
and carefully
considered rhythmic
masses of his typical houses
make him, perhaps unwiUingly,

an important precursor of
twentieth-century modernism.
TOWARDS
by two major
One of
fashions.
NEW ARCHITECTURE
948 sir Thomas Deane

and Benjamin Woodward,
with the advice of John
was the colourful
these
High Victorian Gothic, the other the bloated Imperial or

Second Empire mode.
The High Victorian

this respect a
of the 1850's and
style
'6o's
Ruskin.
University Museum, Oxford.
in
is
1855-59
culmination of the Picturesque tradition, and
This building, used to house the
simultaneously represents a significant aspect of the architectural avant-garde at this time, in
the conservative role played
London
Margaret
Saints,
has already been noted. Just as
High Victorian Gothic
Street,
new movement
in domestic architecture
buildings.
Ruskin made an abortive

to carve
some of the
and was
in
district,
effort
detail himself,
any case responsible

of the bewildering
for the design
variety of naturalistic sculpture
was being com-
edifice
was exteriorly
one of the most important early
'model' decorative
the
High Church
for this small
pleted, a
the university,
cramped asymmetrical composition,
(1849-59), a
shoved imceremoniously into an unattractive urban
scheme
Natural History collections of
contrast to
by the Imperial mode. The
of Butterheld's All
significance
marked
315
and
in capitals, archivolts, etc.
The iron-and-glass interior

is uncxpeaed in view of
in-
was set afoot with the design, by Phihp

Red House, Bexley Heath (1859-60), a
styHstically anonymous house for William Morris,
terior furnishings
his hostihty to the use
Webb, of
ai Industrial Age materials.
simple,
who
the
provided
own
his
949 J. M. Scbadde.
Antwerp Bourse. 1868-72
One ot the most curious
interior designs.
Here, one reform movement was superimposed directly

on top of another. Morris's role, not in architecture but
in the decorative arts, was an exemplary one for the subse-
many
quent generation. In
respects a moraUst,
like
buildings of
its
epoch,
contrasting late Gothic
masonry arcades with an
his
extremely original
naturalistic,
virtually proto-Art
Nouveau,
immediate predecessors, Pugin and Ruskin, he nonetheless
design for the metal vault.
seems to have avoided the pessimistic, brooding side of
In other
the attitudes represented
by
avoids the overwrought fervour, characteristic of the midcentury.
of the
While he
'evils'
structure in the
manner
of Viollct-le-Duc's
participated in the general denunciation
distinctive projects.
of industrial civiUzation, he did not convey
pronounced a sense of
so
works
Schadde combined metal

and masonry in a single
work
these earlier figures. His
bitterness or frustration as did his
predecessors. His ideals concerning the return to handi-
and to medieval patterns of work seem
crafts
spontaneous escape from contemporary

teel,
to
be a
gen-
950 H. P. Berlage,
Amsterdam Bourse. 1898-1902
Brick is combined with metal
and glass to give a quasi-
unpretentious atmosphere pervades the design of the
Red House.
of
realities.
In contrast to the strained, over-explicit effects
determinedly 'high' Victorian church by Butterfield
or Street,
Webb's design
for Morris
is
the essence of
Romanesque
been
com-
left
pUlars have
posure, almost of self-effacement.
Morris's
Red House
occupies a position in the history
of Paxton's Crystal Palace
ment of ferro-vitreous
architecture, or
Parhament in the development of an

of
state.
Whereas such buildings
in the
by
is
develop-
the Houses of
official architecture
as Butterfield's All Saints
or Garnier's Paris Opera represent an extreme expression
of mid-century
Webb
ifest
taste,
the
less
forceful-seeming buildings of
and Morris, of Barry and Pugin, and of Paxton man-
broader,
less
temporal implications. This
latter
group
possesses a greater significance for the continuing evolution
of
its
modem
architecture, and, consequently, they anticipate
subsequent development in a
way
that
the overtly
styHsh buildings of the time cannot do.
The
history of
viewed
as
modem
architecture must, therefore, be
a dual sequence of events and accomplishments.
On the surface,
there
the various revivals
is
the succession of styles and fashions:
Greek,
Roman, Gothic
or exotic
of the early nineteenth century, or the High Victorian

and Imperial
veaii
styles
of the mid-century, or
and the International
Style.
Each of
focal point, a recognisable pirmacle
which
a specific synthesis of the various elements
later.
Art Noti-
these styles
is
is
the result of
of the modern
950
The
walls have
no projecting
and the decoration
of mid-nineteenth-century domestic architecture which

similar to that
effect.
unplastered; the
is
capitals,
structural.
MODERN
3i6
by virtue of being an
tradition. Each,
form and
space, tends rapidly to
ments
as the
of the
oriel
than a basis for further develop-
perficial imitation, rather
ment and
of
a source for su-
explicit statement
become
gressively
could
evolution.
have had a surprisingly brief
in architecture or in painting,
and the various successive developments
creative existence,
have tended to proceed by
reactions
fitful
and innovations,
than by patient, consistent evolution.
rather
behind
and
efforts together.
One of
another
the
is
Hnk
ideals that
is
Other
century.
do with the
to
or with the
leitmotifs
the Picturesque
is
initiated
the perfunctory
late
modem
nineteenth
have
aesthetic
of materialism and functionalism,
traditions
rise
the
in
of the
of structural technologies
in
metal and
most
concrete. Each of these has played a specific role in
of the outwardly recognisable
two hundred
the last
duality
It is this
is
kind of symmetrical
become
to
of the academic tradition
styHstic configurations
of
differentiates the nature, but not
of the several achievements of Butterfield,
the importance,
is
as the Srick Style.
a regional offshoot
movement
House
is
which descended to the
more than
in domestic architecture,
of Nash, Papworth and

given
its
characteristic theoretical
by Andrew Jackson Downing,

scape designer, as
contribution to
way
in the
weU
was
and formal orientation
a horticulturist
advocacy of the use of wood
his
earher, tentative thoughts
The
on domestic
Architecture
mantic NaturaHsm. In
Morris's
and
Red House belongs
wooden
official architecture. Instead,
Picturesque residence designs, reaching back to the
'Ital-
Ro-
as
championing the ex-
and of appropriate
cottage.
Downing
not
only echoes Pugin but anticipates the broader statements
by VioUet-lc-Duc on
and
less
J.
subject.
this
of
reflected in the houses
Notman, A.
to a continuing sequence of
Downing's
ideas are
contemporaries, like John
his
Davis and Calvert Vaux, and they also
work of such
Picturesquely inclined
American
architects
Richard Morris Hunt and Leopold EidHtz. The
latter,
as
an
of German birth and education, provided, in the

Wdloughby House, Newport, R. I. (1854), an elaborate
architect
works of Richard Norman Shaw, H. H. Richardson, C.
instinctive,
A. Voysey, Frank Lloyd Wright and Charles Rermie
this genre.
F.
and
related rustic structures
as well at to Pugin's
Mackintosh. Following the
of Nash and Pap-
Grange. The
First
work of Webb
World War,
hue of
this
development contributes to the appearance of the

national Style
on the
continent, and
is
Inter-
the progemtor of sub-
sequent tendencies in mid-twentieth-century architecture.
The
early
domestic architecture of Richard
Shaw, dating from the i86o's and

in
its
1870's,
is
Norman
more
striking
appearance than the works of most of his contempo-
raries,
and
its
style represented
an
additional
stimulus
for domestic architecture for the remainder of the century.
Conventionally called 'Queen Anne',

ity,
this
manner,
in real-
begins with the free revival of Ehzabethan and Ja-
cobean elements of the sixteenth and early seventeenth

centuries,
and only gradually comes to embrace
Wrenian, or pre-Georgian
features.
certain
Shaw's early Pictur-
esque work, Uke Leyswood, near Withyhani, Sussex, 1868,

is
richer
effacing
and more
lavish in surface texture than the self-
Red House,
as
it
has a brick,
exterior, in contrast to the
tile
and half-timber
uniform brick of Morris's
resi-
dence. However, the introduction of such unifying ele-
example of the Downingesque mode.
and Morris looks forward to the subsequent domestic
worth,
foreign-trained
From this engagingly half-sophisticated aesthetic of

Downing and his foUowers, the Hnc of development jumps
to the work of Richardson, which grows in part out of an
ian villas'
of the Country House (1850),
his statements
influenced the mid-century
com-
his
architecture, he ar-
of view which might be characterised
at a point
as a
From
constructive material in a frank, expressive way.
of which the Red
a part, tends to avoid such specific stylistic
and land-
Downing's partictdar
of development, which got under
as architect.
this line
840's,
style
contemporaries, and was
their
a decade, the broad
mitments and aggressive formal statements which arc usually present in ecclesiastical
Hke-
This naturaHstic, organic
structure with respect to a
age,
is
of the Picturesque cottage
pression of the nature of materials
order of a cliche in shghtly
951
mode
Webb, Telford and Paxton on the other. Both sides have

made invaluable contributions to the evolution of the
modern movement. However, as opposed to the styHstic
of the High Victorian
not
reflects
prototypes, but
Gamier, Surges and Scott on the one hand, and of Morris,
fixation
947
wood, known
rived, in his
years.
which
a parallel late
wise an indirect outgrowth of a particularly American
characteristic
by Romantic Classicism only
on
which came about
of the early 1870's
Norman Shaw
ostensible
its
States,
of Henry Hobson Richardson. Richard-
efforts
son's domestic architetture
only
influence
United
type of structurally expressive domestic architecture in
planning of diversely shaped elements, which
cliche
through the
marked
in the
themes
these
mode
Victorian
the various individual
sequence of surface developments, there
this
variety of themes
itself;
However,
result.
Shaw's work had
Consequently, most of the familiar phases of modernism,
mulhons
grid pattern of half-timbering, or the
windows provided a matrix in which a prosimpler and more abstract styHstic treatment
perhaps even unconscious, understanding of
But
gifted architect
for the rest, Richardson, perhaps the
of the
velopment to many other

tinental tradition,
facets
both Picturesque and academic, domestic
and Imperial. His
first
House, Newport, R.
early
most
owes his initial deof the EngHsh and con-
entire century,
I.
Sherman
masterpiece, the Watts

(1874),
is
heavily indebted to the
manner of Richard Norman Shaw. Here, a
certain
ruggedness of massing, with long sloping roof diagonals,

is
in
enriched by a small-scaled intricacy of surface texture,
which rough masonry, half-timbering and a variety of
differently shaped
wood
shingles produce an active, faintly
impressionistic effect. Richardson obtained other
dramatic successes in
in his later houses this
a broad, relaxed
and more
monumental public works, and

monumentahty comes through in
liis
ampUtude
in the masses
regularised surfaces of shingle,
which gave
and the more

rise to
the term
Shingle Style.
Richardson's attention to surface qualities on his exteriors
is
rivalled for sensitivity
only in the
earlier
work of
William Butterfield, but with an extraordinary difference
TOWARDS
NEW ARCHITECTURE
317
951 Norman Shaw. Leyswood,

near Withyham, Sussex. 1868
A fine example of the 'Queen Anne'
of Shaw. His
a
work introduced
new
variety of
elements into
domestic architecture, which were

to reappear in various guises
for the rest
of the century,
for instance here, the grid pattern
of half-timbering
and mullions of oriel windows.
952 Alexander Jackson Davis.

Henry Delamater House,
Rhinebeck,
New
An example
of the American
York. 1844
oifshoot of the Picturesque cottage
of Nash and Papworth and
style
their contemporaries.
The
board siding of
'board and
this
vertical
batten' house expresses the nature
of the material and the technique

of construction.
953 Andrew Jackson Downing.

Plan of a board and batten
cottage. 1842
Downing was the chief advocate
of the frank use of wood
construction seen in Davis's
Delamater House.
954 Leopold Eidlitz.

Willoughby House, Newport,
Rhode
The
Island. 1854
cottage style
became
prevalent in America.
the
work of
reflected here in the
It is
foreign-trained and
less
Picturesquely inclined Eidlitz,
who produced
melange
of the Downingesque Romantic

rational slick style.
955 Henry Hobson Richardson.
Watts Sherman House,

Newport, Rhode Island. 1874
In this building Richardson
was strongly influenced by the

Norman Shaw.
early houses of
Many
other architects also built
shingle-covered houses in the

early
Shaw marmcr.
MODERN
3i8
956 Stanford White.

Kingscote dining room,
of temperament, expression and
Newport, Rhode
intricately detailed
Island, c. 1880
m Newport, R. I.,
by Richard Upjohn in
scale.
The smooth,
sleek,
and brilhantly coloured tile-and-brick
Kingscote,
planes of Butterfield are replaced in Richardson's charac-
was
teristic
built
the early sixties as a 'Tudor'
house
at a
time
when
idiom by sombre hues, broad, large-scaled
the Picturesque dominated
a rich, sculpturesque te.xture. In this
of domestic architecture.
drew together many of
twenty years
later.
much
Some
White
added the dining room with
much
of the orientalising that
went
into his
work.
ele-
ments, with the various naturalistic tonahties enhanced by
vocabulary Richardson
High Vic-
the tendencies of the
torian and of the Imperial styles,
and with
a simple, direct
power of control and organisation produced
sponta-
neously monumental architecture in such buildings as the
Allegheny Court House and
Jail,
Pittsburgh (1884-88), or
Memorial Library, Quincy, Massachusetts
the Crane
(1880-83). This synthesis
not achieved through the for-
is
mulation of an arbitrary
style,
or by arriving
com-
at a
promise between opposites, but by rising above the pa-
of the various fashions of the day and
rochial differences
957 Heury Hobson Richardson.
Ames Gate Lodge,
by confronting each building
unique design problem.
as a
This imperturbable detachment does not really separate
North Easton,
Massachusetts. 1881
Richardson's individual buildings from the everyday styles
An example of
of the 1870's and
Richardson's
transmutation of the styles of
Nash and Downing. An inspired

statement of the theme of
regional particularism.
he estabhshed
i88o's. Instead,
superiority over his contemporaries,
way
lier:
ic
that Sir
unique
his
much
same
the
John Soanc had some seventy-five years
common
by using the
in a
in
way which
ear-
elements of the current aesthet-
suggests the continued questioning and
searching for ever-different yet familiar and understandable

resolutions to the functional
cific
design.
possible
The
when an
and
style
of Richardson's powers came
architect
on the scene can be appreciated
958 Frank Furness.

Provident Life and Trust
Building, Philadelphia. 1879
An American architect of
a violently expressive,
problems of a spe-
transcendental achievements that were
Ames Gate
best in the
Lodge of 1880, and the Marshall Field Warehouse, Chicago

(1885-87). The former is an inspired statement of the theme
of regional particularism, and of Romantic Naturalism, so
far as the relation
concerned;
it
of the cottage
is
of the form to the chosen material
is
an extraordinary monumentaUsation
also
of Nash and Downing. The
styles
latter
is
exaggeratedly Victorian
sensibility,
Furness
may have
been influenced by
certain projects
of Viollet-le-Du
Significantly, Louis SuUivan

was much attraaed to Furness's
work and briefly held a
position in his otfice.
While Sulhvan's own personal

style of ornament is far
removed from the strident,
overscaled shapes of Furness,
his
an equally sombre, yet refmcd,

tarian tradition that has
its
of the
distillation
origins in the
utili-
work of Telford.
Curiously, Richardson, in his brief career (he died, aged

forty-eight, in 1886),
subsumes
much of the
past, as
well
the present, of the latter nineteenth century, without
as
exhausting
its
establishing a
to further
possibilities and,
more important, without

would be inimical
fixed static type that
development. Paradoxically,
ardson's characteristic
masonry
it
was out of Rich-
architecture that the aes-
penchant for novelty
and originahty must stem

in part from this
unlikely source.
The building
illustrated
here has been demohshed.
thetic
of the steel-frame skyscraper emerged
immediately following
his death.
tribution stems least of
all
The
from the
vitality
in the years
of
his
con-
closed, concise ap-
pearance of his individual buildings, and more from their

suggestive, provocative, indeed 'unfinished' qualities.
breadth and largeness of scale that

his
is
characteristic
The
of even
domestic work makes him the heir of Romantic Classi-
cism, as represented
by Boullcc and Ledoux, while
same time he provides
at the
a spectacular fulfilment for
that
aspect of mid-ninetccnth-century taste that had brought
forth
the
work of Garnier and
Poclaert.
And, tmally,
Richardson's architecture fulfds the promise of the various
medieval
revivals,
extending from Wyatt to Nor-
man Shaw.
The lines of descent issuing from the work of Richardson
two in number: the less fertile of the two leads uito
are
TOWARDS
NEW ARCHITECTURE
319
work of McKim, Mead and White, and, by an

evohitionary process, further and further away from the
959 Henry Hobson Richardson.

Marshall Field Warehouse,
dynamic equihbrium between order and freedom
the early
that
sparked the best of the master's work. The fmal rcsuh o(

path was a return to a purely academic, Imperial point
this
of view,
albeit
an academic
sylvania Station, has been purged of
many of its
Classic quaUties. If this
of what might be
called the
way
Penn-
like
decorative
and can be re-appreciated for some of
accretions,
Romantic
works
style that, in
Neo-
its
Chicago. 1885-87
utilitarian
work -
stark, simple,
and of great dignity.

Eclectic in that
its
sources are both
Romanesque and Renaissance,

it rises far beyond the limits of
ordinary revival architecture.
The
building has been
demolished.
leads to a sparking
anti-modern tradition of
re-
cent architecture, then the other line of development issu-
ing
from Richardson
ments.
It is
decade of the nine-
last
of the most creative of
from here
from
design,
bursts
during the
is,
century, one
teenth
that the
Bumham
and Root to Adler and
which
style,
dominated by Frank Lloyd Wright, comes to

consequence of Richardson and
The European
States,
international architertural
which suddenly blossomed

prominence
movement
radical
but
largely
his followers.
of
name of ^r( Nourelated
to the academic
and medievaUsing architecture of the 1870's
and
chic, novel, affectedly 'modernistic' effects
i88o's,
its
were made possible by a coy blending of these

cising
modes with
either the
new
1890-95
Another famous early example of
the form of the building.
The
base of this metal-framed
building
glass
was paradoxically
that
960 Burnhatn and Root.

Reliance Building, Chicago.
the construction determining
into
in the last third
the nineteenth century, goes under the
all
is
life
counterpart to these capital developments
from the United
veau.
Sullivan,
out of mere local importance, and, equally, the
domestic architecture of the prairie
as a
move-
all
Chicago school of skyscraper
stone-faced; the rest
is
and white
Decoration
is
tile.
used solely
to underline the horizontaUty of
the windows.
histori-
expressive potentialities
of metal technology, or with the more or
less
arbitrary
forms that could be derived either Uterally or by principle
from the revolutionary movements in painting, mostly

inaugurated in the 1880's, and known collectively under
the heading of Post-Impressionism. But at least a part of
the ideology, if not of the outward forms, of Art
veau can be traced to the
a part
Nou-
same source from which stems
of the Anglo-American domestic tradition of Webb,
Shaw, Richardson and Wright
namely
to the writings
of William Morris and of John Ruskin. Their outspoken

appeals against the insensitivity of much of the modern
chord in the European
visual spectacle struck a responsive

architects
of theîH
de sikle:
Van de
Gaudi and probably Guimard. This
who
Velde, Horta, Berlage,
is
much the same group
came under the spell of the structural aesthetic

of VioUet-le-Duc, whose ideas had, perhaps, been familiar
also
to the Paris-educated Richardson,
were much admired by
Candour was, of
in
any event
McKim and Wright.
his successors,
course, the
and
momentary
virtue of Chi-
96X Louis Sullivan.

Carson, Pirie and Scott's store,
Chicago. 1899
Recogmsably m the
The metal
cago commercial architecture in the
late l88o's
1890's, although, sadly, the pattern swiftly
1900,
and the influence of the
made
itself felt in
and early
changed around
persistent Imperial style
the grid-hkc facâdes;
apertures
let in
the
moment, however, two buildings by Burnham and Root,

the Monadnock Building, the last significant non-steelframe skyscraper (1891), and the totally
960
Rehance Building
different, skeletal
(1890), suggest the degree to
which the
nature of the material and construrtive system could determine, and not just 'influence', the
ing.
However,
ings, the
it
is
in the best
Guaranty Building, Buffalo
Pine and Scott's
store,
form of the
of SuUivan's
(1894),
build-
office build-
and the Carson,
Chicago (1899, with subsequent ad-
included
of today.
its
become windows which
maximum
The tower
the design of skyscrapers. Before that
style
skeleton imposes
at
at the
Ught.
corner was
the owner's insistence.

MODERN
320
962 Louis Sullivan.

Guaranty Building, Buffalo.
1894
were the
successes, that the science
of skyscraper production becomes an instinctive
The same
Buildings like these, which were

offices,
name but two of his
dirions), to
spirit
of invention and of
dation to the problems of the
fint
10 demonstrate the potentiaUties of
work of Sulhvan's
the domestic
modem
house
art.
accommo-
sensitive
integral to
is
Lloyd Wright.
pupil, Frank
metal-frame construction.
Wright's domestic architecture
growth of the
down
in the
the mid-western out-
is
eastern Richardsonian tradition as filtered
work of
the i88o's,
McKim's Appleton
i.e.
House, Lcno.x, Massachusetts (1883-84), Stanford White's
New
Tiffany House,
York
first
(1882-83), or Bruce Price's
New York
Buren House, Tuxedo,
Van
Wright's
(1885-86).
Winslow House, River

of the Colum-
truly independent effort, the
Forest, Illinois (1893; ironically, the year
bian Exhibition),
is
not just an isolated juvenile
work which,
an inaugural
effort,
would be
Sullivanesque character to the general lay-out,

a
but
save for a certain Ungering
sudden and convincing personal masterpiece. However,

of incubation
a period
manner
about five or
Wright could
before
essary
itative
liis
was nec-
own
unique
decade immediately following 1900, in a
in the
of houses that challenge and
series
six years
arrive at
finally surpass the qual-
and suggestive achievement of Richardson a quar-
ter-century before.
From
963, 964 Guaranty Building,
Buffalo. 1894
a stylistic point of view, the history of twentieth-
century architecture begins
some
years before the turn of
moment at which the wilfully progressive

Nouveau consciously endeavours to estabUsh a new
the century, at the
Deuils of ground storey.

Sullivan has ingeniously contnved
Art
to give the piers of the
which,
style,
at least in
outward appearance, breaks with
building an appearance of free-
The epoch
'1900' re-
standing columns by bending
the historicism of the recent past.
back the shop windows
presents the begiiming of a period of realisation and
The
at the top
and the rather

moulding which
piers
delicate
max
cli-
of preparation. Signifi-
a century
faces
Nouveau and
cantly, the first experiments in Art
the shafts around the shop
windows
more than
after
manners come about
are in terra cotta.
These exhibit certain

charaaeristics of Art Nouveau.
from the old
tively isolated
Hence, there
is
centres
of Paris and London.
Virtor Horta's Tassel House (1892-93), in
Rue de Turin,
the former
related
in provincial capitals that are rela-
Brussels, as well as his
more
Maison du Peuple (1897-99), in the same city;

Olbrich's Sezession gallery, Vienna (1897); Mackintosh's
Glasgow art school of 1897- 1909; and Gaudl's numerous
extensive
buildings in Barcelona, cvilminating, for the purposes of
An
Notweau, in the Casa Mila of 1905. In parricular,
Horta's works, along with the smart, fashionable Parisian
works of Hector Guimard, express

uous,
a dehberatcly
rationahsed, partly whimsical
partly
ambig-
architectonic
poetry, in
which elements of technology, naturalism, func-
cionalism,
symboUsm and even of hberal
social consciousness
arc blended in a heady, unstable mixture. Further uniting

these varied
works
is
of decadence.
a cultivated air
In contrast to this volatile, neurotic fashion, a second,
new
style
comes
in
some ways a counter Art Nouveau
to the fore within a decade.
It
preserves
the preciousness and even the decadent

tutes
more
rectilinear, relatively
air,
abstract
but
style
much of
it
substi-
and rational
design vocabulary for the cur\'ilinear exuberance of the
previous decade. This comparative sobriety in the architecture of the period,
which reaches
1910, forms, thus, the transition

liate art
of the
geometry
that
'90's to the severe,
emerges
after
into the International style.
its
culmination around
from the
naturalistic, fo-
almost monastic, cubic
1918 and swiftly coalesces
The two most
representative
SHS4
XLiv Nash: Carlton House Terrace, Loudon XLV Gamier: Opera,
Pi
m
'...
vv*'*; -i
.^#-
tx
li
.''
ii..
XLIV
XLV
[ftTtTt.
J3
J^
4
'^y\
JUL
i
^~
W"^?*-
:A^-
>b
2*siLfe*- :^*-i
i^f-
i^-j^
tD
r^
"
_X.
iîiteHifii
TOWARDS
NEW ARCHITECTURE
323
965 McKim, Mead and White.

