Tool Design Theory (DCD)

TRAINER GUIDE - II
TOOL DESIGN THEORY

(DCD)
(5TH SEMESTER)
DTM
MSME TOOL ROOM

INDO GERMAN TOOL ROOM
AHMEDABAD
SUBJECTS
&
COURSE CONTENT
In
DIPLOMA IN TOOL & DIE MAKING

(DTM)
VERSION - 0
NAME OF THE SUBJECT

THEORY /PRATICE
HRS.PLANNED
TOOL DESIGN THEORY - DIE CASTING DIES
160
SUBJECT OBJECTIVE : This subject under Core Technology Group intended to teach the trainess and make them to understand & apply the concept, principle and procedure of
knowledge in design of Die Casting Dies and other metal casting process for different types of ferrous and non ferrous alloys.
UNIT
A Introduction
B Die casting operations
CHAPTER
NO.
CHAPTER
A1
Over view of mass
production of Casting Parts
Produced by various
Casting Process
B1
B2
Gravity die casting
PART
THEORY
TOPICS & SUB TOPICS
A.1.1.1
A.1.1.1(a)
A.1.1.3(a)
A.1.1.3
A.1.1.3(a)
A.1.1.3(b)
A.1.1.4
B.1.1.1
B.1.1.2
B.1.1.3
B.1.1.4
B.1.1.4(a)
B.1.1.4(b)
B.1.1.4(c)
B.1.1.5
B.1.1.6
B.1.1.7
B.1.1.8
B.1.1.9
B.1.1.10
Pressure Die casting (cold

chamber)
B.2.1.1
B.2.1.2
B.2.1.3
B.2.1.4
B.2.1.5
Die Casting Background

What is Die Casting
Ciassification Of Castings
Principle Of Die Design And Process
Advantages Of Die Casting Techniques
Technique of filling die cavity
Comparision of die casting with other products.
Introduction
Gravity die casting process
Limitation of permanent mould castings
Principle Of permanent mould casting
Progressive solidification
Minimum turbulance
Air and gas clearance
Suitable casting metals for GDC
Selection of mould materials
Permanent mould casting machines
Gravity die casting mould
Principle of mould design
Solid graphite permanent mould
Introduction
Pressure die casting machines
Classification of die casting machines
Cold chamber machines
Cold chamber machines and parts
B.2.1.6
B.2.1.7
B.2.1.8
B.2.1.9
Classification of cold chamber die casting machines

Horizontal cold chamber die casting machine
Vertical cold chamber die casting machine
Comparision of cold and hot chamber process
B.2.1.10
Process parameters and controls

Cold chamber die casting processing metals
alloys
B.2.1.11
and
PRACTICE
TOPICS &
SUB TOPICS
SUB CODE
B3
Pressure Die casting (hot

chamber)
B.2.1.12
Cold chamber die casting die
B.3.1.1
B.3.1.2
B.3.1.3
B.3.1.4
Introduction
Classification of die casting machines
Hot chamber machines
Hot chamber machines and parts
B.3.1.5
C2
Classification
hot chamber
machines
Introduction toof
various
defectsdie
of casting
die casting
Defects and remedies of die B.4.1.1
casting components
components
B.4.1.2
Identification of defects
B.4.1.3
Classification of defects
Description for different types of defects and
their
B.4.1.4
causes and remedies
Introduction of feeding system of die casting
Feeding system
C.1.1.1
components
C.1.1.2
Definition of elements and fuction of feed system
C.1.1.3
Feed system for gravity die casting dies
C.1.1.4
Feed system for hot chamber castings dies
C.1.1.5
Feed system for core chamber casting dies
C.1.1.6
Classification of gate systems
C.1.1.7
Principle of feed system
C.1.1.8
Balancing of feed system
Cooling system
C.2.1.1
Introduction to cooling of die casting dies
C3
C.2.1.2
C.2.1.3
C.2.1.4
Ejection system or techniques
C.3.1.1
B4
Elements of die casting and their

C function
D Material handling
C1
D1
Pre-casting
D2
Post-casting
C.3.1.2
C.3.1.3
C.3.1.4
D.1.1.1
D.1.1.2
D.1.1.3
D.1.1.4
D.1.1.5
D.2.1.1
D.2.1.2
D.2.1.3
D.2.1.4
D.2.1.5
D.2.1.6
Definition of elements and fuction of cooling system

Principle of cooling of die casting dies
Classification of cooling systems
Introduction
Various elements of ejection techniques and fuctions
Various ejection techniques
Principle of ejection system
Introduction
Principle of metal casting technique
Classification of metal casting technique
Pre-casting techinque
Pre-casting techinque related equipments
Introduction of post-casting technique
Principle of metal casting technique
Classification of post-casting techniques
Trimming
Post machining
Surface decoration
D.2.1.7
D.2.1.8
D.2.1.9
E Maintenance, safety and storage
E1
Coating
Deburing operations
Post-casting related equipments
Indroduction to understand the necessity of
maintenance, safety and storage of die casting dies
Maintenance, safety and storage
E.1.1.1
with respect
andtomachines
die casting die and machine
E.1.1.2
Concept of safety
E.1.1.3
Concept of maintenance
E.1.1.4
Concept of storage
E.1.1.5
Safety of die casting die
E.1.1.6
E.1.1.7
E.1.1.8
E.1.1.9
F Specification
F1
G Computer aided information analysis
G1
D2
D
D
D
D
D
D
Safety of die casting machines and their equipments

Safety of personnel
Check list for maintenance of die and machines
Storage of die casting die
Introduction to use and application of the specifications
pertaining to die casting dies, materials and machines
Specification of die, material F.1.1.1
and machines for tool design data
F.1.1.2
Die casting die specification
F.1.1.3
Die casting metal specification
F.1.1.4
Machine specification
F.1.1.5
Specification for processing
Introduction to use and application of simulation
Introduction of simulation andG.1.1.1
analysis packages
package
G.1.1.2
Concept of process parameters
G.1.1.3
Classification of simulation packages
Principle of selection of process parameters using
G.1.1.4
software packages
TD 1.2,5.3d
Preparation & Work /Data
Sheet & Mold, Material
&Machine
TD 2.1
TD2.2
TD2.a
TD2.2b
TD2.2c
TD 2.2d
Introduction to Use & Work sheet for Mold Design

Definition , Concept & Principle &
Mould ,plastic material Specification
Estiimation & material
Machine hours
process parameters
D
D
TD 2.2e
TD 2.2f
D
D
D
D
D
E Conceptual Design
E
E
E
E
E
TD 2.2g
TD 2.3
TD 2.4
TD 2.5
TD 2.6
TD 1.1
TD 1.1a
TD 1.2
TD 1.2a
TD 1.2b
TD 1.3
E
E
F Design & Moulds
F
F
F
F
G Mould Data
G
G
G
G
G
G
H CAD/CAE
H
H
H
H
H
H
E1
Sketching Conceptual
TD1.3a
TD1.3c
F1
Draw the assembly and
Details diagrams & mold
G1
Bill & Materials
G2
Mould Data
H1
H2
Introduction to Design &
mould wih CAD
TF1.1a
TF1.1b
TF1.1c
TF1.1e
TF1.1f
TG1.1(a)
TG1.1(b)
Component Geometry dimensional and tolerance &

Constraint
Mold design
work/data sheat format for the design parameter with
respect to Mold , machine material & process
parameters
Work sheet for ijection mold
Work/Data sheet for mold Compression
Work/ Data sheet for parameters
Work/Data sheet for Blow mold
Introduction
Application & atternative Conceptual Design
Definition & Concept &
Conceptual Design
Evaluation
Procedure
Develop alternative Conceptual design Using design
Parameters
Select the optimal Design
TH 1.1 ( d)
Flow Chart for Development & Design

Preparation Design Data Sheet
Preparation Concept Drawing
Assembly Drawing method (TA 1.1.c)
Details Drawing method
Introduction to Bill & Material
Elements & Bill & Material
Preparation & Bill & Material by Appropriation Selection
& Material, Material size
Representation & Standard parts in Bill & Material
Introduction to mould Data
different Element & mold Data
Preparation & mold data
Introduction to CAD/CAE SoftWare
mould Design Soft wares
Application & Softwares in plentic Processing
Different Types & Application SoftWarer for the plastic
processing
TH .2 .1 (a)
Different types & soft wares for mould Design
TG1.1 ( c )
TG.1.1 (d)
TG. 2.1 (a)
TG.2 .1 (b)
TG.2.1 ( c)
TH 1.1 (a)
TH 1.1(b)
TH 1.1 ( c )
TH 2 . 2 (b) Difference between 2D Drawing to 3D Solid models

TH 2.3 ( c ) Sequence & mould Design Using CAD Package
H
H
H
TH 2.4 ( d )
TH 2.5 ( e)
TH 2.6 ( f)
Details Drawing from Assembly Drawing

Associativity between 3 D model to 2D Drawing
Advantage & 3D model CAD Soft wares
INDO-GERMAN TOOL ROOM, AHMEDABAD
DIE CASTING TG-2

THEORY
UNIT-1
CHAPTER A1
OVERVIEW OF MASS PRODUCTION OF
CASTING ARTS PRODUCED BY VARIOUS
CASTING PROCESS
-1-
CHAPTER OUTLINE
A1.1.1
Die casting Background
A1.1.1 (a)
what is Die Casting
A1.1.2
Classification of Castings
A1.1.3
Principle of Die Design and Process
A1.1.3 (a)
Advantages of Die Casting Techniques
A1.1.3 (b)
Technique of filling Die Cavity
A1.1.4
Comparison of Die Casting with other Process
-2-
A1.1.1
DIE CASTING BACKGROUND
Die casting are among the highest volume, mass

- produced items
manufactured by the metalworking industry. Die casting are important components
in thousands of consumer, commercial and industrial products such as
automobiles, household appliances, recreation, hobby and leisure -time products,
farm and garden equipment, elec
trical equipment and ordnance, general
hardware, power tools, computers and other business equipment, instruments,
toys, novelties and a great many other too numerous to mention. In fact, die
casting have greater utility and are used in more appl ications than components
produced by almost any other metal forming process.
Die casting is a process involving the injection of molten metal at high
pressure (as opposed to casting by gravity pressure). It is beloved to have begun
sometime durin g the middle of the 19 th century. According to records, in 1849,
Sturges patented the first manually operated machine for casting printing type.
Another 20 years passed before the process was extended to casting other
shapes. The casting of printer s type led to patents which eventually resulted in
development of the Linotype machine by Ottoman Megenthaler.
The earliest commercial applications for die castings occurred in 1892 when
parts were produced for phonographs and cash registers. Mass product
ion was
further encouraged when the H.H. Franklin Company began die casting Babbitt
alloy bearings for automobile connecting rods shortly after the turn of the century.
Various compositions of tin and lead were the first die casting alloys. Their
importance and use declined, however, with the development of zinc alloys just
prior to World War I. Aluminum alloys for die casting made their commercial debut
about 1914. Magnesium and copper followed shortly thereafter.
During the 1930s, many of the alloys we know today had become available.
Modern science and technology, metallurgical controls and research are making
possible still further refinements resulting in new alloys with increased strength and
stability.
Through the years, many significant technol
ogical improvements have
been made to the basic die casting process, to die steels and to die
construction, as well as in casting machine design. Improvements have not only
extended the capability and production capacity of the process, they have
been
tremendously effective in expanding die casting applications into almost every
know market.
A1.1.1 (a) WHAT IS DIE CASTING

Die casting is a manufacturing process for producing accurately
dimensioned, sharply defined, smooth or textured
-surface metal parts. It is
-3-
accomplished by forcing molten metal under high pressure into reusable metal
dies. The process is often described as the shortest distance between raw material
and finished product. The term, die casting is also used to describe the finishe d
part.
The term gravity die casting
refers to castings made in metal molds
under gravity head. It is known as permanent mold casting in the U.S.A and
Canada. What we call die casting here is know as pressure die casting in
Europe.
Ever since m an discovered that metals could be melted, he had tried to
form these metals into shapes useful to him by pouring the liquid metals whose
shape they retain during and after solidification. The casting of molten in moulds
is one of the oldest methods developed by man to shape metal objects.
These are called molding or casting and are classified depending upon the
molding method, mould material or casting process employed.
A1.1.2
CLASSIFICATION OF CASTING
1. Sand Castings:
a. Green sand molding
b. Dry sand molding
c. Shell molding
d. High pressure molding (using high pressure molding machine)
e. Floor and pit molding
2. Metal mould castings:
a. Permanent mould (gravity die casting)
b. Semi- permanent mould casting (using metallic molding machine)
3. Plaster mould casting.
4. Investment casting.
In metal mould castings, the mould consists of two or more parts, is used
repeatedly for the production of many casting of t he same form. Where as in the
other molding processes the mould is destroyed for each casting produced. A great
deal of these type of casting processes are still employed for the production of
castings.
The summary of each of these molding and cas ting processes is furnished
for comparative study at the end of this chapter. Each method has its own
advantages and disadvantage like finish, dimensional accuracy etc.
In order to produce cast articles more efficiently the permanent steel mould
was developed. The molding of non - ferrous metals and their alloys with relatively
low melting temperatures in permanent steel mould under pressure is called
Die
Casting. Castings produced by pressure die casting process are distinguished
by their characterist ic accuracy smoothness and surface quality The die castings
are made with minimum expenditure of metal and they are accurate in sized to
-4-
the extent that very little or no subsequent machining is necessary after removal
of the gate and flash . Th e die castings made with hot or cold chamber machines
are called Pressure Die Casting.
A1.1.3
PRINCIPLE OF DIE DESIGN AND PROCESS
First, a steel mold capable of producing tens of thousands of castings in

rapid succession must be made at least two secti ons to permit removal of castings.
These sections are mounted securely in a machine and are arranged so that one
is stationary ( fixed die half) while the other is moveable ( injector die half ) To
begin the casting cycle, the two die halves are clamp ed tightly together by the die
casting machine. Molten metal is injected into the die cavity where it solidifies
quickly. The die halves are drawn apart and the casting is ejected. Die casting dies
can be simple or complex , having moveable slides, co
res, or other sections
depending on the complexity of the casting.
The complete cycle of the die casting process is by far the fastest known for
producing precise non -ferrous metal parts. This is in marked contrast to sand
casting which requires a new sand mold for each casting . while the permanent
mold process uses iron or steel molds instead of sand it is considerably slower,
and not as precise as die casting.
A1.1. 3 (a) ADVANTAGES OF DIE CASTING TECHNIQUES

Gravity Die Casting:The die is built up of parts or elements made of metal ( generally cast
iron or steel ) . The design is adopted to the shape of the article required to be
produced, so as to enable easy assembly, pouring and extraction These
operations constitute a cycle of operations which when repeated in a certain
rhythm, determine the output rate of the equipment The various operations of
assembly and disassembly of the die may to some extent be mechanized. In this
process liquid flows into the die entirely under its own weight. It is form this features
that the term gravity Die Casting was coined.
Pressure Die Casting:This technique is a development over the gravity die casting and has the
following characteristics.
a. The die is mounted between the two plates called PLATENS of press,
generally of horizontal type, by means of which it is closed and opened.
-5-
b. The movement of the die follows that of the machine, and this
determines the general directions of assembly.
c. The liquid metal is generally injected by the action of a piston, which
forces it through the die from a compression chamber This is referred
to as a hot chamber, if it is situated inside the molten metal which is
heated by a furnace forming part of the assembly a cold chamber if it
is fed with metal which has been melted in a furnace separate from
the machine.
Advantages of Pressure Die Casting Process: Die casting components parts, decorative trim, and /or finished prod
offer many features, advantages and benefits to those who specify this
manufacturing process.
ucts
1. Die casting provides complex shapes within closer tolerance than many
other
mass production processes.
2. Die castings are produced a t high rates of production. Little or no
machining is required.
3. Die castings can be produced with thinner walls than those
obtainable by other casting methods . much stronger than plastic
injection moldings with the same dimensions
4. Die casting provide parts which are durable, dimensionally stable, and
have the feel and appearance of quality.
5. Die casting dies can produce thousand of identical castings within
specified tolerances before additional tooling may be required.
6. Zinc castings can be easily plated or finished with a minimum of surface
preparation.
7. Die castings can be produced with surfaces simulating a wide variety of
textures.
8. Die cast, surfaces, as cast, are smoother than most other forms of
casting.
9. Holes in die castings can be cored, and made to tap drill sizes.
10. External threads on parts can be readily die cast.
11. Die castings provide integral fastening elements, such as bosses and
studs, which can result in assembly economics.
12. Inserts of other metals and some non-metals can be die cast in place.
13. Corrosion resistance of die casting alloys rates from goods to high.
14. Die castings are monolithic. They combine many functions in one,
complex shaped part. Because die castings do not consist of separ ate
parts, welded or fastened together the strength is that of the material, not
that of threads or welds, etc.
15. More complex shapes can be produced by the pressure die casting
process than gravity die casting, Ex Carburetor.
-6-
16. Since the dies are fil led by pressure, castings with thinner walls, greater
length to thickness ratio and greater dimensional accuracy can be
produced.
17. Production rates are higher in pressure die casting, especially when
multiple cavity dies are used.
18. The castings are p roduced as almost completely finished parts, the
investment in inventory and factory floor space reduced to a minimum.
19. Dies for pressure die casting can produce many thousands of castings
without significant change in casting dimensions.
20. Metal cost is often lower than in other casting process, because pressure
die casting permits components of thinner sections.
21. Many die casting can be plated (finished) with minimum surface
preparation.
22. Some Aluminum alloy pressure die castings can be develop ing higher
strength than compared sand castings.
The Principle Limitations of the Pressure Die Casting Process: 1. Casting size is limited. The casting weight seldom exceeds 50 1b and
normally is less than 15 lbs.
2. Depending on the casting contours and gating, difficulty may be
encountered with air trapped in the in the die. Trapped air is principle
cause of porosity.
3. The die casting facilities, consisting of the machine, the auxiliary
equipment and the dies are r
elatively expensive. Because the die
castings are small, large quantities of castings are required for the
process to be economical.
4. Commercial use of the process is limited to metals having melting
temperatures not higher than these of copper
- base all oys, with few
exceptions.
Dies can be produced for simple and complex parts. Parts having external
undercuts or projections on side walls often require slides which increase
costs. In many cases however, resultant savings of metal or other advantages such
as uniform wall sections, offset the extra cost or effect a net economy in overall
costs. This is especially true when large quantities are involved.
A1.1.3 (b) TECHNIQUE OF FILLING DIE CAVITY

As the name Pressure Die Casting implies, injecti on of the molten metal
into the mould or die cavity is done under pressure. The thin walls as well as
the various bends around the corners and the edges of complicated die castings
offer considerable resistance to complete filling of the mould or die. Therefore it
is necessary that the metal moves through the die with high velocity before it
settles in the mould cavity. The air present in the cavity has to be displaced by the
entering metal. The air could be displaced by providing air vents in the die or by
connecting the cavity to vacuum before the metal is injected into the die.
-7-
Vacuum die castings are used only for small parts made of low or high melting light
alloys.
Pressure die casting necessitates a particularly care fu lly study of the design
and shape of the articles to be produced.
The choice of technique involved for the production of a given article is
governed by many factors, the most important of which are as follows :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Mechanical properties
Dimensional accuracy
Complexity of shape
Surface condition
Number of casting to be produced
Production time
Production cost
Certain considerations of strength, precision or surface condition indicate a

particular technique. It is always important that the production cost of the article
desired should be estimated. The production cost must take into account.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Cost of mould
Cost of the injection machine
Cost of subsidiary operations (melting. trimming and machining)
Actual weight of the metal.
The careful study of the production cost of an article based on the above
factors and related to the number of articles to b e produced determines the limit of
viability of a particular technique to make the process economical.
The advent of mass production has made possible the study and practical
application of mechanized means of pressure die casting. As a result of
considerable capital investment it is possible to mass produce articles at extremely
competitive prices. For example, an electric coffee mill may be sold at a price lower
than that of most of its component parts, if these were to be produced individually
other than the die casting process.
A1.1.4 COMPARISONS OF DIE CASTING WITH OTHER

PRODUCTS
Plastics Injection Molding: Compared with plastic injection moldings, die castings are stronger , stiffer,
more stable dimensionally, more heat resistant, and ar e far superior to plastics
on a properties /cost basis They help prevent radio frequency and
electromagnetic emissions. For chrome plating, die casting are much superior
to plastic, are completely resistant to ultra -violet rays, weatheri ng , and stress
-8-
cracking in the presence of various regents. Manufacturing cycles for producing

die castings are much faster than for plastic injection moldings, Plastics, however,
may be cheaper on a unit volume basis, have color inherent pro perties which
tend to eliminate finishing , are temperature sensitive, and are good electrical
insulators.
Sand Castings:Compared with sand castings die casting require much less machining;
can be made with thinner walls; can have all or nearly all holes cored to size; can
be held within much closer dimensional limits; are produced more rapidly in dies
which make thousands of die castings without replacement; do not require new
cores for each casting; are easily provided with inserts
die cast in place; have
smother surfaces and involve much less labor cost per casting Sand castings, on
the other hand, can be made from ferrous metals and from many non
-ferrous
alloys not suitable for die casting. Shapes not producible by die castin
g are
available in sand castings; maximum size can be greater; tooling cost is often less
and small quantities can be produced more economically.
Permanent Mold Castings:Compared with permanent mold castings, die cast ings can be made to
closer dimensional limits and with thinner sections; holes can be cored; are
produced at higher rates with less manual labor; have smoother surface and
usually cost less per die casting. Permanent mold casting involves somewhat
lower tooling costs; can be made with sand cores yielding shapes not available in
die casting.
Forgings:Compared with forgings die castings can be made more complex in shape
and have shapes not forgeable; can have thinner sections; be held to close
r
dimensions and have coring not feasible in forgings. Forgings, however, are
denser and stronger than die castings; have properties of wrought alloys; can be
produced in ferrous and other metals and in sizes not suitable for die castings.
Stampings:Compared with stampings, one die casting can often replace several parts.
Die casting frequently require fewer assembly operations; can be held within
closer dimensional limits; can have almost any desired variation in section
thickness; involve less waste in scrap; are producible in more complex shapes
and can be made in shapes not producible in stamped forms. Stampings, on the
-9-
other hand, have properties of wrought metals; can be made in steel and in
alloys not suitable for die casti ng; in their simpler forms, are produced more
rapidly; and may weigh less than die castings.
Screw Machine Products:Compared with screw machine products, die castings are often produced
more rapidly; involve much less waste in scrap; can be ma de in shapes difficult
or impossible to produce from bar or tubular stock; and may require fewer
operations. On the other hand, screw machine products can be made from and
alloys which cannot be die cast; they have the properties of wrought
metals;
and they require less tooling expense.
There are some comparison tables for Die Casting Process with other
process with respect to Process, Die/Mold, Cost, Design and application etc.,
continued in the next page.
- 10 -
- 11 -
- 9 -6
CHAPTER: A1 OVERVIEW OF MASS PRODUCTION OF CASTING ARTS

PRODUCED BY VARIOUS CASTING PROCESS
DIE CASTING
THEORY
Table :
Process
TG-2
SUMMARY OF MOULDING AND CASTING PROCESSES

*Choice of materials
Complexity of part
Number of castings
Casting size or weight
relative to tool life

Sand
Shell Mould
1, 2 ,3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
Considerable limited by pattern
Wide range, type of pattern
28 gms. To
11,
drawing. No limit with cores.
depends upon total/casting.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9
Considerable, limited by
High metal patterns have a
28 grms 45 gms and 387
removal of mold from pattern.
long life.
cm2
Limited, restricted by the rigid
Moderate to high , casting
Several grams - 23 kgs.
molds. Ability to eject casting
metal affects life of mold.
Less limited with cores.

