4-2Smparison of Wired Media : —3 |_| over the metallic conducting |_| wires. cable, Twisted pair cable Co-axial cable Optical fiber i Transmission of signals takes | Transmission of signals takes | Signal transmission takes place in the electrical form | place in the electrical form | place in an optical form over the inner conductor of the | over a glass fiber Noise immunity is low Therefore more distortion. Higher noise immunity than the twisted pair cabl the presence of shielding conductor. Highest noise immunity as the light rays are ‘unaffected by the electrical noise. Affected due to extemal magnetic field. Less affected due to external magnetic field, Not affected by the external magnetic field. Short circuit between the two Short circuit between the two Shot circ possible. isnot conductors is possible. conductors is possible. Cheapest Moderately expensive Expensive | Can support low data rates. _| Moderately high data rates Very high data rates. Power loss due to conduction and radiation. Power loss due to conduction Power loss due to absorption, scattering, dispersion and bending. Low bandwidth ‘Moderately high bandwidth Very high bandwidth, Node capacity per segment is2 Node capacity per segment is 30 to 100 Node capacity per segment is 2. Attenuation is very high Attenuation is very low. Installation is easy nis difficult Electromagnetic. interference (EMI can take place EMI is reduced due to shielding t present. __Unguider Unguided (Wireless) Media :2.11 Sree Switching Methods : fons are made and how data iportant technique that can determine how connections a mnade phone network or other internetworks can travel along 1 and IV in Fig, 2.1 to the communicating devices w ‘only routing node, (GBTU& MMTU}1. Itprovides efficient traffic management by assigning 2 Reduces network tlie congestion becuse i is able to store message until a communication ietwork devices share the data channels 4. Provides asynchronous communication across tite zones, Disadvantages : re es acne introduces delay hence cannot be used for real time applications bike ideo. fae ot Fie a large storing capacity snc it has to store the mesage unless fee lable 2.11.3 Packet Switching : ckels, each of which includes a header with ‘estinaion, Independent rowing of packetsicted oa maximum length, This the packet dats in memory witho “There are two methods of packet switching. 1. Datagram packet switching. 2 Virwal - circuit packet ching Datagram packet In this method a message is di exchange of control information between the sending terminal, the network and the receiving, terminal. + Datagram packet switching is shown in Fig, 2.113. levice stars the conversation by cor agreeing as connunication parameters, such as ma be taken Once this virtual circuit is established the two devices use it for the rest of the conversation, | In vimual circuit packet switching, ‘established between the sending device and the receiving device the packets travel through the logical connof RAM fo handle lr quai se the packet switching protoco Je roquires more processing, power Bec : sequence numbers are required 10 iden / | ‘Application End terminal Tnformation ype] Morse, Bav ‘Binary information Transmission stem | Digital data over differ media ‘Addressing scheme | Geographical addresses Digital data over Hierarchical addres space Each “packet routed independenuy. Routing scheme] Manual Muluplexing seme [ Chancer_or maseage ‘multiplexing ide area network becoming Non technologies these two field ine the user of2.1 Principle of ISDN : DN works based on the standards defined by ITU ~ hed and non-switched tnd. packet switched possible, new services introduced into an ISDN should be 64 Kbps switched digital connections ged to be compatible yee and network of access to an ISDN, have already been developed for two types of ISDN namely narow a smaller bandwidth and it can suppot rates the quality of service provided by the naro the quality of video signals in the narrowband ISDN is very poor of service is improved by using the broadband ISDN, The broadband ISDN an her data rates du to the use of opi ISDN and broadband ISDN, The narrowband 2.12.3 The User Interface (Narrowband ISDN) 2.12.1 shows how the connections are madcomputer Networks utsrivr oop and ISON ‘Sevsfornlsouehzes Local ea network LAN) Fig 2.12.1: Hovt to make connections using ISDN of various sizes are available to satisfy different needs. For exampl ipe than the capacity required for an pe. ‘©The data rte on the pipe charged according othe. + As shown in Fig 2.12, vary depending on the need of application, The user will be city of ISDN interface and not according to the connection tine ies. The ISDN central ‘is connect te Imeqred Digi Newark (DN) as shown in Fig 2.121. The IDN conse pocat viet rnepor, cir k, databases et. 2.424 Services Provided by ISDN «following services 3. Videotest services Standards used for ISDN : development of ISDN is governed by aware Selected in order (0 obtain an even parity for each row (ie. for each etter). purst errors : The errors generally occur in bursts. The reason for Generation of burst errors can be the external interference such as lightning which lasts for a duration of several bits. So it will corrupt a block of several bits. Such errors are called as burst crrors The parity checking method is not useful in detecting the burst errors, ‘The checksum and cyclic redundancy check (CRC) methods can detect the burst errors Checksum for error detection : As discussed in the previous section, simple parity within the same word. One way to overcome this problem is to use a sort of two dimensional parity, . As each word is transmitted, it is added to the Previously sent word and the sum is retained at the transmitter as shown in Fig. 3.6.9(A). cannot detect two or even number of errors Word A: 1Ol10O11d + WordB: 0 0100010 Sum rloLttootd Fig. 