Tiffany House,
New York. 1882-83
A type of luxurious American
owed a debt
Norman Shaw and
towTi house that
both to
Richardson.
The simple
fenestration
and blank surfaces
of brick and stone

tended to obscure
the historicising charaacr
of the overall Picturesque design.
The
now
building has
been demolished.
966 R. M. Hunt.
*The Breakers*
Newport, Rhode
Island, c. 1870
Europe's obsession with the

historical styles is paralleled here
in the
American idea
of a Renaissance palazzo adapted

to a private house.
XLvi AJIer and Sullivan: Guaratity Building, Buffalo xlvii

XLViii Wright
Avery Coonley Play House, Riverside,
VVriglit:
Illinois
Walter Gale House,
Oak
Park, Illinois
MODERN
324
967 Victor Horta.
Maison du Peuple, Brussels.

1897-99
Built at the
same time
as Berlage's
Slock Exchange in Amsterdam

(see 950). this
in
is
far
more advanced
''-*'',d.iifiM|î..*!ii';
use of glass and iron.
its
They
the entire fa^dc.
fill
f
968 Otto Wagner.
subway
Karlsplatz
Vienna.
station,
894
The ornamental ironwork and

hemispherical roof are a
prolongation of nineteenth-century
characteristics,
but the
wall, of thin marble slabs, points
towards the
Wagner
new
architecture.
designed the whole of the
Vienna subway.
969 Joseph Olbrich.

Sezession gallery , Vienna. 1897
Olbrich was, like Joseph Hoffmann,
of Otto Wagner's
a disciple
in Vienna.
This Austrian school concerned

itself
with
crafts as well as
architecture, so that Art
Nouveau decoration
its
some of
become
in
buildings tends to
treated as a separate consideration.
970 C. R. Mackintosh.
Glasgow Art School,
North Wing. 1907-09
Mackintosh designed buildings
remarkably ahead of
had
little
country. In his
Nouveau
and
is
his time,
influence in his
is
work Art
the architectural form,
not used only
decoration.
but
own
as
appUed
aJihn-B
!!
TOWARDS
NEW ARCHITECTURE
325
971 Antoni Gaudi.

Casa MUa, Barcelona. 1905
Known
in Barcelona as the
'quarry', an apt description
of Gaudi's cut-stone building which

looks as though it were made
of
clay.
The whole
plan
executed in
is
two kidney-shaped
curves round
courtyards.
972 Joseph Hoffmann.

Stoclet House, Brussels. 1905- II
The
naturalistic, foliate
Art Nouveau of the nineties
emerges into more severe forms.

The flat surfaces of this
banker's house are made of white
marble
like
slabs, treated rather
framed
pictxire^.
973-975 Antoni Gaudi.

Sagrada Fatnilia,
Barcelona. Begun 1884
Art Nouveau has the strangest
effect
of
when
all
used in
church architecture.
of the
many
One
buildings of this
kind built by Gaudi in Barcelona;

it
was begun
in
1884.
and work has been going on ever

since. It remains uncompleted.
The four
striking towers
were not completed
until after
Gaudi's death.
The buildmg
is
perhaps the most
extraordinary church to have
been conceived
m
It
the past
hundred
years.
goes beyond any influence
which might have been

forthcoming fromthe international
Art Nouveau movement,
and actually foreshadows
the Expressionist
movement
in
twentieth-century architeaure.
MODERN
326
976 Joseph Olbrich.

Exhibition Hall,
of the
In effect these
past.
represent a level of
colossi
Darmsudt. 1907
Olbrich. an Austrian, was invited
Paxton's iron Crystal Palace of 1851 or
to Darmstadt
for the Paris E.xposition
Duke
in
by the Grand
1899. and he worked
hall, a
rather plain
and formal building, has a

classical appearance which
Nouveau
Europe during the
in
a par with
Eiffel's steel
tower
of 1889.
which follow
All these buildings,
there until his death in 1908,
This exhibition
on
creative initiative in concrete architecture
first
way
the twentieth century, are in one
wake of Art
in the
decade and a half of

or another reflec-
is
something of an exercise for the

architect in a dilferenl style.
of the modernist
tions
aesthetic,
A new
not homogeneous.
art
Munich, and other
in Paris,
that very
moment
but
as a
group they are
was very much
cities,
in the process
new
in the air;
painting was at
of becoming an
historic
emergence of Fauvism, Cubism, Futurism,
fact vvrith the
Die Briicke, and Der Blaue
Reiter. Matisse, Picasso, Klee,
Duchamp and
Kandinsky, Marcel
Mondrian were
Piet
already painters to be reckoned with on the basis of their
work
before 1914. Yet no European architect of this pewhich witnessed the initial wave of twentieth-cen-
riod,
977 Peter Behrens.

Frankfurt Gas Works. 1912
The new forms
of buildings which were emerging
as a result
began
to
of industriahsation
be seen in terms
of architectonic shape. Behrens's

and factory
industrial
Uke Freysinnet's Orly

hangars, gave architecture
buildings.
new
tury painting, was able to approximate in his
own work
the cohesive level of invention that had been attained

the painters.
was not
tainty;
just in flux,
it
by
In contrast to this creativity, architecture

it
was
in a period
of ebb and uncer-
lacked a sense of positive, objective purpose, to
judge either by the buildmgs themselves, or by the theoreti-
numerous and perceptive
utterances of the period,
cal
as
they were.
dimension.
The
heroic exception to this condition was the ar-
sole,
Wright
chitecture of Frank Lloyd
as
it
evolved over the
period 1900-09 in the expanding suburbs around Chicago.
Alone among architectural designers of the period, Wright's

had a degree of
style
intellectual
ness that equalled that

central
European
tive precision
tic
painters. Despite the clarity
and defmi-
of many of Wright's formulations in domes-
architecture at this
fect,
and perceptual cohesive-
of the contemporary Parisian and
epoch
which
closed finality,
despite
their
seemingly per-
them at once a memono work by Olbrich, Hoff-
gives
rable, indelible character that
mann or Behrens possesses these buildings, pubhshed by

the Wasmuth firm in Berlin, in widely circulated monographs in 19 10 and 191
sparked the next stage in the
1,
development of European architecture
World War. Then,
First
Wright's
own
after
end of the
interlude
in
development, they became both the direct
and indirect source for
his ultimate
mamier,
of the period from the mid-1930's to

is
after the
curious
his 'late style'
his death in 1959.
It
next to impossible to select from the numerous major
designs
by Wright, without
in
one way or another intro-
978 Hans Poelzig.
ducing a distortion. However, the plans and exteriors of
Chemical Factory, Luban. 191
two
This buildmg
a
is
simply
houses, that for
(1902),
Ward
WiUitts, Flighland Park, Illinois
and that for Roben Evans, Chicago
(1908), indi-
functional shell to house
ways the polar
between the
a chemical process.
cate in very different
The
regular and irregular, the academic and the Picturesque, and
stepped roof follows through
the lines of
filter
beds
the intricate yet precise
from which solutions descend.

There is a distant similarity
between this type of building
and the early
Eni^lish
mills
and warehouses, which arose
way
in
tensions
which Wright has brought
about their reconcihation. In the Evans House, the
classic
cube has been exploded by the projections of porch and

porte-cochere
in the Willitts
House, the same surging flow
out of closely related architectural
of interior space bursts outward from
problems.
places
a
a central core
of tu-c-
around which the hving areas have been arranged
in
most original fashion. These designs are characterised by
their horizontality,
which gives them the appearance of
hugging,
echoing, the
as well as
flat
prairie sites; but, at
TOWARDS
NEW ARCHITECTURE
the same time, these houses
ground and
excavated
981
These tendencies are even more dramat-
cellars.
ically expressed
the outward-flung horizontals of ter-
in
and veranda
race
in the small yet
Robie House, Chicago
The
in
'float' on the surface of the

below the surface with deeply
are not rooted
impUcitly monumental
(1909).
particular appropriateness
domestic architecture
of Wright's
by the
indicated
is
modem
confronted with the problem of a

983
prairie style
fact that
tical
form
and urban
that
was more
more
solid,
all
Lloyd Wright.
Willitts House,
Highland Park,
Illinois.
1902
Exterior and plan.
One
is
of Wright's early houses,
built
The
on
interior
it
cruciform plan.
is
orgarused in a
most original fashion round

the central core of 6replaces.
when
came
aggressively ver-
At the same time, the Larkin Build-
in scale.
ing was a novelty in principle as well

ance. In lay-out,
979, 980 Frank
Ward
office in the
design of the Larkin Building in Buflfalo (1904), he
up with
327
the offices
on
as in exterior
five
appear-
were
floors
tied
together through a central hght-well, so that instead of
compartmentation, there was an easy flow of space through-
As commercial architecture, the whole
out.
ble possessed a dignity
even in purely
official
particular level
and quality that
is
ensem-
interior
rarely achieved
It marked a
monumental arin which the syn-
or ceremonial buildings.
of accompHshment
in the
chitecture of the early twentieth century,
by Richardson was
thesised tradition estabUshed
reconsti-
tuted in the idiomatic style of his greatest successor, at a
when analogous
time
There are many

and America
were being made
efforts
by Berlage, Behrens and
in
Europe
Poelzig.
between the work of Europe
parallels
the years around 1900. In England, the
981 Frank Lloyd Wright.

Robie House, Chicago. 1909
A town villa m Chicago a more
;
movement
in domestic architecture
gins back to the generation
new
its
ori-
of Nash was then reaching a
degree of independence and originality in the houses
of Voysey and Mackintosh,

tuousness
in
the similarly
Lutyens. All these

less
which traced
forceful
men
as
well as an Edwardian
inclined
work of
Sir
sumpEdwin
designed works which, in a bland,
way, present re-interpretations of the same Pic-
turesque principles that were being
sophisticated version of
Wright's groimd-huggmg prairie

house.
The outward-flung
terrace
horizontals
and verandah give
floating effect.
The
interplay of space with solid
has been refined and
made more
complicated.
more emphatically
adapted and transformed by Wright.
Unlike the work of Wright, which enjoyed a currency
among
the post-1910 continental avant-garde, that of these
EngHsh
architects
was rapidly forgotten. The
tivity in their houses fell off^ before the first
level
of crea-
decade of the
twentieth century was over, and unlike the subsequent recoveries in the checkered career
significant continuation
of this
ofWnght,
no
there was
modem tradition in
EngUsh
architecture.
On
the other hand, there were sporadic achievements
the part of early twentieth-century
who had
American
on
architects,
been touched by Wright's extraordinary achieve-
ment, or by the same grouping of influences that had

Evans House, Chicago. 1908
Wright was concerned with
breaking
down
the cube
conception of the house.
initiated
it
in the first place.
Notable in
this respect are
984
Bernard Maybeck's Christian Science Church, Berkeley,
985
California (1910); the Bradley House,
Woods
Hole, Mass-
of Purcell and Elmslie (1911); or, somewhat

the LoveU House, Newport Beach, California (1926),
achusetts,
986
later,
by R. M.
been an
Schindler, a Viennese-trained architea,
assistant
who
of Frank Lloyd Wright. Wright's
had
own
Ermis House, Los Angeles (1923), while striking out in a
new
direction
from the
typical prairie style
dweUing of
his earUer period, also represents a creative continuation
of the
century.
initial
achievement of the
first
decade of the
of
With
projecting eaves or terraces
he
relates his solids to the space
around them.
He
has done this here with the
porch and porte-cochere.
MODERN
328
The Classic Moment

Larlun Building, Buffalo. 1904
Modern Architecture
in
Wright's most iniporunt early
In
monumental or commercial
was an
effort
with the various floors built
around
of these frequently
a skylight.
from
Wright
Activities in central
Europe
where
of almost twenty
for a period
of the
laps the upheaval
Rohe and
upon
down
others,
definitely outshone those elseyears,
until the
Perhaps the crucial building
Nazi catastrophe of 1933.

beginning of
at the
European architects, and was

visited by Berlage. architect of the
velopment
Amsterdam Bourse,
of Machinery, designed in collaboration with
in 1911.
is
Wcrkbund
(Gropius's master) industrial
the fatâde.
Berkeley, California. 1910

emphatically
had
At the same time
a horizontality, as well
complex
in
of interlocking squares that

rivals even the ingenuity of Frank
which
elevation,
its
derivation
Lloyd Wright.
The timber
of so
work
is
much of Bchrens's
more abstract
given a
touch, with an unusually generous use of glass walls on
Christian Science Church,
eclectic design presents a
Adolf Meyer,
exhibition at Cologne in 1914.
Here the sensibly Romantic quality
still
de-
this
Gropius's Administrative Building and Hall
for the Deutsche
984 Bernard Maybeck,
which over-
World War, and this creawork of Gropius, Mies van der
tive spurt continues in the
building exerted
considerable influence
This curious,
its
First
metal furnishings and fixtures as
an integrated part of the interior
The
the
centre of gravity in Europe during the decade of 1910-20.
himself designed the then novel
ensemble.
American designs
vital
of architectural development re-established
line
'nave' or
a central
light-well, illuminated
above by
spite
main
office building
The
from
both general and specific in
architcrtural history
1920's, has
important building
this
an emphasised symmetry
its
the recently published drawings of Wright.
detailing of the interior
conceals a concrete structure.
is
as
been
commonly
of the post-war period, the

written
an account of the
as
International style. This familiar phrase
is
the one habit-
geomwork of Gropius, Mies, J. J. P. Oud, Lc

Andre Lurât and their followers. However,
ually used to describe the characteristically rational

etry of the early
Corbusier,
there
an alternate, relatively subjective and Romantic
is
trend in the 1920's, identified by the
Under
985 Purcell and Elmslie.
Bradley House, Woods
America was
growth than
between the
and the non-geometric
architecture in
Rohe and Gropius, of
English
contemporary.
free
forms of Expressionism
the period roughly
from 1918
and which show a manifestly Romantic, Expression-
character in their curving, irregular forms.
is
wave of irrational non-geometric shapes

De StijI movement m
of a banding together of painters (Mon-
the appearance, in 1917, of the
architects
drian),
driving
(Oud), designers (Rietveld), under the
of an
force
Theo van
Purmeprovide an interlocking com-
artist-writer-polemicist,
986 R. M. Schindler,
Lovell House, Newport Beach,
Doesburg. The early projerts of Oud, notably
California. 1926
rend factory project of 1919,
War
new
post
World
trained architect
an
assistant
who
fagade,
which
is
most
certainly an
Viennese-
torial
with
more
abstract pic-
compositions of Mondrian equally in mind. Along
had been
of Wright.
on the
outgrowth of a consider-
ation of Wright's forms, but with the
architecture in
Europe. Schindler was
his
position of horizontal and vertical slab-like elements
Frank Lloyd Wright
and of the
to
style,
Holland, the result
of
con-
which pre-date the emergence of the International
In contrast to this
i*(*6i(||*v<'(iii^^
ot the influence
is
1922,
ist
An example
The
rational, cubic International style
fused by the early works of architects like Mies van der
a far stronger
its
word Expressiomsm.
baimer, one finds temperaments as diverse as
Erich Mendelsohn, Hans Poelzig and Otto Bartning.

distinction
Hole, Massachusetts. 191X

Showing the influence of Frank
Lloyd Wright.
The new domestic
this
this synthesis
of two further aspects of early twentieth-
century visual invention, there are the partly independent
achievements of Dudok in Hilversum (Holland), and in the
even more block-like cubic (not Cubist) geometricisms of
Djo Bourgeois
in Brussels
Mallet-Stevens in Paris.
new idiom
latter's
personal variant of the
can best be appreciated in the Noailles Villa
Hyeres (1924),
its scale,
and of the better-known Roben
The
a stark. Picturesque pile
of forms
merits comparison with the similar but
fined composition of Hoffmann's Stoclet House,
at
that,
by
more
re-
begun two
decades before. In their similarities and differences, these
MOMENT
THE CLASSIC
two luxurious houses

mination of this
geometry comes
intricate cubic
Dc
of the
chitectural masterpiece
StijI
as well
The
in the ar-
movement,
329
Gropius's Administrative Building
Gcrrit
was quite symmetrical.

influence of Frank Lloyd
Wright shows in the
The
horizontal and vertically situated slab-like elements offer a

precarious, tenuously balanced composition
MODERN ARCHITECTURE
987 Walter Gropius.

Deutsche Werkbund
Exhibition, Cologne. 1914
cul-
House, Utrecht (1924), where the
Schroeder
Rietveld's
both the continuity,
illustrate
evolution of European architecture.
as the stylistic
IN
projecting slab
of seemingly
roofs of the raised comers.
weightless planes and surfaces.
On
monumental
and functional
new
the
scale,
aesthetic
construcrive
spatial,
of the International
bringing
style,
together innumerable strands of the modernist tradition,

reaches a climax in Walter Gropius's Dessau Bauhaus (192526),
and
Brinkman and van der
in
Rotterdam (1927-28), the
in
Mart Stam. Once vaunted

works of the
ings, these
nificant as instances
tural style.
was
It
Vlugt's van Nelle Factory
Germany. 1928
examples of functional build-
as
Mendelsohn designed other

Schocken Stores in Germany of
steel and glass. Their bold
now appear much more sigrealisation of a new architec-
1920's
of the
not, certainly, the
twentieth century, but
988 Erich Mendelsohn.

Schocken Store, Chemnitz,
presumably designed by
latter
it
sweepmg
most pervasive of the
was undoubtedly the one
in
of the
which
curves follow the bend
streets.
There
is
a strong
element of wilful self-expression.
the invention of unheralded concepts that transcend the
normal and customary
ideas concerning the individual roles
of form and
'interior'
of
space,
and
'exterior', are
strated in a concise, indeed spectacular, fashion.
demonThe ulti-
mate, transcendental expressions of this aesthetic of weightless,
hovering, screen-Hke forms occurs in Mies van der
Rohe's Barcelona Pavihon of 1929 and in Le Corbusier's
same
Villa Savoye, designed in the
executed marble-and-glass structure

tilled
design which
tendencies. In the
is
year. Mies's lavishly

is
the outgrowth of
first
instance
it
and
dis-
interests
and
a refined
many
989 Hans Poelzig.

Schauspielhaus, Berlin. 1919
Poelzig was one of the leading
Expressionist architects after the
culminates a spatial and
First
planimetric type that was
first
broached in Wright's
houses, nearly thirty years before.
prairie
Flis
At the same rime, there
theatre
the Barcelona Pavilion
abstract art
which owes something
and architecture of De
to the scholarly Neo-classicism
more than
Stijl
style.
this
Berlin
perfea and extreme
The ceiling
to the
is
movement.
huge stalactite dome
which hovers over the
and, further back,
circular stage.
of Karl Friedrich Schinkel,
a century before.
As for Le Corbusier's Vdla Savoye,

simple and
is
expression of the
a cool, intellectually detached character to the detailing
is
of
World War.
redesigning of
more complex
FuU of
as a
it
is
once more
at
unique statement of the
allusions to Hellenic architecture
new
and plan-
ning in the placing of a clean, regular form upon regularly

spaced, thin steel columns, thus dramatically liberating the
form fi-om the ground,
it
nonetheless reveals these historical
contacts through inversions, paradoxes

stance, the
VUla Savoye gains
its
and
isolated,
conceits.
ment through the
use of an apparent void, whereas an
analogous
produced in
the use
effect
is
of a massive
Corbusian
stylobate.
villa encloses a
as
product of the
movement
simple, uniform
rectilinear
well
is
cella.
In such
lines
This precarious,
elastic
style
Only
all
the
elements in the building.
balance of diverse elements in a
a very
coupled with white, black,
regulate and control
idiom.
highly charged styUstic mixture coidd not remain long in

a stable synthesis.
the architects
They fully exploited schemes

of geometrical proportion to
or perversely modified. These incisive and forthright con-
movement
grey and the three primary colours.
conceptions of mass, load and support are either negated
tradictions are characteristic
geometry which
seen in the paintings of
used strong vertical and horizontal
compositional and spatial practices, the famihar architectonic
Sdjl
Mondrian. Like the painters of
regular peripteral colonnade, encloses a
and almost invariably roofed
De
Holland of which
Cud was a member. The basis

De Stijl lay in the strictly
the
its
in
of
conventionally roofed Hving areas, whereas the classical
temple with
P. Cud.
1928-30
The uniform envelope of the
complex space which includes
J.
Kiefhoek Church, Rotterdam.
Doric temple through
generous terrace or hanging garden open to the sky,

as
990 J.
For in-
haughty detach-
hmited number of architects

990
MODERN
330
Genit RJetveld.
991. 992
House
Two
1924
at Utrecht.
views
showtog similar
to Oud's work.
The Dc
characteristics
movement was
much of the
town planning and
Stijl
responsible for
extensive
residential building in
Dutch towns
during the twenties.

This important house,
though
small,
is
the
first
to condense the elements
of
modem
plane architecture.
THE EXPANSION OF MODERN ARCHITECTURE
more
participated in the
style,
with
these
had indeed so
its
of the new-
rarefied achievements
unique manipiJation of space and form, and
331
W. M. Dudok.
996
Dr Bavinck
School, Hilversum.
1921
far
of famiharity through
became almost
oped ugly
extended themselves beyond a point

their inventive daring that a reaction
inevitable. After 1933, this reaction devel-
coiuiotations
political
Nazi Germany and
in
Communist Russia, putting an end to the vigorous and

diversified modern movement in the former, and equally
Dudok had
3 great success in the
early twenties with his buildings,
which were simple and

straight-forward.
They echo
of
De
the geometries
Stijl.
snuflmg out the creative forces of Russian architecture,
which had achieved
ment
in Golossov's
monu-
a provocative Constructivist
Worker's Clubhouse, Moscow, of 1929.
The more significant tendencies that emerge as an aftermath to the uproar of the 1920's were not narrowly reactionary, but instead are better pictured as somewhat introof the new
spective consolidations
and represent
aesthetic,
of the principles that motivated the on-
a re-evaluation
outmoded compositional
slaught against
techniques.
The Expansion of Modern Architecture
997 Brmktnan, van der Vlugt

and Stam. Van NeUe Factory,
Rotterdam. 1927-28
The walls here, lettmg in the
maximum
The
The subsequent development of modern
architecture in
the second third of the twentieth century took place in an
them
as a
is
supported
by reinforced concrete floors

resting on mushroom-headed
columns.
atmosphere which recognised the achievements of the

cent past and viewed
hght, are merely screens.
building
re-
coherent, articulate, unified
statement. This heroic period had created and codified an

aesthetic that later
modem architects could either embrace or
reject: the International style
of a
tive
particular, specific
ticised in history,
was taken
the representa-
as
modernist ideal
was roman-
it
and by mid-century was largely isolated
from contemporary reahty by
retrospective critical eval-
whether positive or negative, tended
uations, which,
first
consequence of
would seem to be
this ideaUsation
opments tended to be the work of those

transition
from
of the new
past
most successful subsequent devel-
that the
in the original creative phase
The
in
of a myth.
their accounts to give their subject the status
who
participated
of the movement
a creative to a retrospective
itself.
998 Fritz Hoger.
and eval-
Chilehaus,
The most
uative phase in twentieth-century architecture begins in the
of outstanding buildings
1930's,
and
such
Le Corbusier's Swiss Dormitory at the Cite Univer-
as
sitaire,
is
manifested in a
Paris (1931-32), or
series
Frank Lloyd Wright's Kaufmann
House, 'Falling Water', of 1936. Each building
is
a re-inter-
pretarion and re-evaluation oi avant-ârdc themes that
were
of the large biuldings erected
Germany in the twenties.