Permanent Mould
1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11
limits shape
Die Casting
4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11
Moderate, limited by design of
High, mold life affe cted by
Several grams 33 kgs. In
movable cores
casting metal.
aluminium 90 kgs. In zinc

usually under 7 kgs.
Plaster moulding
4, 5
Considerable, possible to make
Moderate, depends on
28 grms to several kgs. In
mold of several pieces,
pattern material
most of material.
Considerable, very complex
Moderate, type of pattern
Under 28 gms to 45 kgs.
patterns can be assembled
mold depends upon
Best for parts under 0.8 kg.
from pieces.
number of castings.
Casting of circular periphery
Low to moderate
expendable mold
Investment Casting
Centrifugal Casting
3, 4, 5, 6, 9
1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9
most favorable. Almost any

shape can be cast.
-9-
Upto several kgs.
- 10 -6

DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Process
Min. section mm
Min. dia cored hole mm
Surface finish Microns
Precision and tolerances
Sand
3 6 depending upon
4, 5 6
6 , 25 - 25
1, 5 4, 2 mm depending
metal
upon metal & casting size.

Tolerance of 0.25 mm
possible on some parts.
Shell Mould
1, 5 for most materials.
36
Some what better than
0, 003 mm/mm 0,075
sand
total possible on some

dimensions.
Permanent Mould
2.38 most materials
4, 5 6
2, 5 6, 25
0,015 mm/mm for firs
25 mm 0.025 mm to 0.05
mm for each additional 25
mm
Die Casting
0.625
0.76 4.5 depending upon
1 2, 5
metal
Plaster moulding
0, 750
0,025
0,125 mm
depending upon material.
12.5
0,75 1.25
0.005 0.010 mm/mm or

less
Investment Casting
0.750
0.50 0.750
0.25 2.12
0.005 mm/mm
Centrifugal Casting
0.750
4.3 - 6
2.25 6.25 or as in sand
Same as permanent
mould.
- 10 -
- 11 -6

DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Process
Tool costs
Direct Labour costs
Finishing costs
Field of application
Sand
Low
Wide range, much hand labour
Wide range, high to low,
Singular and batch production of
required.
depends upon cleaning,
medium & large components of cast
snagging and machining
iron, cast steel, not precision.
required.
Shell Mould
Low to moderate
Moderate
Low, often only a minimum
Batch & mass production of cast iron,
required.
steel components. To reduce the cost

of machining.
Permanent Mould
Medium
Moderate
Low to Moderate
Batch Production.
Die Casting
High
Low to medium
Low, little more than
Mass production of small components
trimming necessary.
of Auminium, zinc, magnesium,

copper alloys. To reduce the cost of
machining.
Plaster moulding
Investment Casting
Medium
High
High, skilled operators
Low, little machining
Batch Production.
necessary
necessary.
High, many hand operators
Low, machining usually not
Steel, alloyed steel, small batch, small
required
necessary.
size to reduce the expensive

machining.
Centrifugal Casting
Medium
Moderate
Low to moderate
Singular batch production bearing

sleeves of bearing alloys cast iron
tubes.
(1) Gray Iron, (2) Malleable Iron, (3) Steel, (4) Aluminium alloys, (5) Copper alloys (6) Nickel alloys, (7) Zinc alloys,
(8) Magnesium alloys, (9) Heat and corrosion resistant alloys, (10) Tin alloys, (11) Lead alloys.
- 11 -
- 12 -6

DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
DIE CASTING COMPARISON WITH OTHER PRODUCTION PROCESSES

Process
Process defined
Materials
Rate of
Size & weight of
Strength
Wall
Complex
Other
production
parts
of parts
thickness
ity
characteristics
Die
Castings made by
Lead, tin,
Very high,
No real size
High unit
Very thin; upto 1
From
Inserts of almo st
casting
forcing molten metal
zinc
upto 500
limitation. Size
strength.
in or more max.
simple to
any metal can be
under external pressure
magnesium
shots/hr
depends upon
very
embedded in
into a metal die or
, aluminium
possible with
casting equipment
complex.
castings.
mold.
and copper
some parts.
available. Present
Not so thin as
Usually
Inserts can be
used.
alloys.
max. sizes run : 15

lb for aluminum, 10
lb for magnesium
and 30 lb for zinc.
Permanen
Castings produced by
Iron,
Relatively
Usually medium or
High
t mold
pouring molten metal
manesium,
low. Not a
large parts. Between
die casting but
not so
casting
under a gravity head
aluminum
high
die, castings and
much heavier
complex
into metallic molds.
& copper
production
sand castings.
sections
as die
alloys.
process.
possible.
castings.
Sand
Castings made by
Principally
Low. Not a
Medium to very
Less than
Must be heavier
Housings
Inserts seldom
Casting
pouring molten metal
iron,
high
large.
die castings
than die
& hubs
practical.
under a gravity head
magnesium
production
or
castings &
represent
into molds prepared by
, aluminum
process.
permanent
permanent mold
average
packing molding sand
& copper
mold
castings can be
degree of
around a suitable
alloys.
castings.
cast in sections
complexity
1 ft or more.
pattern.
- 12 -
- 13 -6
DIE CASTING
THEORY

Plaster mold
Castings made by
Any nonferrous
Low. Not a
casting
pouring metal under
material having
a gravity head into
Relatively small.
TG-2
Equal to
Not as thin as
Usually not
high
sand
lead, tin or zinc die
so complex
a melting point
production
castings.
castings, but
as die
molds made of
of less than
process.
sometimes equal
castings or
gypsum with
2000 F, except
to die castings of
permanent
strengthening &
magnesium in
aluminum,
mold
setting agents
large sizes.
magnesium &
castings.
added.
brass.
Precision
Castings made by
Iron, zinc,
Usually
Small parts only.
Equal to or
0.040 in. min. 1/16
Intricate
Min. thickness
investment
pouring molten
magnesium,
lowest of
Max weight of part
better than
in. prescribed min.
shapes not
of trailing edge
casting
metal into refractory
copper alloys &
all
about 101b or up
permanent
tolerance on walls
readily
equal to 0.015
or ceramic molds
especially hi gh
processes
to 201b by special
mold
no less than 0.005
made by
in. min. &
formed around wax
alloy steels.
techniques.
castings.
in. min.
machining,
preferably
patterns. Patterns
Section size
forging or
0.025 in.
are removed by
usually limited to 7
sand casting
inserts not
melting in the
in. or less.
can be
practical.
process of firing of
produced.
the refractory.
- 13 -
- 14 -6

DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
COMPARISON OF DIE CASTING WITH OTHER PRODUCTION PROCESS (Contd)

Process
Die casting
Appearance & finish
Cost
Applications
Excellent. Can be finished with variety
High equipment cost, high tool cost, &
Structural parts, machine elements &
of mechanical, plated, chemical or
low labor cost. Low part cost on high
decorative members & parts for automotive,
organic finishes.
activity items. Machining, grinding &
business, machine electrical appliance, & all
other operations usually not
other high production industries making both
necessary.
industrial & consumer products.
Permanent mold
Usually machined or ground but left with Medium equipment cost, high tool
For parts similar to sand castings but which
casting
base metal surface.
cost, high labor cost. Fairly high part
must have superior surface finish, closer
cost.
tolerances, & better strength in as cast

condition.
Sand casting
Inferior to die or permanent mold
Low tool cost, high equipment cost,
Gears, framing members, housings motor
castings. Usually machined or ground
high labor cost part cost between
blocks & structural members when cast
but left with base metal surface.
those of die castings & precision
structure having relatively low strength &
castings.
resistance to impact satisfactory. Usually

limited to cast iron & cast steel for industrial
equipment.
Plaster mold
Excellent
casting
Low tool cost, low equipment cost,
Various engineering parts, mostly of brass
high labor cost, fairly high part cost.
alloys.
Precision
Equal to die castings, but usually left
Low equipment cost, low tooling cost,
Small intricate parts made in limited
investment casting
with base metal surface.
high labor cost, high part cost.
quantities, usually from high alloy metals

such as stainless steel. Inconel Hastelloy
etc.
- 14 -

-16
DIE CASTING
THEORY
CHAPTER: B1 GRAVITY DIE CASTING
UNIT-2
CHAPTER B1
GRAVITY DIE CASTING
-1
TG-2

-216
DIE CASTING
THEORY
CHAPTER OUTLINE
B1.1.1
Introduction
B1.1.2
Gravity Die Casting (GDC)
B1.1.3
Limitations of Permanent Mold Casting
B1.1.4
Principle of Permanent Mold Casting
B1.1.4 (a)
Progressive Solidification
B1.1.4 (b)
Minimum Turbulence
B1.1.4 (c)
Air and Gas Clearance
B1.1.5
Suitable Casting Materials for GDC
B1.1.6
Permanent Mold Casting Machines
B1.1.7
Selection of Mold Material
B1.1.8
Gravity Die Casting Mold Life
B1.1.9
Principle of Mold Design
B1.1.10
Solid Graphite Permanent Mold
-2
TG-2

-316
DIE CASTING
THEORY
B1.1.1
TG-2
INTRODUCTION
This is a casting process in which

the mould is permanent and same can be
repeatedly used for making thousands of identical components.
B1.1.2
PERMANENT MOULD/GRAVITY DIE CASTING
In permanent mold casting, a metal mold consisting of two or more parts is

repeatedly used for production of many castings of the same from The liquid metal enters
the mold by gravity Simple removable cores are usually made of metal, but more
complex cores are made of sand or plaster when sand or plaster cores are used
, the
process is called semi permanent mold casting.
Permanent mold casting is particularly suitable for the high -volume production of
castings with fairly uniform wall thickness and limited under
-cuts or intricate internal
coring. The process can also be used to produce complex castings, but production quantities
should be high enough to justify the cost of the molds. Compared to sand casting,
permanent mold casting permits the production of more uniform castings with
closer
dimensional tolerances, superior surface finish, and improved mechanical properties.
B1.1.3
LIMITATIONS OF PERMANENT MOULD CASTING
Permanent mold casting has the following limitations:
Not all alloys are suitable for permanent mold casting

Because of relatively high tooling costs, the process can be prohibitively expensive
for low production quantities
Some shapes cannot be made using permanent mold casting, because of parting line
location undercuts, or difficulties in removing the casting from the mold
Coatings are required to protect the mold from attack by the molten metal
Metals that can be cast in permanent molds include the aluminum, magnesium, zinc
and copper alloys and hypereutectic gray iron.
B1.1.4
PRINCIPLE OF PERMANENT MOULD CASTING
Compared with permanent mould casting, Die Casting can be made to closely
dimensional limits and with thinner sections, holes can be cored, are produced, higher rates
with less manual labor, have smoother surfaces and usually cost less per die casting.
Permanent mould casting involves some what lower tooling cost, can be made with sand
cores yielding shapes not available in die casting.
-3

-416
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
In permanent mould casting, a metal mold consisting of two or more parts is used
repeatedly for producing many castings of the same form. The liqui
d metal enters the
mould by gravity. (The process does not, however, include pouring of ingots in metal
moulds). Simple cores area made of metal, but more complex cores are made of sand or
plaster. When sand or plaster cores are used, the process is called Semi permanent mold
casting.
Removal of Casting from Molds: After a casting has solidified, the mold is opened and the casting is removed. To
facilitate release of the casting from the mold, a lubricant is often added to the mold
coating. The use of as much drafts as permissible on all portions of the casting makes
ejection easier. For many castings, ejector pins or pry bars must be used. Core pins and
cores should be designed so as not to interfere with removal of castings from the mold.
B1.1.4 (a)
PROGRESSIVE SOLIDIFICATION
Casting requires a feeding system whic h consists of gates, runners, risen etc. Risers
must be connected to heavy section of the casting. The process of solidification must be in
such manner that the casting freezes from the further most point progressively towards the
risers. If this principle
is not satisfied, shrinkage, porosity, cavitations or surface
depressions can occur which may causes the rejection of the component.
B1.1.4 (b)
MINIMUM TURBULENCE
This principle must be observed during the filling of die cavity with molten metal.
Turbulent filling of die will leave air bubbles and oxide films entrapped within the casting.
The turbulence can be controlled by suitably designing the runner system. This principle
must be satisfied for setting a sound casting.
B1.1.4 (c)
AIR AND GAS CLEARANCE
For gravity die casting the care must be given to air and gas clearance otherwise
entrapped air or gas will cause defects in the components (blow holes, surface depression
etc)
B1.1.5
SUITABLE CASTING METALS FOR GDC
Metals that can be cast in perma nent moulds include aluminum, magnesium, zinc
and copper alloys, and hypereutectic gray iron.
-4

-516
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Aluminum alloys : - Aluminum alloys have low density, which combined with their
oxide-film-forming characteristics, make them flow some what sluggishly. The shrinkage
of aluminum alloys during solidification is relatively large, and provision must be made for
ample metal feed during solidifi cation. After solidification, aluminum alloys are soft at
elevated temperature, and castings may distort during removal from the mold.
Magnesium alloys : - Magnesium alloys are less castable than aluminum alloys, and
have relatively poor feeding characteri stics in thin -wall castings. Also, the castings are
more sensitive to hot shortness (brittleness at elevated temperature) than are aluminum
alloys castings. Generous fillers are required when the casting contains large bosses or
when one section of the cas ting is much larger than another. Sharp casting detail cannot be
obtained with magnesium alloys, and shapes that shrink on to mold sections are susceptible
to cracking and should be avoided.
Copper alloys : - Copper alloys solidify at high temperatures, an d some have narrow
solidifications ranges. They shrink on to cores and other mold elements, and shrink on to
cores and other mold elements, and must be ejected from molds as soon as possible.
Zinc alloys: - Zinc alloys can be cast in permanent molds, but because the castings are
usually made in large quantities, they are more often die cast.
Gray iron: - Gray iron is used successfully in high -volume production of small (28 g to
13.5 kg, or 1 oz to 30 lb), simple castings. However, more complex gray iron c astings, with
internal coring and marked changes in section, have also been successfully made by the
permanent mold process.
Maximum Size of Casting: Practical sizes of permanent mold castings are limited by cost. The maximum sizes
that have been cast differ among the casting alloys.
Aluminum alloys: - In high production, permanent mold castings weighing up to 13.5

kg (30 lb) are made from aluminum alloys in casting machines. However, much larger
castings can be produced.
Magnesium alloys: - It despite their comparatively low cast ability; have been cast in
permanent or semi -permanent molds to produce relatively large and complex casting. For
instance, 8 kg (17.7 lb) housing for an emergency power unit was poured from alloy
AZ91C in a semi -permanent mold. The mold utilized vertical parting and an oil -sand core
to develop the vanes and internal surfaces of the casting. Surface finish of the casting varied
from 6.4 to 12.7mm (250 to 500min.).
Copper alloy: - These permanent molds casting weighing over 9 kg (20 lb) rarely can be
justified.
Gray iron: - Production of gray iron castings in permanent mold is seldom practical
when the castings weigh more than 13.5 kg (30 lb).
-5

-616
DIE CASTING
THEORY
B1.1.6
TG-2
PERMANENT MOLD CASTING MACHINES
Permanent mold casting machines can be customized to automatically or manually

operating. They are basically simple in construction.
Manually operated machine: Manually operated permanent mold casting machines may consists of
a simple
book mold arrangement, such as that shown in fig.1 or for castings with high ribs or walls
that require mold retraction without rotation, the machine shown in fig. 2 can be used. With
Either type of machine, after the casting solidified the mo
ld halves are separated by
manually releasing the eccentric mold clamps.
Automatic machines: For high-volume production, the manual drives are replaced by two -way hydraulic
mechanisms. These can be programmed to open and close in a preset cycle. Thus, except
for pouring of the metal and removal of castings, the operation is automatic.
A method of permanent mold casting has been developed in which the metal is not
ladled by hand. This is called the Wessel Process . The equipment for which is shown in
fig. 3. In this method, the permanent mold is mounted on rails against the end face of the
tilting reverberate furnace. As the furnace is tiled about an axis bear its center of gravity,
metals flows through a pouring hole in ht wall of the furnace in the mold. The assembly
remains in its tilted position for a predetermined interval, then returns to the s
tarting
position. Tilting is done by means of a hydraulic cylinder.
.
-6

-716
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Molds are parted vertically, parallel to the direction of metal flow. One mold half
slides on the mounting rails; the other, which is hinged, swings away from the mounting
rails, pulling the casting and sprue with if to leave the pouring hole clear for the next cycle.
Core manipulation and casting ejection are the same as in conventional practice.
B1.1.7
SELECTION OF MOULD MATERIALS
Four principle factors affect the selection of material
s for permanent molds and
cores:
The pouring temperature of the metal to be cast

The size of the casting
The number of castings per mold
Cost of the mold material
Mould Materials: - As indicated in Table A, gray iron is the most commonly used
mold material. Aluminum or graphite molds are sometimes used for the small -quantity
production of aluminum and magnesium castings, and graphite or carbon linear on steel are
sometimes used for molds for casting copper alloys ( see also the section Solid Graphite
Molds in this article).
With aluminum or magnesium casting alloys, it is not unusual to obtain 100,000
castings, or more, per mold; however, molds for copper or gray iron casting alloys have a
shorter life because of the higher pouring temperatures required. Pouring temperatures for
specific metals are as follows:
-7

-816
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
TEMPERATURE, C (F)
465-620 (870-1050)
675-790 (1250-1450)
705-790 (1300-1450)
980-1230 (1800-2250)
1275-1355 (2325-2475)
METAL/ALLOY
Zinc
Aluminum
Magnesium
Copper
Gray Iron
Gray iron molds without tool steel inserts are satisfactory for long production runs
of aluminum and magnesium castings that will be magnesium casting that be machined
extensively and for which s urface finish is not a major consideration. In the casting of zinc,
well over 00.000 pours are possible in a gray iron mold (die casting is usually selected to
produce zinc castings such large quantities).
Mold Inserts: - Full or partial mold cavities ins erts of the same material as the mold , or
of a different material, are sometimes used to obtain longer mold life, or to simplify
machining handling or replacement. Inserts can also be used for venting, cooling thin walls,
and heating portions of the mold o r the full cavity area . Inserts made of cast -to-shape gray
iron are used for casting complex alu minum and magnesium parts that r ange in surface
area from 320 to 2900 cm 2 (50 to 50 in. 2). Tolerance on these parts range from 0.76 to
1.5 mm ( 1.5 mm 0. 030 to 0.060 in.). Inserts last for 5000 to 20.000 pours, depending
on casting complexity.
Core Materials: - Core materia ls are recommended in Tables B and C on the basis of
performance over a wide range of coring requirement for small and large cores. An
expendable core is used when the location or shape of the core does not permit its removal
from the casting or when an in tricate design can be obtained at less cost with materials for
such cores. These materials are listed below in order of increasing preference:
Sand (oil bonded or resin bonded, shell, car bon dioxide-silicate)

Plaster
Graphite and carbon
Casting alloy
Table A recommended permanent mold Materials

No. of Pours
1000
10,000
100,000
for small Castings (25 mm or 1inch Maximum dimension)

Zinc
Aluminum Mg.
Gray Iron: 1020steel

Copper
Gray Iron
Gray Iron
Gray IronGray
(a) Iron (a)

Gray Iron

Gray Iron with AISI-H14
inserts: 1020steel
Alloy Cast Iron
Quantity not Poured
for medium and large castings (upto 915mm or 36Inch maximum dimension)
Zinc
Aluminum Mg.
Copper
Gray Iron (a)
Gray Iron:AISI-H11 (b)Gray Iron: AISI-H11 (b)

Gray Iron
Gray Iron
Alloy Cast Iron
Alloy Cast Iron
Gray Iron (a)
Quantity not Poured
-8
Gray Iron: AISI-H11 (b)

Gray Iron with AIS-H11/H1(c)
inserts: 1020steel
Alloy Cast Iron (d)

-916
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Table B Recommended Materials for small cores (<75mm or 3In in Diameter &
255mm or 10In. long) for Permanent moulds
Casting alloy
Recommended core materials (a)
Zinc
Aluminum Mg.
Sand Plaster, Gray Iron 1020steel

1010 or 1020 steel Sand Plaster H11 Die steel or Equivalent (b) carbon (c)
Copper
Sand 1020steel Gray Iron Plaster (d) Graphite9(c)
Gray Iron
Sand Graphite Carbon and Gray Iron
(a)
-4for
5HRC
Materials
Castings
(c) for
are
ofuse
Aluminum
listed
withdescending
relatively
Bronze.few
orderPours
of preference
(d)
(b) Hardened to 40
Table B Recommended Materials for Large cores (<75mm or 3In in Diameter &
255mm or 10In. long) for Permanent moulds
Casting alloy
No. of Pours
1000
10,000
100,000
Zinc
Aluminum Mg.

Gray Iron: Gray Iron with
1020steel insert (b)
Sand Plaster (b)

1020steel or H11 Insert (b)
H11 Insert (b),
H11 Die steel,
Copper
Sand
Gray Iron
Carbon Gray Iron
Sand,Sand,
Graphite,
Graphite,
Quantity not Poured
Carbon Gray Iron
Sand
Quantity not Poured
(a)Material
and cores. listed in descending order of preference, (b) except for openings with complex shape, which required expandable s
B1. 1.8
GRAVITY DIE CASTING MOULD LIFE
Mold life can vary from as few as 100 pours as many as 250,000 pours (or even
more), depending on the variables discussed later in the section. A mold for an aluminum
piston for example, can be accepted to produce 250,000 casting before requiring repair.
After the production of 250,000 more castings, the repaired mold will require a major
overhaul.
Mold life is likely to be longer in the casting of magnesium alloys than in the
casting of aluminum alloys of similar size and shape; this is because molte n magnesium
does not attack ferrous metal molds however the difference the difference in mold life for
magnesium alloys depends to a great Extent on the effectiveness of the mold coating used
in the casting of gray iron, mold coating used in the casting of gray iron, mold life is
excepted to be short compared to the casting of similar shapes from aluminum alloys.
-9

-106
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Molds are often fabricated from cast iron is cause casting the mold close to the
finished shape can decrease machining costs. In ad dition cast iron is much more resistant to
attack by molten aluminum than steel; however is weld able and easier to repair than cast
iron. Therefore steel molds are often used for high-production castings.
Major variables that affect the life of Permanent molds are:
Pouring temperature: The hotter the casting metal is poured, the hotter the
mold is operated which leads to rapid weakening of the mold metal.