3.6.9(A) : Concept of checksumparity check method is no se kau error degection method can BE USed suc ‘The gener ee ee sage. Ex 362A: Find the checksum ofthe following mes 40110001, 10101011 00110104, 10400001 soln. : Ignored Checksumbyta 00 110.040) checksum byte. [Note that the carries of MSB have been ignored while writ checksum byte ? Howto detect error using © Afler transmitting a block of data bytes (say 8-data bytes) the “checksum” byte is a transmitted. The checksum byte is regenerated at the receiver separately by adding there tes we regenerated checksum byte is then compared with the transmitted one. If both are ie here is no error. If they are different then the errors are present in the block of ressived4 Should be zero after accumulation ofLata Link Layer & rretccors On. Therefore checksum represents the ov perfor. theres 285 10 I chance of detecting random errors 4365 Two Dimensional Parity Check : When a large number of binary words are being tran resulting collection of bits is considered as a block of data Fig 3.6.10, ‘The parity bits are produced foreach row and column of such block of data, ‘The two sets of parity bits so generated are known as 1, Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC) 2. Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC) bi ‘The LRC bits indicate the parity of rows and VRC bits indicate the parity of columns as shown, Fig. 3.6.10, ‘or received in succession, the throws and columns as shown in ‘Characters -lele]-]-]-]-[eo -|-[o]olole]+|-le -|-[e]-[e]-lelels FEEEEEEFED even parity) —> ‘These bits will make the ily ofeach column even pay) parity Fig, 3.6.10 : Vertical and longi Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC) Bit ode of each *, For example As shown in Fig. 3.6.1 ‘character, Each VRC bi© Column - 1 ofthe data block © VRCDit= 1 to make the party of first column even hisa VRC The Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRc) Bi take the parity even, ans oF the data block of Fig, 3.6.10. Each Lac Fig. 3.6.10. oven parity. For example, consider row 1 of Row 1 101040 00104 11100004 © 00001049 1 01001044 9111010004 's correspon filth bitin the first row (encircled ‘Thus using VRC and LRG, itis possibe amAC be (ven panty) wrong panty }-Jole|-|-lol-| og. i of 0 and 1 onl fomial arithmetic uses a modulo-2 arithmetic ic adliton and subtract EXOR, For CRC code the sender and recsiver should agree upon a get ‘odeword ean be generated for a given dataword (message) polyno Jacek and checksum error detection. 4+ This technique is more powerful than the part redundant bits called CRC of CRC remainder is 2 CRC is based on binary division, A sequence o ‘appended atthe end ofa data unit such as byte +The resulting data unit ater adding CRC ber. + There is no error if th s. But a non-zero remainder + Such an erroneous: Procedure to obtain CRC : The redundancy bits used by CRC are derived by Fol 1. Divide the data unit by a predetermined divisor. the procedure given below ing requirements “Append the CRC tothe end ofthe data unit should result in the bit sequence which i ext Aivisibe bythe div——e ‘Compt: Nei, on Dua Unk Lay & Pas CRC generator : Te (a Tee] (o+t) is [Dveor _] Farmainder + ‘The stepwise procedure in CRC generation is as follows Step 15 Append a string of n 0510 the data unit where mis 1 ess than the number of bits in the predocidd divisor (n+ Ibi he newly generated data unit in step 1 by the divisor, This isa binary division. The ema division in step 2is the mbit CRC. pended to the data unit in step 1, to get the codeword tbe shown in Fig. 3.6.1, [_oWsor] [Remainder] Fig, 36.12: CRC checker * The codeword received atthe receiver con ‘+ The receiver teats it as one unit and divides the transmiter, ‘+The remainder ofthis divisions then checked f data and CRC. ‘the same (n-+ 1) bit divisor which was used a Taro MTa4 Piggybacking : the transmission of data needs to be bi-directional. This is called as, eee users, Then the data frames from A to B are intermixed with the ‘One more improvem send the control fi The receiver wait "Advantage of piggybacking ; ‘The major advantage of piggybacking is better use of available channel bandwidth, advantage : ‘The disadvantage of piggybacking isthe additional complexity If the data link layer waits too long before transmitting acknowledgement, then retransmission of frame would take place. 3,9 Sliding Window Protocols : ‘The next three protocols are more robust and bi-directional prot All these protocols belong to a special class of protocol called Sliding Window Protocols, ‘They show a different performance in terms ol requirement ‘Sequence number: ;, complexity and buffer One of the important features of iding window prot. ‘contains a sequence number, ranging from 010 2"- 1. ‘The value of n can be arbitrary. ‘windows : each outbound frame jing window refers to imaginary boxes a the transmitter and receiver. per limit on the number of responding tothe frames ‘These frames which are being permitted to sent are said to be falling inthe sending window.—_—. oo _—_—_— “The receiver also maintains a receiver window. It corresponds to the set of frames it spe chs for all. This isthe tng of “n” number of "upto numberof frames be sent before receiving an ack 8 is defined. This ffer to be sent as ata buttor PTeTsTapi fat" Frames sender can send ledgement forthe receiver. * Note the numbering of frames in Fig. 3.9,1(a). As the window size is 4, 1.2.3.4 then again 1, 2,3, ‘Sender and receiver sliding windows : we frame numbering is as the receiver maintain their own sliding windows. * The sender sends the nunber of frames allowed by the sizeof its own siding ‘ait for an acknowledgement from the receiver, * The receiver sends an acknowledgement which includes the number of sender should send. the sender has sent frames 1 and 2 to the fen the acknowledgement sent by the receiver y send frame numt