The irregular site was used
in
to produce a long double curve
one side of the building,

making an acute angle at the
comer, which is the building's
most
first
put forward in the previous decade, but with an un-
mistakable tendency to re-phrase the
new idiom
what more conventional way. In the
case
in a
some-
of Le Corbusier's
dormitory, the clearly defmed and detached cube, complete
combined with an
with glazed wall,
is
curved mass on
reverse side, and the entire
its
ised in carefully patterned
expressionistically
form
frame, and consequently gives a degree of tactile

tality to the building.
is
masonry which conceals
This
is
at
monumen-
variance with the
papery and even ambiguous surface
effects
real-
a steel
more
of Gropius's
Bauhaus or Brinkman and van der Vlugt's van Nelle

Factory, of the previous decades.
The
result
is
not to be
interpreted as a rejection of the earUer, heroic style of mod-
em
architecture; rather,
it
is
an
effort at
expansion and
enrichment through the use of materials that originally
seemed inimicable
to the impalpable
geometry of the
In-
ternational style. Indeed, the tendencies revealed in the
Swiss Dormitory, that seem to suggest a reorientation in the
Hamburg. 1921
impressive
This
distinctive feature.
is
further accented
by the
receding upper three storeys.
on
MODERN
332
999 Mies van der Robe.
German
Pavilion,
Barcelona. 1929
Steel skeleton and rectangular
onyx
planes of marble, glass,
placed vertically or horizontally,

freely, so that space
seems
through them.
to flow
This use of the open plan achieves

extreme lightness and movement.
In the interior, materials have also
way
been juxtaposed in such a
produce an
as to
effect
extreme richness and contrast.
f)f
Le Corbusier.
1000, looi, 1003
Villa Savoye, Poissy. 1929

Exterior and section.
unique statement of a
The
style.
means
new
ferroconcrete structure
that space can penetrate
from beneath,
the house
above, and through the middle.
The
walls are shells merely,
no
or screens with
structural
purpose; hence the open planning.
Roof garden and
terrace are
included in the basic cube of the

house.
of
gentle
staircase,
vkrithout,
ramp mstead
running within and
connects the floors,
as
can be seen in the view of

the courtyard (1003).
1002 Le Corbusier.
The Centrosoyus, Moscow.

i92-36
Le Corbusier was selected in 1928
to design this official building,
now
the Ministry of Light
and
Industries,
of
it
displays
much
his inventiveness,
example the freeing of the
for
building from the ground.
1004 Le Corbusier.
*Voisin' plan
One modern
problem
is
of
Paris.
1925
architectural
to check the spread of
dense masses of houses.

In
one of
many
Le Corbusier
such plans,
built
upwards
in
zigzag blocks, leaving
room
for green spaces between.
1005 Le Corbusier.
La Tourette, Eveux-surI'Arbresle, near Lyons. 1955-59
This concrete monastery
comprises a U-shaped building
and
a rectangular chapel
round a central court,
built
on
hillside.
The
cells
arc cantilcvcred out over
the storeys below.
Great attention has been given to
providing shade, light and
air.
1004
1005
THE EXPANSION OF MODERN AR CHITEC;tURE
work of Le Corbusicr
are oiily fulfilled in his subsequent
masterpieces of the 1940's and

tion, Marseilles,
Wright's most flamboyant,
work of
ally personal
the Unite d'Habita-
'50's,
and Notrc-Dame-du-Haut, Ronchamp.

not
if
most
liis
characteristic-
the 1930's, 'Falling Water',
even
is
more of a museum-piece of contemporary architecture, insofar as it offers a resume of the Romantic domestic traof the nineteenth century,
dition
conjunction with the
in
austere geometries of twentieth-century abstract art
and the
of the machine age. The triumphant
structural daring
elan
with which the concrete balconies of the house both imitate
and challenge the horizontal rock-beds of the water
course above which 'Falling Water'
by the
is
perched,
meshing of horizontal and
intricate
matched
is
vertical elements
in the composition, suggestive of the interlocking forms
of De
the
5(1)7.
The
severe shapes of 'Falling Water* blend with
suggesting, in
site,
roundings, that
its
integration with the natural sur-
an extension of the landscape and geo-
it is
logical formations, rather than
ganic point of view
it is
an intrusion.
From
this or-
recognisable as an ultimate conse-
quence of Downing's century-old principles of Romantic
NaturaUsm, applied with a
and creative
temperamental
totally different
flair.
Numerous minor
tendencies in European and American
on
architecture, appearing
the eve of the Second World War,
and in the years immediately afterwards, brought the whole

ai'aiit-garde
architectural
The
resting point.
encouraged
by
development to an inconclusive
caesura in stylistic evolution, doubtless
ciably
different
brought about
but which is already

would not have been appre-
catastrophe
this
noticeable in the late 1930's,
had events exterior
to
period of reconstruction, which gained
momentum
boom which began m the U.S.A.

modern movement made an effort
mercial construction
the early 1950's, the
new
only in
by the com-
the late 1940's, and was afterwards prolonged
not
architecture
a halt in building activity. In the subsequent
in
at
New
beginning. Such developments of the 1940's as
Empiricism, coming from Scandinavia, and of the western

U.S. 'Bay Region
style',
coupled with a
new
scholarly interest in the Picturesque tradition,
popular and
all
conspired
temper and soften the original geometric rigour of the
to
International style aesthetic, as well as to replace
its
often
spectacular feats of hovering, weightless forms with
more
conventional, prosaic ground-hugging shapes. These tentative
developments reached
their culmination in the lay-
out for the Festival of Britain on the South Bank,
where
(1951),
in such
Festival Hall, the
permanent structures
London
as the
Royal
work of Sir Robert H. Matthew and
Sir
Leshe Martin, the abstract architectural features of the pre-
war modern
style
were softened by
casual shaping
and
massing, and deliberately inconclusive detailing.
These
distance,
efforts already
The most durable

the
also
new
familiar
at
only a decade's
and much of the studiously informal architecture
of the post-war years
which
seem ephemeral
now seems
attractions
of
a bit naive
this
and outmoded.
period
seemed the most spectacular
and the ones

time were
at the
designs and constructions turned out
names long
by the
old,
associated with the heroic struggles
of
modern building. Auguste Ferret's last and, ultimately, posthumous work, the reconstruction of the central quarter of
^^*^
i!!SaMM
333
MODERN
334
I0X0-X2 Le Corbtuier.
Unite d'Habitation,
Marseilles. 1947-52
Exterior and roof detail.
unique living unit housing
1,600 people.
The
flats
arc
not planned horizontally on floors,

but as interiocking rectangular
units.
As a
result,
each
'flat*
has a
two-storey living room.

Shops, day nurseries and
recreational facilities are included
in the building.
The marks of
deliberately
left
the moulds are

in the concrete
to emphasise this bold
rough-hewn look. The roof
is
deliberately designed as an
artificial
landscape with
monumental
ventilation tower, a
hall,
its
clover-leaf shaped
gymnasium
school and children's
playground and
a
a promenade with
view over marvellous open
country towards mountains.
Le Havre, projerted
dyke of
the
was the
in 1945.
first
1013 Mies van der Rohe.

Lake Shore Apartments,
indication that
academic hostihty towards modern ar-
official
chitecture, long a feature
of French bureaucracy, had,
Chicago. 1949-51
A scheme of fiats in Lake Shore
Drive, which are
at
been burst. However tentative in style and in planning

new Le Havre may have been, reflecting Ferret's con-
last,
the
frame
crete
style
of almost half
harbinger of something
else
opportunity to carry out
of the
was
it
masterpieces of precise engineering

depending for their aesthetic
effect
Le Corbusier's long-awaited
his proposals for
which went back ultimately

projects
a century before,
to a series
335
on
subtlety of proportion,
5<ness of material used and
mechanical precision of
mass housing,
finish.
of manifesto-like
1920's.
This materiahsed with the
commission for the
official
Unite d'Habitation, built over the years 1947-52.
Of a
re-
markable conception, which provided each duplex apart-
ment with
two-storey studio-Hving room, a private, iso-
lated balcony
and other conunodious
features,
it
was equal-
an imforgettable exterior shape, whose surface textures
ly
were enriched by both dehberate and accidental features

left
in the concrete
by
the irregularities of the
form work.
seventeen-storey mass of robust scale and emphatic de-
above the ground on expressively shaped
tailing rose clear
and was capped by a hanging garden on the
pilotis,
This
ties,
latter
roof.
element was equipped with recreational faciH-
housed in
of
a concrete 'landscape'
The
irrational forms.
fantastic, largely
residential principles reaUsed in the
Savoye, where the principle Uving
late 1920's in the Villa
1014
spaces
were elevated and visually detached from the ground,
and the roof was given over to hanging gardens and
were
races,
London County Council
Architects Department.
Roehampton
ter-
Estates. 1956-57
Aenal view.
here, in the Marseilles Unite, re-phrased in a
Low-cost housing using
monumental, popularised and

one no
less aristocratic
pre-fabricated concrete parts,
In contrast to this rugged, incisively

is
moulded
left
Germany
in the late 1930's, following the
and for a continuing
the 1940's and '50's.

structures
was
on
that
intersperse
settled in
them and
natural rise and
retaining the
fail
of the ground.
Chi-
of Technology.
master-plan of the campus
responsible for the
ly varying functions
keeping the trees to
example of other German
hke Gropius and Mendelsohn, Mies
(1939-40),
by varying the size

and height of the buildings, by
of
for the United States
as a professor at the Illinois Institute
He was
late style
the simplified, polished late style of Mies
van der Rohe. Having
architects
which
achieves vancty and atmosphere
less effective.
Le Corbusier
cago
fashion, yet
series
of buildings of sharp-
campus, construrted through
The remarkable
their uniformity,
character of these
both with respect to
a pre-
estabhshed scale and module, and their persistent use of a
highly simplified and perfected idiom of black
steel, light
brick and glass. All the buildings took the shape of closed,
in\'iolable rectihnear cubes,
i;ades, so that
sation,
terior.
is
lOlS Augiute Perret.

Reconstruction of Le Havre,
projected I948
One ot the few significant
with generally symmetrical fa-
out of the process of reduction and rationali-
an impUcit temple-like image emerged on the ex-
The
result, tacitly
Neo-classic in
its
cool regularity,
ensembles to
result
from post-war
reconstruction. Ferret's designs for
not the consequence of arbitrarily selecting a precon-
rebuilding the centre of the
ceived form. Rather, the outer demeanour of Mies's campus
destroyed French port, together
buildings seems to be the consequence of a long, arduous

analytical process,
by which the extraneous
inexorably rejected.
The same
is
with those of
the stylistic and constructive
quaUries carry over into
principles
Mies's Lake Shore Apartments in Chicago (1949-51), buildings
whose
scale, height,
architectural idiom,
his
and
flats
summation of the modern
that arrived at
by Le Corbusier
in
contemporary Unite.
In
growing out and away from the main current of the
International style, Mies has been
drawn towards
first
manifested a
half-centujy earher in his 1903
and destination allow close com-
parison between his personal
his
followers there, remain loyal to
gradually and
the prolois
in the rue Franklin, Paris.
MODERN
336
1016, 1017 Eero Saarinen.
TWA
Building,
ducrion of prisrine, simplified forms, with a detailing which
Kennedy
(Idlewild) Airport,
New
York,
is
an attempt to link directly
the idea of an airport terminal
with the adventure and aestheticism
of the aeroplane and high speed

Right
an unmisukable
^îth
Expressionistic quality.
plasticity
interior,
signs,
its
employment of dark
hues for the exposed metal members, and the careful, crafts-
I956-*!
This
Romantic, in
logical, as well as
is
is
The same
to the shapes of
telephone booths,
conditioning units,
air
their
made
On
the other hand, the rela-
forms of Le Corbusier
which
have
particular quaUty of arbitrariness
more
possible a
which
supple, imaginative late style,
one
a contrast to the relative austerity of his early,
is
manner. His
purist
etc.
own
rhythms and
that he imparts to the
facades.
his
tively spontaneous-seeming
have
adhered to in the
down
man-hke adjustment
proponions of
and Chandigarh,
in the
evolved from an
1950's,
geometry, to shapes that
restrictive, closed
of Ronchamp
richer, sculptural style
across the building-site in a series
fling themselves
of dramatically
work of these two consummate
gestures. In the
earlier
effective
masters of
the twentieth century the fuU variety and richness of for-
mal invention
of the period can
characteristic
easily
be ap-
preciated.
No
account of
this
middle third of the twentieth century
however, be complete without reference to the contin-
can,
uing and constantly enriched
The
work of Frank Lloyd Wright.

were executed
fact that in his last years his buildings
with a growing lack of concern for

carelessness in cases
York
(1943-59), in
and even of gross
details,
New
Uke the Guggenheim Museum,
no way
lessens the extent
of
his signifi-
His contact with pre-twentieth-century lines of
cance.
development, and particularly
his
extraordinary role in the
of the Pirturesque tradition
re-interpretation
Downing, Shaw and Richardson, provides his

further roots buried deep
modern
architecture,
of Nash,
late style
with
the almost hidden sources of
and has given
works an
his ultimate
abundant and archetypal character. They
along wdth
are,
the buildings of Mies and Le Corbusier, convincing declarations that while
modem architecture may have taught itself
to resist the wiles of eclecticism

1018 Alvar Aalto.
House of Culture, Helsinki.
primitive
1958
modem
This
of
and revivaUsm, the magstyles
both historic and
perhaps even stronger today than
is
cinema, restaurants and garage.
The
of the subsequent generations, whose ac-
architects
commenced
tivity
concrete walls have
after the initial effort
had become a matter of history and legend, have un-
been faced with bricks made to
style
Aalto's special design.
derstandably laboured under a twin shadow.
The
the
surface
is
curved to make
ma.ximum play with light and

The roof, steeply pitched,
shade.
is
of copper.
upon
the
had
They came
awkward moment, arriving
colleaive creative moment in
the scene at an especially
wake of
the greatest
architecture since the
end of the Baroque. In addition, they
to establish personal identities for themselves
work
in the
shadow of
group of major
instinctive personal mastery
of
that the fundamental reaction against the
I019 Pier Luigi Nervi.
Rome.
1958
The dome
is
made of
prc-cast
developments of the
1930's,
Total roof thickness, including

is
4.75 inches. Inside, the concrete
and
in the
new
their
whose
equally
surprising
is
architecture
ephemeral
sponsored by Nazism and Fasuntil the late 1950's,
most surreptitious fashion out
of the ranks of the modern movement
The new
it
historically
did not take unmistakable shape
and then evolved only
different sizes.
and waterproofing,
superficial
cism
concrete coffers in nineteen
insulating
leaving aside such
and
figures,
new idiom was
unprecedented. Under the circumstances,
Palazzetto dello Sport,
was a
it
century ago.
secular temple
houses a congress-concert-hall,
The
of the past
netic attraction
itself.
orientation towards an overt formalism, with
thrusts are left visible.
an emphasis upon mannered, arbitrary shaping of spaces
Concrete Y-shaped supports take
and
the thrust diagonally into
the ground like medieval flying

buttresses.
The immense
arena holds 5,000 people.
exteriors,
is,
in part, attributable to the late styles
the older generation. Furthermore, this tendency
of
was con-
cealed within the ostensibly functional and abstraa designs
of
their early careers. In general, the inclinations
of the
1012,
p.
340
1007
younger generation,
especially since 1950,
exploitation of this
the
have been towards

quasi-academic
quasi-subjective,
element
in twonticth-ccntury architecture,
where
becomes the major rather than the minor theme.
By
it
to
point
the
i960, the trend towards arbitrary formahtry engendered
of an ingenuous,
a resurgence
superficial historicism. This
manifests itself in a pseudo-scholarly affertation of features
from the great buildings of the past, a technique which

more in common with the eclecticism of the nineteenth
drav\Ti
has
century than with the
less
expUcit evocations of the past that
appear in the functional architecture of the
first
third
of the
twentieth century. Beneath the surface of superficial pandering to
this
or that momentarily fashionable "re-interpre-
of the
tation'
past, the
more
serious architects
of the mid-
twentieth century seem to be carrying on a profound re-
two cen-
evaluation of the various achievements of the past
of
turies. Part
movement
of departure
for a point
facet
this
of the early
modem
in
takes the
form of
a search
some incompletely explored
tradition lying behind the too ar-
too specifically formulated style of the 1920's.
ticulate,
The
recent disinclination to pursue the rational and functional
of the Lntemational
attitudes
much by
tional, as
it
style
is
to be explained not so
wish to be rashly and irresponsibly anti-funcis
by
a partly concealed desire to evade the
formulae and the involved cubist-inspired
stylistic
spatial
ambiguities that were fundamental to a Bauhaus or a VQla
Savoye. In
up
this respect, the
current reaction that has
contemporary architecture,
in
the liberties of the
first
is
grown
in part directed against
third of the twentieth century.
Within the pattern of this styhstic retrenchment, the houses

of so diverse
Johnson,
group of
architects
Oscar Niemeyer,
Paul
and designers as Philip

Rudolph and Charles
Eames, most of which were buUt about 1950, indicate

the conflicting preoccupations of a transitional
principle, Eames's
moment.
In
Case Study House represents a particular
refinement of the 'machine for hving', the industriahsed

ideal, since the detailing of its various component
was determined by the forms and shapes of elements
available from manufacturers' catalogues. In contrast, the
houses ofjohnson and Niemeyer, while growing out of the
house
parts
respertive personal styles of Mies and Le Corbusier, manifest a certain
dâched formaUsm and
scholarly paraphrase
of the original concept. Johnson's museum design for the
New York
Munson-WUliams-Proctor
Institute,
(1958-60), and Niemeyer's
government buildings
new
Utica,
for the
of BrasiUa indicate a more individual stage of
capital
accompUshment
for these architects, as well as for
twentieth-century architecture
as a
mid-
whole. Johnson's Proc-
tor Institute has been cited as a 'Miesian' design, but, in

fact,
it
is
exterior.
'Miesian' only in the generaHsed severity of its
As
shpped within a colossal
a rigid cubic form,
bronze-clad concrete frame,

classic fixation to
it is
much
too self-conscious,
be truly derived from the analytic and
deductive design procedures of the older modernist aesthetic.
The formaUsing character of Johnson's architeaure does

result from Mies's relentless logic (sometimes misap-
not
plied),
nor
is it
the outgrowth of patient, personal styhstic
development, but
'style'. It is
is,
instead,
an assumed mantle, a derived
important to compare the four-square arbitrari-
ness of Johnsons's Proctor Institute with the
more unex-
I02I
337
MODERN
338
1024 Philip Johnson.

New Canaan,
Connecticut. 1947-49
pcctcd
yet
Wright
for the
The
first
ably different
^wn
suburban
Glass House,
element of Johnson's
The
estate.
residential core
is
concepts which have only a partial and tenuous relevance to
refined 'Miesian' essay, a
the practical problems of a
room
which, because of the sweep of
the landscape.
The ensemble
of
consists
character
windowless
est
concrete 'fohe', both conceived

as foils to the Glass
underground, tumulus-like
With
1930's
New
Haven,
slartUngly bold conception,
in spite
of
apparent
this
own,
style,
potentials.
p. 331
tended to de-
while
at the
same time casting
sideward
extravagant projects of Romantic Classic ar-
notably BouUee and Lcdoux.

capital
The
must
surreel character
also
be seen
as
an
present under these modernistic domes, as
the Gothic-detailed but academically
particularly in the
abrupt constrasts of fragile

glass
of new
teenth century, with the iconography of nationalism as
an individuahty and forcefulness

its
inter-
outgrowth of the majestical Imperial mode of the nine-
De
eclecticism, the building possesses
all
a re-evaluation
of Niemeyer's brand-new
sources in the recent past, notably
Yet
through
1940's, the Brazilian architea has
at the
chitects,
from many
Wright, Le Corbusier and
and
Corbusian
glance
Completed 1963
Stijl.
no
velop the subjective, somewhat expressionistic side of the
Connecticut.
freely
or
become more understandable. Having been

inspired by the example of Le Corbusier in the
originally
1025 Paul Rudolph.
School of Art and Architecture,
borrowing
new
style in
little
Brasilia designs
complete the group.
same time there has been
mind, the distinctive features of Nicmeycr's
this in
art gallery will ultimately
Yale University,
expressiu<i the
continuing the growth and evolution of modernism
in architecture
House proper.
fmd means of
of twentieth-century technology and
buildings, at the
guest house and an arcadcd
An
museum programme. Both build-
suggest that while there has been a continuing effort
the period since 1940 to
in
between the occupants and
barrier
now
mgs
chminates any sense of
glass,
concept imposed by
'unreasonable'
Guggenheim Museum. Though unmistakin their formal and spatial systems, the two
buildings arc paradoxically similar as outwardly imposed
a brilliantly
generously scaled single
equally
it was behind
composed facjades of
Pugin's and Barry's Houses of Parliament. Equally,
and bulky concrete.
com-
parison with Le Corbusier's group of official buildings for

the Punjab capital
of Chandigarh
is
important, in order to
appreciate the spontaneous, personally motivated
formahsm
of the elder master of twentieth-century design, when seen

together with the
more
what overly generahscd
and some-
arbitrary, less conclusive,
styUsations of the
younger
of view represented,
In addition to the points
architect.
in different
degrees and in varying modes, by Johnson and Niemeyer,
more determinedly independent efforts of arRudolph and Louis I. Kahn. Both

men first emerged as distinct personalities in the early
there are the
chitects such as Paul
1026 James Stirling and

James Gowan. Engineering
these
1950's, inspired,
laboratories, Leicester
University.
One of
the most widely admired
ponents of 'new brutalism' in England, Alison and Peter
recent buildings, this red brick,

tile
and
for all
the
glass structure
its
is,
of the most
outgrowth of functional
and structural theories
one which
stresses
upon elegant
finement, as Johnson was doing at the same time. In
course of the last decade Rudolph has turned from
century
ago by VioUet-le-Duc, and

adopted by imiumerable modern
movements since. Its complex,
startling shape contrasts
faithful tributes to Mies,
industrial side rather than concentrating
first
design of fragile,
somewhat
from
the
the
'Miesian' houses to the creation
of large, massive concrete structures, which combine
with
its
re-
influ-
gamut of early twentieth-century mo-
the predictable regularity of
ences
many of
dernism into an emphatically articulated sequence of shapes.
its
1021
Smithson, whose Hunstanton School (1954) represents one
apparent novelty,
proclaimed more than
but not overwhelmed, by the example of
Mies. In this respect, they can be associated with the pro-
Completed 1963
contemporaries.
the entire
Unlike the repetitive, self-consciously retrospective work

of others,
is
the sudden blossom of independence
degree of personal character
ning with a Miesian
by i960, notably
mode
in the
in the
in the early 1950's,
its
constructive style, which,
vigour and strength of mass and
matically with the
he progressed
Richards Medical Research Labora-
tories, to a forthright, expressive
in
and high
work of Kahn. Begin-
more popular
detail, contrasts
While the experimental creativity of Kahn's work

most immediately striking
L VniversitY
Library,
Mexico City
11
is
its
feature, his designs are laden
with memories and recollections of
XLix Niemeyer: Congress Building, Brasilia
dra-
currents of architecture.
many
facets
of the mod-
Mies van der Rolie: Seagram Building,
New
York
aix
LI
LII
LIII
LIV
LV
LVI
1
^
J.
A
'X^-:
.-7^"
,,y^^
,x f.-f^'^.--
cm
five
1023
tradition.
The massing of the
research towers
is
sugges-
of the Neo-Gothic university dormitories which sur-
round them, and the type of planning and arrangements

and service cores
for circulation
informal
(c.
dominant
ordered formalism of our day.
However,
in
some ways
most
the
characteristic architect
architeaurc. Simultaneously, the relatively harsh surfaces of
guished Firmish designer, Eliel Saarinen, who, in a brief

career of a dozen years, abruptly terminated by death in
with the
of Le Corbusier's characteristic
brut surfaces
the same elements con-
late style, while, for certain critics,
jure up memories of the strong-surfaced qualities of But-
High Victorian mode, of
terfield's
How-
a century before.
with the works of Mies and Le Corbusicr before
ever, as
i960, sampled
work
his
shape and in structure,
in a rather Miesian
TWA
no way
upon the
an Expressionistic quality
and synthesised image of the
total integrated
manner. Instead, they complement and reinforce the
Probably the only other designer of the 1950's to con-
works
in
accord with inventive structural systems
is
the Itahan engineer. Pier Luigi Nervi. At their best, Nervi's
of which
structures, typical
Rome
Sport,
the domical Palazzetto dello
(1958), have a constructive system that
pressively revealed
The
is
familiar
by the
The monumental
American
commercial
firm, Skidmore,
New York
House,
glass-curtain
(1952),
fu'st
is
ex-
1950's,
popularised by the
Owings and Merrill in Lever

offspring of
is a handsome
of the
gener-
previous
Dormitory, the Bauhaus or the van
Nelle Factory. However, the dynamic cubistic vocabulary,
with
its
rugged, futurist massing of parts and contrast of
glass-enclosed elements with thin-seeming stucco surfaces

is
replaced
by an elegantly monotonous
regularity. In the
hands of a true master, such as Mies van der Rohe,
None-
style has a creative potential.
theless, the 1950's has
witnessed the depressing vulgarisa-
tion of the glass-and-metal sheathed office building, to the

its
un-thought-out cUchcs have become
as
nearly ridiculous as the spurious 'skyscraper Gothic' of the

earlier twentieth century.
Consequently, there were
efforts
towards the end of the 1950's to break with the appearance
of the
glass
box, and to find alternate systems for contain-
ing the varied service and space requirements. Typical of

this
tendency are the Torre Velasca, Milan (1958), where
the concrete frame dominates the exterior, and the
Hancock Building, San Francisco