Weight of casting: Mold life decreases as casting weight increases. The
decrease in mold life with increasing weight of casting is shown in Fig. 2 for 25 mm
(1 in.) thick gray iron mold used for casting of gray iron.
Casting shape : Mold walls are required to dissipat e more heat from casting
having thick sections than from those having thin sections When there is a
significant variation in the section thickness of a casting , a temperature
differential is set up among different portion of the mold. As t
he temperature
differential increases mold life decreases.
B1.1.9
PRINCIPLE OF MOLD DESIGN
A mold design has a marked effect on mold life. Variation in mold -wall thickness
causes excessive stress to develop during heating and cooling which in turn
causes
premature mold failure from cracking Abrupt changes in thickness without generous
fillets also cause premature mold failure . Small fillets and radii lead to reduced mold
life because checking and cracking as well as ultimate failure , often start at these points.
Usually less draft is required on external mold surface than on
internal mold surface than on internal mold surfaces because of the shrinkage in the
casting A 5 draft is desirable but 2 on external and 3 on internal mold surfaces can be
used Lower draft angles, however decrease the number of castings that can be made
between mold repairs The effect of draft angle on the life of cores and molds used for
producing aluminum alloy castings is shown in Fig 3
-10

-116
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Projections in the mold cavities contrib ute greatly to reduce mold life These projections
become extremely hot. Which increases the possibility of extrusion , deformation and
mutilation when the casting is removed I t is sometimes possible to extend mold life by
using inserts to replace worn or broken projections.
Undercuts on the outside of a casting complicate mold design and increase

casting cost, because additional mold parts or expendable cores are needed. Complicated
and undercut internal sections are usually made more easily with expendable cores than
with metal cores, although collapsible steel cores or loose metal pieces can sometimes be
used instead of expandable cores.
Numbers of castings per mold is a major consideration in designing the

mold; the objective is to have the optimum number of cavities per mold that will yield
acceptable castings at the lower cost. Except for vary small and thin castings, as the weight
of the metal being cast per mold increases, the cycle time of the machine also increases.
These increases, however, are not directly proportional. A mold with the maximum number
of cavities often will produce more castings per unit of time than a mold with a smal
ler
number of cavities that was designed to operate on shorter cycle.
For relatively simple castings, cavities may be placed one above the other as shown
in the below fig. the metal then flows through the lower cavities to till to those above this
permits maximum utilization of the machine platen area available.
-11

-126
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Mold Design and Dimensional Variations:The dimensional accuracy of permanent mold castings is affected by short -term
and long -term variables Short -term and long term variables. Short term variables are
those that prevail regardless of the length of run:
Cycle- to cycle variat ion in mold closure or in the position of other moving
elements of the mold
Variations in mold closure caused by foreign material on mold faces or by
distribution of the mold elements
Variations in thickness of the mold coating
Variations in temperature distribution in the mold
Variations in casting-removal temperature
Long term variables that occur over the life of the mold are caused by:
Gradual and progressive mold distortion resulting from stress relief, growth and
creep
Progressive wear of mold surface primarily due to cleaning
Dimensional variations can be minimized by keeping heating and cooling rates

constant, by operating on a fixed cycle, and by maintaining clean parting faces. It is
particularly important to select mold cleaning procedures that remove a minimum of mold
material.
The mold thickness and the design of the supporting ribs both affect the degree of
mould warp age at operating temperatures. Supporting ribs on the back of a thin mold will
warp the mold fa ce into a concave form. This mold
design error can alter casting
dimensions across the parting line by as much as 1.6 mm (1/16 in). Adequate mold lockup
will contribute to the control of otherwise severe warp age problems.
Mould erosion resulting from me tal impingement and cavitations due to improper
gating design both contribute to rapid weakening of the mould metal and to heat checking.
These mould design errors contribute to rapid dimensional variation during a long run
mechanical abrasion due to insuf ficient draft or to improperly designed ejection systems
also contributes to the raped variation of casting dimensions.
The dimensions of many mold and core componen ts change at a relatively uniform
rate; there fore, it is possible to estimate when rework or replacement will be required
To maintain castings within tolerances. It is sometimes necessary to select mold
component materials on the basis of their wear resistance.
Cooling methods: - Water cooling is more effective than air cooling but it substantially
decreases mold life.
-12

-136
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Heating cycles: - Generally, a continuous run. in which the mold is maintained at a

uniform temperature provides maximum mold life. Repeated heating and cooling over a
wide temperature range will shorten mold life.
Preheating the mold: - This is done to operating temperature with a gas flame or
electric heaters, and it greatly increases mold life. Thermal shock i s one of the principle
causes of mold failure.
Mold coating: - This protects the mold from erosion and soldering by preventing
the metal from contacting mold surfaces, thus increasing mold life ( see discussion
below).
Mold materials: - See Table 1.

Storage: - Improper storage can lead to excessive rusting and pitting of mold
surfaces which will reduce mold life.
Cleaning: - The common practices for cleaning mold are abrasive blasting , dipping in
caustic solution and wire brushing Dipping in caustic can be hazardous to the operator.
Wire brushing and abrasive blasting can cause excessive mold wear if not carefully
controlled. Glass beads are the safest abrasive blast material; their use minimizes
dimensional changes due to erosion from the abrasive blast.
Gating: - A poor gating system can greatly reduce mold life by causing excessive
turbulence and washout at the gate areas.
Method of mold operation: - Although the same materials are used to make molds
and cores for both automatically operated equipment and hand operated equipment the
life of the tool materials on hand operated equipment is shorter because of the abuse
the tooling must withstand Tools for automatic equipment may last up to twice as long
as for hand-operated equipment.
End use of casting : - If the structural function of a casting is more important than
its appearance, a mold can be used for more pouring before being discarded.
Surface Finish: - Surface finish on castings is determined primarily by the roughness of

the mold coatings and is essentially independent of the surface achieved in machining the
mold. A specified surface finish for the part has little bearing on the selection of the mold
material unless heat checking and pitting ( in high
volume production ) cause mold
surfaces to become rougher than the mould coating A tool steel is also selected where
it is desirable to maintain a high polish on the mold as for casting zi
nc parts to be
chromium plated.
-13

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Supplementary Heating or Cooling: - Supplementary heating or cooling of all or

selected portions of a mold, to minimize extremes of temperature during the operating
cycle , will usually increase mold life and result
in the most efficient operation of the
mold regardless of the metal being cast Supplementary heating is used to :
Bring the mold to operating temperature especially where the quantity of heat to be
removed is small
Equalize the temperature throug hout the mold so as to avoid thermally induced
stresses
Avoid chilling of metal being cast
Supplementary cooling is used to:
Hold mold temperature at its required level especially where the quantity of heat to
be removed is large
Permit casting to be done at a faster rate, thus increasing production
Equalize the temperature throughout the mold thus avoiding thermal stresses
Erosion: - Erosion of mold materials varies with the metal being cast and the mount of
metal flowing into the mold
Scaling: - Scaling of molds is most likely to occur when the molds are not in actual
operation- for example if they are overheated when being prepared for production; this
can be prevented by providing preheating torches with a reducing
Pitting and Corrosion: - Pitting and corrosion usually occur in storage where moist
and corrosive conditions cause chemical attack. This is especially true when molds are
stored without prior removal of the mold coating However, pitting may occur
during
service if the mold cavity is not well protected with a mold coating.
Mold Coating: - A mold coating is applied to mold and code surface to serve as a
barrier between the molten metal and the surface of the mold while a skin of solidi fied
metal is formed Mold coatings are used for five purpose: To prevent premature freezing of the molten metal
To control the rate and direction of solidification of the casting and therefore its
soundness and structure
To minimize thermal shock to the mold material
To prevent soldering of molten metal to the mold material
To vent air trapped in the mold cavity
Types: - Mold coating are of two general types insulating and lubricating Some
coatings perform both functions A good insulating coating can be made from (by
weight) one part sodium silicate to two parts colloidal kaolin in sufficient water to
permit spraying. The lubricating coatings usually include graphite in a suitable carrier
Typical compo sitions of 15 mold coatings are called in Table D Coatings are available as
proprietary materials.
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The various requirements of a mold coating are not always obtained with one
coating formulation. These requirements are often met by applying different coat
ings to
various locations in the mold cavity.
TABLE -D) Typical compositions of coatings for permanent molds

Composition, % by weight (remainder, water)
Insulators
Lubricants
Casting
No.
Sodium
Silicate
1
2
3
4(b)
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
2
8
12
5
9
11
7
23
30
18
8
7
20
Whiting
Fire
Clay
Metal
Oxide
Diatom
-aceous
earth
Soap
Stone(a)
Talk
(a)
Mica
(a)
4
4
7
9
11
Graphite
Boric
Acid
1
7
2
14
17
4
1
23
23
20
10
5
2
5
41
16
62
53
Coating Requirements: - To prolong mold life a coating must be non corrosive. It

must adhere well to the mold and yet be easy to remove. It must also kee p the molten metal
from direct contact with the mold surfaces.
Coating Procedure: - The mold surface must be clean and free of oil and grease. The
portions to be coated should be lightly sand blasted. If the coating is being applied with a
spray, the mold should be sufficiently hot (205 C or 400 F) to evaporate the water
immediately.
B1. 1.10
SOLID GRAPHITE PERMANENT MOULDS
Permanent molds can be machined from solid blocks of graphite instead of cast
iron or steel The low coefficient of thermal expansion and superior resistance to
distortion of graphite make it attractive for the reproduce idle production of successive
casting made in the same mold. Because graphite oxidizes at temperatures above 400 C
( 750 F) molds would wear out quickly even it used for nonferrous casting TO protect
-15

-16
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
the molds and to extend their service lives they are usually coated with a wash, which is
normally made of ethyl silicate or colloidal by forming minute cracks in their surface .
Graphite pe rmanent molds are used for a variety of products ( notably bronze
bushings and sleeves) and graphite chills are often inserted in molds to promote
progressive or directional solidification The use of graphite as a permanent mold material
is perhaps best demonstrated in the casting of chilled iron railroad car wheels ( the
Griffin wheel casting process) as shown in Fig 5 Graphite is a particularly suitable mold
material for this process It produces castings with closer tolerance than can be achieved
with sand molding and the high thermal conductivity of graphite chills the metal next to
the mold face very efficiently giving it a wear resistant white iron structure.
However because graphite erodes easily pouring the me tal into molds from the
top under the influence of gravity causes unacceptable mold wear. The technique has
been used to make ferrous casting weighing up to 410 kg (900lb).
-16

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CHAPTER: B2.1 PRESSURE DIE CASTING

(COLD CHAMBER)
UNIT-2
CHAPTER B2
PRESSURE DIE CASTING
TG-2

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CHAPTER OUTLINE
B2.1.1
Introduction
B2.1.2 (a)
Pressure die casting machine
B2.1.2 (b)
Classification of die casting machine
B2.2.1 (a)
Cold chamber machine
B2.2.1 (b)
Cold chamber machine & parts
B2.2.2
Classification of cold chamber die casting m/c
B2.2.3
Horizontal cold chamber machine
B2.2.4
Vertical cold chamber machine
B2.2.5
Comparisons of hot and cold chamber process
B2.2.6
Process parameter & control
B2.2.7
Cold chamber die casting processing metals and alloys
B2.2.8

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B2. 1.1

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INTRODUCTION
Pressure die casting technique is a development over the gravity die casting Die
casting is a process in which molten metal is injected into a precisely dimensioned steel
mould with in which pressure is maintained until solidification is completed The die casting
according reproduces with high fidelity the finest detail of the impression within which it was
formed.
Die casting offers the users a means of obtaining dimensional accuracy and good
surface finish in several alloys with wide rang
e of mechanical and physical properties In the
pressure die casting
1. The die is mounted between the two platen of a press, generally of horizontal
type by means of which it is closed and opened .
2. The movement of die follows that of ma chine and this determines the general
directional of assembly.
3. The liquid molten is generally injected by the action of piston which forces it
through the die from a compression chamber. This is referred to as HOT
CHAMBER if it is situated inside the molten metal which is heated by furnace
forming port of the assembly a COLD CHAMBER if it is fed with metal which
has been melted in furnace separates from the machine.
B2.1.2 (a)
PRESSURE DIE CASTING MACHINES
There is a wide choice ranging from small hot chamber machines intended for the
production of hardware to massive cold chamber machines intended for the production of
hardware to massive cold chamber machines with sophisticated equipment suitable for the
automatic production of large and complex casting of high quality.
The function of pressure die casting Machines: 1.

2.
3.
4.
To Hold the two Halves of the die together

Inject molten metal under pressure into the die
Close and open die halves to permit removal of finished castings
Eject the casting
The die costing machines essentially consists of a frame on which the die and the
actuating equipment are mounted The actuating device opens and closes the die and the
actuating equ ipment which in all modern machines are hydraulic cylinder and piston or
hydraulic cylinder and toggle arrangement The injection system of the machine forces the
molten material into the die under pressure The modern machines are equipped to give slow
plunger movement a variable speed filling stroke and an intensified squaring pressure
before solidification is completed The ejection system consist of knock out rod or plates
hydraulic cylinder and rack and pinion The power cylinders are actu ated either hydraulically
or pneumatically from pressurized accumulator.

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B2.1.2 (b)

(COLD CHAMBER)
TG-2
CLASSIFICATION OF DIE CASTING MACHINES
There are generally two types of the die casting machines as identified by the
placement of the injection chamber or metal pumping systems.
1. HOT CHAMBER (GOOSE NECK) MACHINE
2. COLD CHAMBER MACHING
i)
HORIZONTAL
ii)
VERTICAL
B2.2.1 (a)
COLD CHAMBER MACHINES
For the die casting trade however the introduction of cold chamber machines was a
considerable step forward No t only could Aluminum and magnesium alloys be die casted
successfully on such equipment but large and complex zinc alloys components could be
produced.
The metal is heated to pouring temperature in a separate holding furnace and
transferred to the shot cylinder by ladling The metal injection chamber is separate from the
melting temperature of the alloys These machines are called
Cold Chamber Casting
Machines and also know as Plunger Casting Machines.
These cold chamber machines are subdivide d into two types on the position of the
injection chamber as: 1. Horizontal cold chamber machines.
2. Vertical cold chamber machines.
The molten is in contact with shot cylinder and plunger for only a short period of time
in cold chamber machines and is relatively cooler.
Cold chamber injection system can be used for metals that can be die cast. They are
usually used for alumin um, magnesium and copper based alloys. Molten aluminum has a
tendency to react with iron when it comes into contact with any steel at all times, resulting in
contamination of the alloy and causing production of inferior castings.
This injection system is relatively free from attack of molten metal since, it is not
submerged in the metal bath. This helps the use of high injection pressures and they range
form 8000- 30000 psi (560 2100 kg/cm2) Optimum plunger speed varies with:
a) The alloy being cast.
b) The size and shape of casting.
c) The design of runner and gate.

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B2.2.1 (b)

(COLD CHAMBER)
TG-2
COLD CHAMBER M/C AND PARTS
Horizontal Cold Chamber Die Casting M/C: Following are the most important characteristic of a horizontal cold chamber machine:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Injection System.
Accumulator.
Intensifier.
Ejection.
Core pull.
Pump.
Clamping.

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DIE CASTING
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(COLD CHAMBER)
TG-2
Plunger speeds range from 150 to 900 ft. per minute Shot chamber and plunger of standard
sizes could be fitted to the machine depending on the volume of the metal required for the
casting (shot capacity).
Horizontal Cold Chamber Machines: The shot chamber is mounted horizontal with pouring hole in the top of the chamber
wall.

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(COLD CHAMBER)
TG-2
The Injection System (cold chamber machine): The Metal sleeve through which the Injection plunger passes through is located in
the fixed platen of the casting machine. It projects through the platen into the fixed die side
and leads into the running system ( As shown in the figure below) At the o ther end of the
sleeve there is a hole into which the measured amount of molten material is poured.
The shot piston advances material into the runner system and die cavity along the
sleeve. The pouring sleeve and plunger tip are subjected to repeated expansion and contraction
on each shot, and thus are subjected to thermal stress
The sleeve is made of Nit riding steels e.g. EN -31etc. It is case hardened to 70 HRC
having a case depth of 0.37 mm. The bore of sleeve is honed to 0.001 into 0.00 A 5 taper at
front end per side for last o.5 in to give easier flow through plunger.
The plunger tip is generally made of copper alloys like copper Beryllium As due to
high temperature and relatively soft metal it peens over at front edge to give good seal The
Injection plunger is actuated by hydraulic power.
The Operating cycle of Horizontal cold chamber machine system: - The die is
closed and locked and the cylinder plunger is in retracted position. The molten metal is ladled
through the pouring hole of shot chamber The Injection cylinder is actuated and the plunger
moves forward.
The plunger movement takes place in 3 stages:
- At the first stage the plunger

advance slowly covering pouring toles to prevent splash back and also pushes the material
through sleeve and into the runner System displacing the air.
In the second stage the plunger pushes with high speed the material into the cavity. The
plunger rushes to fill the material into the cavity,
At last in third stage when the cavity is filled the pressure boiled up value is actuated to
bring high pressure source to Compact the casting This final forward travel of plunger tip
forces the biscuitexcess metal free of shot chamber and aide in stripping of the casting from

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TG-2
the cover die The plunger retracts and casting is ejected and again the mold is ready for next
shot
2) Accumulator:- Accumulator is gas /oil vessel which, the accumulat or is an energy
storing device which can supply large volumes of fluids at pre-determined pressure The gas
used is generally Nitrogen
3) Intensifier:- It is a pressure m ultiplier which at the end of the injection piston travel
increases the pressure on the molten metal in the shot chamber and thus on casting The Intensifier
prevents voids and porosity in thick wall castings.
4) Ejection: - A Hydraulic cylinder is mounted on a moving platen to push out the
solidified casting off the die impression A piston rod is coupled upto Ejector assembly to
push and retract Directly cylinders are also used only to push the plate forward.
Where the sl ides are to be polled out by a hydraulic cylinder on a die electrical
sequence is a must in machine for sensing that slides are pulled out first before the ejection
stroke takes place.

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When the die opens the casting is ejected by the forward movement of the ejector plate The force
required to actuate the ejection system may be provided by
a) Mechanical knockout plate and knockout pins
b) Rack and pinion
c) Hydraulic cylinder
Mechanical knockout System: 1. Ejector platen

2. Ejector pin plate
3. Return pin
4. Ejector pin
5. Cover die plate
6. Cover platen
7. Casting
8. Ejector Die half
9. Knockout pin
10. Knockout plate
10

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This has a heavy steel plate secured to the toggle carrier of the die casting
machine knockout pins that are in contact with the ejector pin plate pass through the holes in ejector
platen As the die opens the ejector platen approaches the knockout plate. The knockout pins then
contact the knockout plate and pushes the ejector plate of the die forward and the continuing
travel of the ejection system pushes the casting and the sprue from the die . When the die closes the
ejector pins are retracted by the die return pins.
Some die casting machines have adjustable knockout pins on either side or passing
through the moving platen which could be made to conta
ct the extended knockout plate of
the ejector system of the die to actuate the ejection of the casting.
Rack and Pinion Ejection system: 1. Ejector pin plate

2. Return pin
3. Ejector Die Half
4. Cover die half
5. Die cavity
6. Runner
7. Sprue spreader
8. Sprue
9. Gate
10. Fixed core
11. Ejector pin
12. Pinion
13. Rack
The ejector mechanism with rack and pinion is fastened to the ejector (movable) die
half Guide pins with rack teeth are attached to the ejector pin plate. A pinion engages the rack
teeth on the machine to eject the casting. Standard ejector boxes with rack
and pinion
assemblies could be used. This system is rather obsolete.
Hydraulic Ejection System: 1. Cover platen

2. Cover die half
3. Casting
4. Ejector pin
5. Return pin
6. Ejector pin plate
7. Cylinder rod
8. Hydraulic cylinder
9. Ejector die half
10. Ejector platen
11

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TG-2
This system includes a hydraulic cylinder mounted on the back of the ejector platen.
The cylinder rod protrudes through the platen to the ejector pin plate. When the ejector (
movable) platen moves sufficiently to allow removal of the casting from the die, a limit
switch cause the cylinder rod to advance, forcing the casting out of the ejector half o the die.
The advantage of this system over the mechanical system is that the ejector pins can be
retracted with the die in the o pen position. In this position the die can be easily cleaned and
inspected with the pins retracted.
Hydraulic retraction of ejectors avoids the interception of side cores with the ejector
pins before the side cores are moved in by finger cams in the die closed position. This system
allows the loading of inserts in the moving half when ejector pins are located under the inserts.
5) Core pull: - When there are slides to be pulled by hydraulic cylinder to from impression
detail in the direction other than in line with the machine movement separate facilities are
provided for the hydraulic hose connection.
6) Pump:-The hydraulic pump provides the motive power when hydraulic pump operates it
perform two functions:
Firstly its mechanical action creates a partial vacuum at the inlet of pump which
enables atmospheric pressure in the reservoir to force liquid through the in let into the
pump.
Secondly it delivers this liquid to the pump outlet on forces into the hydraulic system.
7) Clamping: -The two halves of a die mounted on the platens of the machine must be
clamped together to prevent the leakage of molten metal at the die parting line. The clamping
system provides the basis for rating the die casting machines. A 200 ton machine is one that
can exert clamping force or locking pressure of 200 tons on the die halves. The clam
ping
system consists of stationary platen and movable platen, two to four accurately ground tie rods
a locking mechanism.
12

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THEORY

(COLD CHAMBER)
TG-2
(Fig. 17 Locked position / Unlocked position)

The stationery and movable platen have T slots or holes for clamping the die halves.
The cover half of the die is mounted on the stationery platen.
13

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THEORY

(COLD CHAMBER)
TG-2
The stroke and power transmitted by a hydraulic

cylinder combined with the
mechanical advantage of the link system is used for locking the die. The locking action begins
when the two faces of the die come in contact and compression at the faces is established.
When the three outer link pins are aligned and the cross head link position is normal to the
alignment of the pins maximum force on the die equals tensile forces in the tie rods.
Hydraulic Locking systems: This die locking system combines a hydraulic cylinder stroke and dual action. The
system consists of three hydraulic cylinders two of, which furnish the forces necessary to drive
the wedges that lock the two die halves together.
(Fig. 19 Hydraulic locking system)

The third cylinder is a die closing cylinder which moves the ejector platen to the
point of die contact , and at this position the wedges become engaged with the matin
g wear
plates at the rear of the central screw in the locked position. The wedge cylinders are then
actuated to force wedges between the wear plates and rear platen. The locking force depends
upon the wedge angle, the size of the cylinders and the pump pressures.
Die opening Adjustment: -
14

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THEORY

(COLD CHAMBER)
TG-2
This is made by various mechanical devices. The simplest design consists of two nuts
one on each side of the toggle carrier, thread on each of the rods machine. To close the die
opening. All front adjusting nuts are loosened and the rear adjusting nuts arecSorrespondingly
tightened to force the toggle system forward till it locks into position.
The other device uses a large bull ge ar on the rear face of the toggle carrier for
adjusting the die opening The bull gear on the rear face of the toggle carrier for adjusting the die
opening. The bull gear drives the tie rod nuts that are fastened to the toggle carrier.A fourth de sign
incorporate nuts with sprocket teeth at their periphery to engage a chain drive.
The locking force should be adjusted over the tie bars to provide uniform locking
pressure on the die and avoid overstressing tie rods. Some die casting machine manufacture
provide dial indicators to maintain equal locking force on each of the tie bars.
B2.2.2
CLASSIFICATION OF COLD CHAMBER DIE CASTING
MACHINES
The cold chambers machines are sub divided into two types based on the position of
the injection chamber are
1) Horizontal cold chamber machine
2) Vertical cold chamber machine.
B2.2.3
HORIZONTAL COLD CHAMBER MACHINE
The short chamber machine is mounted horizontal pouring. Hole in the top of the
chamber wall.
The operating cycle of the horizontal cold chamber shot system starts with the die
closed and locked and the cylinder plunger in retarded position. The molten metal is ladled
15