Owings and Merrill, the original
(1959),
is
of the growing Neo-academicism,
side
transforming and reshaping the innovations of the
New
York, in
group of architects, including Wallace Harrison and

Philip Johnson, has evolved a Neo-academic idiom of col-
which
onnades and arcades,

to
mask
unexpected shapes and proportions,
in
the complexity of interior services and functions.
John
where Skidmore,
popularisers of the glass-
be contrasted
romanticism of Aalto and the effervescent eclecticism of
Rudolph, but with post-'new
developments in
brutalist'
England, notably the red brick,
tile
and
glass structure
by James
and James Gowan. In
Stirling
shaped building the architects have
hit
this
upon
provocatively
a fresh,
rational doctrines
of the modern movement, demonstrating
once again the resilience and potential of our
From
this
evidence,
it is
clear that
new
tradition.
one large segment of
modemist architectural design has, by i960,

Neo-academic level. Alternately, there are
a number of visible lines of resistance and possible paths
of further development. They are to be found in less spectacular, less superficially 'stylish' works of architects who
ostensibly
reached
a stable
have yet to score
popular success. Equally, the lessons of
Kahn and Stirling and the continuing example of the

surviving members of the great creative generation of the
early twentieth century
though
resisted,
remain
as
an inspiration, even
their /onus are often too great a temptation to
history of architecture of the
last
two
centuries reveals
periods of great promise or accomplishment, followed by
emphasis than had been possible with the undifferentiated
moments
glazed surface.
the springboard of future accomplishment.
gorise
is
works
remains, none the
less,
in the
the Finnish architect Alvar Aalto.
in the late twenties
and early
thirties
since
I'aii
way
m pure Into a
more
even organic type of design. His works

War have been characterised by
the Second World
random, often meandering, forms and
Mies
His earliest
were
temational Style, though he shortly led the

subtle, romantic,
modem
difficult to cate-
der
Rohe:
Crematorium, Stockholm
Illinois Institute
Liv, LVI
consequently
of Technology, Chica(;o
Liii
be
even by the most independent of designers. The
creativity.
of distinguished standing
unex-
pected language of form while profoundly respecting the
periods of disenchantment, in which routine often
architect
of
the Engineering laboratories, Leicester University (1963),
with conventional fenestration, creating a pattern of greater
An
may
not only with the aforementioned neo-
curtain wall, have essayed a load-bearing wall-composition
movement who
ter-
where
unmistakable in the undulating
is
ranged cubic volumes of Lincoln Center,
this
demanding, refrartory
point at which
Airport,
This 'new formalism' in contemporary architecture
of building in the
style
masterpieces
wall
ation, such as the Swiss
which
overall design.
the glass-sheathed tower or slab,
Kennedy
twentieth century, can be appreciated in the familiarly ar-
individual creative features of each of his buildings.
ceive
Having
mould, Eero Saarinen's work
concrete shells that vault the building's interior spaces.
building; nor do they dilute the personal expressiveness of

his
ingenuous and
also frequently
Building,
minates in the
so specific or very exact as to obtrude themselves
1018
extraordinarily interesting in
is
it is
naive, as well as occasionally crude in execution.
begun
distin-
most of the diverse tendencies of the period.
While much of
him, the reminiscences to be found in Kahn's designs are

in
Lii
Centre
the
of the 1950's was Eero Saarincn, the son of the
logies
1026
from
ology, if not of the outward appearances, of academic
brick and concrete and the aggressive massing, bear ana-
1019
in the Saynatsalo Civic
1951-53) provides an effective relief
indebted to the method-
is
which
style,
341
However,
it
is
these
that provide the shock
confming,
stifles
enervating
and challenge which
is
The modem
period in architecture began in the eighteenth century with

a
thorough investigation of the
may fmd
by a new
its
past. Its
most recent phase
subsequent path cleared and
investigation
and re-evaluation of
made smooth
its
own, two-
hundred-year-old heritage.
(The material for

Helen Searing).
this
chapter was gathered with the assistance of
Cii'if centre, Saynatsalo,
Le Corbusier: Notre-Danie-du-Haut, Ronchamp, France
Finland
LV Aspluud : Forest
1016, 1017
GLOSSARY
342
Abacas. The tbb on top of a capital directly jupporting the AicKmtAVE. Sec
Abutment. Masonry
placed so as to resist
the THBUST of an arch or vault; part of
the building acting as a buttress.
Acanthtu.
pbnt with sharp pointed
copied in the
leaves,
cotUNmiAN capital.
Acropolis. The citadel of a Greek city

where the temple of the patron deity
was usually built.
Agora.
pubUc space
for assemblies; same as a Roman forum.
Aisle. In basiucan buildings, one of the
lateral divisions parallel with the nave
In ancient Greece, a
but not as high. Somcbmes used to include the nave as well (e.g., 3-aisled
nave and two aisles: 5-aisled = nave

and double aisles). Transepts and chancel may also be aisled.
Anulaka. A type of capital
Hindu
in
architecture.
Ambulatory.
ing
continuous AiSL* formprocessional path round an enclos-
ed space. In Europe
in the east
end of a
cathedral, in India in the shrine of a
temple.
Amphi-prostyle.
Greek:
portico
(prostyle') at each end.
A round or occasionally
oval arena with bers of seats.
Antis, in. Literally, 'between the antae'
or pilasters terminating the side walls of
a Greek temple a portico in which coAmphitheatre.
lumns stand between the projecting
side
walls.
Apse. Part ofa building that is semi-circuUr or U-shaped in plan usually the east
end of a chapel or chancel.
Arcade. A line of arches supported on
piers or columns. Blank or blind arcading. Miniature arcade apphed to a
;
transformed into lateral

thrust. Corbelled arch. So-called
'false arch', consisting of blocks of stone
each laid slightly overlapping the one
beneath until the gap can be bridged by
a single slab. Diaphragm arch. A stone
arch built across the nave of a church
when the roof is of wood (i.e. where
there is no vault). Half-arch. An arch
from the springing to apex only. Sec
FLYING BUTTSESS. Horseihoe arch. A
round or pointed arch shaped hke a
horseshoe, so that the diameter at its widest pomt is greater than the distance to
be spanned. Ogee arch. An arch of
double curvature, the bottom convex,
the top concave. Parabolic arch. An
arch whose curve is a parabola, one of
the conic sections (the intersection of a
cone and a plane parallel to its side) Used
only recently
architecture. Pointed
arch. An arch consisting of two curves
meeting at an angle. Relieving arch.
A concealed masonry arch built over
another arch or a untel to carry the
weight. Round or semi-circular arch.
The conxmonest and most elementary
arch, consisting of a simple semi-circle
of voussoiRS. Segmental arch. An
arch consisting of a segment only, not
a full half-circle. In appearance flatter
than a round arch. Squinch arch. An
being
arch built diagonally across the comer

of a recungular space to be covered
by a dome or spire, converting the rectangle into an octagon. A circle can be
formed by the the use of pendenttves.
Stilted arch. An arch whose springing
is higher than its IMPOST so that the sides
seem
vertical at the
arch.
An
bottom. Transverse
arch across a vaulted space
at
Triangular
extreme form of the pomtcd
right angles to the walb.
arch.
An
arch, the sides being straight or nearly

so,
Trilobe (or trefoil) arch. With
two
cusps, dividing the arch into three
lobes.
form.
decorative,
not a structural
Triumphal arch. A Roman mo-
numental arch, with
inscriptions, reliefs,
Nuropening flanked by
etc.. built to celebrate a victory.
mally one large

smaller ones on each side.
Architrave. The lowest position of a classical ENTABLA tUBE. the stonc UNTEL above the columns. See orders.
Arcuation, arcuated. Having arches and
supports.
The sharp ndgc formed by the

meeting of two surfaces, in vaults called
Arris.
a
In
(i)
classical
architecture, a
small courtyard in a house, covered

along the sides, (a) In Early Christian,
the forecourt of a large church, often
groin.
Art Nouveau. Style of decoration popular in Europe e.

1890-1910, avoidmg
traditional motifs and basing itself on
curving lines and vegetation-like forms.
a definition indicates a helpful cross-reference.)
level. A feature of the cothic style.

Byzantine. Style evolved at Constantinople about the fifth century A. D. and
still in use in some pans of the world.
The round arch and the use of domes
are characteristic.
cloistered.
Calidartum. The hot-water room
Azulejos. Brilliantly coloured glazed

used in
Moslem and some
ti-
Spanish
and Portuguese buildings.
Banded. Having masonry of different colours or textures arranged in alternating
COURSES.
Barbican. Fortified outwork guarding

the gateway ofa medieval dty or castle.
Baroque. Style after mannerism m Italy,
c.
1600. and later spread over Europe;
characterised by dynamic Imcs and masses and the free use of classical motifs.
Base, (i) The lowest portion of any
structure. (2) The lowest of the three
principal parts of an ionic or CORINTHIAN column (see orders). (3) Masonry of any shape upon which 3 column
or pier stands.
Roman
Basilica, (i) In
pubhc
architecture, a
where law-suits were

heard. (2) In Early Christian and bter
architecture, a church consisting of nave
and AISLES, with windows above the
hall
level of the aisle roofs (clerestory).

Bastion. A projection from the curtain
wall of
swept by
or defensive- work,
zone of wall may be
castle
placed so that
fire
from the
bastions.
Batter. SUght inward slope given to

wall (battered
sloping).
Bay.
compartment of
ing, consistmg, c. g.,
space between one
a large
build-
m churches, of the
column
or pier and
the next, includmg the wall and the

vault or ceiling over it. By extension,
any imit of a wall-surface divided by
large vertical features or (on exteriors)
by windows.
Bead and
reel.
classical
moulding
of alternate 'beads' (small

and 'reeb' (scmi-cucular
discs, sometimes in pairs, set edgewise).
Bedding. Layer of cement or mortar on
consisting
eggshapcs)
which
masonry course is laid.

Bema. (i) Pbtform in an agora or FORUM for pubhc speeches. (2) Raised sUgc
for the clergy at the east end of Early
a
Christian churches.
Bent entry.
defended entrance involv-
vmg a sharp change in direction.

Bomb^. Convex, bulging.
Bond. The overlapping of bricks or stone
slabs to increase stabihty. Bonded. Tied
together by a single unit spanning two
same material as the
or something serving the same
purpose, e. g.. chains or matting. See
layers; usually the
v/all,
through-course. English bond.

in which each course conof alternate 'headers' (the end of
the brick) and 'stretchers' (the long
side). Flemish bond. Brickwork in
which complete courses of headers and
also
Bnckwork
sists
stretchers alternate.
Boulevard. A wide, straight street. (Originally the ramparts ofa walled town;
when these were demolished in the
mnetecnth century, they were often
replaced by wide streets - hence its
present meaning.)
Bracket.
Member
projecting
from
a ver-
surface to provide a horizontal sup-
tical
Consoles
port.
are an ornate kind of
bracket. See also
corbel and canti-
lever.
Brick. Regular block of hardened clay.

Glazed brick. Brick with a polished,
glassy surface, as distinct from a matt
or
rough
surface.
Mud-brick. A
brick
moulded by hand and hardened without artificial heat. Usually bound with
straw or hair (cf Exodus) but not always (e. g., ancient Mexico). Also called
'adobe'.
Vitri6ed brick. Bnck burnt
to a hard,
glossy consistency, water-
and damp-proof
Bukc.
Style of Japanese domestic building - simple houses enclosed by ditch
and
Roman
in a
public bath.
base,
fence.
Buttress. Masonry built against a wall to

give additional support, or to resist the
thrust ofa vault or arch. Flying buttress. A HALiÂHCH leaning against that
point in a wall where the lateral
thrust of an arch or vault is being exerted, and transmitting this thrust to a
dcuched body of masonry at a lower
columns.
Cantilever. A beam or girder supponcd
in the middle or along half its length
and weighted at one end to carry a proportioiute load on the other.
Capital. The upper part ofa column. See

DORIC, ionic. CORINTHIAN and orders.
In
non-classical
architecture,
capitals
may
be of any design. Cushion-capital. The simplest possible tramition

from square to circle, a cdbe with the
bottom edges and comers cut away.
Capping. Protective covering on top of
wall or post. Also called 'coping'.
Carolingian.
Style
originatmg
under
Charlemagne c. 800 and leading to Romanesque.

Cartouche. Tablet with ornate frame.
Caryatid. Pillar in the form of a sculptured female figure.
Causeway. A
raised road or path.

Cella. TTie central body ofa classical temple, without portico and colonnades
mean
(occasionally, to
By
the
naos
alone).
extension, the sanctuary of other

e. g.. Indian.
temples,
Cenotaph. Monument
to a person buried elsewhere (Greek: 'empty tomb').

Central-plan. A plan symmetrical, or
nearly so.
all
four directions.
Centring. Temporary wooden support

for an arch or vault, removed when the
mortar has set.
Chancel. Space in 3 church reserved for
the clergy, including the altar and the
choir. Chancel-screen. Screen separating the chancel from the nave or crossing. Sometimes continued on the north
and south sides to separate the choir
from its aisles.
Chase. A vertical groove cut in a wall
for pipes or wires or (m Egyptian buildings) wooden masts. Chased = grooved
with chases.
Chevet. The combination of apse, ambulatory and RADIATING chapels at the
east end of a large Gothic church.
Chevron. Zig-zag.
Choir. The part of
a church where the

Normally the west part of
The term is often loosely
apphed to mean the same as chancel,
although in brge medieval churches the
choir
sits.
the chancel.
choir sat under the crossing or west of it.

Chryselephantine. Made of ivory and
goId.Termapphedbythc Greeks
to sta-
which the draperies were made

of gold and the nude parts of the figure
of ivory - both over a hollow wooden
framework.
Cutem. A large underground room (oftues of
ten vaulted) for the storage of water.

Greek or Roman and their
Classical.
derivatives, especially
the
use of the
ORDERS.
Clerestory.
The upper window-level of
a large enclosed space, rising
above adja-
cent roo6. In particular the upper
wm-
dow
range of a basiucan building above the arcade and trifohium.
A square court surrounded by

an open arcade.
Coffering. Treatment of ceilings and
domes consisting of sunk panels (cofCloister.
fers).
Colonnade.
A row
Charactcmtics;
High
(i)
sometimes a pedestal, (a) Slender

with fillets. (3) Ornate capi-
using stylised acanthus leaves.
Cornice, (i) The top, projectmg section

ofa classical entablature (sec orders).
(2) In
Canopy. Decorative covering over
small open structure such as a tomb,

pulpit or niche; often supported on
Balustrade. A line of balusters, or mimature pillars, supporting a handrail.
large
orders.
al
tal
buildings along a single line.

les,
corbch round the top of a wall as a

parapet or cormce.
Corinthian. The last of the three classic-
fluted shaft
Axial planning. The placing of several
wall as decoration.
A structure of several units at the

top of an opening which is supported
only from the sides, the downward pres-
Arch.
sure
capitals in
in
Ashlar. Trimmed, regular masoruy with

flat surfaces and squared edges.
Atrium,
ORDESS.
(A word
of columns.
Column. A
circular piUar, a cylmdrical

support for part of a building. Aho
erected singly as a monument. See
DORIC, IONIC, CORINTHIAN and ORDERS.
Columnar and trabeate. Using the column and 'beam", or lintel, only. 1, c.,
not usmg the principle of the arch.
Composite. An order invented by the

Romans, combining the acanthus leaves
of the corinthlan with the volutes of
the IONIC capital.
Concentric walls. Fortification introduced from the East by the Crusaders,

comistmg of one complete defence system inside another.
Corbel. A bracket, a block of stone
projecting from a wall as a horizontal
support or as the spnnging ofa rib. Sec
ARCH and VAULT. Corbel Uble. A projecting course of masonry supported 00
Renaissance architecture,
ting shelf along the top
ported on
CONSOLES.
ofa
Corps-de-logu. The main
projec-
wall sup-
brackets
ornamental
or
ofa large
part
house (especially a French chateau), as

distinct from the wings and other subordinate parts.
Course. A layer of bncks or stone slabs

forming a wall. Through-course. A
layer at right angles to the wall-surface
to give greater strength,
the core of the wall
is
Cove, coving. Concave
e.
when
g.,
of rubble.
surface connect-
ing a wall and ceiling.
Crenellation. A defensive parapet consisting of merlons (sohd wall) and embrasures (gaps for shooting through).
Crossing. The central space of a cruciform church where the nave, transepts and CHANCEL meet.
Cruciform. Cross-shaped.
Crypt. Underground space below the
cast end ofa church, originally to house
the remains of saints (Greek: 'hidden').
Cuboid. Cube-shaped. Battered cuboid cube with sides sloping inwards.

Culvert. An arched chaimel for carrying
water underneath a road or embankment,
Cupola. Sometimes means the same as
dome. More usually in English a mmiature dome or turret w^th a lantern-top.
Curtain wall, (i) In castles, the wall between bastions or towers. (2) In modem
architecture, an exterior wall serving as
a screen only, bearmg no load. In STEEL-
FRAME buildings
all
the walls are curtain
walls.
Cusp.
projectmg point on the irmer

side of an arch, window or roundel.
Cyclopean. Walling in very large irregular stones without mortar.
Dado,
(i) The lower part ofa wall when

given separate decorauon from the rest.
(2) The same as die.

Dagaba. A Smghalcsc form of stupa or
rchc-chamber
'garbha'
(lit:
'dhau'
rehcs;
womb).
Dais. Raised pbtform at the end ofa hall.

Decastyle. Having ten columns; temple
with a portico ten columns wide.
Decorated. Style of architecture
Eng-
in
land following early ENGLISH. Characterised by elaborate curvilinear tracery, unusual spatial effects, comphcated
rib-vaulting, cusping, naturahstic foli-
age carving.
Diaconicon. In Byzantine and Orthodox

Greek churches, a room for the storage
of vestments and sacred vessels; equivalent to a sacristy.
Die. Part ofa pedestal between cornice
and
base.
Dipteral. Having two rows of columns

along each side (Greek: 'two-winged);
a temple with double peristyle and at
least eight
columns
at
the front.
Distyle. Having two columns. Distyle

in antis. A temple whose portico consists
of two columns between the pro-
jecting sidewalls. Sec a.ntts.
A row of mimature pyramid-shaped ornaments in early English

mouldings.
Dome. A roughly hemispherical roof on
a circular base. A section through a
dome can be semi-cibcular, pointed
or segmental (see arch). A dome with
segmental section is called a saucerdome. Most west European domes have
drums. Onion- or bulb-domes are
Dog-tooth.
external features only.
Doric.
First
and simplest of the
ORDERS. Characteristics:
(i)
classical
No
base.
(2) Relatively short shafts, FLirrEn, with

sharp arrises. (3) Simple undecorated
echinus and square abacus. See orders.
The Roman Done was
similar but
had
a base.
Dormer window.
Vertical
window
in
a sloping roof
'Double-aspect* sculpture. Sculpture
halfway between rehcf and sculpturein-the-round, seeming to be complete
from two separate view-points but not
forming a unified whole.
Dowel. A peg which fixes blocks toge-
ther
by
fitting into a hole in each.
343
GLOSSARY
Drkftetl margin. A narrow dressed border along the edges of a squared stone,
usually the width of a chisel, cither as
a guide for the subsequent dressing of
the
sionc. or as a border sur-
whole
rounding the rough central portion.

Dressed. Of stones, trimmed, made
<inooth and rectangular.
Drip-moulding. A projectmg MOULDING
over the outside of doors and windows
to carry the ram away from the wall.
Dromos.
(i)
race-course. (2}
passage
or entrance-way between high walls,

e.
to a
g.,
Drum. A
means a continuous band of RCUEF

round the top of a building or room.
Frigidarium. The cold-water room in
Roman pubbc baths.
Frontupiece. Monumental entrance to
it
plan,
dome. Also a section of a

column, which has the same shape.
Dry-jointed. Without mortar.
Dwarf-order. A miniature range of columns or pilasters, for instance the
a
height of an attic-storey.
First
GOTHIC, begmning
ed by
lancet
c.
phase of Enghsh
1180. Characteris-
windows or
(1^'") 6^~
metrical tracery, rib-vaults, emphasis on

thin Imear articulation instead of mass
and volume, sharp mouldings and the

clear distmction of architectural members.
Eave. The lowest part of
a sloping roof
that projects over the wall.

Echinus. The lower element of a doric
capital - a circular cushion-like
mem-
ber under the abacus. Also the cor-
rcspondmg member of an lONic capithe volutes

tal, partly obscured by
and carved with cgg-and-dart moulding.
By
PEDIMENT.
standmg.
Entablature.
In
classical
Enusis. SUghl bulge given
to a
column
to correct the optical illusion that
it is
thinner in the middle.
no roof behind, as e. g., over French

Gothic cathedral portals. Gable-roof.
Roof with two sloping sides and trianis
gular gables at the ends. Sec roof.

convex ndge. the opposite
Gadroon.
of FLUTE.
Gallery. (1)
shaped.
Excursion.
An
to an area or
Exhedra. An
scat;
addition or excrescence
volume.
apsidal recess or alcove with
Renaissance architecture any
niche or small apse.
Fa9ade. The exterior of a building on

one of lis mam sides, almost always
contaimng an entrance.
Facetted. Polygonal in section, not curved.
Facing. A veneer of one material over a

core of another.
Fanlight. Origmally a fan-shaped window over a door or window. Now not
necessanly fan-shaped.
fascia-plane.
A horizontal,
Fascia,
sbghtly projectmg sub-division of an
IONIC or CORINTHIAN ARCHITRAVE.

Ferro- vitreous. Iron-and-glass. as e.
g.,
the Crystal Palace.
narrow flat band between

mouldings, especially between the flutes of a column {if two flutes meet and
form a smglc edge, it is called an arris).
Flamboyant. Last phase of French GO-
Fillet.
THIC
(Ut: 'flame-shaped'), characterised
by complex curvilmear tracery and profuse ornament.

Flush. On a smgle plane, not projecting.
Flute, fluting. Channels or grooves, carved vertically down the shafts of classical columns. See orders.
Footing. Course of bnck. stone or concrete at the bonom of a wall, made wider than the wall itself in order to distnbutc the weight over a larger area.
Forum. Roman market-place or open
space for assembUcs, normally surround-
ed by public buildings.
Free-standing. Open on
An
upper floor open on one
to the mam interior space of a

building (e. g,, galleries over the aisles
of a church) or to the exterior. (2) In
medieval and Renaissance houses, a long
attached to a
sides,
not
w^.
Fresco. Stnctly. painting applied to a

wall while the plaster is still wet. Sometimes loosely used of any mural painting.
Fretting. Decoration produced by cutting away the backgound of a pattern in

stone or wood and leaving the rest as
a kind of 'grating' {French: 'frettes*).
Frieze. Part of a classical entablature,
above the ahchitbave and below the

CORNICE. In Doric it was divided into
TWCLYPHS and METOPES. ScC ORDERS.
fillets. {3)
using the volute, or
Capi-
spiral.
Joist.
Vertical side of a door or window.

Honzontal beam supporting a floor
ot cciUng.
not representational.
patterns,
(2)
of EARLY ENGUSH.
Giant order. Pdastcrs or half-columns
used to articulate a facade and extending through two or more storeys.
Gopuram.
In
Indian
architecture
the
large gate-tower of a temple-enclosure.

Gothic. Name given to medieval archi-
tecture
in
Europe from about mid-
century to the Renaissance.

Characterised by the pointed arch, the
FLYING BUTTRESS and the RIB-VAULT,
twelfth
cross. A cross with all four arms

of equal length.
Groin. The ndge or arris formed by
the meeting of two vaulting sections.
Half-arch. See arch and flying but-
tically
A column
divided verti-
and attached to a wall, either

(c. g,. the Colosseum) or
as
as
the respond of an arch.
Half-timbered. Having
ton, the spaces
bemg
timber skeleby bnck or
filled
other material.
Hemicycle. Semi-circular part of a buildmg with semi-dome over; a large apse.
Hexastyle. Having six columns; a temple with a portico six columns wide.
Hip. The Une formed by two slopmg
roofe mcetmg. Hipped roof. A truss
roof with hips instead ot cables: that
than the
is. the bidge-beam is shorter
walls parallel with it. so that the roof
slopes inwards
on
all
four
stle.
Originally the only part built of
by concentric
stone, later surrounded
King-post. Upnght beam of a roof supportmg the ridce-beam and restmg on

the centre of the tie-beam. Sec roof.
Kondo. The mam sanctuary of a Japanese Buddhist temple.
ning using the cnss-cross grid.

Hippodrome. In anacnt Greece, a stadium for horse and chariot racmg.
Historiated. Decorated with relie f fi-
tran-
called
(c.
g.,
St.
Mark's,
nstic of EARLY ENGLISH bcfotc the introduction of tracery.

Lantern. {1) A tower open to the space
underneath and with windows to adniit hght downwards. (2) Small turret
with windows crowning a dome or
cupola.
Lenticular. Double-convex, like the section of a magnifying lens.

Lintel. Horizontal beam or slab spannmg an opening. In classical architecture
the hntel is called an architrave.
Loggia. A roofed space with an open
ARCADE on one or more sides.

Longitudinal plan. Church plan in
which the nave-chancel axis is longer
than the transepts (as in all EngLsh
Lou.
In Chinese architecture, a
wood-
framed tower (an early forerunner of

the pagoda).
Lunette. The area of a wall enclosed by
the arch of a vault or window; may be
either solid or glazed.
central space of a basiuca,
The
(1)
by the aisles and lit by the

(2) All of a church west
of the crossing, or if there are no transepts, west of the chancel.
Neo-classicism. A style coming after
the Baroque, characterised by a more
academic use of classical features.
Niche. A recess in a wall, usually for a
statue or ornament,
flanked
clerestory.
Norman. Name
given to the RomaneEngland.
style in
Obelisk. A ull stone, square in section,

upering upwards and ending pyramidaUy.
Octastyle. Having eight columns a temple with a portico eight columns wide.
Ogee arch. See arch.
Ogival. Ogee-shaped. See arch. (Not to
be confused with the French use of
'ogivale' to mean merely 'pointed' or
;
'Gothic'.)
Open-work. Same as fretted. "Openwork spires' arc spires where the stone is
bke
treated
lattice,
so that they can be
seen through.
Opus
sectile.
A type of mosaic m
the material used
which
cut into regubr
is
pieces.
Orchestra. In Greek architecture, the

circular space m front of the stage in a
theatre where the chorus stood.
Orders. Columns and their entablature,
especially the vanous designs followed
by Greek and Roman architects: DORIC,
IONIC. CORINTHIAN, COMPOSITE, TUSCAN
(q. v.). Superimposed orders. In Ro-
man
came
architecture, the orders
to
ornamental features, attached

and facades, two, three or four
storeys high. The sequence from bottom to top was always Doric, Ionic,
Corinthian, Composite.
Oriel window. A bay window projecting from the wall and supported on
be used
as
to walls
Machicolation. The projecting parapet

of a castle or town-wall, with openings
in the floor through which lumps of
rock, boihng oil. etc, could be dropped.
Mannerism. Style commg between High
Renaissance and Baroque. Charactensed by the idiosyncratic use of classical
motifs, unnatural proportion and wilful
contradictions.
Mastaba.
In ancient
ture, a flat-topped
Egyptian architec-
tomb with slopmg
forerunner of the pyramid.
sides, the
A rich and elaborate tomb,

from the tomb of Mausolus at
Mausoleum.
so called
CORBELS.
Orientation.
Strictly,
alignment
cast-
west, but used loosely for any dehberate pbcmg of a building in relation
to the points of the compass.
Orthostat. A large upright slab of stone,
Oversailing. A process by which an arch
or course of bricks or stone is made to
project over a similar arch or course beneath a kmd of repeated corbelling.
;
Habcamassus.
gures.
Hood-moulding. A MOinjjmc followmg the outlme of a door or window;

onginally functioned as a drip-moulding but later used ornamentally.
Horseshoe arch. See arch.

Hypostyle. A hall or large enclosed space
m which the {usually flat) roof rests on
columns throughout, not just along
sides.
Megaron. The principal hall of a Minoan

or Homeric house (e. g.. Tiryns, Mycenae).
Part of the frieze of a doric

ENTABLATURE, onc of the spaces between
Metope.
the TRiGLYPHS. at first left plain, later

sculptured. See orders.
Mezzanine. A low storey between two
higher ones, usually between the ground
and
Impost. The masonry or bnckwork upon

which an arch rests, usually a MOlrt.D-
floon.
first
Mihrab.
Icon. {Greek: 'image'). Sacred picture in
an eastern Orthodox church. (Iconoclasm the banning of images.)
In
Moslem
architecture, a niche
of a mosque,
in the wall
showmg
the
direction of Mekka.
Minaret. Tower buUt near ot as part of
a mosque, from which a muczzm calls
the faithful to prayer.
iNC markmg the springing of the arch.

Incursion. A 'bite' out of an area or volume.
Inlay. Small pieces of some rich matenal
set mto a bed or background of another.
Intaglio. Incised carving, the forms being hollowed out of the surface like
Minbar. The pulpit in a mosque.

Moat. A ditch round a fortified position,
mould,
base divided
rehcf in reverse, often used

g..
Uter churches
sque
Lamination. Covering in thin layers.

Lancet. Tali narrow window characte-
stylistic
sides.
Hippodamian. System of town-plan-
arc
soms.)
Nave.
K'ang. Raised dais in a Chinese house,
heated by burning fuel underneath.
Keep. The mnermost stronghold of a ca-
cathedtab).
tress.
Half-column.
members
horizontal
Naos. The pnncipal chamber or sanctuary of a Greek temple, where the

statue of the deity was kept.
Narthex. Vestibule of an Early Christian
church, a porch extending the whole
width of the facade; occasionally used
Venice).
An
early phase of bar-tracery, characteristic
Mullion. The vertical member dividing

a window of more than onc bght. (The
in
narrow room.
Geometrical, {i) Consisting of regular
c.
all
by
wâlling.
decoration
Episthodomos. In Greek temples, a

room behmd the naos.
Everted. Turned outwards, trumpet-
tal
flutes separated
extension, a triangular
there
architecture,
everything above the columns- architrave. FRiEZ and CORNICE. See orders.
with
doorway even when
Greek
EkklesiasterioD. The public hall or

council-chamber of a Greek town.
Engaged. Bonded mto a wall; not frcc-
ries).
Jamb.
Gable. The triangular end of a cableroof; m classical architeaure called a
side
Early English.
tecture (fourteenth to fifteenth centu-
and rejection of traditional decorative

motifs.
Ionic. The second of the three classical

ORDERS. Characteristics: (l) Elegantly
moulded base. {2) Tall, slender shafts
a French hoh-l.
area over a
Mycenaean tomb.
vertical wall, circular
carrying
Often used for a band of figure-orving; hence in Renaissance architecture
as a
in signet rings.
Intercolumniation. In classical architecture, the space between the columns;

the spacing of the columns according
to a system of proportion.
Inleriace. A surface lying between two
blocks and forming their boundary.
Interlace. Carved ornament imitating
knots or lendnls; charactenstic of Isbmic and Celtic art.
International style. Name given to the
style of architecture evolved in Europe
and America shortly before the First
World War, and still prevailing. Characterised by an emphasis on function
not necessarily flooded.
A measure of proportion to
which all the parts of a building are related by simple ratios. In classical archi-
Module.
tecture
the
usually half the diameter of
it is
column
above
just
its
into 30 parts.
Monolithic. One iarge stone, or made

up of large stones.
Mosaic. Small cubes of glass or stone {tesserae) set in a cement beddmg as decoration for wall-surfaces or floors.
Mosque. The Moslem's
place for prayer
ones at impost level.

'Venetian
called
a
window". Called after Palladio but not
faa mvented by him.
Palmette. A leaf-like ornament used in
flanked
by
When
glazed,
flat
classical architecture.
Party-wall.
wall dividing
mon
Decorative profile given to
two proa com-
and forming
boundary to both.
perties or houses
Pavilion, (i) An ornamental building

such as a summer-house (French 'pavilion' = tent). (2) In French architecture, part of a chateau higher than
the rest. e. g. the centre or comers.
Blind pavilion. An imitation gable

or pediment atuched to part of a
building
skylme.
to
distinction
give
Sec ORDERS.
Pendentive. The curved triangular surface that results when the top comer of
a square space
CORNER.
It
is
vaulted so
fulfils
the
as to
tooth,
Peripteral.
etc.
Late
Romanesque,
by Moslem archi-
Spanish
provide
dome. A coved
same purpose as
a SQUINCH ARCH.
Perimeter wall. A wall round
strongly influenced
the
roof Later used as a monumental feature independent of what is behind it.
an archiiecniral member; often a contmuous band of mcised or projecting

pattenung, e, g,, bead-and-REL, dog-
Mudejar.
to
the triangular CABLE-end of a Greek temple with pitched
Pediment. Originally
a circular base for a
and exhortabon.
Moulding.
A multi-storeyed Chinese or
Japanese buildmg with wide projecting
roof at each storey.
Palladian motif. An arched opening
Pagoda.
com-
plex of buildmgs.
Having a
single
row of
columns all round; a temple surrounded by a single row of columns.
GLOSSARY
344
A row
Peristyle.
of columm
the ouuidc of a
building
round
(i)
(usually
Greek temple) of (2) round the imidc

of a courtyard (e. g,, in a Greek or
Roman home) and by cxtctuion the
jpacc so enclosed.
Perpendicular. The last phase of English

GOTHIC, replacmg Decorated during the
second half of die fourteenth century
and lasting into the seventeenth. Charactenjcd by light airy proportions,
lattice-like
straight
large windows,
tracery over both windows and wall-
mouldmgs, four-cen-
surfaces, shallow
tred arches and fan-vaults.
Piano nobile. The
of an
6rst floor
Italian
palazzo, containing the principal apart-
ments.
Pier. Free-standing masonry support for
an arch, usually composite in section
and thicker than a column, but performing the same function.

Pilaster. A flattened column, rectangular
in section, attached to a wall as deco-
without struaural function, but

still obeying the laws governing the
ORDESS. Pilaster strip. Vertical band
of stone servmg roughly the same purpose as a pilaster, but unconnected with
ration,
the classical orders.

Pilotis. Posts or
'stilts'
supporting
piles)
(French
"pilot"
whole building,
leaving the ground storey entirely open.
Plateresque. Early Renaissance style in

Spain from about 1520.
Plinth. The base of a pillar, pedestal,
statue or of a whole building.
Podium. Stone platform, on which a
temple is built.
Porte-cochire. An open porch big
enough for a coach to dnve through,
as shelter for people amvmg at the
entrance of a large house.
Portico. Colonnaded porch or vestibule.
In
houses
Neo-classical
the
portico
(columns and pediment) often merges
mto
churches.
describing
Seems to
"room", "chapel", 'porch' or even

- anythmg added to the main
"aisle"
body of
the buildmg.
Presbytery. The
of the church
part
contaimng the high altar; often used

loosely for the whole cast end. Architecturally the same as SANCTUARY.
Pronaos. Pan of a Greek temple 'm
front of the naos'; often same as the
PORTICO.
Propylaeon. (Greek:
gate');
"in
monumenul
fi-ont
of the
entrance
to
sacred enclosure.
Prothesis. In Byzantmc and Greek Orthodox churches the chapel (or sometimes the table) where the prelimmary
oblauon of the bread and wme is made.
Pseudo-dipteral. A type of temple plan-
ned
as
dipteral
(i.e.,
with a double
row of columns round the cella) but

in which the inner tow is omitted.
Purlin. The honzonlal beam running
midway along a slopmg roof resting
on the prmdpal
rafters
and supportmg
the subsidiary ones. See roof.
Pylon. Ancient Egyptian monumental

gateway, usually composed of two
masses of masonry with sloping sides.
Pyramid. Regular
base and sides
with a square
slopmg inwards to meet
solid
Queen-poits. Two upnght beams in a

roof sunding on the tie-beam and
supporting a pnncipal RAFTER and
PimuN.
Radiating chapels. Chapels added to an

APSE and fanning out radially.
Rafter. The sloping beams of a pitched
roof, carrying the battens for the
tiles.
Reeding. Convex mouldmg, same as

CADBOON often placed inside the
;
FLUTES of the lower third of a column.
Carving on a surface so that

figures and objects are raised against a
background. High-rehef (haut-rehef) is
Relief.
cut;
Striation. Fine narrow ridges or grooves
in Enghsh Gothic.
Reveal. The inner
Strut. A sloping beam at right angles to

pitched roof surface, supporting
fUkUN or RAFTEB. See hoop.
window;
\isible
the
of a door or
thickness of the wall
side
Revetment,
veneer or facing of
stone over rubble or concrete. (2) A
slopmg wall holding back eanh.
Ridge-beam. Beam running along the
top of a pitched roof. See hoof. Ridgeend. The end of the ndge-beam. the
top of the CABLE.
Rococo. Characterised by flowing lines,
arabesque ornament, ornate stuccowork and the obhteration of separate
architcaural membcn into a single
(i)
low
relief (bas-relief),
is
shallower.
Relieving arch. See aiich.

Repousi^. Method of making reuef
metal by hammering from behind
in
so
that the figures stand out.
Respond. A pilaster or engaged halfcolumn or pier taking the pbcc of the

end support of an ARCAi>E, when the
arcade reaches a wall.
with each other. It is an ambiguous term

both the flutes and
the FILLETS of a column can be called
parallel
stnations.
Stucco.
oulside the frame.
moulded volume.
RoRianeique. Style following carolinGIAN and preceding gotkic, characterised by massive masonry and thick
proportions, the round arch, and the
re-discovery of vaulting - first the
barrel vault, then groined and ftnally
Rose window. In Gothic architecture,

large round window with TRACEfiY.
Rosette. Ornamental motif hke a sty-
outside surface of stone buildmg-blocks
rough, to give an impression of strength

the edges are normally cut back, leaving deep grooves between the blocks.
Sanctuary. The part of a church or

temple containing the main altar.
Sarai. In the Middle East, an inn for
tion (e.g.. Rococo), but also
like a scallop-
dividing
wall
having
no
function of support, e.g., in medieval

choir
churches
surrounding
the
Screen-wall. An extenor wall not part

of the structure. Same as sense (2) of
CURTAIN WALL.
Scroll. Sometimes the same as VOLUTE.
More usually an S-shaped mouldmg,
a double spiral. Used in Renaissance
churches to connect the upper and
lower pans of a facade, or as an ornamental buttress.
Semi-dome. Haifa dome leamng against
part of a building (often a complete
dome) and acting as an extended
FLYING BUTTRESS (e.g., in St Sophia).
Shaft. (1) In classical architecture, the
middle, cylindrical part of a COLUMN
(2)
In
medieval
architecture,
member
attached to a
vertical
pier, often
thm
waU or
a
supporting an arch or vault-
ing-rib.
Shikhara. In Indian architecture, a tower

or spire.
wood
used instead of
chamber for rehcs surrounded by an AMBULATORY.

Stylobate. The continuous base on which
a
COLONNADE
persea rectangular units set

elaborate gnrdens and linked by covered
passages.
Shuttering.
Wooden
for concrete
boards fixed
as a
and removed when
set.
Skene. Building (or facade) behind the

stage of a Greek theatre, forming an
architectural background.
Soffit. The underside of an arch or lintel.
Spandrel. The triangular space between
two arches, or between an arch and a
waU.
Springing. The point of an arch where
the curve begins, usually marked by ?a
LMPOST moulding.
Squinch arch. Sec ARCH.
Stalactite. Ceilmg ornament in Islamic
architecture supposed to resemble natural stalactites.
Ancient
Norwegian
church.
wooden church whose main supports
Stave
arc posts or "staves'.
Steel-frame. A skeleton of steel girders

providing all that is structurally necessary for the building to sund.
Stellate. Sur-shapcd.
Stoa. In Greek architecture, an open
colonnaded space for pubUc business;
a long LOGGIA.
Strapwork. Style of ornament consisting
of interlacing strap-like bands. Fashionable first in sixteenth-century Netherlands, and then in Engbnd, France and
Germany.
two grooves, form-
the metopes) the

ENTABLATimE. See
ORDERS.
Truss. A rigid triangular framework designed to span an opening and to carry
ing (together with
DORIC
FRIEZE of a
or
Most wooden rOofs
lead.
arc
trussed.
Turret.
small tower, often built over a
arcular suircase, or as ornamental feature.
A Roman
addition to the classi-
ORDERS, rescmblmg the DORIC but

with a BASE and without FLlTTES and
cal
TRIGLYPHS.
Tympanum.
(l) The tnangular area enby a classical pediment. (2)

Space between the lintel of a doorway
and an arch over it.
closed
Stands.
Substructure. Foundations or base.

Suspension bridge. A bridge in which
the path or road is suspended from
chains between towers or pylons.
Of
Undressed.
Taper, tapering. Decreasing
in thickness
stone: not
trimmed or
made smooth.
towards one end.
Tatami. Straw mats used

by
as floor-cover-
The
traditional
long governed the

proponions of the house.
size
(6
ft
Temenof
In
ft)
Greek architecture, a sacred

by a wall and contain-
temple or altar.
Tempera. Powder-colour
ing
bound by
Used for
wood
painimgs
easel and
up to the
fifteenth century when it was largely
some
substance, usually egg.
replaced by oil.
Tension. The force tending to
The opposite is compression.

Tepidarium. Pan ol a Roman pubUc
warm
water, in-
temperature between the

FRiGiDARiUM and the calidarium.
Terracotta. Clay burnt or hard-baked in
a mould; harder than brick; may be
in
natural
either
brown, or painted or
Thermae. Roman
public baths, containing large halls with water at vanous

temperatures
(fricidarium,
tepida-
rium AND calidarium) and many other

amenities.
(plural tholoi). In classical archi-
round buildmg with
tecture, a
or beehive- shaped roof.

Thrust. Pressure exerted by any
dome
body of
masonry and tending, if not resisted, to

compress, displace or distort pan of a
building. In walls and ngid sections
the thrust is downwards, in arches and
vaults sideways as well (lateral thrust):
hence the need for BinTHESSES, ABirrMENT,
right angles to the
the length
Corbel
walls.
on the same
corbel arch. Fan
vault. A decorauvc type of rib-vault,
in which the bay divisions and vaulting
compartments are ignored and the ribs
fan out from the wall-shafts in the shape
of everted seim-cones each with the
same curvature. The ribs have no
structural function and are in fact often
simply carved on to the slabs. Confined
vault.
vault
pnnciples
built
the
as
English
to
Groined
Perpendicular.
A quadnpartitc vault in which

compartments meet at a groin,
not a rib. Quadripartite vault. A
vault of which each bay consists of two
barrel vaults intersectmg at nght angles,
niakmg four triangular compartments.
The lines where the planes meet may
be nbbed or left as an arris or groin.
Rib vault. A development of the
groin vault, in which the line of the
grom is marked by a stone nb. The
nbs can then be buJt separately Uke a
skeleton and the spaces in between
filled m, the weight being taken by the
vault.
A beam
(or rod) across the
holding the
two sides together and preventing them
from spreadmg.
Timber-framing. Same as half-timpitched roof,
Tokonoma.
the
In
Japanese houses,
exhibition
of
niche
paintings
or
quadripartite, sexpartite, or
with any number of compartments.

Segmental vault. A barrel vault whose
a
IS
segmental arch. Sexpar-
A quadripartite vault with

addition of an extra transverse
tite vault.
the
arch
the middle of the bay, passing

through the intersection of the two
diagonal arches. Tunnel vault.

same as a barrel vault.
The
Veneer. The covering of one material by

thm shces of another to give an effect of
greater richness.
flowers.
Torana. The gate of the enclosure of
Buddhist STUPA.
Tou-kung. In Chinese architecture, a
cluster of brackets supporting a roof
Trabeated. See columnar and trab-
Verandah.
A small open
house, with
pillars
tracery
almost
exclusively,
Plate tracery, the carhcst type,
is
basic-
sohd wall in which holes have

been cut for the glass. Bar tracery
(tracery proper) uses stone nbs to
form comphcated patterns. See also
REnCULATED. FLAMBOYANT.
Transept. Pan of a cruciform church at
right angles to the nave and chancel
(the nonh and south arms are always
called 'north transept' and "south transept'). Some cathedrals have an addiUonal transept east of the crossing.
Trapezium. A quadrilateral with two
ally
Tread. The horizontal pan of a stair on

which the foot steps (as distinct from
the "riser", or vcnical pan).
Trefoil. A panel or division of tracery
which has cusps
that
divide
it
into
gallery outside a
roof sr_iponed on posts or

raised a
few
the ground.
Vestibule. An ante-room to
feet off
larger
hall.
Vihara. A Buddhist monastery or hall in

a monastery (onginally a ci\c).
Volute. The spiral scroll, especially as it
occurs in the ionic capital.
Voussoirs. Wedge-shaped blocks forming an arch.
Wattle and daub. Pnmitive technique of

wall-building.
Wattles (or reeds) are

and covered with daub
which then dries and
becomes hard. This is held up by a
plaited together
(mud or
plaster),
wooden framework.
Well,
(i)
middle of
(2)
sides parallel.
and the floor
building or
EATE.
Tracery. The stone muUions enclosmg

the glazed areas of a large window in practice the word means GOTHIC
window
Can be
nbs.
section
etc.
Tie-beam.
for
vault;
barrel
down
of the buildmg, Ukea tunnel. Transverse

banel vault: a vault consisting of a
senes of barrel vaults across the buildmg,
the
glazed.
Tholos.
Longitudinal
barrel vault running
at
stretch or
any architectural member,

e.g., the chains of a suspension bridge or
the de-beani of a roof are in tension.
apart
termediate
Vault. A stone ceiling. Barrel vault. An

arched vault, either semi-drcular or
pointed, having an identical section
throughout, without intersections, and
resting continuously on the supporting
walls.
bering.
tiles.
Shinden-zukuri. Style of aristocrauc architeaure in Japan, consisting of dis-
mould
burial
block with three vertical
divided by
strips
Tuscan.
later a
base of a
Shingles. Pieces of
on exteriors
whole fac-
to simulate
Trigylph.
tile
interior decora-
ades in stone (e.g., by Paltadio).

Stupa. Originally a Buddhist
bath contaimng the
with a large courtyard.
Scallop. Carved ornament
make
and occasionally
pull
Screen.
apphed with moulds to
walls, usually to
mound;
precinct enclosed
hscd flower.
Rotunda. Any round building, not necessarily domed.