1629
DIE CASTING
THEORY

(COLD CHAMBER)
TG-2
though the pouring hole of the shot chamber. Then the injection cylinder is actua
ted and
moves the plunger forward. The plunger tip first closes off the pouring hole and then forces
the metal into the die . After solidification of the metal in the cavity the die is opened and the
plunger moves in the direction of initial trav el to complete its full stroke. This final forward
travel of the plunger tip forces the biscuit (excess metal) free of shot chamber and aids in
stripping the casting from the cover die. The plunger retracts the casting is ejected from the
ejector die and the machine is ready for the next cycle after the halves of the die are closed and
locked.
In the shot cylinder of the horizontal injection machine the plunger tip should be
adjusted to be very near the pouring hole. Most plunger tips are made of H 13 tool steel or nit
riding alloy steel to resist heat and wear.
16

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DIE CASTING
THEORY
B.2.2.4

(COLD CHAMBER)
TG-2
VERTICAL COLD CHAMBER MACHINES
In this m achine the injection system consists of a vertical shot chamber (fig. 15
connected directly to the cover die half by a sprue bushing. There are two plunger in this
machine a hydraulically actuated lower plunger covers the bushing hole in the vertical cold
chamber while metal is being ladled into the chamber from above. After the pressure builds
up, the lower plunger retracts, uncovering the spruebushing hole, the metal is forced through
the sprue bushing into the die. After dwell cycle for Metal solidification, the upper plunger is
with drawn while the lower plunger raises and shears off the remaining slug of metal (biscuit)
and ejects it.
The molten metal in a vertical chamber machine moves in a compact mass as the
plunger advances. This minimizes metal turbulence and casting of low porosity could be
produced.
Casting with high density specifications, or where the use of inserts is required and
the parts that can best be made with centre gating and better finish, the die
casting are
recommended to be made in vertical machines . Some examples of casting for which centre
gating is most convenient or most effective are those having thick centre hubs and thin
outer sections , such as wheels and blower impellers.
(Fig. 14 Equivalent stages in the casting cycle of a cold chamber machine (End wick))
(fig.15)
17

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DIE CASTING
THEORY
B2.2.5

(COLD CHAMBER)
TG-2
COMPARISON OF HOT AND COLD CHAMBER PROCESS
The surface quality the density of the cast structure and the other mechanical
properties are most the same for parts made by the processes . It is found that cold chamber
castings. Made of various alloys such as Aluminum silicon and Zn alloys, s how some what
higher strength value. This is due to chemical properties (iron picks up) of the corresponding
alloys in the molten condition and also due to higher pressure.
B2.2.6
PROCESS PARAMETERS AND CONTROL
As long as the die lasts, brasse s are quite easy to diecast. Because of the good cast
ability of the alloys high quality die casting can be faithfully reproduced. With proper process
control and die design good productivity can be achieved of high quality parts.
In any die cas ting process there are eight major process variables , and the die
casting of brass is no exception These variables are :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Alloy Content
Metal Processing
Injection Velocity and pressure
Die Temperatures
Casting Ejection Temperatures
Cycle Timing
Lubricants
Tie bar Loading
Except for the lubricant and tie bar loading each variables is discussed below in
terms of its effect on the casting quality, operation efficiency, and methods of control as
related to die casting the brasses.
Alloy Content and Processing: The alloy compositions must be maintained within the specification ranges. It is most
important for the alloy to be prepared and handled correctly. Extraneous materials must be
kept out of the hol ding furnace and the melt must not be overheated. Overheating may cause
excessive loss of the zinc from the alloy.
Ideally, each heat of alloy should be checked but this is usually confined to the
breakdown furnace or a certified analysis from th e ingot supplier. Methods of analysis may
vary, but a spectrographic quant meter is probably the fastest and easiest but this type of
equipment is not ordinarily present in a die casting shop Most die caster purchase their metal
from an ingot maker who guarantees the composition.
18

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In reverberatory and rocking arc furnaces, separation of heat source and metal result in
a local heat concentration at the surface of the liquid metal. The high heat concentration tends
to increase the loss of zinc from the metal. When all factors are considered, induction heating
is usually preferred to indirect heating. The breakdown furnace is usually run continuously.
Overnight the charge in the furnac e is kept at 1/3 to 1/ 4 of the capacity of the breakdown
furnace is dispensed at any on time. If the charge in the furnace. It is held at a temperature as
close to the liquids as possible. This practice serves to reduce fuel costs and zinc loss. Prior to
the start of the shift, the furnace is charged with a mixture of about 1/2 new ingot metal and 1/2
trimming and /or chips. The temperature is raised to about 110 C above the melting point of
the alloy where it is held until needed by the die casting machine operator.
The metal is dispensed to the individual holding furnaces at each machine by transfer
crucible or ladle which is filled from the breakdown furnace. Usually an overhead rail system
or a traveling crane is used to move the transfer crucible from the breakdown furnace to the
holding furnaces.
A low frequency electric induction, two chamber unit type of melting furnace has
been introduced into a number of shops. One chamber is used for melting and the other for
holding. The two chamber furnaces are desirable for shops whose product line involves
different alloy compositions because a central break down furnace limits versatility regarding
composition changes.
Injection Velocity and Pressure: The velocity of the plunger determines how long the molten metal is in contact with
the relatively cold shot sleeve and runners, leaving less heat in the metal which must travel
to the far reaches of the cavity . Therefore, changes in plunger velocity alter the
thermodynamic casting cycle. And the most scientifically engineered gating design is
worthless if the plunger velocity is incorrect.
The plunger velocity governs gate velocity and must be adjusted to compensate for any
change in plunger diameter. The actual velocity of the plunger is the net result of the
interaction of many variables such as: 1. Hydraulic System Pressure
2. Hydraulic Fluid Temperature
3. Alloy Temperature
4. Plunger Size
5. Cold Fit
6. Casting Rate & Charge Size
7. Temperature of Shot Sleeve
8. Control Valve Opening
9. Control Valve Response ( repeat ability)
10. Die Temperature
11. Plunger to Shot Sleeve Fit
12. Temperature of Plunger
13. Water Cooling Flow
14. Plunger Lubricant (type & application)
19

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Die Temperature: The high fluidity of the brasses makes them easy to cast. The short die life result in
very high tooling costs and poor utilization of plant and equipment. Ironical ly, the ease of
casting contributes to the short die life Since it is possible to get good castings from a cold
die after only 3 to 6 shots it is tempting to do so,. Even a preheated die may require several
shots to establish the necessary thermal gradients through the die.
The magnitude of the stresses that cause heat checking is a function of the difference
between metal injection temperature and the initial die temperature. The essence of the
problem lies in the fact that with each inj
ected metal , if the whole die is heated up it would
simply expand. But, since the surface heats and expands while the base material remains as
before, the surface experiences extreme compressive stress which results in physical
mechanical deformation of the die material.
The total amount of cavity surface deformation becomes a direct function of the
temperature change.
The studies conclude that the hotter the die the longer it will last. This operating
temperature to life relationship is believed to hold true until a die is heated above the phase
transformation temperature ( 500 C for H - 13) of the die material Higher temperatures
supposedly reduce die life.
Die temperature control is also important to casting quality Internal porosity and
blisters are dependent upon die temperature patterns. Zoned temperature control, could be
very effective although it might involve heaters as well as cooling media.
If the die is too cold at the time of metal injection, it will contribute to cold shuts and
lack of fill. Premature freezing in critical casting gate, or runner areas may impair
shrinkage feeding even though adequate pressure is applied by the plunger. Conversely, i f
the die is too hot the injected brass may solder to the die there may be excessive
Flash or the re could even be bending of delicate cores. Zoned temperature control can
practically eliminate premature freezing of sections in the feed path
Die temperature control is very important to the successful die casting of brass, even
though it may not be always apparent to the operator of the machine.
Casting Ejection Temperature: Casting ejection temperature is a very critical variable. If the casting is too hot, it may
deform when ejected, blister, weep lead (if it is high lead alloy), solder to the die, or burst in
a heavy section. If one area only is too hot, if may have excessive porosity either internally or
on the surface. Similarly, if the casting is below the proper ejection temperature, it may seize
to the die and cause drag marks or crack the casting.
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Cycle Timing: Cycle timing is a critical factor in maintaining die and casting ejection temperature.
The DT/CT controller establishes a process dependent feed back control of one point in the
cycle Zoned die temperature control will compensate for some fluctuation in cycle timing
. But these systems are limited. It is still necessary to achieve a uniform cycle. Die open time
and ladling time should be as constant as possible.
A temperature monitoring device called a pacer has been developed by Dow
Chemical Company to help control cycle timing. When the die gets too hot, a red light
comes on the die is too cold and he must speed up A green light shows that the temperature
is in the desired range. Because of the relative ease with which bras
s castings can be made in
a low temperature die, some temperature sensitive system is necessary to avoid making
shots into a cold die Such control devices will improve casting quality and optimize
output while maximizing die life. Since die life is the key to economical die casting of
brasses, the operating personnel must be trained in the reason for and use of the
instrumentation.
B2.2.7
COLD CHAMBER DIE CASTING PROCESSING METALS
AND ALLOYS
Alloy Metallurgy: - As a molten al loy freezes it usually passes through two stages
Solidification begins at the liquids temperature; then as cooling proceeds, the quantity of
solid metal increases and the alloy is in a pasty of solid metal increases and the alloy is in a
pasty condition, finally it solidifies completely at the solid us temperature.
Fig. shows the equilibrium diagram of the well -know aluminum silicon alloys. It will
be seen that with 8% silicon the liquids is at 6050 and the solids 577C, so there is a freezing
range of 28C. At about 11.7 % silicon, the liquids and solids coincide and melting point is the
lowest for the series. This composition is called the eutec tic, and the alloy solidifies at one
fixed temperature, in a similar way to the freezing of a pure metal. A part from the exceptional
cases of alloys whose composition is precisely that of their eutectic all alloys used in die
casting freeze over a range of temperatures, from a few degrees for zinc alloy to over a
hundred degrees for magnesium alloy. The table below shows the liquids and solids
temperatures of typical die casting alloys.
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-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Alloy
Liquid s
Centigrade Solids
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Zinc alloy BS 1004A (4.1 % A1.) 387
382
Aluminum-silicon alloy
a
8% Si
605
577
b
10% Si
590
577
c
11% Si
585
577
d
12% Si
582
577
Aluminum magnesium alloys
a
5%
Mg
635
590
b
7.5%
Mg
625
560
c
10.0%
Mg
610
525
Magnesium alloy MAG 7
Brass
60 % Cu 39.5 % Zn 0.5 % A1.
Aluminum Bronze
89 % Cu 10 % A1. 1 % Fe
596
468
910
900
1053
1040
Nickel Aluminum Bronze

84 % Cu 10 % A1. 3 % Fe 3
3 % Ni
1060
1049
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The aluminum alloy LM 6 containing 10-13 per cent silicon illustrates the effect of
freezing range in gravity die casting This alloy specification spans the theoretical eutectic
composition of 11.7 % and the changes in freezing range on entire side of the eutectic cause
wide variations in the form of shrinkage, during solidification. Furthermore the composition
of the eutectic is displaced by fast cooling rates and by the effect of traces of sodium which are
added t o modify the structure and improve the properties. To avoid excessive scrap due to
shrinkage, both the silicon and sodium contents must be matched to the particular casting, and
then controlled with in narrow ranges. In gravity die casting production it isnecessary to select
and specify the composition which gives satisfactory results. If a gravity foundry accepted
ingot with , say 12.5 per cent silicon from one supplier and 10.9 per cent silicon from
another, either consignment separately might produce acceptable die casting, but if they were
mixed, the average silicon composition would become 11.7 per cent and this , being the
eutectic composition, would prove troublesome to gravity diecast because, because of
difficulties in feeding.
In pressure die casting aluminum - silicon alloys, these problems are partly overcome
by the pressure follow up applied during freezing. Even so, critical castings subject to
radiographic inspection necessitate close composition control to avoid shrinka ge defects. In
general the freezing range of the alloy is not so important in pressure die casting as in gravity.
For example the magnesium based alloys have long freezing ranges but are not difficult to
pressure die cast. Other factors such as ho
t- shortness, discussed below, are of greater
importance.
Hot Shortness: -
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In pressure die casting, molten metal is injected into a die at the speed of an express
train, and is rapidly compressed in the pasty stage, to a coherent mass. Continued rapid
cooling reduces the temperature of the metal by a few hundred degrees and so used to
Obtaining accurate castings of good surface appearance, that they rarel y visualize the metal
turbulence inside a die every time a pressure casting is produced.
Stresses are set up because of contraction on solidification and subsequent cooling.
Certain alloys which tend to crack under these stresses are called hot-short, for example
70/30 brass is hot short and so cannot be diecast with out cracking ; 60/40 brass is not
hot-short and is comparatively easy. The aluminum alloys with 10 per cent magnesium are
hot short and are quite difficult to gravity diecast and still more difficult to pressure diecast.
The Effect of Melting Point on Die Life: Since the metal is only in contact , in this molten state , with the die surface for a
fraction of a second , the tendency to dissolve the die
steel is not vary significant. The
principle effect of melting temperature concerns the thermal fatigue of effect of melting
temperature concerns the thermal fatigue of the dies, which deteriorate gradually over a
period of time, discussed in h eat checking. Small cores are replaced after a few thousand
shots, ejectors require to be replaced ejector guides ground and die forms republished and
additional draft or radii provided where die wear has occurred in important cavities.
Design features, section thickness and volume of the die casting and quality of the
die making make it difficult to define an accurate relationship between melting point and
die life. Lead and tin alloys, melting at fewer than 300 C, give almost indefinite die lives.
Zinc alloy, cast at about 400 C, will often give several hundred thousand castings while,
with good component design combined which good die -making , a life of o ver a million
shots is possible. In casting aluminum at about 650C it is likely that running repairs will
have to be done quite regularly, but total die lives of from 100,000 to 200,000 are excepted,
and may be exceeded quite considerably.
Magnesium has a similar melting point to that of aluminum, but it does not erode
steel dies like aluminum so the die life is normally about 25 per cent greater for an
equivalent job. The effect of this longer die life on total production cost is discussed on page
257. Brass pressure dies will endure abo ut 10,000 to 20,000 shots sometimes more under
ideal conditions.
When gravity die casting aluminum bronze, with a melting point of over
1000C die lives of about 10,000 to 20,000 are expected and, for long run
s, special materials
such as the Mnemonics are economically worthwhile , these heat resisting materials give
much longer die lives under gravity die casting conditions at such elevated temperatures.
The Effect of Other Physical Properties: -
Fluidity thermal conductivity, specific heat and latent heat of the metal affect the
Die-casting properties. The solubility otherwise of ferrous metals in the alloy because they
have comparatively low melting points, but also because they do not dissolve the ferrous
material from which the goosenecks and plunger are made. Molten pure zinc dissolves iron,
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so that this zinc alloy is suitable for casting in hot chamber machines. However, if the melt
temperature is not kept down, rapid solution can occur.
Magnesium has a melting point similar to that of aluminum but it does not
readily dissolve ferrous materials, so it can be die casting using goosenecks similar to those
employed for zinc alloy die casting. Aluminum dissolves ferrous materials so a hot chamber
machine for aluminum would require a gooseneck made of a ceramic material such as
silicon nitride or titanium dibordie
Aluminum Alloys: Die Casting Alloys: It is customary to refer to particular alloy s by their specification number, without
reference to the type of raw material used to produce the alloy. In practice this may be wholly
secondary wholly primary on a mixture of both. The official national standards for foundry
alloys in all the major countries simply specify the required limits of chemical
Composition but they impose no restrictions on the choice of raw material, leaving the ingot
producer to decide what materials are technically economically suitable.
Pressure Die Casting Alloys: Per Cent Composition (Single Values are maxima)
BS 1490
LM.2
LM.5
LM.6
LM.20
LM.24
Cu
0.7-2.5
0.1
0.1
0.4
3.0-4.0
Mg
0.3
3.0-6.0
0.1
0.2
0.30
Si
9.0-11.5
0.3
10.0-13.0
10.0-13.0
7.5-9.5
Fe
1
0.6
0.6
1.0
1.3
Ma
1
0.3-0.7
0.5
0.5
0.5
Ni
0.5
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.5
Zn
2
0.1
0.1
0.2
3.0
Pb
0.3
0.05
0.1
0.1
0.3
Sn
0.2
0.05
0.05
0.1
0.2
The alloys most used in other countries for die casting are shown in the Table on 13.
Generally the specifications shown in any one line are similar but not necessarily identical. In
the USA the alloy to specification ASTM A.380.1 commercially as 380 alloy (comparable
with LM .24 in UK), is by far the most commonly used alloy for die casting.
Properties: A part from suitability for the particular design and casting method, which should be a
subject of consultation at an early stage of the conception of the casting, the choice of alloy
will depend upon the excepted subsequent treatment and service requirements of the casting.
The suitability of the alloys to meet particular requirement s are briefly reviewed below,
mainly in relation to those more commonly used, but reference is made wh ere appropriate,
to special purpose alloys.
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Castability: With the modern high pressure die casting machines difference in casting
characteristics are not of great significance, although the aluminum-magnesium alloys such
as LM5, tend to suffer from hot-tearing and are considerably more difficult to diecast. All
the alloys listed previously on page 215 have favorable characteristics for casting in
permanent moulds. For very large, thin or complicated castings LM6 is the most suitable alloy
but the need for modification treatment may be a slight disadvantage.
Mechanical properties: The strength and hardness of the four pressure die casting alloys LM.2 , 6, and 24 are
roughly of the same order, with a slight advantages towards LM.24 Under ideal conditions
with a test bar only 6mm in diameter, tensile strength of the order of 300
N/mm2 ( 20 tons per sq.in approx.) could be obtained but as a general rule for designing a
component with one of these pressure diecast alloys a tensile strength of say 10-12 tons per
sq.in. (150-170 N/mm2) should be expected.
The superiority in ductility of LM6 May sometimes is useful if a casting needs
subsequently to be formed or rivotted. For permanent mould casting t here is a Much wider
range of mechanical properties. The alloys LM4, 6, and 27 offer moderate strength and
hardness which adequate for the greater proportion of castings; LM 6 has a some what lower
proof strength and but much higher elongation. The alloys
LM9 and 25 which are heat treated, satisfy most requirements when higher strength hardness is required. LM25 which is
specified in four conditions is particularly versatile in its range of mechanical properties.
When high shock resistance is needed LM6 Will usually satisfy requirements, but if
greater strength is also required LM22 ( usually gravity diecast and then heat treated ) is
suitable For castings of simple shape the alloy with 10% magnesium LM 10 one of the
most difficult alloys oven to gravity diecast might be considered. The fatigue properties of
cast aluminum alloys tend to lie within a fairly narrow band and no one alloy offer an
outstanding advantage. In particular it should be noted that, while the tensilestrength of an
alloy may be double by heat -treatment, the fatigue strength may be improved only
marginally. When permanent mould castings are required for high temperature service, one
of the special purpose alloys, LM 13 or LM 26, should be u
sed, but where moderate
temperatures of 200 or 250C are excepted, alloys LM2, 4, 24 and 27 may be selected. The
composition of all these alloys was shown in the tables on page.
Corrosion Resistance: Weathering tests have shown that there is little difference in the resistance to
atmospheric attack of the common die and permanent mould casting alloys. For use in marine
applications or in chemical and food manufacture the alloys LM6, 9 and 25 offer greater
resistance than the others listed before. Provided that they are suitable from other
considerations, LM5 and LMO (pure aluminum) provide even greater resistance to chemical
attack.
Machinability: -
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TG-2
The die casting alloys LM2 and LM2 4 are significantly easier to machine than whilst
LM20 is slightly superior to LM6. OF the permanent mould casting alloys, LM4 and LM27
Machine very well LM25 When heat treated is a almost as good, LM 9 and LM6 cause
rather more tool wear, and the relative softness of the latter alloy is disadvantage in certain
machining operations such as the cutting of threads.
Physical properties: There is little to choose in terms of thermal expansion between the alloys commonly
used for permanent mould or pressure die casting. As will be seen from the table this thermal
expansion is of the order of 20 x 16-6 per C. If a lower thermal expansion is of the order of LM
13, which has a coefficient of 19 x 10 -6 can be used, but the special piston alloy LM29 has a
coefficient of only 16x 16-6 per OC.
If electrical conductivity is an important requirement there is an advantage in using
LM6, 9, 20 and 25 of the common alloys ( a much higher conductivity is, of course, offered
by pure aluminum).
Magnesium Alloys: Alloys: In the U .K. the preferred alloy for commercial die casting and permanent mould
casting is MAG 7 to BS. 2970; this also know as Electron C alloy. The nearest U.S.
Specification for this purpose is AZ91B, the German Mg A19 Zn1, the French GA9z1 and the
Russian ML5.
A similar material , but with a tighter specification and generally only issued for
permanent mould casting, is MAG 3, for which the aeronautical used specification is L123,
though this also implies higher inspection standards; MAG 3 is the near equivalent of the
United States AZ 91C, the German Mg A1 9 1, then French F10 alloy and the Russian ML6.
The die casting
Equivalent C is AZ 91B which implies a beryllium content of 0.0015% in the ingot
alloy. The composition and properties of the two alloys MAG 3 and MAG7 are shown below:
__________________________________________________________
Alloy to Alloying Element %
Maxim Impurities %
BS2970 Aluminum Zinc
Manganese Copper Silicon Iron Nickel
___________________________________________________________
MAG 3M
(AZ91C
Nearest) 9.0-10.5 0.3-1.0
0.15-0.4 0.15 0.3 0.05 0.02
MAG 7M
(AZ91B
Nearest) 7.5-9.5 0.3-1.5
0.15-0.8 0.35 0.4 0.05 0.02
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____________________________________________________________
The Uses of Magnesium Die Casting: The uses of magnesium die casting derive essentially from their weight saving effect,
through in many instances the saving in machining effect, t hrough in many instances the
saving in machining costs alone can be sufficient justification. It is certain however that, in
our present fuel and power economy drive, any weight reduction is of worthwhile benefit
especially where inertia plays a part in stopping and starting , for example textile machinery
or transport vehicles.
Since magnesium casting alloys are not aggressive in their corrosive action toward
mild steel or low alloy steel components, the hot chamber machine has definite adv antages
in that the benefits of automating the process, originally derived from zinc alloy practices,
can be applied to magnesium production.
The general pattern of the use of magnesium die casting is quite extraordinary. It
appears that, once a user or indeed a country has realized that magnesium is quite safe to use
and that the fire hazard is not a bogey ( it has been used for cooking pots and frying pans)
the metal is accepted and used
Component Design: A uniform section (generally of 2-4 mm) is desirable with the minimum of thickened
sections. These, if unavoidable, should be lightened by means of coring if at all practical, with
ribs being preferable to thickened sections if strengthened areas are required.
To take full advantage of the high casting rates available with the use of magnesium
alloy, side cores should be omitted, and apertures formed either by opposing die block
design or by a secondary machining or press tool operation. Thus the planning design stage
of a component is all important in obtaining a cast of uniform section , and avoiding
localized thicker areas which would lead to Hot spot formation with the possibility of
consequent cracking . It must also be borne in mind that
sharp corners, where stress
concentrations localize , are frequent areas where cracking can take place and that an edge
should always be provided with a small radius. It has also been noted that slightly roughened
die surfaces diminish the tendency crack formation.
Die Casting Systems for Magnesium Alloys: Both hot chamber and cold chamber processes are used for the production of
magnesium alloy die casting. The essential requirements are:1) A fast cycling time to take advantage of the high production rates arising from
the low heat content of the alloy.
2) A fast-acting second stage of the injection system of the order of 3-7 m/s, to fill the
cavity before the inset of solidification.
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Copper Alloys: There is only pressure die casting alloy in the United Kingdom covered by BS 1400,
and this is essentially a duplex brass. Figure 2.3 shows the copper -zinc thermal equilibrium
diagram on which it is based.
The presence of lead, which is essentially insoluble in copper, is to aid mach inability
whilst aluminum prevents zinc oxidation and loss and improves fluidity.
Since the end use of many pressure die cast components is in the form of plumbers
fittings for use in water, corrosion resistance is important .This problem can be solved in
several ways. At elevated temperature the alloy has a duplex structure of alpha and beta
phases, the percentage of beta becoming less as the temperature the alloy has a duplex
structure of alpha and beta phases, the percentage of beta becoming less as the temperature is
lowered. Beta-phase is necessary at high temperature to give resistance to hot cracking, but
its presence at room temperature and at room temperature th
e beta phase at high
temperature but little at room temperature the beta phase will be in an isolated condition
and corrosion will not proceed to any great extent . Corrosion of the alpha phase can be
inhibited by small amount of arsenic.
Another approach to the problem is to give the castings a low temperature heat
treatment to achieve the same result as just described , whilst a further answer is to
introduce alloying elements. There are several proprietary alloys
which achieve this,
generally by the addition of manganese, nickel or tin.
The high casting temperature of brass means that die life is drastically reduced as
compared to the other metals and this has lead to the development of die materials based
on molybdenum and tungsten.
B2.2.8
COLD CHAMBER DIE CASTING DIE
A die casting die is basically a heat exchanger, where the heat from the molten metal
is absorbed by the die cavity surfaces and the die body by the process of heat t ransfer, to
solidify the molten metal and from the component as per the shape of the impression. This
process is repeated and there is regular absorption of heat from the molten metal by the die
casting die which has water cooling system to maintain constant die temperature.
The die casting die is split into two sections so that the casting can be removed after it
has been formed. These two sections are called the cover die and ejector die, or fixed half and
moving half etc. The two sections, which meet at the parting line, contain the hardened
cavities and cores. The cover die goes on the stationary platen of the casting machine to which
the shot chamber is connected, and does not move during the casting cycle. The ejector half is
fastened to the movable platen of the machine where die locking and ejector systems are
provided.
The parting line formed by the two surface of the die must be smooth and finished
so that they fit closely to gather. Straight parting lines are always preferable. The two halves
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of the die should be in exact register when the die is closed. This is accomplished by providing
guide pins and bushes in the stationary or cover die members.
The main parts of the Cold Chamber die casting die include: 1. Cavity plate + Back plate (Clamp plate)
2. Core plate + Back plate (support plate)
3. Guide pins and bushes
4. Parallels of rails
5. Ejector plate
6. Ejector retainer plates
7. Ejector pins
8. Surface pins or return pins
9. Die gates and runners
10. Cores and slides
11. Mounting holes and slots for clamping
12. Stop blocks or stop pins etc.
13. Injection cylinder sleeve.
The fig shows a typical die casting die layout suitable for the Horizontal cold chamber
die casting machine. The die assembly section wit h the plans of ejector dies and cover die
halves could be seen with its details. The cavity and core inserts, sprue bush and sprue insert.
29

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DIE CASTING
THEORY
CHAPTER: B3 PRESSURE DIE CASTING (HOT

CHAMBER)
UNIT-2
CHAPTER B3
PRESSURE DIE CASTING (HOT CHAMBER)
-1-
TG-2

- 2 -10
DIE CASTING
THEORY

CHAMBER)
Chapter Outline
B.3.1.1
Introduction
B.3.1.2
Classification of Die Casting Machines
B.3.1.3
Hot Chamber Machines
B.3.1.4
Hot Chamber Machines and Parts
-2-
TG-2

- 3 -10
DIE CASTING
THEORY
B.3.1.1

CHAMBER)
TG-2
INTRODUCTION
DIE CASTINGS are produced by forcing molten metal under pressure into moulds
called dies.
B3.1.2
CLASSIFICATION OF MACHINES
All die castings machines have one of two different metal pumping system: A hot or
cold chamber system.
If the metal being cast melts at a low temperature and thus does not attack the
injection pump material, the pump can be placed directly in the molten metal bath ( hot
chamber machines). If the molten metal attacks the pump mat erial at casting temperature,
the pump must not be placed in the metal bath, and a cold chamber machine must be used.
-3-

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DIE CASTING
THEORY
B3.1.3

CHAMBER)
TG-2
HOT CHAMBER MACHINES
The metal pumping system is shown in fig. 1, which consist essentially of pressure
and power cylinders plunger, gooseneck and nozzle is typical of hot chamber injection (shot
) systems. The gooseneck containing the pressure cylinder and plunger is submerged in the
molten casting metal and is thus at the temperature of the metal bath. This arrangement
allows the metal to be injected into the die cavities in minimum time and with minimum
decrease in temperature.
With the plunger in the up position as shown in fig. 1, molten metal flows from the
pot into the pressure cylinder through the intake ports. With the die closed and locked, the
power cylinder is energized to move the plunger downward. This seals off the intake ports.
With further downward movement of the plunger, of the plunger the molten metal is forced
through the gooseneck channel and the nozzle into the die cavity. After a present time to
allow the metal to solidify in the die cavity, the power cylinder is activated in the reverse
direction, thus pulling the plunger up. This uncovers intake ports, and metal flows from the
port into the pressure cylinder the machine are ready for the next cycle. The power cylinder
can be actuated either by air or oil.
Castings weighing from a fraction of an ounce to about 50lb can be produced in hot
chamber machines of metal cast with one stroke can be varied by using different sizes of
gooseneck assemblies. The weight of castings that can be made depends on the alloy being
cast, the projected area of the shot, and the locking pressure.
Depending on degree of mechanization, process variables and the part being cast,
hot chamber machines are generally at rates of 50 to 500 shots per hour. Special machines
greatly exceed this rates, ranging from 2000 to 5000 shots per hour upto 18000 shots per
hour for a zipper- casting machines.
The gooseneck is made of gray, alloy or ductile iron, or of cast steel. The choice of
material is dictated by operating pressure, casting metal, and cast. Common practice is to
insert a replaceable liner in the bore of the pressure cylinder (Fig. 1). The material for the
liner should have good wear resistance and resistance to softening at operating temperature.
The goosenecks usually have a nozzle seat (Fig. 1), which can be replaced when the
spherical sealing surface becomes damage. A good seal must be maintained at the junction
of the components (pressure cylinder, gooseneck channel, nozzle seat, and nozzle) through
which the molten metal flows to the die.
Liners and nozzle seats usually are made from H13 or a high speed tool steel,
nitrided alloy steel, or stainless steel. Nozzles must be able to resist the washing action of
the molten metal and the scaling action of externally applied heat, and must be strong
enough at operating temperature to resist the pressure of molten metal. Alloy cast iron, H13
tool steel, and stainless steel are among the materials used for nozzles.
The plunger is generally of alloy cast iron and may or may not be heat treated.
Often, the plunger includes one or more rings (like piston rings ), which aid in maintaining
pressure.
-4-

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DIE CASTING
THEORY

CHAMBER)
TG-2
Life of the pressure cylinder may be extended by honing the inside wall of the
cylinder (often as much as 0.030 in. oversize in inside diameter ). A proportionally larger
plunger is then used regardless of whether rings are included. A plunger-to-cylinder
clearance of 0.002 to 0.003 in. per inch of bore diameter is considered optimum.
B.3.1.2
HOT CHAMBER MACHINES AND PARTS
Regardless of types of machines used, it is essential that die halves, cores and other
movable sections be securely locked in place during the casting cycle. Generally, the
lamping force is governed by (a) the projected area of the casting (measured at the die
parting line) and (b) the pressure used to inject metal into the die. Most mechanisms
actuated by hydraulic cylinders (sometimes air pressure) to achieve locking. Others use
direct acting hydraulic pressure. Safety interlock systems are used to prevent the die during
casting cycles. Die casting machines.
Hot chamber machine: - A type of die casting machine in which the pumping
chamber submerged in molten metal to inject metal into the die. Plunger or air pressure is
applied in the chamber of the machine. Which are known respectively plunger die casting
machines and air operated die casting machines.
Gooseneck machine: - The hot chamber machine is also called as gooseneck machines
as the pressure vessel or metal injection pump has the metal channel in the shape of
gooseneck.
Holding furnace: - Furnace used for holding molten metal preparatory to pouring
castings. This provides molten alloy at the desired temperature.
Locking force or clamping force : - The capacity of die casting machine to resist
metal injection force which tend to separate the die halves.
Platens: - A member in die casting machine that supports die halves.

Movable: - This holds and supports the moving die half. The movement of this platen is
used in the actuation of the ejector system in the die.
Stationary platen: - This holds and supports the cover die half which generally
contains the cavity.
Tie rod: - A bar used in a casting machine to hold dies against pressure; also serves as a
way along which the movable die platen slides.
Toggle: - Linkage in a casting machine employed to multiply pressure mechanically in

locking the dies. Also, linkage used for core locking and withdrawing in a die.
Injection cylinder: A hydraulic cylinder which is used for actuating the injection plunger.
Injecting force: The force exerted by the injection plunger on the molten alloy in the shot
sleeve.
-5-

- 6 -10
DIE CASTING
THEORY

CHAMBER)
TG-2
Injection stroke: - It is the total travel of the injection plunger.

Induction furnace: - Furnace heated by resistance of metal to flow of flux lines induced
by alternative electric current.
Injection: - The act or process of forcing molten metal into a die.

Plunger machines: - Die casting machines having a plunger in continuous contact with
molten metal (Hot chamber machines).
Reverberatory furnace: - A furnace having a vaulted ceiling that throws back the
flame and heat toward the hearth of the upper surface of the charge to be melted.
Shot: - That portion of the casting cycle in which molten metal is forced into the die.
Plunger: - That part of the die casting machine which forces the metal alloy into the die.
Distance between tie bars: The distance between tie bars that is available for clamping the
die halves. The center distance between tie bars minus the size of one diameter of the tie bar
gives this distance. (Fig .1)
Maximum clamp stroke: - It is the maximum amount of stroke the moving platen of
the machine can travel from the open position to the close position. (Fig.1)
Minimum die thickness or minimum closed daylight: When the machine is in the
fully closed position the minimum distance that is available between the fixed and moving
platen for fixing the die. The moving platen will not travel further to meet the fixed platen.
(Fig. 1).
Maximum die thickness or maximum closed daylight: It is the maximum distance
between the fixed platen and moving platen in the closed position, which can accommodate
a die of this thickness.
CLAMPING DIE SPACE NOMENCLATURE.
-6-

- 7 -10
DIE CASTING
THEORY

CHAMBER)
TG-2
FIGURE 1
Shot capacity: - It is the capacity of the molten alloy, which the cylinder or shot sleeve
can inject. The total volume or weight of the alloy which can be injected from the shot
sleeve is given generally in terms of aluminum alloys. Shot sleeves having different
volumes are available with the machines, which gives various shot capacities.
Shot sleeves: - These are the cylinders, which are used for various capacities supplied
along with the machines including the plungers. These are of different, internal diameters
and external diameters remain the same.
Projected area: - It is the area of any shape of casting projected on a plane normal to the
direction of the draw. This also includes the runners, gates & overflows and the sprue. This
also indicates the total area of the casting machines. Maximum theoretical projected area
A=F/p where F=locking force, p=injection pressure.
Cycle: - The complete elapsed time required to go through all the operations to mould the
casting.
Number of shots per hour: - The number of shots per hour in the machines depends
upon the type of the alloy used, value of metal per casting wall thickness, mould,
temperature etc. the number of shots per hour indicates the production rates of the machine.
Higher melting point alloys reduce the number of shot per hour due to the longer cycle
time.
-7-

- 8 -10
DIE CASTING
THEORY

CHAMBER)
TG-2
Oil pressure: - It is the pressure of the oil, which actuates different hydraulic cylinders
in the machine, made available from the accumulator.
Accumulator: - The pressure used in injection system and the general operation of the
hydraulic cylinders in the die casting machines is provided from a gas oil vessel called
accumulator. The gas used is generally nitrogen. This supplies the require volume of oil at
high pressure and rates necessary.
Intensifier: - It is a pressure multiplier which at the end of the injection piston travel
increases the pressure on the molten metal in the shot chamber and thus on the casting. The
intensifier prevents, voids and porosity in thick-wall casting. The die casting machine
essentially consists of a frame on which the die and actuating equipment are mounted. The
actuating device opens and closes the die which in all modern machines is a hydraulic
cylinders and piston, or hydraulic cylinder and toggle arrangement. The injection system of
the machines forces the molten into the die under pressure. The modern machines are
equipped to give slow initial plunger movement, a variable speed filling stroke and an
intensified final squeezing pressure before the solidification is complete. The ejection
system consists of knock out rod or plates, hydraulic cylinder and rack and pinion. The
power cylinders are actuated either hydraulically or pneumatically from a pressurized
accumulator.
FIGURE -1: SMALL (21-IN) DIE CASTING MACHINE HAVING A

HYDRAULICALLY OPERATED TOGGLE MECHANISM THAT CLOSES MACHINE
AND LOCKS THE DIE IN PLACE.
-8-

- 9 -10
DIE CASTING
THEORY

CHAMBER)
TG-2
FIGURE : 1
CASTING CYCLE ON A GOOSENECK MACHINE (E. M. D. NO. 12).

1. Limit switch
2. cylinder plunger rod
3. power cylinder
4. cover platen
5. nozzle
6. nozzles seat
7. channel
8. gooseneck
9. plunger ( in up position)
10. coupling
11. intake port(1 to 3)
12. pressure cylinder
13. liner
14. burner (1 of 2)
15. fire brick
16. pot
17. steel shell
-9-

- 10 -10
DIE CASTING
THEORY

CHAMBER)
TG-2
FIG 10.HOT CHAMBER MACHINE

When the plunger is in up position the molten metal flows from the pot into the
pressure cylinder through the inlet pot. With the die closed and locked, the shot cylinder is
actuated to move the plunger downward. As the plunger moves down, it seals off the inlet
pot and molten the metal is force through the gooseneck channel and the nozzle in to the die
casting die. After the metal solidifies in the die cavity, the power cylinder is actuated in
reverse direction, pulling the plunger up. This uncovers the inlet pot allowing metal to flow
from the pot into the pressure cylinder. The machine is now ready for the next cycle as the
two halves of the die are closed.
The term gooseneck sometimes is also applied to this type of machines because of
its hollow U shape. These machines are also now as submerged plunger machines.
Casting weighting up to 25kg (50 lbs) could be produced in the hot chamber
machines. These machines generally operated at 50 to 500 shot/hour. A good seal must be
maintained at
- 10 -

115
DIE CASTING
THEORY
CHAPTER: B4 DEFECTS AND REMEDIES ON DIE

CASTING DIE
UNIT-2
CHAPTER - B4
DEFECTES AND REMEDIES ON DIE CASTING DIES
TG-2

215
DIE CASTING
THEORY

CASTING DIE
TG-2
CHAPTER OUTLINE
B4.1.1
Introduction to Various Defects on Die Casting

Components.
B4.1.2
Identification of Defects.
B4.2.1
Classification of Defects.
B4.2.2
Description for Different Type of Defects.
B4.2.3
Horizontal cold chamber machine
B4.2.4
Vertical cold chamber machine
B4.2.5
Comparisons of hot and cold chamber process
B4.2.6
Process parameter & control
B4.2.7
Cold chamber die casting processing metals and alloys
B4.2.8

315
DIE CASTING
THEORY
B4.1.1

CASTING DIE
TG-2
INTRODUCTION TO VARIOUS DEFECTS ON DIE

CASTING COMPONENTS
With the exception of mechanical damage, such as distortion, drag marks,

burnishing or cracking, all casting defects are related to the interaction of heat flow and
metal flow with in the cavity and with process parameters and processing condition.
The effects of poor casting design can be minimized by good die design but where
obvious bad features exist the casting specifier should be informed and alternative designs
proposed.
Casting defects are undesirable in critical structural areas, particular by those subject
to fatigue. Minor defects on decorative surfaces can become very obvious after surface
treatment. Defects are generally eliminated by the die caster through control of the casting
process. However the product and Tool Designer should be conversant with casting defects,
particularly those that are affected by design practice.
B4.1.2
IDENTIFICATIONS OF DEFECTS
In General most of defects can be seen visually and some of the defects can be
found with special testing like Ultrasonic , UV testing etc., some of the following listed
procedure to finding the casting defects (See the given table).
SR.NO.
CRITERIA
DESCRIPTION
1
2
Casting
Handling
Bubbles
Crack
Cold shut
Flow defect
Gate broken
Lack of fill
Pin bend
Shrinkage
To avoid damage to the casting they should be handled

smoothly and care fully.
If any swelling appear on the casting surface due to air
trapping , then they are know as bubbles or blisters.
Inspect the casting and find whether any crack or damage
has appeared in the casting. If it is found then the casting is a
rejected one.
Check whether there are stream to merge (join) properly in
the casting. If not so, then the casting is defective due to cold
shut.
In the casting surface , if any lines or small pits are found
, then they are called as flow defect
Look at the gating area of the casting for any damage. If it is
found the casting is a defective
See the casting , if material is not properly filled in the
cavity area ( mould) then reject the casting . The defect is
due to lack of fill.
Check diametrically the wall thickness of the hole by
measuring at two or more suitable places. If they vary more
than the customer specified tolerance then the pin is said to
have bend.
Usually appears in the casting surface opposite to any heavy

415
DIE CASTING
THEORY

CASTING DIE
TG-2
section as a rib or boss. The are known as shrinkage defects.

10
Surface finish
11
Weld
12
Ejector pin
project or
depression
B4.2.1
Check whether the casting is smooth and stain free. If it is

not so it said to have a bad surface finish.
Inspect the casting If there is any torn skin free. If it is not
so it said to have a bad surface finish
MECHANICAL DEFECT
Inspect the surface of the casting in ejector face. If suppose
there are any projections or depression in the ejector pin
location area within the specified tolerance then the casting
is said to be rejected.
CLASSIFICATION OF DEFECTS
The various Defects are commonly encountered in die-casting can be classified in to

three groups.
1. Cold type defects:
Lack of fill
Cold shut
Severe chill
Chill
Flow lines.
2. Hot type defects:
Soldering
Cracks
Broken part
Bent part
Heat marks or shrinkage pits
3. Miscellaneous defects:
Scale
Blisters
Porosity
Excessive Flash
Mechanical defects
Ejector Pin marks.
When correcting faults during a casting run, it is important that the right corrective
action is taken as soon as possible A Fault correcting procedure, intended for Shop Floor
user is given below.
B4.2.2
DISCRIPTION FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF DEFECTS

515
DIE CASTING
THEORY
1.)

CASTING DIE
TG-2
Cold Type Defects: Lack of Fill: - This condition has three basic causes the first cause is inadequate
metal in the Gooseneck or Cold Chamber. the metal level in the holding furnace of
a hot chamber machines, the correct size idle must be used and care must be taken
to insure that the ladle is full for each shot When an automatic ladle is being used,
it must be properly adjusted to ladle exactly the correct amount of metal into the
cold chamber secondly this defects may be caused by cold metal, cold die or both
The temperatures Should be Checked and adjusted as necessary. Finally lack of
Fill may be the result of Slow shot speed. The Shot control hydraulic valves should
be opened the proper amount.
Cold Shut: - It is like lack of fill is caused by cold metal slow shot or low die
temperatures if air vents and / or over flows are C logged with flash they may also
contribute to the problem All these factors must be checked and corrected as
necessary.
Severe Chill: - It is similar to cold Shut, but it will Cover a large surface of the
casting of being a Single line excessive release material as well as cold metal,
Slow Shot low die temperature ,or clogged air vents may be cause severe Chill
usually appears when shots are made in to a cold die but Will rarely occur during
normal operation.
Chill: - This defect has the same appearance and is caused by the same
conditions as Severe Chill but is less noticeable Slight or faint Chill lines on the
Surface may not be cause for rejection of certain types of castings However,
castings used for ornamental parts will usually require a chill free Surface Low
die temperature, low metal temperature, slow Shot Speed, or excessive die
release material are all causes of chill.
Flow line: - Flow line defects are similar to chill and cold shut. Flow lines can
usually be reduced or eliminated by increasing the die temperature, metal
temperature or both Like chill the defect may be corrected by higher Shot Speed
or Less die release material.
2.) Hot Type Defect: Soldering: - This condition is the result of the cast metal bonding to the die surface.
Upon ejection the casting teams away, leaving a layer that has banded to the die
surface upon ejection the casting teams away leaving a layer that has banded to the
die when soldering occurs It may create additional Problems such as cracking or
bending of the casting, out of tolerance dimensions, depressed ejector pin parks in
the casting and low porosity with in the casting.

615
DIE CASTING
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CASTING DIE
TG-2
Soldering may be caused by excessive metal temperature incorrect die

temperature (too hot or too cold) or insufficient die release material. If the condition
is Severe or when other methods fails to remove the Solder, It must be cleaned
from the die caustic solutions provided for this purpose may be used or the
material may be polished out of the die it is recommended that a die maker, or
Other Person With Special training , Polish the die cavity if the polishing is not
done properly, a rough die Surface may be created that will increase the Soldering
condition. Care must also be exercised When increasing the amount of die release
material applied to the Soldering area. Excessive amounts of this materials may
create other defects Such as porosity Chill, or blisters, When adjustments to the
above conditions do not eliminate the Soldering condition, It is likely that the
problem may have been caused by the metal alloy being cast or it may result from
the die construction.
Cracks: - Casting may cracks from internal Stress or from abnormal pressure
during ejection The first cause , internal stress, is created from excessive metal or
die temperatures If the condition persists after Several temperature adjustments
have been made it may be necessary to increase the Shot or machine timer
Settings the timers Should be adjusted only after every thing else has failed.
Cracks from abnormal ejection pressure may be indirectly the result or
Soldering The operator Should Carefully inspect the Casting For signs or
Soldering. If Soldering Exists the appropriate corrective measure Should be taken
In Sufficient draft or a rough cavity finish in the die can also cause abnormal
ejection pressure Additional die release material may help , but will not correct this
Situation In severe instances , die release material, or Soldering
Broken Part: - A portion of the casting may stick in the die during ejection and
the rest or the casting break away eject normally. The cause is the same condition as
described for cracks: excessive metal or die temperature, in sufficient die release
material, or soldering.
Bent Part: - Casting may bend instead of breaking when part or the casting sticks in
the die. This is a different result from the same conditions that cause a broken part.
Heat Marks: - Have the appearance of surface pits and are caused by excessive die
temperature or excessive metal temperature. Depressed areas in the casting and sharp
inside defect. Some times die temperature balance can be adjusted to eliminate heat
marks. For example the flow of cooling Water to the area affected may be increased,
and decreased to the other die half in the same area.
Clogged vents or excessive die release may cause large volumes of gas to
become entrapped in the die Such gases will increases the size of heat marks and may
cause the pits to become rounded and Smooth on the inside.