Rustication. Method of leavmg the
travellers,
Plaster
ing in Japanese houses.
the nb-vault.
the concrete has
at a point.
deeply
that holds back a

mass of earth.
Reticulated. Net-like. Tracery with
opemngs bke the meshes of a net; is
charaacristic of the Decorated period
sheU.
the facade.
Porticus. Word of unceruin meaning,

used by prc-clcventh-ccntury writers
when
mean
Retaining wall. A wall
space open to the sky in the
building (light-well).
Central open space in circular staira large
case.
Weit
front. The principal facade of a big

at the west end of the nave; con-
church
ventionally used even
does not face east
when
(e. g..
the church
St Peter's).
three lobes.
Triforium. The middle storey of a Romanesque or Gothic church elevation,

between the arcade and the clere-
Ziggurat. Stepped pyramid supporting

an alur or temple, built in ancient
Mesopotamia and Mexico.
INDEX
Aachen, cathedral. 19J. 529-5^1

Aalto.
Alvjr,
Agora, 50, 132

Choragic Monument of Lysicrates,
34!
House of Culture.
Civic Centre,
Helsinki, iciS
Siiyiiatiialo,
Ordiiuiry tuimhvrs refer to
107,
Ercchthcion. 48, 91, 92. 106, 120
340
Abbeville, church, 225
Kapmkaru,
Abu Mina, Egypt, 173, 174

Abu Simbel, temple of Ramcscj
Parthenon, 45, s8, 84, go, 96

Propylaea. 50, 93, 94
Stoa of Altalus, 53. 123. 126
33
11.
Abusir. 29
Abydos. temple of Sethos
i,
50.
113
Temple on the lUisus, 11

Temple of Nike Apteros, 50,
Temple of Olympian Zeus,
33. 64
Adam, Robert. 293, 295

Adler. Dankmar. 319
Acgina, temple of Aphaia, 48.
180. 493
9S,
99,
no. 114
Achate. San Pietro, 191
Apra.
165
Aihole. temples, 13s. 349
Ajanta caves, 131, 132. 341. 342. J4S-
415
Bodiam
Qait Bey mosque, 154. 417
Mana
Novella. Florence. 237, 26s,
San Sebastiano, Mantua, 240.
702, 703
Baalbek, 293, 211-213

Temple of Bacchus. 207, 208
Temple of Jupiter, 76, 210
Temple of Venus,
Babylon,
Mosque, 154
Babyloman
architecture.
21
Bacon. Henry,
Lmcoln Memorial, Washington, 945
Certosa, Pavia. 242. 705
<7
Ammanati, Bartolommeo,
Pitti,
Florence. 248
Amsterdam.
Barcelona.
Casa Mila. 320, 971

Pavihon, 329, 999
Sagrada Familia, 973-975
School of Surgery, 295
Angoulcme, cathedral. 204

Ang tou-kung (bracket), 85,
225, 226
Anhui.
Ch'mg dynasty
houses. loi, 255

Fan Hsin-kan's house, Hsi-hsicn, 103,
225
Huang Chu-o-fu's
house, Anhui, 254
Tralles.
Constantinople,
178,
487,
488
'Thousand-and-one-columns',
Cons-
tantinople, 185, JD^
Antwerp,
Bourse, 949
Cathedral. 658
Town haU, 260, 265, 773
Anyang. 87
Arc-et-Scnans. 299, 902
Crete, 18, 35-39

Cubitt, Lewis.
Nclle factory,
Rotterdam, 997
Mana
degli Angioli. Florence. 234
S.
dome,
Spinto. Florence, 234. 689. 690
Brussels.
Maison du Pcuplc. 320, 967

de
Building. 319
Reliance Building, 319, 960
Buffalo,
Berlin.
Buildwas abbey, 210

Bukhara. 161
Chinese architecture, 82-108
Bullant. Jean, 263
Ch'ing-nung
Chenonceaux, 263, 780

Bunning, J. B..
Coal Exchange, London, 305, 919
Chin-tzu temple, 96, 248

Chiragh. tomb, 440
Chitorgarh. 387
Burgcs, William, 309
Chou
Burghley House, 7^7
Ch'u Fu,
Burgos, cathedral, 664

Burhngton, Lord, 289. 293
Cistercians,
Barberini.
92,
lio, 117,
131. 132. 6cc also
118.
121.
122,
Zen
Guaranty Building, 319, 962-964

Larkin Building, 327, 983
272
272
Assembly Rooms, York, 293
793
272
Chiswick.
Villa,
293. 873
Hotkham Hall. Norfolk. 875. 876

Burnham and Root. 319
Monadnock Building. Chicago, 319
Forest Crematorium, Stockholm. 340

Assam, Sibsagar temple, 390
Sta Teresa (sculpture), 272, 80S
Rebance Building, Chicago, 319, 960

Bursa, Green Mosque, 162, ^47
San Tomaso
Butterfield.
Assisi.
dolfo. 268
Maria
Rome,
268,
dell'Assunzione,
Ariccia,
268, 807
Scala Regia,
89,
Quirinale,
796, 797
Sta
di Villanova,
Castelgan-
Rome. 272
Bcssho pagoda, 126

Bethlehem, Church of the Nativity,
Asuka period, Japan, 117

Athens,
Acropolis, 45, 88,
al
104
22,
23.
27
WiUiam,
Bexley Heath, Red House, 315, 946

Beycesultan, 36
Bbaja caves, 131
Chichcn Itzi, ^95. 897, 898

Chidambaram, 143
China, Great Wall of. 83,
festival,
scroll,
Pei
Tmg
91,
94,
De
Museum. 948
Brosse.
Salomon. 275
Luxembourg
Palace,
Paris, 275,
816
49,
30,
37
Noorderkcrk, Amsterdam. 281

Westerkcrk, Amsterdam. 281
Delhi.
Kutb Minar,
Tombs, 166
95
Notre-Dame-du-
Port, 207. 585, 586
Chfton Suspension Bridge, 307

Cluny, abbey, 198, 559, 562
Cnossos, Palace of Minos, 38,
76. 78S0
Coalbtookdale Bndge, 305
Cologne,
hall.
265, 772
St Giacomo, 213
Composite order. 164
Compostela, 210, 23s

Sta Clara, 289
432
Stadium. 138, 139

Theatre, 131
Treasury of the Athenians, 83
Deogarh, temple, 135
Deperthes, P.-I.-E.,
Hotel de Ville, Paris, 935
Dcventer, 265
S7.
73-
Town
hall,
282
Dientzenhofer, Christoph,
St Margaret, Bfevnov, 289, 863
Dientzenhofer, Joharm,
Banz, abbey, 289

Exhibition, 328,
Maria im Kapitol, 215
Town
431,
Derby, railway station, 305

Dessau, Bauhaus. 329, 993-995
Cathedral, 225. 633
Werkbund
162,
Delphi. S3, 102, 105
pavihon, 291
210
Clermont-Ferrand,
Como,
198, 216. 353
88,
dynasty, 88
Deutsche
Holy Trinity (Abbaye aux Dames),
Darby, Abraham,
Coalbrookdale Bridge, 305
Darmstadt. Exhibidon Hall, 324, 97^
Davis, Alexander Jackson, 316. 932
Deanc, Sir Thomas, Oxford Umversity
Temple of Mentuhotep, 47
Temple of Hatshepsut, 48,
De Keyser, Hendnk
dynasty, loi
9S7
Caen.
174, 495
Zuidcrkcrk. Amsterdam, 281
Ch'iiii:
St
Daphm.
St Gervais, Pans, 27s, 8iS
222
309. 31s. 933
Byland abbey. 210
158
Danzig. 265
Deir-el-bahan, 30
Robert Evans House, 326, 982

Robie House, 327, 981
All Samts, Margaret Street. London,
174. 477
Damghan,
Science
Monadnock
Stoclet House, 324. 328. 972

Tassel House, 320
Sant" Andrea
21.
186
340
Ashur, 21
Asoka, Emperor, 131
Aspendos. 69. 75. t86
Asplund. Eric Gunnar,
architecture,
ion,
984
Berlage, H.P., 319
Bourse, Amsterdam, 324, 950
Piazza of St Peter's,
San Francetco, 226
Damascus, mosque, 151, 398-400
Budapest, Parliament, 311
792,
Assyrian
Daigoji pagoda, 121
ChcUa, gate, 422

Chemnitz, Schocken Store, 988
Chenonceaux. chateau. 263, 780
Cheops, 30
Chcrmgov, Church of the Transfigurat-
Lake Shore apartments. 335, 1013

Marshall Field Warehouse, 318, 959
Justice. 311
Buddhism,
Amabenburg, near Munich, 286. 86a

Cuzco, fortification, 899
Cyprus, 18. 48
Gyrene. 161
Chefren, 30
Chicago,
Carson, Pine and Scott store, 319, p6i
lUinois Institute of Technology, 335,
710
708.
University of
Chatsworth House, 282, 844

Chauvigny, church, 204
6S7, 6SS
Sta Maria del Fiore, Florence,

706.
King's Cross Sution, 307

Cuvilhds, Francois.
Virginia,
Bchun, 3S
Bergamo, Colleoni Chapel, 242
Berkeley, Chnstian Science Church, 327,
Palazzo
Assos, agora. 124, 123
William, 295
Virginia. 100. 904

Chartres, cathedral, 197, 219, 221, 636-
Stc Gudulc, 225
Asam, Cosmas Damiao and Egid Quttin,
Cathedral, 612
Sir
Dubbn, 295, 887

chateau, 254, 753, 754
Chandigarh, 336, 1007
dc Justice, 770
Bruhl, palace, 289
Brunei, Isambard Kingdom,
Clifton Suspension Bridge, 307
Paddington Station, 305
Brunelleschi, Filippo, 234
Palais
Peter's,
de.
Ch'ang-an, 95
Sta
Peter's,
$0, 97, 113, 121
165
Chatgnn, J.F.
Arc de Triomphe de TEtoilc, Pans,
Casina, Marino,
San Lorenzo, Florence.
Arpachiyah, 2
286, 289
Roman,
Corny. Here
309. 93i
Bath
Cathedra Petri, St
Louvre, Paris, 279
Corinthian order, 43,
Brinkman, 329
(Tcmpietto),
Basutoland, native hut, 217
Baldacchmo. St
Trophime, 207, 380
Paris. 920
305
Copenhagen, Vor Frue Kirke, 907

Cordova, 153. ij6, 424-427
Corinth, temple of Apollo, 103
Chambord,
245, 715-718, 720
Montono
Hospital, Florence. 234, 686

Palazzo Pilti. Florence, 696
Schauspiclhaus, 9S9
S07
Howard, Yorkshire, 282
Galene des Machines,
Conway Bndge,
Chambers,
in
245. 712-714, 716
Foundhng
Bemay, thurch, 198

Bernini, Gianlorcnzo,
300
i8j,
Yercbetan Saray, 505
Brasiha. 337. 338, 339

Breuer. Marcel. 341
Brcvnov. St Margaret. 287. 863
Brighton, Royal Pavibon. 303, 912
Rome,
Palais
Royal Palace, 286, 836
498
Walls,
Ccfalii, cathedral, 215, 6iS
Belfry, 226, 260. 637
A, E.G. Buildmgs, Berlin. 324

Gas Works. Frankfurt, 324, 977
Suleiman Mosque, 162, 44S-450

'Thousand-and-one-columns', 185
Virgin Pammakaristos, church of, 183,
Chaitya, 340
Charlottesville,
Beauvais. cathedral, 222

Bchrens, Peter,
229,
Carrire and Hastings, 313

Casas y Novoa, Fernando de.
Facade, Santiago de Compostela, 23s
Castelgandolfo, San Tomaso di Villanova,
268
Bruges.
324
77^
209,
Contaniin,
Bruchsal, palace, 289
Square. 879
194,
Car.a, 56
Barhut, 132
Baudot, Anatole dc,

St Jean-dc-Montmartre, Paris,
Bayeux, cathedral. 198, 330, 551
Bcauheu, church. 204
Beaune, church. 201
and Bacchus, 170. 466, 467

St Sophia, 169, 173, 174, 178, i8i, 487,
488
230. 604-606, 623-625, 675

Caprarola. Villa Famese. 248, 735
Carcassonne. 225. 5^8
Caserta, Royal Palace, 289, 869
Ban.
324
Landhaus Kameckc, 286
2(58
Rome,
Amsterdam, 281,
cathedral,
180, 494
Pantocrator, 183
St Eirene, 176. 485, 486
St John of Studios, 176. 178, 479
St Mary Panachrantos, 186
Nancy town plan. 284

Cortona, Pietro da, 266
Sta Maria della Pace, Rome, 271, 795
Sta Maria in Via Lata. Rome, 271, 799
SS Martina e Luca, Rome, 271
Villa de Pigneto, near Rome, 800
Peter
St
Van
A. E.G. Buildings,
Maria dcU'Assunzione,
hall,
Golden Gate. 185, 502, 50?

Hippodrome, 183
Holy Apostles, 178, 204
SS. Sergius
van,
Charleval, chateau, 263

Charheu, church, 197
Queen
767
766,
Town
Castle
delle Grazie, Milan, 242, 711
St Peter's,
Houses of Parhament, London. 310.
Anci, chateau. 259, 768. 769

Angkor ,Wat. 39^, 396
Mana
Sta
Barlnung. Otto, 328

Basra, mosque. 149
Westerkcrk. 281
Zuidcrkcrk. 281
An-chi bridge, 92. 239. 240
Ancy-lc-Franc, chateau, 257,
Rome. 242
House of Raphael, Rome, 245
934
Town hall, 774, 837

Trippenhuis, 282, 8^2
299,
Bourgeois, Djo, 328

Bourges, cathedral, 222, 648, 649, 632
Bra, Sta Chiara, 289
Brad ford-on- Avon, St Lawrence, 194.
Cancellena,
FrauenkjTche. Dresden. 289, 867
Barlow. W. H., 307

Barry, Sir Charles.
Prmzengracht, 835
Newton,
539
Cathedral, 213
San Nicolas, 213, 619
Bourse. 324, 950

Heerengracht, 849
New Lutheran Church, 282
Noorderkcrk, 281
for Sir Isaac
Bramante, Donato, 242
Baltimore, Maryland, cathedral, 906

Banz, abbey. 289
Barbaro. Danicle. 251
Collcom Chapel. Bergamo, 242

Amaravati, 132
Amboise, pagoda, S86
Amiens, cathedral, 169. 200, 221, 222,
Aries, St
271,
Canterbury,
Cenotaph
Hotel dc VUle. Pans, 933
Al 'Ubaid, 21
Amadeo, Giovanni Antonio,
Ariccia. Sta
Rome,
Sapienza,
della
900
190
Campcn, Jacob
Mauntshuis, The Hague. 281. 836
Sandro. 245
Boullcc. Ebenne-Louis. 299
Ballu, Theodore,
156
Sophia.
Trinity College Library, 282
Botticelli.
22, 25. 31
Baghdad. 151, 409

Bahr, Georg,
St
King's College Chapel, 230, 257. 682.

6S4, 761
271. Soi-803
Badami temple, 136
Sta Maria di Carignano. Genoa, 2S3

Algiers,
Anthemius of
Cambridge,
793
Blachernae. palace. 185. 501

Constantinc Lips, church of, 183
Constantine Porphyrogenitus, palace
Kanyc Camii.
round pyramid, 893
Calixtlahuaca,
Quattro Fontane, Rome.
aile
154,
Sultan Hassan mosque, 414
Bortomim, Francesco, 268

Palazzo Barberim, Rome. 792,
Sta Agnesc, Rome, 271, S03
San Carlo
hospital.
408, 416, 41S
Station. Stuttgart, 324
319
412, 413,
of, 501
Qalawun mosque and
Borgund, stave church, 194, 344

Borneo, houses, 218, 219
Avantipur, 143
Avignon, papal palace. 22$, 631
Alcssi, Galeazzo,
Palazzo
323
27, 34. 33
Bonatz, Paul,
Autun. cathedral, 201, 216. s68, 626

Auxerre. St Germain. 197
AIbi, cathedral, ^26
K as bah.
castle,
804. 806
691
Constantinople,
Boghazkoy.
Sanl'Ivo
Palazzo Rucellai. Florence, 237, 6g2

Sant' Andrea, Mantua. 240, 265, 701,704
San Francesco. Rittimi. 240. 697-700
Conjiveram. 136.^55.557
Conques, abbey. 201, 207, 377
Bordeim mosque, 154

El Akhmar mosque, 153
El-Azhar mosque, 153
Ibn Tulim mosque, 153, 410,
Theatre of Dionysus, 55
Theseion, 48. 100, 101, 112
Akhenaten, 35
Sta
Palace, 282, 846
Confucius. 88
121
120,
97,
Ajnier, mosque, 162. 454
Alampur. jt2, ^64

Alberti, Leone Battista, 237
517
Amrou, mosque, 153

Bab Zuwcia, 164
Blondel, Jacques-Francois, 295

Bodh-Gaya, 132
A Vila,
347
castte,
370
Portico d^ la Gloria, 2CJ9, 388, 390

Concrete. Roman, 60, 169, 140-142
Cairo,
Blois, chateau, 254, 27s, 7$l, 752
Aulnay, church, 204
Ahicharra. 138
Caernarvon
to, 207,
289
facade,
198,
216, 554
Deul temple, 140
Blenheim
Santiago, routes
(Abbaye aux Hommes).
St Eticnne
Bitonio. cathedral, 213

93
345
St Nicholas. 198
Bijapur, tombs, 166
the Winds. 50
Athos, Mt, monasteries, 185, 504
Augsburg, town hall, 281. 848
Ahmedabad,
to illtislnitions
Bhitargaon, 136
Bhuvancsvara, 140
Lingaraja temple, 141, 369-371
Muktcsvara shrine, 140, 368
Rajarani temple, 141
Vaital
Tower of
Pearl Mosque, 165, 4^6

Taj Mahal, 166. 4^8, 4^9
Agrigentum, temple of Zeus, jo
mmibcrs
italic
/'<i,i,'('.(,
Wendel, 265
Dijon, St Bcmgne, 197. 345
Divngui, mosque, 102
Doesburg, Theo van, 328
Dicttcrlin.
Domfiônt, church, 198

Doric order. 29, 43, 45, 47. 48,
103, 108, 109. 112, 114-119
Roman.
162
84, 98, 101,
INDEX
346
Fo Kung temple.
New
Marmo.
Dublin. Casina,
Foothill Abbe>-, 303, 908.
Pzlus dc Justice. Pahs. 111,936

Cetcau, Jacques Androaec,
Da
the
Elder. 263
Chaileval. 263
VexDCofl. 263
W.
M-. 328
Dr Baviock ScbooL Hilversum. 991$
Dulwidi. Soane's Museum and An Gallery. 304, 916
Durand. J.-N.-L. 304, 313
Duzfaam. cacbedial. 209, 3i6. 6oo-6ot
Dntert. C-L.-F..
Gakne des Machines, Pahs. 920
Fames. Qurks. 337

Case Scndy House. 337, 1022
Eari's Baitoa chmcii. 193, 194, ^40
M,6S
Edinbar^ Royal High
School, 300, 905
Edime, moscjoe, 162
Egypban
Udciphia, 938
Willoughby Houoe. NcwpOTt. Rhode

Island, 316,
9^
Gustave, 307
Tower, Paris, 924, 925

El Afnamah. 29, 35, 60-6}
El Djem, amphitheatre. 209
Eiffe!
Ekphama, 136, 138,

Elgm marUes, 50
EUis. Peter,
Olid Chambers, Liverpool, 91$

EDota. 131. 132. 136. 138. 344, 356. 3S9360. 363, j6s
Elmes. Harvey Lonsdale,
St George's Hall, Liverpool, 915
George G.,
Elmslic.
Woods
Bradley House.
Hole. Mas-
Lodge. 281
Gandhara. 131, 135

Gamier, Charles.
Opera, Paris. 311. 321, 937
Gaudi, Antoni, 319
Casa Mili, Barcelona. 320. 971
Sagrada Familia. Barcelona, 973-975
Gcnnigny-des-Prcs. 193. 332
Ghent,
Flemish Academy, 830
St Bavon, 225, 636
GiDy. Friedricfa, 300
Monument to Fredehck the Great, 9C3
Giorgio. Francesco di. drawings, 707, 709
Gizeh. pyramids. 30, 42-46
Glaôw. Art School. 320. 970
Gloucester, cathedral, 210, -230, 603, 679
Hotel de
Gondom,
Ely, cathedral, 209, 674
Town
GabiieL Ange-Jacques.
Ecole Militaire. Paris, 284. 833
Petit Tiianon, Versailles, 284
Place de U Concorde, Paris. 284
GaHei, Alessandro,
San Giovanni in Laterano, Rome. 289,
Goddc. E.-R,
sachusetts, 327. 9$}
Enkhnizen,
St Lawrence, 386
Gemrodc, abbey church. 194, 533

Genoa, Sta Maria del Cahgnano. 233
343. 361
Ville, Paris. 310, 933
J.,
Ecole de Medccine. Paris, 295. S84

Gottweig, abbey. 286
haH, 282, Ss4
Ephesus,
Go wan, James,
Church of St John, 178

Library. 150. tsx
Leicester University engineering labo-
Temple of Artemis, 48
ratohes, 341. 1026

Gracaoica, 183, 496
Epidamiis, 55, 133

Eiidu, 18. 21, 9. 10
J. B^ Bscfacr von,
Batthjrany-SdbOTibom Palace, Vjcnna,
286
Hofbibbothek, Vienna, 28^
Karbkirche, Vienna, 286. S^S
KoOegienkirche, Salzburg, 286
Palais Trauison. Vienna, 286
Schonbnmn Palace. Vienna, 286. 83?
Escohal palace, 236, 257
Eshnunna, 12, 13
Alhambra, 156, 164, 4^-^432

CatfaedraL 253. 750
Charles v's Pabce. 254
Fez, 158
Antonio,
Great Hospital. Milan, 240
Filarete,
Fxruzabad, 174, 473

Johaan Michael,
Octobeurcn. church, 289. 865
Roa-am-Inn, church, 289
Gravesandc, Arent van's.