715
DIE CASTING
THEORY

CASTING DIE
TG-2
Wave or Lake: - Irregular lines or slight steps on other Wise Smooth casting
Surfaces are usually caused by excessive die temperature in the area of the defect.
Increasing the water (or Solvent) dilution of the die release material will reduce such
defects.
Sink Marks: - Shallow smooth depressions on the castings surface are called Sink
Marks Such marks usually appear on the casting Surface opposite any heavy Section
Such as a rib or boss, and are caused by uneven Shrinkage of the casting. Reduced die
temperature in the area of the sink mark reduced metal temperature, and Some times
increasing the temperature of the other die half will minimize these defects.
Sometimes increased injection (Shot) pressure coupled with higher die temperatures
between the defect and the gate will help reduce Sink marks.
3.) Miscellaneous Defects: Scale: - Build up of die release materials (or the oxides) on the die results in an
irregular rough Surface on the casting. The material must be removed with a Caustic
Solution or by Polishing the die. The same care is needed as described for soldering.
After cleaning the die, the amount of release material applied for each shot must be
reduced. Sometimes it may be desirable to change type of release material and /or the
ratio of release material to solvent (or water).
Blisters: - Bubble-like bumps on the casting surface are caused by air or other gases
trapped inside the casting, slower shot speed, clean vents, reduced die temperature, or
less die release material will usually eliminate blisters.
Porosity: - The holes in the casting are called porosity. Low die temperature
(Particularly in the runner and gate areas), Low shot pressure, clogged vents, or
excessive release material can cause porosity. Porosity is also often related to lack of
fill, cold shut, heat marks, and blisters. When such a relation ship exists the correction
for the related defect will often improve or eliminate the porosity.
Excessive Flash: - Excessive flash results from material such as flash sticking to the
die faces and holding the die open, excessive injection pressure or speed, or in
sufficient clamping force. The first problem is corrected by cleaning the die faces.
Flash that has become embedded into the die face must be scraped off corrections to
injection speed and pressure must be made adjusting the appropriate hydraulic valves.
The clamping force is increased by adjusting the tie-bar nuts, very slight adjustments
to these nuts, are usually all that is required flash indicates that an extra thick casting
is being made extra thickness causes extra heat input to the die, and may result in
additional problems.
Mechanical Defects: - The operator should be aware of all moving and fragile parts
of the die cavity which are subject to wear, breakage, or other failures that could cause
defective castings small cores or thin blades of the die forming deep narrow holes or
slots in the castings can be easily broken or bent. Ejector pins and moving cores can
wear, break, or not seat properly. In any of these situations, the die will not make the
part to the correct shape.

815
DIE CASTING
THEORY

CASTING DIE
TG-2
Ejector Pin Marks: - High and low ejector pin marks: Ejector pins may push into the
casting when solder and / or a rough cavity surface result in the casting sticking in the
cavity. High casting temperature at the time of ejection also can let the pins push in to
the parts. Increased flow of cooling water or more liberal application of release
material will some times reduce low ejector pin marks.
SUMMARY: -
INSUFI
CIENT
METAL
CLOG
GED
AIR
VENTS
EXCES
SIVE
DIE
RELEA
SE
SLOW
SHOT
SPEED
COLD
DIE
COLD
METAL
A.) Some Cold Type Defects
LACK OF FILL
COLD SHUT
SEVERE CHILL
FLOW LINES
CRACKS
BROKEN PARTS
HEAT MARKS
WAVE OR LAKE
POOR PART
DESIGN
INSUFFICIENT
DIE RELEASE
POOR GATING
ROUGH CAVITY
SOLDERING
HOT DIE
HOT MAIL
B) Some Hot Type Defects: -
Variation in Mechanical Properties: The microstructure of castings is affected by the rate of shear at the gate. High gate
velocities and shear rates produce dense, finely structured casting which exhibit a higher
resistance to crack propagation than castings produce with low gate velocities.
Variation in Dimension: Dimensional variation between castings is due to variations in the temperature at
which castings are ejected. This is a most important consideration when large accurate
castings are to be produced. It is (almost) impossible to produce castings within a narrow
tolerance range under manual, or semi automatic conditions, and indeed it is difficult to
produce accurate castings even under automatic operating conditions unless control is

915
DIE CASTING
THEORY

CASTING DIE
TG-2
achieved in die opening temperatures. The microstructure of castings is also affected by the
rate at which heat is removed from the metal.
In thick castings it is important that the die cooling system be designed to provide
rapid chilling of any thick areas if gross dendrite structure and shrinkage voids are to be
avoided.
B4.2.3
DIFFERENT TYPES OF DEFECTES & THEIR CAUSES
& REMEDIES
A.)
Blisters: -
Formation: - Blisters are generally the result of the expansion of air or gas under the skin
of the part.
Cause:
Blister is generally the result of the expansion of air or gas under the skin of the casting
Casting removal : - This defect is caused by the presence of pockets of air gas under
the skin of the part when the temperature is too high these expand and form small
bubbles or blisters on the surface of casting.
Air pocket
- Turbulent flow
- Jet filling
- Retention of air
Gas pocket from die spray
- Die spray
- Retention of gas
Temperature
Air Pocket: - The process of air Pockets can be used by turbulent Flow (Phase 1) by
Jet Fitting (Phase 2) or by problems in evacuating air from the cavity during Filling.
Turbulent Flow: The presence of air can result from turbulence cause by too high a
phase 1 speed. This turbulence creates pockets of air in the runner system which is
carried in to the cavity.
Jet Filling: The presence of air can also result from Jet filling which is Slower than
spray filling leads to flow which impacts on the wall opposite the gate and thus
to reverse filling of the cavity

1015
DIE CASTING
THEORY

CASTING DIE
TG-2
Retention of Air: The surface defects caused by blisters may be aggravated if in

addition the difficulties in evacuating air from the cavity prevent complete cavity
filling.
Gas Pocket from die spray: - The pressure of excess gas from die spraying can
either be because too much was sprayed on to the die surface or because of gas evacuation
problems during filling.
Die Spray: The presence of gas under the skin of the part is due to excessive die
spraying. A high plunger speed in phase 2 leads to a short filling time which
impedes the evacuation of this gas.
Retention of Gas: The surface defect caused by this blister may be aggravated if
in addition the difficulties in evacuating air from the cavity prevent complete
cavity filling.
Temperature: - During ejection the air or gas trapped under the skin of the casting
tends to increase in volume because of the high temperature The skin of the Casting is
not strong enough to stop this expansion
Remedies: - They are essentially two means of eliminating this defect Reduce the
ejection temperature ( Palliative Reduce the amount of air or gas beneath the skin of
the part
B.)
Flow Marks: -
Formation: - Flow marks can form when part of the liquid metal in the Die cavity
Solidifies before the metal flow marks are therefore linked to premature and localized
solidification of the metal.
Cause: - The appearance of flow marks is linked to a problem of localized premature

solidification of the metal Premature Solidification Premature
Remedies: - Prevention of flow marks requires the elimination of their cause that is
premature Solidification
C.)
EJECTION DAMAGE: -
Formation: - For various reasons (see the heading origins of defeat) the part may be
damaged during ejection
This damage can occurred at different times

1. during die opening
2. during ejection
3. as the casting drops
10

1115
DIE CASTING
THEORY

CASTING DIE
TG-2
Cause: - To diagnose the origin of ejection damage it is important to identity the point in
time when it occurred.
Remedies: - To diagnose the cause of ejection damage it is important to identity the point
in time at which it occurred.
D.)
DEFECT CHECKLIST: -
Formation: - Under the pressure applied by the cylinder during injection metal can be
squeezed into the parts of the die which are not pressure tight and get outside the cavity.
Cause: - The formation of flash in the result of a lack of sealing between the parts of the die.
Remedies: - To eliminate flash, the problem of the pressure tightness of the die must be
dealt with
E.)
SOLDERING: -
Formation: - With certain conditions of metal flow speed & temperature , the stock of
the liquid metal on the cavity wall can cause an electrochemical reaction Cause : Soldering
is favored by two factors : Abnormally high gate velocity presence of hot spots these conditions are complementary
Remedies : - preventing soldering means eliminating electrochemical reactions taking

place at the interface both the metal & the cavity surface.
F.)
SINKS: -
Formation: - During solidifications, liquid metal contracts this inevitable phenometion is

called shrinkage.
Cause : - The appearance of sinks is essentially linked to the presence in the cavity of hot
spots ( thicker Sections ) Which flavor shrinkage at those points.
Remedies: - Preventing sinks means counteracting the effects of differential shrinkage.

G.)
DEFECT CHECKLIST: -
Formation: - Presolidified inclusions can be caused either by the current shot or by a

previous shot.
Cause: - The origin of a cold lap can vary according to whether it is caused by a previous
shot ( previous misrun) or by the same shot ( deep flow marks)
11

1215
DIE CASTING
THEORY

CASTING DIE
TG-2
Remedies: - Presolidified inclusions are eliminated by means Similar to those used for
flow marks & misruns) or whether the inclusions are severe flow marks or whether they
result from earlier misruns.
H.)
DEFECT CHECKLIST: -
Formation: - Misrun is formed when the metal Solidifies before the cavity is completely
full. In Other wards there is primitive freezing of the metal.
Cause: - Misrun generally occur as a result of premature freezing of the metal in the cavity,
Remedies: - The remedies will depends on the origin of the defect If a misruns is
associated with defects Such as flow marks or presolidified inclusions, it is likely that
premature solidification is the cause . In general the solutions are those used for defects that
a rise from Solidification problems.
I.)
DEFECT CHECKLIST: -
Formation: - Scaling generally appears after mechanical treatment of the casting surface.
Cause: - The appearance of scaling is linked to poor adherence between certain Parts of the
skin of the casting Remedies Scales are serve from of flow lines, So the appearance of
flow lines should from the out set be eliminated or at least reduce.
a.)
Defect: Cold shot, Laps Lack of fill: CAUSE
1. Metal temperature too low.

2. Plunger speed too low.
3. Nitrogen pressure in accumulator bottle
too low.
4. Die temperature too low.

5. Inadequate venting.
6. Excessive die lubricant.
7. Worn plunger tip or shot sleeve.
8. Inadequate gating.
9. Excessive gating.
b.)
SUGGESTED REMEDY
1. Maintain correct metal temperature:

check heat
instrument control.
2. Determine and maintain correct plunger
speed.
3. Check oil level in sight gauge, watch
bottle pressure gauge during shot for
successive pressure drop and nitrogen if
necessary.
4. Maintain correct die temperature.
5. Add or reworks vents overflows.
6. Use correct amount and concentration of
Die lubricant.
7. Replace if necessary.
8. Add gates to weak spots if problem is
chronic.
9. Plug gates individually if required.
Defect: Cracks: -
12

1315
DIE CASTING
THEORY

CASTING DIE
CAUSE
1. Solder
2. Bent cores.
3. Die or metal too hot.
4. Casting or runners not solidified.
5. Contraction stresses.
c.)
TG-2
SUGGESTED REMEDY
1. If condition is severe and other methods

fail to remove solder, have die room remove.
2. Straighten or replace cores.
3. Maintain correct temperature.
4. Add cooling water to die or add waterlines
in trouble areas.
5. If any cracks are occurring in shaft corners,
increase the fillet radii. Reduce hold time.
Defect: Porosity: CAUSE
SUGGESTED REMEDY
1. Excessive die lubricant.

2. Metal too hot.
3. Entrapped air or gas: vents blocked.
1. Reduce lubrication.
2. Maintain correct metal temperature.
3. Do not use excessive die or plunger
lubricant. Clean vents. Vents should be no
deeper than 8.08 mm. To prevent metal from
passing into them. Use minimum plunger
speed. Use hydraulic pressure intensifier.
4. Die flashed too much or running too loose. 4. Clean die faces or lock die tight.
5. Insufficient metal in shot.
5. Gradually increase metal in shot. Always
maintain a 20~25 mm minimum biscuit
6. Overflow broken off of a part and stuck in length.
die.
6. Keep overflows cleaned out.
7. Insufficient vents overflow wells.
8. Shrinkage.
7. Add vents and overflows.
8. Add gate to problem area. Use hydraulic
pressure intensifier. Put shot chiller behind
problem area; Improve feeding in problem
area by increasing wall thickness or adding
ribs.
13

1415
DIE CASTING
THEORY

CASTING DIE
14
TG-2

1515
DIE CASTING
THEORY

CASTING DIE
15
TG-2

- 1 -46
DIE CASTING
THEORY
CHAPTER : C1 Feed System
UNIT-3
CHAPTER C1
FEED SYSTEM
-1-
TG-2

- 2 -46
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
CHAPTER OUTLINE
C1.1
INTRODUCTION.
C1.2
DIE CASTING FEED SYSTEM ELEMENT.
C1.3(a)
GATING SYSTEMS.
C1.3(b)
FEED SYSTEM FOR HOT CHAMBER CASTING DIES.
C1.3(c)
FEED SYSTEM FOR COLD CHAMBER CASTING DIES.
C1.4
CLASSIFICATION OF GATE SYSTEM.
C1.5
PRINCIPLE OF FEED SYSTEM.
C1.6
BALANCING OF FEED SYSTEM.
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C1.1
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INTRODUCTION
The casting quality is affected by a number of variables one of which is the molten
flow rate. The material flow rate depends on variables such as runner geometry gate area
and the machine variables such as shot sleeve diameter.
It is necessary to provide a flow way in the Die casting dies to connect the machine
nozzle in case of hot chamber machine or to connect plunger sleeve in case of cold
chamber machine to the impression. This flow-way is termed as the feed system. Normally
the feed system comprises spure runner and gate.
The channel to convey the molten metal from the machine to the Impression or
cavity is called Feed System.
When lying out the gating system and the cooling channel configuration
of a die: 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Choose the position where the metal will Enter the die cavity through the gate
Decide on the best direction of metal Entry into the cavity.
Decide on the required cavity fill time and Gate speed.
Decide on the required die temperature.
Calculate the gate and runner dimensions to achieve the set the temperature and
casting
6. Calculate the Cooling channel positions to achieve the set die Temperature and
casting Speed.
7. Deside the provision of vents and overflows, the slow plunger approach length and
speed and check the waking force requirement.
Runner: - The metal Entering the Sprue is directed into one or more passages called
Runners Near the Die Cavity, the Cross-Sectional area of the Runner decreases to from a
gate designed to the metal into the die cavity
C.1.2
DIE CASTING FEED SYSTEM ELEMENT : he Die casting feed System contain following Elements.
1.) Sprue
2.) Sprue Spreader
3.) Shot sleeve and biscuit
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DIE CASTING
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4.)
5.)
6.)
7.)
TG-2
Runner
Gate
Shock absorb bears
Overflows
1.) Sprue : - The Spure is tapered hole extending from the mounting surface through
the cover die to the dies parting surface The molten metal flows through that hole to the
runners.
2.) Sprue Spreader : - This is used for spreading the material equally in all
direction and act as metal saver It is having the same taper as that of sprue bush.
3.) Shot Sleeve and Biscuit: - Shot sleeve is used for cold chamber machines. The
shot sleeve extends through the cover half and ends at the parting plane of the die.
There is a circular biscuit cavity in the ejector die at the end of the shot sleeve,
That cavity is the diameter of the shot sleeve I.D. and usually the depth of the runner
leading from it The biscuit must Drove draft usually 5 deg allowed for ejection.
4.) Overflow Wells: - A small cavity or impression connected to the casting cavity with
the shallow gate is called overflow well. They serve as receptacle for the first metal for
each shot.
5.) Gate: - The gate is the most restrictive orifice in the total flow in a die casting die
Most of the casting defects such as bad surface, improper filling, flow martis cold Shuts,
Soldering , thermal imbalance etc can be attributed to improper gating.
6.) Shock Absorbers : - They control the very high transient velocities which may
occur at the small ends of the runners Metal flow into and around the shock absorber
cavity traps air which is compressed causing metal to decelerate.
C1 .3 (a)
GATING SYSTEMS
Permanent mold castings can be gated from the top, side or bottom and single or
multiple gates can be used.
Top Gating: - In this gating arrangement. the Spure and the riser are usually the same
Thin sections are placed farthest from the gate, so that directional solidification is
toward the gate. After pouring, the gate functions as a riser. The metal in the riser solidifies
last thus ensuring sound metal throughout the casting.
Side gating is frequently used particularly for aluminum castings. In this gating
system, the riser is at top of the casting. The gate extends up the side of the casting to nearly
75% of its height, which ensure that the metal at the top of the casting and in the riser is
hotter than the first metal to enter the mold. Thin sections should be placed remote from the
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gate and riser. The direction of solidification is from the mold cavity toward the gate and
riser. The direction of solidification is from the mold cavity toward the gate and riser, so
that porosity caused by shrink a minimized.
Atom gating is always used for pouring gray iron castings and may be used for the
other metals. A typical gating system as shown in Fig 49 consists of a pouring basin, a
chocked Spure. A spure well. a horizontal bottom runner a runner extension , and vertical
gates For the mold shown in Fig 49. The two bottom die cavities lead into breakers and
intermediate gates that lead the two breaker and intermediate gates that feed the two top die
cavities. These lead into risers Rise ring is a minor consideration in gating system for
pouring gray iron, because a hypereutectic cast iron does not shrink during solidification.
Gating systems for permanent molds are less flexible than those for sand molds. and
are nearly always located in parting planes Gating must supply metal fast enough to
fill all sections of the casting. With a minimum of turbulence. Gating systems that permit
minimum turbulence are especially important especially important in casting of aluminum
and magnesium alloy are poured in the vertical position or tilted from vertical .By this
method, air is displaced and vented off at the mold
Besides supplying liquid metal to compensate for casting shrinkage, risers reduce
the velocity of the metal before it enters the cavity. and help sustain the mold temperature
The number of points at which metal is admitted to the mold cavity depends on section,
thickness and the distance the metal must flow. Excessive flow through an insufficient
number of inlets may result in hot spot and consequent shrinkage. Sprues are usually
restricted in area to choke of f and prevent dross and air from entering the cavity
Because gating systems are often easier to enlarge than to reduce , and because oversize
gating can slow up the cycle, it is common practice to start with small gates, and to
enlarge them if necessary.
Misrums: - There are several possible causes for musruns, including entrapped air.
Insufficient mold temperature or insufficient pouring temperature often. misruns are caused
by a combination of two or more such conditions Adequate venting is the simplest way
to eluminate entrapped an Increasing the mold temperature or the pouring
In redesigned mold for the new gating provision was made for application of
external heat to prevent misruns In original mold , misruns area was impractical to heat
and an insulating mold coating was used to prevent misruns.
Temperature or both may eliminate misruns. But is likely to cause other defects
such as porosity One common approach is to increase the mold temperature at the critical
locations by applying heat from an external source ( antic hill) or by using an insulating
type of mold to prevent the liquid metal from chilling in a specific area. Cause and the
corrective steps taken to eliminate misruns the apply in some cases are illustrated in Fig
50.alyleuous dies closely resemble all gravity cast- dies in cavity layout and runner
/Visen design the truid and prouen ae gravity die designs Typically wide narrow gates
as opposed to narrow deep gates ( thene can designed for yellow bran 60% Cn 40%
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Zn ) Enter cavities as low as is practically possible Runner should be approx twice the
height of the cavity.
C1.3 (b)
BASIC CONCEPTS OF METAL FLOW IN THE DIE
CASTING PROCESS
Both the size and configuration of the metal feed system influence the flow of metal
into and through the cavity. One simple method of controlling flow in the feed system is to
design the system as shown in Figure 4.1. In this figure, the sections labeled cavity could
be either separate cavities or different sections of a large single cavity. In a system designed
in this manner, the pressure will be high and uniform throughout the complete runner
system, and a large pressure drop will exist across the relatively small ingates. This
system can be considered as a constant pressure system. The metal flow through any part
of the ingate is easily calculated for this system by means of simple orifice equations.
Orifice equation apply in a typical metal die-casting operation because Reynolds number
are very high, or stated another way, flow velocities are high enough so that viscous
effects are negligible and almost all the pressure drops in the system occur as a result of
accelerating the zinc to high kinetic energy levels at the orifices ( gates ) and then
dissipating those high kinetic energies in turbulence as the zinc leaves the ingate
the orifice in the system..
With a system designed as shown in Figure 4.1 the metal flow rate through any
ingate or through any portion of a long ingate will be proportional to the cross-sectional
area of that gate and to the square root of the runner pressures . The fact that the feed
system must be much larger than metal the gates has several inherent disadvantages, such
as:
(1) The use of large runners increases the volume of air entrapped in the system and the
probability of blister defects.
(2) The use of large runners increases the volume of air entrapped in the system and the
probability of blister defects.
(3) The maximum runner size that can be used practically is limited by availability of
standard components such as nozzles and sprees.
(4) The use of small gates area increases the time required to fill the die cavity and the
probability of producing cold lap defects.
(5) The use of large runners increases remelting costs.
(6) A high pressure drop across the gate will produce high gate velocities which may
contributes to soldering or die washing problems.
When the metal is following at a high velocity, sudden enlargements or sharp
turns in the runner will cause flow separations, and the resulting turbulence in the
following stream of metal causes the kinetic energy in the system to be converted to
thermal energy . Turbulence increases the flow resistance in that particular flow path and
decreases the flow rate. To minimize this reduction in flow path and decreases the flow
rate. To minimize this reduction in flow rate, it is important that the runners be smooth that
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DIE CASTING
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turns have large radii, and that the size of the runners not to change suddenly (a constant
cross- sectional area should be maintained). It should be noted that by changing the flow
direction with a large- radius turn, as shown in a runner with constant area, the absolute
value of the velocity does not change , V1 =V2 and no kinetic energy is lost. If a sharp
90-degree turn were used, the absolute velocity of much of the metal in the stream
would go to zero at the turn, and increased energy, supplied by the shot system, would
be required to reaccelerate the metal in the y direction.
In order to achieve the ideal goal of using large radii for all turns, a runner-gate
system might be constructed as is shown in Figure 4.4. In this version the main runner is
split into several secondary runners, and each of these secondary runners feeds a fan
get which distributes the metal into the cavity. The concept shown in Figure 4.4
Represents a theoretically ideal method of controlling flow distribution into

the cavity. Unfortunately however, it also represents a relatively complex and expensive
distribution system especially for castings with a long gates. A compromise version of
this design which offers lower cost and an effective control of flow is shown in Figure
4.5. Although that design does require a change in flow direction without the assistance
of turning vanes at the points where the metal leaves the secondary runners and centre s
the cavity, experience to date has shown that satisfactory control of flow is maintained .
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Because of this satisfactory field experience, the general gating concept shown in Figure
4.5 is recommended for large castings where secondary (side) runners are used.
Poorly designed runner system found in many die casting dies: Because the side runners are not correctly proportioned large quantities of
zinc flow to the ends of the side runners and enter the cavity at those points. Sides
flows then occur in the cavity and where these side flows meet, large quantities of gas are
trapped and Blisters form (as shown by the circled areas in Figure 4.6). The regions of the
cavity where zinc enters at a high flow rate fill rapidly, and normally, only negligible
cold lap ( cold shut) defects occur in such areas. However, it would be excepted that
the regions between the parts of the casting that filled rapidly would have severe coldlap defects ( marked with wavy lined ), because those areas filled more slowly In this
example , the overflows are small so there is little chance of moving the cold metal
and gases out of the cavity and into the overflows.
An ideal runner and gating configuration is shown in Figure 4.7. In this design the
runners and the Spure have the same cross sectional area, so that the zinc velocity is
the same in the runners as it is in the sprue. Thus there is little tendency for stream of
metal to shoot ahead of the main flow and trap pockets of gas. Most of the gas is carried out
of the runner ahead of the following stream of zinc or in the first zinc that flows through the
system and into the overflows. Smooth turns are provided to minimize turbulence metal
enters the centre of the cavity through fan gates which distribute metal evenly in those
areas, and turning vanes are used to turn the flow of zinc smoothly into the side runners
parallel to the gates.
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DIE CASTING
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Fig 4.7
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DIE CASTING
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TG-2
The side runners are proportioned to maintain a constant velocity flow of

molten zinc in the runners are proportioned to maintain a constant velocity flow of
molten zinc in the runner and to continually feed metal into the ingates. The ingates are
proportioned to provide a uniform flow of metal cross the cavity and to cause metal to
reach all the overflow gates simultaneously. In the ideal deign, large overflow are used,
so that most of the gas can be flushed out of the runners and the cavity and into the
overflows. These overflows, of course, also help prevent cold laps. Thus, most of the coldlap and blister defects on the casting have been forced from the casting cavity and out into
the overflows.
Selection of the Runner and Gating System: The first step required to achieve uniform flow of molten metal from the die inlet
to the overflows is to select a complete metal feed system layout which includes
runners, casting cavity, and overflows. Usually there will be serval possible alternative
ways to deliver molten metal from the die inlet ( sprue area) to the casting cavity . One
decision that must be made is wheather the casting will be made in a single -cavity die or a
multicavity die. That question often will be decided by the shot capacity of the machine and
the size and configuration of the casting.
General rules that should be considered in selecting the metal feed system
are as follows: (1) This runner lengths should be minimized.
(2) Runners and ingates should be located to provide uniform flow across the cavity so
that all sections of the cavity are filled and the metal reaches all overflows
simultaneously.
(3) Runners and ingates should be located on the side of the casting where the
surface finish is critical, and overflow should be located on the side of the casting
where a lower quality surface finish might be acceptable.
(4) Flow distance across the casting cavity should be as short as is practical.
(5) Avoid designs where zinc must flow across large cutouts (openings) in the castings.
Where zinc must flow across cutouts, select a system which provides for free
flow across the opening by flashing ( if the openings are small) or for runners across the
opening. Gates should be provided at the inlets and outlets of the openings.
(1) Locating the spruc and runner system inside the opening, and locating the overflow
around the outside perimeter as shown in Figure 4.8a
(2) Locating the over flows in the centre of the casting, and locating the runners around
the outside of the casting as shown in Fig 4.8b
(3) Feeding from one side of the casting placing runner across the opening the
runners around the outside of the casting as shown in Figure 4.8c.
Any of these configurations probably could be used to successfully produce this
casting size and configuration, but usually the preferred method of gating a casting of
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DIE CASTING
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this type is to use the centre gating technique shown in Figure 4.8a This configuration
has the advantages that both runner lengths and flow distance across the mold cavity are
minimized while its only disadvantage are that the velocity of the zinc flow tends to
decrease as it progresses across the cavity, and a multicavity die cannot be used. It has
been found in practice that these are not usually significant problems. In some cases, the
reduction in the volume of metal which must be delivered to the die and cooled makes it
possible to achieve higher production rates with a centre gated single cavity die than
can be achieved with an outside gated two-cavity die.
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DIE CASTING
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If there are two or more large openings in a casting, the sprue usually should be
located in one of the openings to carry the metal across the opening with a minimum heat
loss, however, the other configurations ( peripheral or side gating) shown in Figure 4.8
also could be used for this part.
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DIE CASTING
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Calculation of Runner Dimensions: After the gate areas have been calculated, the runners are designed to maintain a
constant velocity of zinc in all parts of the runner system. The general rule for calculating
the cross-sectional area of the runner at any point is that the runner area should be
equal to the total gate area of the portion of the die being fed by that runner. The sketch
in Figure 4.14 shows the equations used in making the runner area calculation for a
runner which is parallel to a gate and is continuously feeding metal through that gate.
Figure 4.14 also shows the locations of the areas used in the calculations.
After the runner areas have been calculated, runner cross-section configuration are
selected that : ( 1) will minimize heat loss from the runners ( 2) will cool rapidly enough
so that high production rates can be obtained ( 3) can be easily machined, ( 4) are easily
designed and ( 5) have enough draft so that the casting can be easily ejected. It is usually
desirable to make the cross section of the long section of the runners round in order to
minimize heat losses. Where short main runners can be used , a rectangular runner section
is usually desirable in order to maximize the heat transfer from the runner and maximize
production rate.
Cross section through different segments of the runner and- gating

system now used with the TV-Bezel Dies: Metal Pressure: The pressure exerted on the metal is calculated by the following formula:
(P1 * A1) (P2 * A2)
Pm = ------------------------------AP
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DIE CASTING
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Where (see also Figure 2.4):

Pm = Pressure on Metal
P1 = Inlet pressure
From the above formula , it can be seen that to calculate the pressure on the molten
metal, the area of both sides of the hydraulic piston and the area of the injection piston
must be know.
Fig 2.5 shows a typical pressure variation during injection The significant point
to note about this trace is that there are two pressure peaks; one at the change over
point from the slow fast stage and the second is at the end of fill. These peaks represent
the pressure varation in the hydraulic system. From the designers viewpoint the magnitude
of the largest pressure peak is important in that it may cause die flashing. Thus , lock force
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DIE CASTING
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calculation of the tool must take into account the magnitude of the pressure pulse at the
end of cavity fill injection . It is useful to note that the magnitude of the pressure peak
depends on the mass and hydraulic oil flow speed the pipe feeding the injection
cylinder.
Plunger velocity is measured by using a suitable velocity Transducer. The velocity
trace shows acceleration and deceleration in the die as it is being filled.
Having measured the plunger velocity, the corresponding molten metal flow rate can be
calculated by using the following formu1
The casting quality is affected by a number of variables one of which is the molten
metal flow rate. Thus in designing the metal flow system it is important to able to
evaluate the effect of such variables as runner geometry , gate area, and the machine
variables , such as shot sleeve diameter, on the molten metal flow rate. It is now
common practice to use a PQ squared diagram ( Fig. 3.1 ) to show the inter-relationship
between a metal flow system and the injection system of the die casting machine. By
using this diagram , the molten metal flow rate through the runner and gate can be
predicted for a given set of machine conditions.
The concept of the PQ squared diagram derives from the fact that the hydraulic
pressure changes, in the both molten metal and oil flow system , are directly
proportional to the square of velocity of the injection plunger. Therefore, a plot of metal
pressure against the square of speed will approximate to a straight line. This being the case
it is more convenient to plot metal pressure (MPa) against the square of volume flow rate
(liters/sec). The advantages of this approach are:-
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DIE CASTING
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1) The data is in a form that is directly usable for predications of cavity flow time or
velocity at any part of the feed system...
2) The effect of changes in the shot sleeve dimensions upon flow can be shown.
3) Die character which are best stated as pressure for a given flow rate can be
drawn directly onto the same diagram.
4) Machine power at any setting of the speed control valve or accumulator pressure
can be shown.
5) Comparison of the metal pumping capabilities of machines is simplified
6) The useful working range of the machine can be defined (see Figure 3.1).
Metal pressure p is plotted on a linear scale (Fig. 3.2). Metal flow rate Q is
plotted on a square scale. This enables all plots to be drawn as a straight line not
necessarily passing through zero.
The point Q on line - Q represents the dry shot flow rate - that is the flow rate
which would occur if there were no resistance to metal flow- ie. in the cold chamber
that speed which would be achieved if there were no metal in the sleeve.
The point P on line -P represents the pressure exerted on the metal at the given gas
pressure in the accumulator. This pressure is the maximum static metal pressure exerted on
the metal at the end of the injection.
By joining the points Q and P in the Figure 3.2, the machine full injection characteristic has
been described.
This characteristic shown how the available metal pressure decreases as the
metal flow rate increases due to the increase of the pressure losses in the valves and
pipes. The slope of the line P-Q is proportional to the resistance in the hydraulic system of
the die casting machine and hence line P-Q represent the machine characteristic.
The Gooseneck Characteristic: -
In Figure 3.2 the point Q represent the dry shot flow rate of the machine .In
this case of the cold chamber machine, this is the maximum flow rate that can be
achieved through the runner system. However, in the hot chamber machine , the resistance
to metal flow due to the channel in the gooseneck and nozzle causes the plunger to
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DIE CASTING
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decelerate before the molten front reaches the exit of the nozzle. The deceleration is
dependent upon the design of the channel of the gooseneck , other words, on the
pressure losses. As the pressure losses in the gooseneck and nozzle could be significant
, the metal flow rate out of the nozzle should be obtained . In practice , this is done by
measuring the plunger speed and the hydraulic pressure at the instant the metal front
reaches the exit of the nozzle . The corresponding metal pressure and the flow rate can be
calculated and plotted on the PQ squared diagram. Figure 3.3 show a plot. The
experimental points on this plot represent the pressure and flow of metal at the instant
front reached the exit of the nozzle at various shot valve settings. The best fit line passing
through these points and the origin (zero point) point represent the Gooseneck /Nozzle
characteristic.
Fig 3.3
Because the die casting machine has a limited source of energy , it is

necessary to utilize this energy in a manner that minimizes pressure losses ( in the metal
flow system. The main factors that influence pressure losses ( hence energy losses ) in
the metal flow system are :
1)
Surface Roughness: -
To appreciate the effect of surface roughness on the pressure loss, the pressure
loss due to the flow of molten zinc Alloy 3 in a straight runner having cross-sectional
are 100 square millimeter and a length of 1000 millimeter is calculated. The result is
shown in figure 4.1.
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This shows that the rough surface increases the pressure loss several times.
A step change in the runner cross-section gives rise to a pressure drop across the step. This
is because , as shown in Figure 4.2, eddies are created at the corners and immediately
downstream from the step which reduce the effective cross-sectional area ( commonly
called vena contracta).
Step Changes In Runner Cross-Sectional Areas: -
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DIE CASTING
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A step change in the runner cross-section gives rise to pressure drop across the step.
This is because , as show in Figure 4.2 eddies are created at the corners and
immediately downstream from the step which reduce the effective cross sectional area (
commonly called vena contracta).
Change In Flow Direction: It is inevitable that changes in direction will occur in the metal flow system. For
example a 90 degrees turn is required between the shot sleeve and the runner. In Figure 4.3
the pressure loss is plotted against the flow rate of molten Aluminium through a sharp
bend and a radiused bend. It demonstrates that the bend geometry has significant influence
on the pressure loss.
Protrusion Into The Flow Stream: Any protrusion or depression in the runner system should be avoided as it
becomes the source of eddies and hence pressure loss in the runner . Figures 4.4 and 4.5
show the flow problems caused by poorly fitted ejector pins.
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DIE CASTING
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Air Entrainment: Poor runner geometry may also result in air being trapped with in the flowing
metal which may cause porosity in the casting Figures 4.6 to 4.8 demonstrate the effect
or runner bend geometry on the metal front.
Sharp corners have a high resistance to flow and should be avoided in both the runner and
the cavity. Figure 4.6 demonstrates the impact of the metal and subsequent shattering the
metal front.
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Bends with small radius and constant cross-sectional area do not give constant
velocity as shown in Figure 4.7. Because of the effect of centrifugal action the metal
on the outer wall will accelerate at a greater rate than the metal on the outer wall will
accelerate at a greater rate than the metal on the inner wall. This produces a separation
effect on the inner wall and consequent production of eddies and cavitation bubbles. At
some point downstream of the bend the metal front, which has accelerated but has no
pressure to sustain the acceleration, now shatter and trap air. It may also cause partial gate
block due to premature solidification of the molten metal front droplets.
The above problems can be mimised by having a larger radius the band and/or
making the bend inlet area much larger than i outlet area as shown in Figure 4.8.
The flow system comprises a series of passages of varying lengths and cross sections
which carry molten metal at varying velocities from the injection plunger to the gate. In
Addition to length and cross sectional changes in direction occur. At each change
energy is consumed in overcoming the resistance to flow. It is most important therefore to
ensure that the total flow. It is most important therefore to ensure that the total flow It is
most important therefore to ensure that the total flow system is designed and
manufactured to minimize such losses. In general the cross sectional area of the flow
system should converge from plunger to gate, sharp corners should be avoided and the
surfaces should be smooth and well finished.
The hot chamber machine differs from the cold chamber machine in that a
gooseneck, nozzle and Spure are required. The gooseneck and nozzle and Spure are
required the gooseneck and nozzle and Spure are required. The gooseneck and nozzle
design is important as it affects the flow performance of the whole metal flow system.
Gooseneck: Because the hot chamber process has an immersed gooseneck it can be seen (Fig.
5.1) that the flow path is quite long with a number of bends, steps and joints. A poorly
designed geometry or one which creates unnecessarily high velocities ( bores too small)
will produce an inefficient system which may create the conditions for hydraulic
cavitations to occur with consequent damage to the die.
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V
The nozzle is basically a heated pipe connecting the gooseneck to the sprue. In
general the bore of the nozzle should be only slightly smaller than the bore of the
gooseneck so that molten metal velocity is kept down below 30 meters/second ( Fig. 5.2).
Low gooseneck and nozzle velocities are desirable to ensure that the molten front is
kept intact up to the sprue to avoid air entrainment.
The Sprue: -
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Figure 5.3 shows a commonly used sprue bush configuration which is poorly
designed and does not benefit from modern flow technology . Whilst it is very
economical to make, it is grossly inefficient and results in molten alloy and air being
thoroughly mixed. The accompanying area chart ( Fig. 5.4 ) Shows graphically that the
cause is the massive increases in cross sectional area encountered in the flow path by
the molten alloy and until there is a sudden reduction at the runner entry. One other
problem encountered with this design is that the included angle of the sprue is too small and
this limits the provision of cooling water within the male form.
Attempts to overcome this deficiency are made by the provision of an annular
channel in the sprue bush. The surface area is so large that extra heat is required by the
nozzle to prevent freezing. As the nozzle cannot conduct
Sufficient heat to its extremities the centre becomes overheated with consequent reduction
in its effective life.
The effect of sprue design on casting quality has in the past been largely
unrecognized. Because it was designed as a low cost standardized replacement part,
little consideration was given to the fluid dynamics and heat flow aspects. In the
METLFLOW design concepts, the sprue serves two basic functions: (1) To provide a smooth flow path between the nozzle and the main runner (s).
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(2) To provide a means of rapidly solidifying molten metal at the entrance to the die
after the cavity has filled and flow has stopped . This requires a large temperature
difference between sprue and nozzle.
Runner type Sprues ( Fig. 5.5 ) have been developed to achieve a smooth flow
path with uniform or reducing cross sections and smooth transition from nozzle to sprue
and runner . The use of such a shape also enables the development of a more effective
cooling system , particularly where large runners are required, reduces the need for
sprue bush cooling.Examination of many runner designs seems to indicate that in the
past greater emphasis was placed upon easing the toolmakers difficulties than was
given to the flow behavior of the molten metal either in the runner or in the cavity . This
resulted in the designers main concern being the determination of the gate area, with
very little thought being the determination of the gate area, with very little thought being
given to the shape and size of the runner leading to the gate.. The METLFLOW design
concept is based on the fact that the flowing metal will not change its flow direction unless
it is channel1ed to do so. The designer must bear in mind that it is the design of the runner
that directs the metal to the appropriate die cavities. Thus the runner system must
incorporate features that are designed specifically to turn the flow direction and /or
distribute the flow to predetermined parts of the cavity or cavities . An understanding of
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DIE CASTING
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runner fill behavior is important in appreciating the significance of the design of the
runner geometry on its own filling behavior and ultimately that of the cavity fill pattern.
The following example highlight some of the problem related to poorly designed runner
geometry.
Figure 6.1 shows a once popular runner design for a multi-cavity die. If one takes a
series of cross sections in the direction of flow and expresses them in a progressive area
chart the result shows the large increase in runner cross-sectional area downstream (
Fig. 6.2). This results in air entrainment in the runner and consequent inability to predict
the flow direction and runner fill characteristic.
Examination of this situation in some detail shows that the entry to the main
runner from the shot sleeve has the smallest cross-sectional area therefore , after this
point , the metal front will break up giving rise to an unpredictable flow pattern. The
traditional method of attempting to achieve improvements by increasing the area of the
gate will have no effect whatsoever until the cavity is nearly full when all the problems
created by the poor design are already present in the casting. Attempts to overcome the
defects in the casting, using overflows of sufficient size to prolong the overall flow
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DIE CASTING
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time in the hope that the air trapped in the runner and casting will eventually be flushed
out into the overflows, are seldom successful.
Figure 6.3 illustrates a runner system which has been designed to fill three
identical cavities through gates of equal size. The expectation is that the fill time for
each cavity would be identical and would also commence at the same time. However
this is not the case. Because of the high kinetic energy in the flowing metal the flow
direction will not change until there is more physical constraint , such as a bend , or
there is a change in the resistance to flow such as reduction in channel size . In the
illustration the side runners will not fill until the molten metal reaches the gate of the
centre runner when the resistance to flow will increase.
The most significant effect caused by a poorly designed junction is that the
flow system produces unbalanced cavity filling even though the gates may be the same
size.Figure 6.4, 6.5 and 6.6 illustrate one of the most common problems associated
with the use of a T-junction runner feeding a long gate. With a T-junction runner most
die caster had an expectation that metal would flow first through the centre as shown
in figure 6.4 This however is not the case and the real flow pattern is quite different.
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When metal traveling in direction of the arrow V hits the gate ( Fig 6.5) it meets
a resistance to flow but, since there is a greater area and less resistance to each side of
the point of contact, molten metal will flow into these areas. A little metal will pass
through the gate due to kinetic energy but the pressure will not be maintained and flow
through the gate will cease until the runner is full. Since this is happening at guide high
velocity the separation of the metal at the gate into two streams V1- V2 traveling in
opposite directions will create zero velocity in the centre of the gate during transient
runner fill. This will produce a cavity fill pattern as shown in Figure 6.6 This shows that
the flow from the ends of the runners is a potential source of casting defects. There is a
likelihood of air being trapped in the area above the centre of the T-junction.
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Metal Flow System Features: The foregoing discussion on runner fill behavior indicates that, to overcome
filling problem, the metal flow system should be designed with the following basic
features in mind :
(a) The cross-sectional area of the runner should be greater than the gate area.
(b) To facilitate a change in flow direction, a radiuses bend should be used.
(c) To direct the molten metal into separate runner branches, a y-junction runner should
be used.
It is noted that the definition of metal flow system, here , includes the design
of the sprue runners, gooseneck and nozzle.
Implementation: The MELTFLOW program implements these basic features. Specifically, the
program has the following standardized runner elements (Fig. 6.7):
- Taper runner
- Y-junction
- Radiuses bend
- Joint Runner
The runner standardization is analogous to plumbing systems where standard pipe
fittings, such as T pieces and valves, are used.
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C1.3 (C)
FEED SYSTEM FOR COLD CHAMBER CAVITY DIES
METAL PRESSURE
The pressure exerted on the metal is calculated by the follow formula: (P1 * A1) - (P2*A2)
Pm = -----------------------AP
Where (see also Figure 2.4): Pm = Pressure on Metal
P1 = Inlet pressure
P2 = Exhaust pressure
A1 = Hydraulic piston area at inlet
A2 = Hydraulic piston (less shaft) area
Ap = Area of injection plunger.
From the above formula, it can be seen that to calculate the pressure on the
molten metal, the area of both sides of the hydraulic piston and the area of the injection
piston must be know.
Figure 2.5 shows a typical pressure variation during injection. The significant point
to note about this trace is that there are two pressure peaks; one at the change over
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DIE CASTING
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point from the slow fast stage and the second is at the end of fill. These peaks represent
the pressure variation in the hydraulic system. From the designers viewpoint the
magnitude of the largest pressure peak is important in that it may cause die flashing .
Thus , lock force calculation of the tool must take into account the magnitude of the
pressure pulse at the end of cavity fill injection. It is useful to note that the magnitude of
the pressure peak depends on the mass and hydraulic oil flow speed the pipe feeding
the injection cylinder.
Plunger velocity is measured by using a suitable velocity Transducer. The velocity
trace shows acceleration and deceleration corresponding to the change in the flow
resistance in the die as it is being filled..
Having measured the plunger velocity, the corresponding molten metal flow rate
can be calculated by using the following forms
Q = Vp * AP
Where
Q = Metal flow rate
Vp = plunger velocity
Ap = plunger cross-sectional area
In the case of the cold chamber machine, it is useful to measure the speed of the
plunger operating without the metal in the sleeve. This speed is commonly called the dry
shot speed of machine. Such measurements must be taken at various settings of the plunger
speed control valve. For a hot chamber machine, the plunger velocity at the instant the
metal front reaches the ex of the nozzle must be determine from the plunger velocity
The metal front positions at various times during injection can be estimated from the
plunger is proportional to the distance traveled by the plunger.
Shot Sleeve and Biscuit: Aluminum magnesium and copper alloys are usually cast in cold chamber machines.
Dies for casting those alloys must accommodate the cold chamber ( i.e. shot ) sleeve as
it is usually called). The shot sleeve extends through the cover half, as shown in Fig 9-2
and ends at the parting plane of the die.
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DIE CASTING
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Ther
e is a circular biscuit cavity in the ejector die at the end of the shot sleeve. That cavity is the
diameter of the sleeve I.D. and usually the depth of the runner (s) leading from it. The
biscuit must have draft, usually 5 deg., all around for ejection. The runners should lead off
the top third of the biscuit cavity so that metal ladled into the shot sleeve will not run
into the runners by gravity and begin to solidify prematurely.
The biscuit cavity is usually made in a separate piece of steel , sometimes called
the shot plate or butt plate, which is inserted into the ejector die block The shot plate
has drilled waterlines to accommodate the high heat transfer rates in the biscuit area.
By using an insert , the sharp thermal gradients are isolated in the biscuit area without
affecting adjacent regions of the die . The insert can also be replaced or repaired easily.
It is sometimes desirable to place the biscuit forward of the parting surface as
shown in fig 9.3 This so-called raised biscuit construction has two major advantages. It
allows the designer wide freedom of cover die thickness while still accommodating
standard ( or existing ) shot sleeves, and it shortens the shot sleeves , and it shortens the
shot sleeve. Except for extremely large and thick castings, it is usually an advantage to
have the shot sleeve as short as possible so that it will be more completely filled by the
molten ladled. The shot sleeve length and diameter relationships are developed more
thoroughly in the SDCE courses and textbooks on Gating and process Control.
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The raised biscuit shown in Fig 9-3 has some disadvantage but these will rarely out
weight the advantages. The first of these is that runner must be longer and flow down
the steep side wall of the raised shot plate . That is a minor problem if at all. Second , if
the plate is not a piece inserted into the die block, a large amount of the die block face
must be machined away to leave the necessary protrusion The raised biscuit should
probably be inserted into the die block unless the large amount of machining is required
for other reasons.
A third disadvantages is that the vertical surfaces around the raised biscuit are
subject to die shift. Unless the raised portion is on the centerlines established by the dies
alignment system, it must have clearance for die shift. That clearance will allow a cone of
flash to develop As in other flash areas it is best to allow sufficient clearance for a solid
flash to from on very shot so it will eject completely with each casting.
When considering the cold chamber System which has a much simplified
geometry the transition from sleeve to runner is the only cause for concern the
Tradition method was to into the runner in moving Half and create a pocket of diameter
larger them that of the piston.
This produced sharp corners at the points indicated which are detrimental to good
flow conditions. Examination of the main runners often shows a condition where there is
an apparent vena contract thus reducing the effective area in the runner with consequent
increase of pressure losses and air entrainment due to the break up of the metal front.
A better geometry created by a modified sprue design reduces the potential for this
problem ( Fig . 5.7 ). Note that the inlet area to sprue runner often shows a condition
where there is an apparent with consequent increase of pressure losses and air
entrainment due to the break up of the metal front..
A better geometry created by a modified sprue design reduces the potential for
this problem ( Fig . 5.7). Note that the inlet area to the sprue runner is made much larger
than its outlet. This ensures that the metal front remains in contact with the die wall.
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CLASSIFICATION OF GATE SYSTEM
The transition between the runner and the casting is called the gate. The gate. The
gate acts as an entrance into the cavity through which the molten metal passes. It also
facilitates the Trimming process which separates the casting from the runner. The flow
pattern in the cavity is affected by the runner geometry and the position of the gate.
It is necessary to describe the types and gates that are commonly used in
practice so that their relative benefits from the cavity fill view point can be discussed.
There are currently three main gating approaches used in pressure die-casting:
i. The Chisel gate
ii. The Fan gate
iii. The Taper Runner gated along its side.
a) CHISEL GATE: The simplest system is the chisel shaped gate (Figure 7.1). The chisel gate is very
easy to design and very easy for the toolmaker to cut. However , the flow from it is so
directional that the resulting fill pattern becomes a concentrated stream not much
larger than the gate itself . For the majority of casting , such fill patterns may lead to
porosity problems in the castings, such fill patterns may lead to porosity problems in the
casting due to vortices created in the cavity which trap air as shown in Figure 7.2.
However the chisel gate is useful for small castings where vortices can not occur. Figure
7.2 shows metal flowing around the edges of the impression in accordance with the
now generally accepted Former theory of cavity fill.
Former conjectured that at high velocity metal would pass through the test
impression striking the wall on the far side flow back around the outside of the cavity
to the gate and would thus rejoin the metal flowing through the gate . In the final stage,
he conjectured two pockets of air would be formed - one each side of the main stream
from the gate. Examination of casting indicates that this is so.
b) FAN GATE: -
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Development of the fan gate (Fig. 7.3) in an effort to improve the flow in the cavity
is a satisfactory solution for small castings. However, for large castings requiring long
gates, the resulting surface area of the gate may become too large which m cause
premature solidification at the gate due to excessive head loss. Hence, the use of a fan
gate is not recommended for feed a large casting.
c) Gated Taper Runner: A gated taper (Fig. 7.4) runner is a runner that has a progressively reducing across
sectional area in the direction of flow and is gated along one of its sides. The rate of
reduction is such that the area of the runner at any point along its length is the same or
larger than the area of the gate downstream
The development of a mathematical model to analyze the flow behavior of molten
metal in taper runners gated along their length has given a better understanding of
how the gate and runner should be designed to achieve the most desirable cavity fill
pattern. It has been found that the ratio of the runner inlet to the gate area has been found
that the ratio of the runner inlet to the gate area has the most significant influence on
the flow direction out of the taper runner . For example when the runner crosssectional area is the same as the gate area, the molten metal will flow through the gate
in a direction at approximately 45 degrees to the normal of the gate . By changing the
size of the runner cross-sectional area with respect to the gate area, flow direction (
called flow angle) is also changed.
This model has now been incorporated within the METLFLOW program to assist
the design of gated taper runners. It should be noted that the motion of taper runner
includes both straight and curved runners that follow the casting periphery. In
METLFLOW the Radiuses Bend runner element can function as a curved taper runner
provided its inlet area is made larger than its outlet area and it can be gated on either
the inner or outer side of bend.
The benefits of using a taper runner gating system stem from the fact the gate
speed and flow angle at any point of the gate is the resultant of the metal velocity
components along the runner and 90 degree to it . In Figure 7.4 the following terms are
defined:
(1) Normal Gate Velocity is the velocity in the direction normal to the gate line OA.
(2) Runner Velocity is the velocity along the main axis of the taper runner (arrow C).
(3) True Gate Velocity is the resultant velocity between the normal gate velocity
and runner velocity line ( OB).
(4) The Flow Angle ( Af) is the angle between the true gate velocity and the
velocity normal to the gate.
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Figure 7.5 shows a plot of the magnitude of the flow angle an the true gate
velocity relative to the runner velocity against the ratio of the taper runner inlet area (
Ain) and the gate a ( Ag). This diagram shows that for small angles of flow large runners
are required and that for large angles of flow very slender runners will result.
This diagram is the result of computer analysis of a particle taper runner. However,
it can be used to estimate the flow and that will be achieved for other sizes of taper runners.
METLF calculates the flow angles of flow very slender runners will result.
This diagram is the result of computer analysis of a particular taper runner.
However, it can be used to estimate the flow and that will be achieved for other sizes of
taper runners. METLF calculates the flow angle automatically and displays this in flow
Analysis.
A significant observation that can be made from Figure 7.5 is that the ratio of the
magnitude of the true gate velocity to the runner velocity varies from 1.42 to more than
2.5 This suggests that runner and gate design procedures which ignore the flow angle
tend to underestimate the magnitude of gate velocity. Thus additional energy is
required to accelerate the metal, and the machine slows down more than anticipated.
For example, when taper runner inlet area to gate area ratio equals 1, the magnitude
of the true gate velocity is approximately 40% higher than normal gate velocity and
the pressure required to achieve this speed is roughly double.
Zones of Fill: When attempting to visualize flow pattern in the cavity it is useful to consider
that the casting is being filled by molten metal streams that may have different flow
directions. The use of the taper runner gated along its length allows the flow angle
of the metal stream to be varied by changing the runner inlet area to gate area ratio.
This suggests that the cavity can be considered to be made up of a number of Zones of
Fill the boundaries of which are determined by selecting appropriate flow angles from
the runners. The flow angle is a fluid dynamic phenomenon in the pressure die casting
process which can be used to advantage by the die designer if he knows how to select
the boundaries of the zone of fill which give the most desirable fill pattern.
Figure 7.6 shows the use of single taper runner feeding a flat plate casting
along its longest side. It shows that the metal flow direction is unidirectional and that
the choice of a flow angle of 20 degrees results in only a small area of the casting that
is not filled directly from the gate. If this area is less than 10% of the surface area of
the casting it may be ignored and the whole casting could be considered as one zone.
If for some reason the casting can not be gated along all of the longest side and the
flow angle is 45 degrees , there will be two Zones of fill. The choice of flow angle is
crucial, in this case, as it affects the size of the zone that is not fed directly from the
gate ( from now on called an ungated zone as shown in Figure 7.7 One could expect
casting defects in Zone 2. To minimize the problem, a small flow angle should be chosen.
This can be achieved by making the size of the runner inlet to be at least two and half
times larger than the gate area. This will produce a flow angle of 20 degrees.
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The use of paired taper runners to fill a long casting, shown in Figure 7.8 creates a
different fill pattern. In this case, it has three distinct zones of fill:
(1) The centre zone (Zone 1),
(2) The left zone (Zone 2), and
(3) The right zone (Zone 3).
Zone 2 and Zone 3 may be adequate as the volume in Zone 1 is relatively small
and sufficient gate area in the delta can be achieved in practice to feed Zone 1. Such is
not the case when the casting is wider and the flow angle is 45 degrees as shown in Figure
7.9. Here, the volume of Zone 1 is much larger than Zone 2 or Zone 3 and yet the gate
length in Zone 1 is much shorter. Hence problem may be encountered in the casting
unless steps are taken to design the taper runners to reduce the flow angle to, say, 25
degrees.
The delta area between paired taper runners is a complex area of flow in that
metal must flow across the delta during transient runner fill; i.e. When there is low
pressure on the metal. This means that the shape of the runner in relation to the delta is
most important. To ensure a satisfactory pressure velocity relationship with in runner
system at the delta ( see Figure 7.10 , the area of the runner at the delta ( see Figure
7.10), the area of the runner at the inlet to the y junction must be greater than the
combined total of the area at the junction outlets and the gate in the delta.
Shock Absorber: Gate velocity can be excessive if the design of the flow system is poor and may
result in a situation where metal leaves the end of the runner at a transient velocity ( due
to kinetic energy ) that is greater than the steady state velocity. This will result in a
spurt of metal ( see Figure 7.11) racing around the edge of the cavity sealing off air
vents and losing heat. The resultant semi-solidified metal will now be moved around
the cavity by the rest of the flowing material until the cavity is full. Since the spurt does
not remelt in the cavity it shows up as a casting defect called cold shut.
To overcome this situation shock absorbing disc ( Figure 7.12) are designed at
the end of the tapered runners. The disc which is placed tangentially to a small parallel
section at the end of the runner, directs the flow in a circular mode trapping air in the
centre of the disc and thus decelerating the metal in the runner and minimizing the spurt.
Discontinuous Gate: The discussion on runners and gates so far has been confined to continuous gates.
Whilst this satisfies most situations the use of discontinuous gates or comb-gates can
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be a satisfactory method when the zones of fill are created to suit the shape of the
casting ( Fig 7.13).
C.1 5
PRINCIPLE AND FEED SYSTEM: The gate is the most restrictive orifice in the total fluid flow in a d ie casting.
Most of the casting defects such as bad Surface improper filling, flow marts , cold
shuts soldering thermal should be directed along the time of least resistance .
The successful design of gating system requires the following factors into
consideration: a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
m)
n)
o)
p)
q)
Die Cast part design