Cloth HalL Leiden, 281
Scbashansdoelen, The Hague, 281
Greek architecture, 41-56
Greenstead church, 194, 342, 343
Horence,
Foundhng
Hospital, 234, 686
224S.
Novella, 237. 265. 691

al
Monte, 213.
613, 614
S. Spirito, 234. 689. 690

Uffizi, 248, 738
2^3
temple, Ying-hsien, 96. 244, 235
Floris, Frans.
Fo Kung
Lincoln Center.
New
New
tica.
Jomon
Nicholas. 282
Heidelberg caole. 265, 7S1
House of Culture,
1018
Sagossa, 280
Notre-Damc-du-Haut, Ronchamp. 333,

336, 340
Villa Savoye, Poissy,
Juhus
of Paris, 1004
Ledoux. Qaude-Nicholas,
'Voisin' plan
Juvarra, Filippo.
La Supcrga, Turin, 289. *7i

Stupinigi palace, 289
287
Flildesheim. cathedtal, 194, 337

St Michael's, 194, 538
Hilversum, 328
School. 996
Himeji castle, 126

Hinduism, 135
FUttites. 22, 27
Hoffmann. Joseph,
Stoclet House. Brussels. 324. 328. 972
Hoger. Fritz,
Hamburg. 998
Hokyi temple, 117

Hall, Norfolk. 293, 875. 876
HoU. Ehas,
hall.
Augsburg. 281, 848
Honscllarsdijk castle. 281

Horta, Viaor, 319
Maison du Pcuple. Brussels, 320, 967
Tassel House. Brussels, 320
Hosios Lukas, cfauj^, 174. 183. ^7
Houdan,
castle,
322
Louvre, Paris, 310

Le Havre, 335, 1015
L,
Richards Medical Researdi Laboratories,
Kansai, Birmhouse, 300

Karle caves. 131
32, 52, 53
Hypostyle Hall, 32, 33,
Lesbos, 48
Lescot. Pierre, 257
Karyuji monastery, 121

Kassites, 22
Kasuga, shrine, 299
Kent, Wilham.
Holkham
Louvre. 259. 7*5

Lessay, church, 198
Lesueur, J.-B.
Hall. Norfolk, 293. 875. 876
Khaiajc, 21
Sin
Tcm
le n, 14
826
Temple vm, 13
Temple oval, 22, 23
Khanda ri >-a Mahadcva
temple,
Khirokitia, Cyprus, Ikoloi.
1,1%
Khorsabad, 25,
26
20, 24. 25.
Kiradu, 141
Igloo. 216
Imhotep, 29
Pyramid Complex, Sakkara,
Zosex's
36-41
Ise,
mosaics in Stoclet House, Brussels, 324

W. von,
Blue Mosque, 407

Masjid-i-Jami,
Mosque of Sheik
433-436. 445,
Lutfulla. 164
Palace of Chihil Sutun, 161

Isidore
of Miletus,
St Sophia, Constantinople, 178

Issoire, St Paul, 207, 584
Itsukushima dmne, 317
Iznik. Green Mosque. 162
Mauntshuis, 28 1 836
New Church, 838
Sebastiansdoelen, 281
Japanese architecture, ito-126

Jaunpur. mosque, 165
Town
Jeficrson,
905
Jaipur, 146
Thomas,
University of Virginia, 300, 904

Jehol, P'u-tuo Tsung-cheng temple. 292
Jerash. Propylaea, 76
Jericho, 18
Jenitalexn.
Aqsa mosque, 153
des ChevaUcrs, castle, 516
Town hall, onel window, 782

Kublai Khan, 98. 122
Kultepe, 36
Ku^ mosque, 149
Kyoto, ti8
Rrems,
158, 408,
446
Ming-chung, 96
Lincoln, cathedral, 209. 229, 230, 671

Lisbon, Sao Vicente, 758
Liverpool.
Oriel Chambers, 918

St George's Hall, 915
Imperial palace, 293-295

Katsura, imperial palace. 126, 332, 333,
335-337
Kinkaku-ji temple, 318
Kiyomizu-dera temple, 323
Koryu-ji monastery, 12
Nijo cMtle, 112, 126. 303

Phoenix Hall, 326
Ryoan-ji monastery, 2^6
Shoguns, Palace of the, iiz
Shugakuin imperial villa, 334
Toji temple, 126
Albert Memorial, 309, 932

All Saints, Margaret Street, 309, 315,
933
All Souls,
Langham Place,
Bank of England, 304
Chiswick Villa, 288. 293, 873

Coal Exchange, 305, 919
Crystal Palace, 305, 922, 923
Euston Station. 305

Foreign Office, 311. 938
Houses of Parliament, 310, 934
King's Cross Station, 307
Paddington Station, 307
Regent's Park Terraces, 303
Roehampton Esute,
1014
Royal Exchange, 282. 842

Royal Festival Hall. 333, 1009
St Katharme's Docks, 305, Ji?
St Paul's Cathedral, 209, 281, 839-841
Somerset House, 260
Temple Church. 229

Tower of London, 521
Westminster Abbey, 209, 218. 229, 230,
Westminster Hall, 681
Whitehall Palace. 282
York
Gate, 913
Longhena, Baldassare,
Labrouste. Henri.
928
914
Banquccing House, Whitehall. 280. 834
673. 683
Kyushu, 114
Bibhothique Nationale,
191
London,
CarltOD House Terrace, 321
Konya, 161
Krak
Li
Lomas Risbi caves, 131

Lombard Romanesque,
Rirman. 158
Klenze, Leo von,
Valhalla. Regensburg, 300
Klimt, Gustav,
shrines, 114, 297
H6tcl Lambert, Paris. 277. $2t

Vaux-le-Vicomte, chateau. 279, 827
379
Li Ch'un, 92
ligoho, Pirro,
Casino of Pius rv, 250, 736
Versailles,
LodoU, Carlo, 295
Kirkstall abbey, 210
Is&han, 151
Hahcamassas. 56, 136

Hamburg, Chikhaus, 99^
Hamilton, Thomas,
Royal High School, Edinburgh, 300,
112,
136, 366. 367
Takshmana temple, 136
Kiev, 185
St Sophia, 185. 507, 3qS
Virgin of the Dimes, 186
328
Hotel de Ville, Paris, 310, 935

Le Vau, Louis, 377, 279
CoUigc des Quatre Nations, Paris, 277.
Sin
gne. 328, 987

Model factory for Fagus, 328
260. 771
Haiyu-ji temple, 117
Leoni, James, 237

Le Puy, cathedral, 207, 474
51, 66
Temple of Khons, 34
Temple of Ptah, 35
Konarak, 141, 382. 385
hall,
Lemnos, 36
Le Notre. Andre. 279
Leonardo da Vinci, 242
(Thebes),
Temple of Amon,
644. 650
Richeheu, chiicau. 275

Sorbonne, church. Paris, 275, 822. 823
Val-dc-Grace. Pris, 819
Kamakura period, Japan. I3i

Kano Motonobu, 124
Ischali, 21
5, 6. 7
Town hall, 260

Le Mans, cathedral, 225.
Lcmerder. Jacques, 275
Leipzig,
gjhnti, 35
K'ai Yuan temple. 96. 2^1
Kalaat Simon, Syria. 174
Kamak
cngmeering labora-
1026
Leiden. Cloth Hall, 281
iMj
Pennsylvania Umvenity.
Leicester. University
tories, 34t,
Philadelphia, 338, 339, 1023
Khajuraho, 136. 140

Chaunshat Yogini temple. 136, 140
Fliuan Tsang, 95
Hua-yen temple, 229
villa.
Kahn, Louis
Dessau Bauhaus, 329, 993-995

DeulsSie Werkbund Exhibition. Colo-
Arc-ct-Scnans, 299, 902
Bamires, Pans, 299

Lefuel, Hector-Martin,
Hildebrandt. Johann Lukas von.

Belvedere Palace. Vienna, 286, 859
Gottweig abbey, 286
St Lawrence, Gabcl. 286
Town
329. 335, loco-
1003
n. Pope, 245
Hexham, 194
St Peter, Vienna,
Swiss Dormitory. Paris. 331. ioc6

Unite d'Habiation, Marseilles, 333,
33S. 1010-1012
S33
Jossdin. chateau. 254
Pilar.
Centrosoyus, Moscow. 1002

Chandigarh. 336, 1007
La Tourene, 10C5
York, 339
culture. 114
Jor Bangla. 146
Nuestra Senora del

HcTT cra, Juan de,
EscoriaL 236. 257
Hess3u,2i5
New
Sanssoud, Potsdam, 888

Komolskoe, Kazan church, 311
^47
Le Brun, Charles, 279

Le Corbusier, 328
York, 341
Banqueting House, London. 280, 834

Queen's House. Greenwich, 280. 832.
Hereford, cathedral, 209, 595. 677

Herrera, Frandsco. the Younger,
Holkham
Larisa, 54
Latrobe. Benjamin H.. 300
Roman CathoUc Cathedral, Baltimore.
906
Laugier. Marc-Antoinc, 295, 298
Jones. Inigo, 280, 281
Herculaneum, 58
Chilehaus.
Laon. cathedral, 219, 629, 630

Larger Sas Bahu, 141
York, 337
Seagram Building.
Clarendon Library, Oxford. 845

Heian pehod, Japan, 11
Dr Bavmck
939. 930
La Charit^-fur-Loire, church. 198

Lacock abbey. Wiltshire. j
MunsoD- Williams-Proctor Institute, U-
Ionic order, 43, 48, 50, 95, 106, tit, 120

Roman, 163
castle, 282,
706, 708, 719
San Miniato
341
Hatfield House. 280. 778

HatshcpsuE, Queen, 30
Hawkesmoor,
of the Rock, 149, 131. 401-404

Walls. 52*
Jerman. Edward.
Royal Exchange. London. 282, 843
Jervaulx abbey, 210
Jhogda, 141
Johnson, Mtilip. 337
Glass House, New fna^n. Connecticut. 1024
New York,
Indian architecture, 128^146, 165. t66
8^
Hagley Park, 303. 9to

Hague, The,
Constantin Huygens'i House, 281
687, 688
Medici Ch3[>el. 729

Sea Maria degli AngjoU, 234
Sta Maria del Bore (cathedral),
Maha
Lincoln Center,
Hassuna. 4
Dome
Knobelsdorff, G.
Haribr.
Library, 246. 727, 72^. 730
Sta
Hall, 777, 779
Flarrison. Wallace.
Islamic architecture, 148-166
Palazzo ScTozzi. 693

SS. Amiunziata, 234
San Lorenzo.
Hardwick
Bibliothique Ste Geneviive. Paris. 307,

197,
198
Indus valley culture, 128
Gypsy
Palazzo Medici-Riccardi, 694

Palazzo Pitti, 248. 696
Palazzo RuceUai, 237. 692
Hansen. C. F.. 300

Vor Frue Rirke. Copenhagen. )>^
Hansen, Thcophil and Flans O^nffian. 300
Harappa. 128
Inca architecture, 296
Guahni. Guarino,
Palazzo Cahgnano, Turin, 812
San Lorenzo. Turin, 275. 813-815
Guimard, Hector, 319, 320
Garalior. iî. 38S
FisciKT,
dynasty, 95
pottery house-models, 230-234
98, 108
Hyercs, Noailles
Gtopius. Walter.
Sikri. 165. 433, 435
Han
Huygens. Constantin. 281
Chancrhouse, 289
Vaobrugh
Fatehpur
7^, 763
Grand Canal (China). 92
Greenwich.
Queen's House. 280. 832, 833
Royal Naval College (Hospital).
Etruscans. 56. 59
Exeter, aifaedral, 67^. 678
Palace, 254.
Hunstanton school. 338. i<?2i

Hunt, Richard Morris, 316,
'The Breakers'. Newport, Rhode Island,
Gtanada,
Erlach,
FlamptoD Court
Helsinki,
S-o
architecture, 27-35. iS3-t54
Leopold,
Eidliiz,
9^
Frankiurt-am-Main, Gas Works, 324, 977

Frederick the Great. 289
Frcyannet. Eugine,
Airaafi hangars, Oriy. 324
Fu-ch'eng Men, 263, 264
Fuga. Ferdinando.
Sta Maria Maggiore, Rome, 289
Fujiwara pehod, Japan. 118
Fumcss abbe>', 210
Fumess, Frank,
Provident Life and Trust Building, Phi-
Gabd,
Church of the Resurrechon, 170

Church of the Holy Sepulchre,
Haniji temple. 117

Flampi. 141
Hangchow.
Fossanova. abbey. 226, 66j

Fountains abbey, aio
295. $9?
DocJ.-U
Ehham
T*ai, 95, 246.
Jesuit College. Loyola. 280

Fontcvrauk. church. 204
Ftaueokircbe. 389. S67

Zwinger. 1S9, 86S
Eiffel.
Wo
Fontaioebleau, chateau. 354. 757. 759. 760

Fontana. Carlo. 273
Downing. Aodcew Jacksoo. 316, ^}j

Board uid batten coctage. 9S3
Draden.
Ediii,
Mt
LtMliaju Qiurd). AmsterduiL,
Dodok.
Paris. 307, 926-
Palazzo Pesaro. Voiice, 8to

Sta Maria della Salute Venice, 272, 811
347
INDEX
T^Tighi
Manino,
Rome,
SS. Vincciuo e Anastuio,
26$.
794
Longleat Houie, a6o. 775, 776
Lor-h. 19 J. S34
Los Angclo. Ennis House, 317
Loyob. Jesuit College, 380
Luban, chemical factory, 324, 978
Lucca,
Cathedral, 313
San Prediano, 213
San Michcic, 213
Lung-hsing temple, Cheng-dng-hsicn.
'49
Lurât. Andr^. 328
Lutyens. Sir Edwin, 311, 327
New
Luxor
Palazzo Famese. Rome, 72^

Palazzo del Scnatorc. Rome. 236
Rome,
Piazza del Campidoglio.
289. 866
250,
265
San Lorenzo, Library, Florence, 246.

X48. 727. 7^8. 730
San Lorenzo. Medici Chapel. Florence,

7^9
St Peter's,
Rome,
250. 265, 7t7. 7i8,
720, 722
Michelozzo Michelozzi,
Palazzo Mcdid-Riccardi, Florence, 094
Porrinan Chapel, Milan, 240
SS. Annunziata, Florence, 234
Middetburg, Town hall, 260
Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig. 328
Barcelona pavilion, 329. 999
Delhi, 311, 941

(Thebes),
33, ^6,
$8
cago, 335. 340

Lake Shore apartments, Chicago, 335,
1013
Seagram Building,
Milan
Machu
Picchu. &g6
Machuca, Pedro,
Rome. 792,
St Peter's, Rome. &^de, 722
Sta Susamu, Rome, 265. 791
San Fcdclc. 253, 748

San Lorenzo, 169. 170. 462. 464
Sta Maria delle Grazie. 242. 711
Torre Velasca, 341
Miletus, S5
Milkmaid caves. 131
Madrid.
337
Royal Palace, 289, 872

San Andres, chapel of San Isidore. 380
Madura. 143. 373^ 375-377. 379- 3^'
Maiano. Giovanni da. 257
Mai-chi Shan, T'ieit-shui. rock-cut shrines. 92, 2j8
Maisons. chateau, 277, 824

Mallet-Stevens, Robert,
Noailles
villa,
Mamallapuram.
Hyeres, 328
596,
$97
277
Hotel dc la Vrilliere, Paris. 277, 825
Maisons. chateau. 277. 824
Ste Marie de b Visitation. Paris. 277
Val-dc-Giicc. Paris, 277. 819
Mansart, Jules Hardouin.
Blois,
Invalides, church, Paris, 279, 820
Vcndome,
Paris,
279
Versailles. 279, 288. 828-830
ington, 311, 940
iCIO-1012
Martand, 143
Muromachi
period. Japan, 122
Musmiyah,
the Praetorium. 173
Matsue. Kamcsu Shinto shrine, 298
Matsumoto
castle, 126,
JO4
Matthew, Sir Robert H,,

Royal Festival Hall, London, 333, 1009
May, Hugh,
Eltham Lodge, 281
Maybcck, Bernard,
Christian Science Church, Berkeley,
castle,
327. 984
Mazzone, church, 213
Pennsylvania Station,
New
York
313,
Mckka. Ka'ba, 149

McUe. 204
Menai Straits,
Road Bridge (Telford), 305
(Britarmia,
Stephenson),
30s
314
Palace. 257, 764
Norwich,
cathedral, 209
Sir
Ini[>erial palace, 269-27)
Ming tombs.
ge. 307
Raphad.
"The Marriage of the Virgin", 719
Palazzo Vidoni Ca&relli, Rome, 245,
100, 281-283
Chang-ling ensemble. 2S0
Pdhai Park,
Summer
Walter Gale House,
Illinois.
322
Olbrich, J. M.
Exhibition Hall, Darmstadt, 324, 976
Sezcssion Palace, Vienna, 320. 969
cathedral, 209
53
Orly. aircraft hangars. 324

Onne. PhiUbert de 1", 257
Anet. 2S9. 768. 769
to Francis
i,
108, 26S
Palace. 94, 108, 284-290
Temple and
Altar of Heaven, 93, 98,
54, 53, 134
Pcrigueux, St Front. 204. 574, 573, 578

Perrault, Claude.
Louvre. Paris, 279, 831

Perrct. Auguste,
Flats in rue Franklin, Paris. 324
Lc Havre, 333, 1013
Pcrsepolis, 27, 27, 28. 29. 32, 33
Perseus, Ludwig. 300
St Denis, 259
Orvieto, cathedral. 662
Building.
Trust
958
Richards Medical Rcscardi Laboratories.
327, 986
Pien-liang (Kaifeng). 93, 96

Piero dclla Ftancesca, 242, 693
Giovanni
Pantheon,
Battista,
Rome
(etching), 191
Rome
(etching), 809
Temple of Demeter,
113, itS
Temple of Poseidon, 48. 117

Palampet, 393
Palermo, Cappella Palatini, fai
Palladian style, 280-281, 293
743
Palazzo Chiericati. Viccnza, 251. 746

San Giorgio Maggiore. 231
Teatro Olimpico. Vicenza. 740
Vicenza,
Town
Vilb Capra
251
hall.
(Villa
Rotonda). Vicenza.
Jail.
House and
318
Poelacrt. Joseph,
Palais
de
Notre-Dame-la-Grande. 210.
563, 565
St Hilaire, 204, 371. 572
Ste Radegondc. 204, 573. 576

Poissy. Villa Savoye. 329, 335. 1001-1003
Polo, Marco. 98
Pompeii. 38, 75. 77, 78, 199-206

Pont-du-Gard, aqueduct, 70. 193. 194
Regent's Park Terraces, London, 303,
Palmyra.
Pontormo, Jacopo da,

'Descent from the Cross'. 737
Poppelmann. Matthaus Daniel,
Zwingcr. Dresden, 289, 868
Pose Pietet,
913
Royal Pavilion, Brighton, 303, 912

Naxos, 135
Niym.
Mendelsohn, Erich, 328

Schockcn Store, Chemnitz, 988
Merida, aqueduct, 156
Meshed. 161. 438
Mexican architecture. 296
Naynz. Masjid-i-Jami.
158
J. B., 303
Paray-le-Monial, church, 201, 560, 561
Arc de Triomphe de
Nebuchadnezzar, 25
Nereshcim. abbey. 289
Neumann.
Papworth,
Paris,
158. 444
Nervi. Pier Luigi,

palazzeno dello Sport,
293
Panilov, St Nicholas. 506
Parasuramcsvara. 140
1715,
I'Etoilc, 309. 931
Barriires. 299. 902
Rome,
Balthasar,
Meyer, Adolph,
Bruchsal, palace. 289
Model &ctory, 328

Midiclangelo Buonarroti, 245
Bnihl. palace. 289

Nereshcim, abbey, 289
341, 1019
Bibliotheque Nationale, 307, 926-928

Bibliothequc Stc Genevieve, 307. 929,
930
Citi Unjversitaire, 331, 1006
College des Quatre Nations, 277. S26
Ecole de
Mêdne,
293. 884
Huis ten Bosch, 281

Mauritshuis, The Hague, 281, 836
Potsdam,
Chinese
Ncucn
Seville,
Town
234
hall.
Richardson. Henry Hobson, 316
sachusetts. 318. 957
Crane Memorial Library, Quincey. 381

Marshall Field Wardiouse, 318. 959
Watts Sherman House, Newport, Rhotown, 275
Schrocder House, Utredit. 329. 991, 922

Rievaulx abbey, 210, 598. 599
Rimini, San Francesco (Tempio Mabte-
Ripon, cathedral. 229, 669

Rochester, cathedral, 209
Rodriguez, V..
School of Surgery, Barcelona. 295
J..
Deventer,
Town
hall,
Roman architecture,
Romano,
282
56-79
Giulio,
734
Rome.
Arch of Sepiimius
Ardi of Titus, 66,
Scverus, 177
175
Basihca of Maxendus. 172-174

Basihca Ulpia. 65
Baths of Caracalla, 33, 69, 178, 180

Baths of Diocletian. 146, 147
Baths of Trajan, 179. iî
Cancelleria, 242
Circus Maximus, 66, 182
Circus of Maxentius, 183, 184
Colosseum. 66. 148. 149, 158, 159
Fontana Trevi. 289
Forum Romanum.
teaholise, 888
Trajan's
Pabce, 289
Sanssoud, 8SS
hall, 289.
Price. Bruce,
62, 152, 160
Foriim of Trajan. 62, 65, 154
Gate, 289
New
Town
of Galb PUddia. 173. 47*

of Tlieodoric 476
Rcgensburg, Valhalla, 300
Palazzo del T4. Mantua. 246, 248, 731-
Poitiers,
251. 7. 747
Pallavan sr>'le. 136
Cottage. Blaise. Gloucester-
Vicale. 169. 170, 463. 468-470
Roman,
Justice, Brussels. 311
Poelzig, Hans, 327

Chemical Factory. Luban, 324, 97*
Schausptelhaus. Berlin, 989
shire, 911
Diamond
San
Tomb
Tomb
stiano), 240, 697-700
616
Pittsburgh, Allegheny Court
116
Sant'Apollinare in Cbsse. 176

Sant'Apollinare Nuovo. 176
Rietvcld, Gerrit,
295
Pitalkhora caves. 131
'Basilica',
Raqqa, mosque, 151

Ravenna.
de Island. 316. 955

Richelieu, chateau and
Phibe, 67
Pirancsi.
Rome, 243
246, 725, 726
Allegheny Coun House and Jail, Pittsburgh. 318

Ames Gate Lodge. North Easton, Mas-
Philadelphia.
Girard College. 300

Provident Life and
Orefici.
Madama, Rome,
Riano. Diego de, 253
Palazzo Massimi. Rome, 742

Peterborough, cathedral. 210, 217, 593
Phacstos, 38, 82. 83
of the Balconies. 198
degh
'School of Athens', 721
Revett, Nicholas, 293

Rheims. cailiedral, 221, 222, 645, 646
Persian architecture, 27
Peruzzi. Baldassare.
259
72J
Sant'Eligio
Villa
100. 272. 274-276
Pcrgamon.
Maria in Campitelli. Rome, 26$,
Rome, 236
Ramesvaram, 143, 38c
Ramsgate, St Augustine's and The Gran-
Hill. 98. 108.
Monastery of St George. 186

St Sophia, l8<S. 509
o, 33
Rainaldi. Carlo.
795
Rainaldi, Girolamo, Palazzo del Senatcnc,
Peking. 94. 98, 100, 262-267

Bell tower. 277. 279
273
Drum tower, 277. 27*
houses, 253, 256, 237
St Nicholas, i84S
Ramcscs
Sta
Certosa, 242, 705

San Michcle. 213
Nativity of the Virgin, 186
Tuileries, Paris.
Quincey, Crane Memorial Library, 318

Qairawan (Tunis), mosque, 149, 153, 154,
4H. 4*9-430
Qiusayr "Amra, 151
Rajgir. 35*
Joseph,
Crystal Palace. London, 305. 922. 923

Pavia.
Coal
D Redentore, Venice, 251.
Nash, John,
Mendus, 88
City, University Library. 339
Nonsuch
Palladio, Andrea, 250
All Souls. London, 914

Carlton House Terrace. London, 321
Mehedia, 156
Mexico
_jiJ,
Toshodai-ji temple. 118
Val-de-Grace. 277, S19
Paxton,
Olympia,
4^46
Gizefa, 30,
Pattadakal, 136. 354
Paestum.
shrine, iii. 299
Pylos, 39
Pyramids of
822, 823
Brasiiu, 337. 338. 339

Nikko, Tomb of^ 126
Nimes. Maison Carrce, 65, 167, 168
Nineveh, 22, 25
Nishi-Honganji temple, 126
Nizcmbad, temple, 391
Old Sarum,
chusetts. 327, 983
St Sulpice. 284, 851
Parma, cathedral. 213, 609
Park.
The Grange. Ramsgate. 307

St Augustine's. Pamoate, 307
Puig-i-Odafalch. 191
Purcell and Elmshc,
Bradley House, Woods Hole, Massa-
Ste Marie de la Visitation, 277
Piazza del Popolo,
Yakushi-ji temple. 315

Nara period, Japan, 117
Appleton House, Lenox. 320
boildmg, 341. toi6. 1017
934
Puri, Orissa, 140
St Gcrvais. 275, 818
Pisa, cathedral. 213, 615,
Naples,
Baptistery of Soter, 174
Castello Nuovo, ^24
Nara. 117
Horyu-ji temple, 117. 121. 306-310, 316
Kasuga Shmto
OpCTa. 311, 321. 937

Palais de JusQce. 311. 936
Pantheon. 295. 889-891
Place de la Concorde, 284
Nicaea, walls. 185

Niemeyer. Oscar.
301
Todai-ji temple. 118,
McKim, Mead and White,
Bridge
Nagoya,
199, 219, 221. 631-635
Sorbonne, church. 275,

Tuileries Palace, 259
Otiobeuren, church, 289. 865

Oud. J. J. P., 328
Kiefhock Church, Rotterdam. 990
Oxford.
Christ Churdi, 210, 230. 685
Clarendon Library', 845
University Science Museum, 948
Nalanda, 136
Nancy, 284
Nankmg. 98
Mathura, 132
7*3. 831
Palace, 259. 275. 816
Seagram Building, 339
Ostia, Street
Festival Hall,
Maser, Villa
336, 1020
Casde. 126, juz, 305

Shiieimoji monastery. 117. 323
Mycenae. 39, 41. 70. 71, 77

Lion Gate, 41. 69
'Treasury of Atreus". 41, 72
Mysore, 141, 374
Luxembourg
St Jcan-de-Montmartre, 324
Oak
Procopius. 178
Pugin. Augustus Welby Nordunore,
Houses of Parliament, London, 3 10,
825
la Vrillitre. 377,
Lever House, 341

Lincoln Center. 341
Pennsylvania Station, 313, 942
Osaka
J. Leslie,
London. 333. 1009

GiacomelU, 741
York,
Guggenheim Museum,
Monument
and Navy Building, Wash-
Munich, Amahcnburg, 2S6, 860
Marseilles, Unite d'Habitation, 333, 335,
Rail
War
de Ville. 310, 935
de
F.,
Priene. 53. 54. 127-130. 132, 137

Primaticdo. Francesco, 254
Soubise. 835
La Madeleine, 309
Louvre, 239, 279, 310,
Thomas
Coalbrookdale Bridge. 305
Lambert. 277, 821
Hotel
Hotel
Hotel
Hotel
New York,
320
Prichard.
Place des Vosges. 275. *I7

Rue Franklin, flats, 324
9^
Chenonceaux. 263. 780
Mungalazedi, 397
San Sebastiano. 240. 703, 704

Marburg. St Elizabeth. 654
Maria Laach, abbey, 193. S33
Marrakech, 156, 423
319.
Moslem, see Islamic

Mount Abu, 141, 3S6
State,
Palazzo del Tc, 246, 248. 7ji -734

Sant'Andrca. 240. 265, 701, 702
Royal
Centrosoyus, 1002
Kremlin, 183, 513
Borovitskaya tower. 314
Church of the Annunciation. 186
Church of the Dormibon, 186
St Michael the Archangel. 186. 513
Mschatta. 151, 153, 405

Mullet. Arthur B-.
Mantua,
Martin, Sir
607. 608
Moscow.
I30, 136
'The Breakers', 966

Watts Sherman House, 316, 933
WiUoughby House, 316, 954
Newport Beach, California, Lovell Hou-
New
EiCfd Tower, 924, 925

Galerie oes Machines, 920
Noire-Dame,
Kingscote, 936
327.
Van Buren House, Tuxedo,
Ecole Militaire, 284. 833
Invalides. church, 279. 820
Delhi. 311. 941
Haven. Connecticut, Yale School of

Art and Architecture, S025
Newport. Rhode Island,
Notman, John. 316

Novgorod,
80
Modena, cathedral, 213,

Modhera, 141, _j5j, 384
Mohenjo-Daro, 126, 338
MoDTcalc, cathedral. 215, 617, 620. 622

Monville. M. de.
House in the "Desert de Retz', 303
Monis, William, 315
Mansart, Francois,
Plac;
38, 39
Cnossos, 38, 73~7^- 7*-
of,
Moissac, church. 201, 207. 581, 583

Momoyama period. Japan, 124
Mainz, cadicdral, 193
MaUia, 38. 81
Malmcsbur^- abbey, 210.
Ming dynasty. 98
Minoan architecture,
Minos. Palace
House. 1024
New
New
TWA
Sant'Eustorgio, 240
79}
861
Tiffany House, 320. 96s
Great Hospital, 240
Carlo,
Palazzo Barbcrini,
Escorial. 236,
York, 339
Cathedral, 226. 661
Charles v's Pabce, Granada, 254

Mackintosh. James Rennic. 327
An School, Glasgow, 320, 970
Madcma,
New
Wiirzburg Residenz, 289,
Neuvy-St-Sepulcre, 198, 558

NevcTS St Eticime, 198, 216. 231. 556. 557
New Canaan, Cormccticut. Johnson Glass
se,
of Technology. Chi-
Institute
Illinois
Temple of Mcdinei Habu.

Lycia, 56
pi^rimage church,
Vicrzehnheiligen.
II
Column.
874
155-157
Gesii, 263, 788-790
Rome, 15J
House of Raphad (destroyed), 245
Imperial
Mulvian Bridge, 70
Palazzo Barbehni, 793, ypj

Palazzo Famcsc. 724
Palazzo Mauimi. 742
Sanurkand, 161
Tomb of Timur, 442
del Sciutorc, 236

Palazzo Vcnczu, 242
Sanchi, 132. 135, 339. 348, 330. 3^2. 333

Sanctis. Francesco de.
Palazzo Vidoni Catfarelli, 245, 7ij

Palazzetto dcUo Spon, 341, J019
Pantheon. 69, 70, 170. 245.
t6$, tS^-iSg,
191, 192, 46c
Sta Agncse. 271, 80$
268.
Quirinalc,
al
796.
797
Sanl'Andrea deUa Vallc, 265

San Carlo allc Quattro Fontanc. 271.
Su
in Latcrano, 289. 870
Sant'Ivo ddla Sapienza, 271. 804, 806

San Lorenzo. 176, 482
Sb
Maria in CampitcUi, 26J, 795

Sta Maria Maggiore. 176. 289. 484
Sta Maria della Pace. 271, 798
Sta Maria in Via
Lau. 271, 799
Sta Maria della Viaoria
(Camaro Cba-
808
pel), 272,
SS. Martina e Luca, 271

St PaulVwithout-the- Walls (San Pao176, 480
St Peter in
Montorio (Tempietto), 245,
7iJ-7/<. 7t6
New,
242, 24s. 250. 265. 715, 71J.

718, 720-722
Sta Pudenzjana, 176
Sta Sabiiu, 176. 4S1

263, 791
SS. Vincenzo e Aaastasio. 265, 794

Scala Regia. 272
Temple of Fortuna Virilis, 65, 166

Temple of Minerva Medica, 145, 234
Temple of Venus and Rome, 65. 169.
170
Saulieu, church. 201

Saynatsalo Civic Centre. 340
Madaina, 246,
rv),
250. 736
fornia, 327, 986
725. 726
Ronchamp. Notre-Damc-du-Haut.
333,
336. 340
Van Nclle
Schluter, Andreas, 286
Segovia, aqueduct, 70
Sclmus, temple, 87
Semper. Gottfried,
Rouen,
Cathedral, 222
Maclou, 225
Oucn, 225
Rudolph. Paul, 337, 338. 1025
Ruskin. John, 298
St
St
Oxford University Science Museum,

948
Nolre-Dame. 219
TWA
Building,
New
York, 341.
1016,
1017
St Sulpice. Paris. 284. 831
Camgou, 191,
San Miguel de Lmo. 191
St Martin dc
327
San Pedro dc Casscncs, 191

St Pctenburg. Bourse, 300
St Satumin, church, 207
St Savin, churcli. 197, 204. $48, 549
San Vicente de Cordooa, 204

Ste Mane-des-Dames, 204
mosque, 154
Trevi,
Rome, 289
store,
Chicago,
Utrecht.
House,
329,
991
48,
io8,
Vanbrugh, Sir John.

Blenheim Palace, 282, 846
Vasari, Giorgio,
Oxford University Science Museum

948
Worms,
Wren,
cathedral, 193. 336, 213
Sir Christopher.
Vaux-le-Vicomte, chateau, 279, 827
St Paul's,
Venice.
Trinity College, Cambridge. Library
19
Thomas,
Loggetu
Bridge, 305
di
Docks, London, 305, 9/7
St Giorgio
at.
San Marco. 250
Comer della Ca* Grande. 250

Palazzo Pesaro. 810
n Redcntore, 251. 743
Palazzo
23. see also
Luxor
Kamak
86
Tibaldi, Pellegrino,
San Fedcle. Milan. 253. 74S

T"ien-an Men, Gate of Heavenly Peace,
Maria
Mark's.
Maggiore. 251
della
Salute.
181.
178.
269. 272, ^11
489-492
Timgad (Thamugadi),
Timur. tomb of, 161,
Tiryns, 39
Tivoli. Fladrian's
78. 214
Imperial Hotel, Tokyo, 313, 943, 944

Larkin Building, Buffalo. 327. 983
Robic House, Chicago, 327. 981

Walter Gale House. Oak Park, lUinois,
322
Ward
Illinois.
610, 61
Grand Trianon, 288

196
Petit Trianon, 284
Tlemcen,
mosque, 154
V^lay,
cathedral
877
Sta Maria
Ste Madeleine, 201. 364. 366
(transparcnte).
Palazzo Chiericati, 25. 746

Town hall, 2ji
289,
Villa
Capra
(Villa
Rotonda), 251,
Blanca. 163
Tomar, Convent of
Soochow. 238-261
Sufflot, Goermain. 295
San Andres, chapel of San Isidoro.

Madrid, 280
ToscancUa. San Pietro, 191. 32S
Christ. 733. 736
Toai6, Narciso,
Transparcnte, Toledo Cathedral, 289,
877
Torre. Pedro dc
Vienna.
Batthyany-Schbnbom
286
Karlskirche, 286. 838

Karlsplatz sution, 968
Palais Trautson,
la,
Palace,
Belvedere Palace, 286, 839

Burgtheatcr. 311, 939
HofbibUothck. 286
286
St Peter, church, 287
Prison, 300, poi
Vierzchnheihgen. pilgrimage church, 289,
Tram,
cathedral, 213
Trent.
Council
Famese. Caprarola, 248, 733

Villa Giulia, Rome. 248
Ving boons, Justus,
of,
866
Giacomo Barozzi da,

n Gesii, Rome, 265, 788-790
Vignola.
Villa
265
Yamato. 114, 117

Yasaka pagoda, 126
Yayoi culture, 114
Ycdo
Yedo
Yezd,
York
castle,
126
period. Japan,
126
mosque, 439
Minster, 229, 670
Assembly Rooms, 878
Yuan dynasty, 98
Yun Kang caves, 92,
233
Sezession gallery, 320, 969

Schonbrunn Palace, 286. S37
Tou-kung (bracket). 84, 227. 228

Toulouse. St Semin, 201. 207
Toumus. St PhUiben, 197. 347
Tours, St Martm, 197, 346
Trier, 21 j
289
Women's
Wyatt. James,
Fonthill Abbey, 303. 908, 909
Wyatt, M. D.,
Paddington Sution. 303
Yamasaki. Minoru. 341

743.
747
la
326. P79. 980
Residenz,
Vicenza.
Bou-Mcdina mosque. 154, 156

Tokyo, Imperial Hotel, 313, 943, 944
Sidi
Toledo,
Wilhts House. Highland Park.
Wiirzburg.
Palace. 279. 828-830

193,
New York, 336,
1020
Versailles,
442
villa.
Water', 331. 333. 100*
Guggenheim Museum,
Palazzo Bevilacqua. 250. 739
San Zeno. 213.
London, 281, 839-841
282
Whitehall Palace. 282
Wright, Frank Lloyd, 313
Avery Coonley Play House. Riverside
Illinois. 322
Ennis House. Los Angeles, 327
Evans House, Chicago, 326. 982
"Falling
San Zaccaria, 744

Vennekool, S.,
Enkhuizen. Town hall, 282, 834
Vemeuil, chateau, 263
Vemukken, Wilhclm.
Town, hall, Cologne, 265, 772
Verona,
Amphitheatre, 183
Fortiiications, 250
Veronese. Paolo, 741
Toledo, Juan BautisU dc,

Escorial. near Madrid, 236, 257
Prison. Wiirzburg, 300, 901
George's Chapel, 230, 680
WoUaton Hall, 265. 7*^7^^

Wood, Roben, 293
Woodward. Benjamin.
Vellur, 141
Great Hospiul. Milan, 240

Su Maria delle Grazie. Milan. 242
Somapura, 136
Somnathpur. Kcsava temple. 163, 389
Sompting. church, 341
Spotcto, Sant'Agostmo, 193
191. 193,
Tchoga Zambil.
Bourse. St Petersburg, 300
193
Spccth. Peter.
Wu
Tari. 117
atid
69,
Wells, cathedral. 229. 230

Men. Meridian Gate, 267
White, Stanford.
Kingscotc. 936
St
738
22, 60, 144-147, 131.
197. 198
groined, 169. 209, 213, 623
ribbed, 21S. 221, 624, 623
Vaux, Calvert, 316
266
Diocletian's palace,
248,
Vaults
palace, gs
Thermum, temple of Apollo.

TTiomon, Thomas de.
Paris, 29s. 889-891
Florence,
Uffizi.
313. 946
William of Sens, 229

Windsor castle, 323
Royal Palace. Caserta, 289, 869
band.
9^1
PhiUp.
864
Winchester, cathedral, 209, 672
VanviteUi, Luigi.
Tabnz, 158
Ta Hsiung Pao Hall, 86
Taj Mahal, 149. 166, 438, 439
Talman. William.
Chatswonh House. 282. S44
tomb of Chah Chiragh. 440

Masjid-i-Vakil. 164
Shitennoji monastery, 117. 323
Shotoku Taishi. Prince, 117
Solari. Guiniforte.
Uruk
Tiffany House, New York. 320, 96

Wics, pilgrimage church, 270, 289. 862
Castle, Greenwich, 282, 847

Scaton Delaval. 282
Van Eyck, Jan. 642
mosque, iji
Swaziland, grass huts, 213
Thebes, Colossus
Soissons. cathedral, 219
Howard, 282
Castle
Shiraz,
916
see
Washington,
CapitoL 311
Lincoln Memorial. 943
Sute, War and Navy Building. 311,
Webb.
Valladolid, Colcgio de San Gregorio.
749
109
Tepe Gawra. 21, 3

Tewkesbury, abbey. 209, 394
Women's
Institute,
Red House. Bcxlcy Heath,
Shibata castle, 126

Shinto, no. 114
(Split).
Williams-Proctor
architecture, 18. 21
Su
Spalato
Warka,
Schroeder
U.,
Capitol, Washington, 311

Girard College, Philadelphia, 300
York
992
St
Thomas
Walter.
337
Tcotihuacan, temples and pyramids, 892,

894
Southwell Mmster. 210. 6c2
Fonuna
Munson
293
880-882
New
Utica,
Shaw, Richard Norman.

Leyswood. Sussex. 316.
Granada, cathedral, 253. 731
251, 293
Karlsplatz Sution, Vienna, 968

Walpole. Horace. 295
Strawberry Hill, Twickenham,
1^18
ji,
(Warka).
Pillar Temple. 21
White Temple, 21, 8
Guaranty Building, Buffalo. 319. 322.
St Katarine's
931
250,
Wagner. Otto,
Umk
319. 96
Susa,
237.
64,
St Demetrius, 310
Vlugt, L. C. van der. 329
Van Nelle fiaory. Roncrdam, 997
Voysey, Charles F. Anncsley. 316, 32
cathedral, 225, 633
Ur, 21.
Suchendram, 143
Sui dynasty, 92
SuUivan, Louis, 319
Carson, Pine and Scott
48.
Chiara, Bra. 289
Vbdimir,
Uronad, 35
Tell Tayanat, 30
Pantheon.
Su
"Uqair, 21
Tell Asmar, 21
Souillac. church. 201. 204, 567, 369
Salzburg, Kollcgicnlurche, 286
Vittone, Bernardo.
Shah-ji-ki-Dheri. 135
Shang dynasty. 87. 88
Salonica,
Apostles, 183. 499

St Demetrius, 178, :8:, 478
Salvi, Nicola,
Vitruvius.
La Superga, 289, ^71

Palazzo Carignano. 812
San Lorenzo, 275. 813-813
Tuxedo. New York,
Van Burcn House. 320
Tzu-cn monastery. 95, 242
Ulm,
295, 88t>-
G- E., 315
Stuan, James. 293
Stupinigi. pabcc. 289
Meiui Bridge. 305
Sakkara. 29, 36-41

Salamanca, cathedral, 209, 591, 392
Salisbury, cathedral, 226, 663-668
Holy
Turin,
Udaipur, 141
Udayaswara, 141
882
Conway
254
House. New York, 341

Smithson. Alison and Peter.
Hunstanton School, 338, :o2i
Smythson, Robert, 777, 783-786
Soane. Sir John, 293. 298
Bank of England. London, 304
Dulwich Museum and An Gallery, 304,
St Gilles. church, 200. 375, ^82
Vitthala. 141
58
Louvre. Paris, 310

Vishampur. 392
"The Pastures". North Luffenham. 94

Vredeman dc, 263
Street.
Alcazar, 156, 428, 429
341
Levi
Thousand
Vrics,
Twickenham,
Hill,
Town
Saimyoji, house. 319-321

St Albans, cathedral. 209
Cathedral. 216, 219, 628

Monument to Francis i, 259
Strawberry
Telford,
Skidmore, Owings and Merrill,

John Hancock Building, San Francisco,
St Gall, church, 193
oratories, 341. 1026
Stockholm,
Forest Crematorium, 34a
Stonchengc, fronlispieee
Stowe. Palladian Bridge, 883
Tebourba, Tunisia. lj6
G. B..
Royal Palace, Madrid. 289. 972
Sahasram, tomb of Sher Shah, 166, 4^7
St Benoit-sur-Loire, church. 198, 552, 335

St Denis,
James,
Leicester University engineering lab-
Stirling.
Taniore. 143, 372

Taoism, 88
Sinnar, 141
Sacchetti,
305
T'ang dynasty, 92
Siena, cathedral. 226. 639, 660

Siloc, Diego dc,
Saarincn, Eero,
Straits,
Euston Sution, London, 30J
Ta-mmg Kung
Burgthcatcr. Vienna. 311, 939

Sens, cathedral, 216
hall,
Tunis,
Sung dynasty. 95
Sung Yueh pagoda, 92. 241
Sumum, Temple of Poseidon.
SchUemaim, Hcinrich, 39
Sfax.
factory, 329, 997
Menai
Visconci. L.-T.-J.,
temple. 96, 243
Tun-ûang. Cave of the

Buddhas, 92. 236, 237
962-964
Seville,
Rosso Fioreotino. 254

Rott-am-Inn, church, 289
Rotterdam.
Kicfhoek estate, church, 990
Tu Lo
Rotterdam, 329,
faaory.
Nclle
997
SteindL Imre,
Parliament, Budapest, 311
Stephenson, Pobcn,
Sumcnan
Scrho, Sebastiano, 257

Ancy-Ie-Franc. 257, 766, 767
Scrvandom. J. N..
Villa del Pigneto. 800
Ts'ao Hsuch-ch'in. loi
Stuttgan, station. 324
Scamozzi, Vincenzo, 253

Schadde,
Antwerp Exchange, 949
Schindlcr. R. M..
Lovell House, Newport Beach, Cali-
Scnlis,
Vatican (Casino of Pius

Villa Giulia. 248
Villa
Sarvistan, 174
Scgesta, 119
289
Stairs.
California, Case Study

House, 337, 1022
Santiago dc Composteb, cathedral, 235
Saragossa. Nuestra Scnora del Pilar, 280
Berhn Royal Palace, 286. 836

Landhaus Kameckc, Berim, 286
Scott. Sir George Gilbert,
Alben Memorial, London, 309, 932
Foreign Office. London. 311, 938
Scaton Delaval, Northumberland, 282
Baldacchino, 272
Cathedra Petn, 272
Van
Trippcnhuis, Amsterdam, 282. 832

Viollct-le-Duc, E. E.. 298, 318, 921
Virginia, University of. 300, 904
Troy, 3S
Strasbourg, cathedral, 225
Schinkel. Karl Fricdcrick. 300

Schlaun, Konrad, 289
St Peter's. Old. 176. 483
Su Smanna.
Comaro. Venice, 250
Sanu Monica.
Sant'Ignazio, 265
Troia, cathedral, 213
Derby Sution, 305
Sangaragan. temple of. 394

Sangcn-in temple, 121
Sanmicheli, Michclc,
Fortifications, Verona. 250
Palazzo Bcvilacqua, Verona, 250, 739
Sannazzaro, church, 213
Palazzo
Raganatha temple. Mysore, 374
Britaimia Bridge,
Sansovmo, Jacopo.
Loggetu. Venice. 250
Constanza, 169. 461, 46J

Sant'Eligio degli Orcfia, 24)
San Giovanni
Spanish Stairs, Rome, 289

San Francisco. John Flancock Building,
34"
Sangallo. Antonio da.
Palazzo Famese, Rome. 724, 726
Piazza del Campidoglio. 250, 265

Piazza del Popolo, S09
Sant'Andm
Sri
Sringeri. 378
Srirangam. 143
Stanun, Man,
Samarra, 151
Samboin temple, 126
Pabz2o
Spanish
INDEX
348
lo),
Zamora, cathedral. 209, 387, 389

Zen Buddhism, 121. 122, 124,
typical hall. 324, 323
Zimmermann, Dominikus,
Wies church. 270. 289, 862.
Zoser, King. 29. 30. 36-38
Zulu houses, Pretoria, 220
864
The
text has
been written by leading
authorities in their respective fields:
INTRODUCTION
HENRY-RUSSELL HITCHCOCK, HON.
1
R.I.B.A.
Sophia Smith Professor of Art,
Smith College, Northampton, Mass.

SETON LLOYD,
F.S.A.,
C.B.E.,
F.B.A.,
A. R.I.B.A.
Professor of Western Asiatic
Archaeology, University of London
CHINESE
The
late
ANDREW BOYD,
A. R.I.B.A.
JAPANESE
ANDREW CARDEN,
A. R.I.B.A.
INDIAN AND ISLAMIC

PHILIP
RAWSON,
Keeper, Gulbenkian
Museum of
Durham
Oriental Art, University of
MEDIEVAL
DAVID TALBOT RICE, M.B.E., F.S.A.
Professor of the History of Fine Art,
Edinburgh University
RENAISSANCE
NORBERT LYNTON,
Head of
History and
the School of Art,
General Studies,
Chelsea School of Art,
London
MODERN
JOHN JACOBUS
JR.
Associate Professor,
Department of
Fine Arts, Indiana University
niâj^jÊ
i
i[
,1
I I
I,
.;.^
The
from
illustration
a
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(see
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WORLD ARCHITECTURE

1026 black and while

and 32 pages of colour plates

The history of architecture is the history

and died what they glorified,

From the forbidding shrine of an

the simple circular hut

of a neohthic settlement to the

of the epochs of man's

history nothing has survived but a

slender clues we piece together the

full-scale authoritative text,

divided into nine sections:

succinctly presented; Ancient and Classical,

which extends from the

the superb classical architecture of Greece

and Rome; Chinese, a clear exposition

Japanese, a survey of domestic

religious architecture in relation to the

country's tumultuous but isolated history;

which describes and clarifies the

Christian, Byzantine, Russian,

Europe from the

survey of architecture in Europe,

whose exciting innovations

are fully illustrated

eighteenth centuries; and finally Modern,

DAVID TALBOT RICE

GENERAL EDITOR: TREWIN COPPLESTONE

Men, Peking: Colin Penn.

ple, Kyoto: Wim Swaan. RoyaJ Mosque,

publishers wish to extend their thanks

to the following for permission to repro-

duce and redraw

History of Architecture on the

Method, Banister Fletcher. CamUniversity Press

(Pelican History of Art):

Robert Treat Paine

Thames and Hudson

Ltd: 71ie Art of the

Andrew Boyd. Andrew Carden, A.R.I.B.A.

THE HAMLYN PUBLISHING GROUP LIMITED

HAMLYN HOUSE, FELTHAM, MIDDLESEX, ENGLAND

COPYRIGHT THE HAMLYN PUBLISHING GROUP LIMITED I963

SECOND IMPRESSION (rEVISEd) I966

PRINTED IN ITALY BY ARNOLDO MONDADORI

ANCIENT & CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE:

Amiens Cathedral, i2i8-88

Peterborough Cathedral, 11 18-94.

East end, choir

and Mcsopotainim, Egypt, Crete

Pylons of the temple

of Horus, Edfu, 140-124

Parthenon by night, Athens, 438 B.C.

The Forum, Pompeii,

completed by Girolamo Rainaldi

Ciries of the Indus Valley, Early

of Architecture, The Hindu Temple

Temple of Heaven, Peking,

David Talbot Rice

Early Christian, B\'zantme, Russia, Art in

Grand Trianon, Versailles,

Palace of the Shoguns, Kyoto,