The quality level of the casting
Die parting line
Gating layout
Fill time
Temperature looser
Metal through gate
Gate velocity
Fill rate
Gate Area
Gate Thickness
Runner Design
Injection pressure and machine capacity
Metal Plunger
Metal piston Velocity
Overflows
Die rents
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a) Die Cast Part Design: Turbulence is a always associated with the filling of die cavities under very high
injection pressure so provided generous radius around the sleep corners which helps in
better flow of metal. Castings designed with both very thick and very thin sections is
very difficult to get, so use uniform section thickness.
b) Quality level of Casting: It is relatively easy to design a gating system if the casting is not of hardware
type ( good finish) decorative type of finish ) Normally thing gates with high injection
pressure are required to obtain hard ware finish.
With thick gates it is possible to avoid jet type of filling but the casting surface
finish may not be very good There is also possibility of pin hole porosity near the gate
Thick gates are difficult to trimmed edge Then gates assure good , clean trimmed
edge For the same fill time the thin gats requires longer length of gate.
In some cases the surface finish can be improved by adding overflows and proper
air venting.
c) Die Parting Line: Sufficient thought should be given for gating and runner system and to make
sure that the proposed gating system will assure a good flow pattern. When parting
lines are stepped there should be enough space so that, if necessary the gating length
can be extended and there should be enough space for the overflows.
d) Gating layout: On single cavity dies, the configuration of the component all determines the type of
gate i.e. side or centre gating.
With centre gating the metal has to travel the minimum distance to fill the
cavity Side gating is specially suited for multi-cavity work. For multicavity dies, it is
necessary that all the cavities are filled at the same fill time.
If castings of different weights are cast the cavity which fills first is bound to have
bad finish. The terminal pressure which is applied at the end of the stroke (i.e. final
squeezing pressure) is transmitted only if the metal in the gate is not solidified. Once the
cavity is filled , the gate in that particular cavity is bound to solidify first and the
terminal pressure has no effect.
iv. Fill time: -
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The time during which cavity is filled with molten metal is called fill time .
When the fill time is longer, there is more time the air in the cavity to escape through the
die vents.
Optimum venting is desirable to obtain a good quality casting. However the cavity
must fill before the solidification of the metal in any part of the casting which
requires faster filling time. Thus two opposing requirements for cavity fill relative to the
time have to be reconciled.
a) The longest possible fill time must be used for optimum venting and
b) Cavity fill must be fast enough to be completed before the compression face sets
in and before solidification of metal can take place in the most remote and the
thinnest section of a given casting.
Parameters which effect the fill time are: i.

ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
Type of alloy (flow characteristics, specific gravity etc.,differ)

Volume of the casting
Average wall thickness
Ratio of weight to surface area of the casting (thin + more surface area means less fill
time should be allowed).
Temperature of the metal at the gate
Cavity surface temperature (Die temperature)
Condition of the cavity surface
Amount of super heat of metal (the flow ability depends on the pouring temperature)
The thinnest wall section anywhere in the casting.
The first six points are taken into accounts for the calculations made in this
paper ( Refer figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4) . with the fig.1 and the DCRF gating work sheets one
arrives at similar cavity fill times for average castings.
Temperature losses: In cold chamber machines the super heated metal losses its heat to the ladle,
shot cylinder sleeve, and the runner. Before finally solidifying it loses its heat to the die
cavity. To determine the fill time it is necessary to determine the losses that occur in the
ladle, the shot cylinder sleeve and the runner In a hot chamber machine, the super heat
losses occur in the runner and the die cavity.
Heat loss in the ladle is considered unimportant because when the ladle is
immersed in the metal bath it attain the temperature to that of the molten metal in the
bath. The temperature to that of the molten metal in the bath. The temperature loss in the
ladle , the shot cylinder sleeve and the runner In a hot chamber machine, the super heat
losses occur in the runner and the die cavity.
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Heat loss in the ladle is considered unimportant because when the ladle is
immersed in the metal bath it attain the temperature to that of the molten metal in the
bath . The temperature less in the ladle is minimum and does not exceed more than 40 F.
Heat losses in runner are similar to that a shot sleeves limited by the thin oxide
lubricating layer between the molten metal and the die. When the runner is long , more
heat loss will occur. This will be aggravated if the cross section of the runner is very thin .
The metal temperature loss varies directly with the ratio of thermal temperature loss
varies directly with the ratio of thermal conductivity of the lubricant layer over the
thickness of the lubricant layer and also the ratio of length over the thickness of the
runner. The metal temperature losses depend also on the temperature difference between
the die cavity surface and the molten metal.
Metal through gate: The volume of metal that will flow across the gate opening to fill the cavity and the
overflows is called the metal through gate. This is the volume of casting and the volume of
overflows.
Gate velocity: The velocity of metal through gate area is called the gate velocity. It is to be
remembered whatever be the gate velocity, the fill time remains the same. This means the
gate area will be increased when the metal velocity through the gate is reduced.
A lower gate velocity can reduce the washout problem and will help reduce the
deposits on cores and cavity walls. However when thin walled castings are encountered a
higher gate velocity is a must to avoid premature solidification.
When velocities are cropped below 100 ft/sec. the surface quality at the far end
of the gate area may not be suitable for decorative purposes. Relatively very thick
parts have been more with higher injection pressure with gate velocities as low as 70
ft/sec ., and this indicates the use of very thick gates.
For the purpose of the gate calculation it must be sufficient to refer table I
showing a normal range of gate velocities from 100- 160 ft/sec. for Aluminum and
Magnesium alloys and 30-120 ft/sec. for Zinc alloys.
1. Fill rate: -
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The fill rate Q can be defined as the rate at which the cavities and the overflows are
filled with molten metal.
Q = V/T
Where:
Q = fill rate in in 3/sec.
V = volume of metal are filled
T = fill time in sec.
Gate Area: Once the fill rate Q is calculated, the gate area can be calculated as the velocity is
already known.
Gate area x velocity = fill rate
Ag = Q /12 Vg
Where:
Ag = area of gate in in2
Q = fill rate in in3/sec., and
Vg = velocity of metal through gate in ft/sec
Gate Thickness: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Thickness of wall

Gate Thickness
Aluminum
Zinc
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Very thin wall parts
(0.75 1.5 mm)
0.032 in (0, 5-0, 8mm) 0, 028in (0, 5-0, 6mm)
Thin wall parts

(1, 5 2, 5)
0.050 in ( 0, 8-1,25mm) 0,043in ( 0, 6-0,85)
Medium wall parts

(2,5 -4mm)
0.063 in ( 1,25 -1,60mm) 0,054in ( 0,85 -1 ,35)
Thick wall parts
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DIE CASTING
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(4-6mm)
TG-2
0.080 in (1, 60-2.00mm) 0,066 in (1,35-1 65)
The maximum of 6mm thick walls are used, but rarely upto 10mm wall thickness is
allowed.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The proportion of the area of runner to area of gate must be 1.25: 1 to 1.6. 1 (some times
upto 2: 1).
The proportion of the area of runner to area of gate must be 1.25 : 1 to 1.6 : 1 ( Some
times upto 2 : 1).
Thin gates are preferable for trimming operations. It is very unlikely to achieve solid front
fill with thin gates. With very thick gates, there is a possibility of pin hole porosity at the
gate area coupled with trimming problems. However, with thick gates, it is possible to
achieve solid fill.
Runner Area: The fill rate should be controlled by the gate. To obtain gate controlled fill the cross
section of the runner feeding a cavity must be larger than the gate area. For minimum heat
losses metal velocity in the runners feeding a gate must be as high as possible . For this
reason, a gate to runner area ratio of approx. 1: 1, 25 - 1 : 1, 6 is generally used. This
would ensure the estimated gate velocity. On different lengths of runners feeding identical
parts, the longer runner is given a slightly larger cross section. Turns and leading edges
should have generous radii and be smoothly blended where thickness or width changes
occur (in case of family dies). A reasonable quality of surface finish is required in the
channels.
The cross sectional area of main or feed runner should be equal to the sum of
cross section areas of all the branch runner The runners can be in either half of the die
according to the dictates of the circumstances U e.g. runners can be carried over slides.
M) Injection pressure and Machine capacity: The zinc-die casting alloys are generally cast in the rang of 1500-2000 psi ( 105 140 kg/cm2) while Aluminum and Magnesium alloys are cast in the range of 4000 psi to
10,000 psi ( 280-700g/cm2 ). So higher injection pressures demand higher capacity die
casting machine. If projected area of casting is A which includes cavity area, overflows,
runners, biscuit or sprue U and metal pressure is M, the total die opening force T is
given by
T=MxA
The locking force should exceed this by 15-20 percent For change in injection
pressure we may change the sleeves considering the proper fill rates.
- 43 -

- 44 -46
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
The die casting machine must be able to withstand ( M x A) tons of die

opening force.
As a thumb rule, Total projected area = Projected area of cavity + 20 percent of
cavity projected area for runner gates overflow etc., is roughly adopted
Metal Plunger: The injection cylinder sleeve can be changed based upon the volume of metal
required for producing the die casting. Once the shot cylinder is fixed the only variable
that can be altered is hydraulic oil pressure in the hydraulic cylinder . This can be
controlled by hydraulic pump. If the diameter of oil piston is D ( hydraulic cylinder
piston inches ) and if oil pressure is P then injection force is given by
F = D2 P
4
Where:
F is in lbs
P is in psi
D is piston dia of metal cylinder in inches
So
D2 x P = D2 x M
4
4
Where:
M is metal pressure required ( psi )
Metal plunger dia ( in )
Now d2 = d2P , d = D2
M
M
The nearest standard size of metal piston die available can be selected.
Metal Piston Velocity: Piston velocity of injection cylinder is given by

Q = AP x Vp
VP = Q/Ap = ___Q__
d2 /4
Where:
VP = Metal piston velocity in inches /sec.
Q = fill rate in in 3 /sec.
- 44 -

- 45 -46
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
d = die of metal piston = sleeve die

Ap = area of cross section of metal piston in sq. in
Overflows: Placing of Overflow wells is generally predictable, and their location and size
are designed into the gating system of a die The addition of overflows and their
relocation are the most frequent causes for correction. Overflow is generally added to
improve casting quality by drawing excess flow of metal over the trouble area. In the
calculation of gate the weight of overflow is added to the weight of casting to arrive at the
metal flow through gate. Over flows should be provided in their predetermined
locations but the feed should be made after the first die trail The feeds for the
overflow. Should be made nearest to troubled spot in casting. Overflows should never be
gated their full length the because metal may flow back from overflow to cavity.
Overflows curve following additional purpose : (1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Assist venting
Increase die heating
Act in a poritory for partly chilled metal
Protect the edges of the Die or castings
Assist Ejection
Overflows should be short. With long overflow there is a possibility of feeding

back of metal into the cavity if we gate it at two places. It is preferable that the
overflows are not interconnected Overflow are also added to increases the die
temperature far away from the gate area. In some family dies, more overflows are
added to the smallest casting then are required for optimum filling in order to bring
the weight nearer to that of larger members of the rate cluster.
Air Vents: Vents air passages normally lead of overflow in certain casting or directly
from the edge of the casting. The metal flow pattern should be such that the die vents
should be the last area to be filled with molten metal during the fill time. Total vent
cross section area should be at least 50 percent of the gate area.
The effective of the die vents is lost once the vents are closed during the initial
portion of the fielding time. The depth of vents at die inserts should be 0.010-0.015 inches
(0.25 to 0.3mm). It should be between 0.002 -0.006 inches ( 0.05-0.15) at end of the die
half or after a distance of 1.5 to 2 inch from the cavity edge.
Ejector pins can be used for venting by grinding flats on slides. The depth of flats
should not be more than 0,002 inches
- 45 -

- 46 -46
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
C1.6 BALANCING OF FEED SYSTEM

Runner Layout: The layout of the runner system will depend upon the following factor : (I) the
number of impressions, (ii) The shape of the components , ( iii) The type of die ( iv)
The type of gate. There are two main considerations when designing a runner layout.
The runner lengths should always be kept to a minimum to reduce pressure
losses, and the runner system should be balanced.
Runner balancing means that the distance the metal travel from the Sprue to
the gate should be the same for each molding . This interruption providing the gate lands
and the gate areas are identical.
Single - Impression Dies: Single - impression Dies are usually by a side feed into the impressions. In which
case a short runner may be used But note that by gating a single impression in this way
the impression itself must be offset This is undesirable, Particularly with a large
impression as the injection pressure will exert an unbalanced force which will tend to
open the Die one side and may result in flashed casting
Two Impression Dies: The simplest case is where the runner takes the shortest path between the two
impressions is seen that solely from the viewpoint of Die layout it is desirable to have
the impressions positioned as shown with short runners to the side of the impressions.
Thus enabling the size of the Die to be kept to a minimum. However there are other
considerations, such as that of correct gating , and it may be desirable to gate at one
end of the impression.
Posting of Gate: Ideally the position of the gate should be such that there is an even flow of
melt in the impression, so that it fills uniformly and the advancing melt front a spreads
out and reaches the various impression extremities as the same time. In this way two
or more advancing fronts would rarely meet to from a weld line with consequent
mechanical weakness.
- 46 -

- 1 -16
DIE CASTING
THEORY
CHAPTER : C2 Cooling System
UNIT-3
CHAPTER C2
COOLING SYSTEM
-1-
TG-2

- 2 -16
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
CHAPTER OUTLINE
C2.1
INTRODUCTION TO COOLING OF THE DIE CASTING DIES.
C2.2
DEFINATION OF ELEMENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF

COOLING SYSTEM
C2.3
PRINCIPLE OF COOLING OF DIE CASTING DIES.
C2.4
CLASSIFICATION OF COOLING SYSTEM.
-2-

- 3 -16
DIE CASTING
THEORY
C 2. 1
DIES
TG-2
INTRODUCTION TO COOLING OF THE DIE CASTING
Surplus heat has to be artificially removed from the die by the die cooling systems.
Cooling requirements depend on the alloy and the size of the casting. Cooling channels ,
spot cooling fountains and spiral cooling cores are the most often used methods
Compressed air is used at times, mainly to cool slender moving cores and very small
dies areas, long slender cores and locations, where conventional cooling channels
would be too close to the die surface The heat pipe is a hermetically sealed tube of a
self - contained evaporative heat exchanger system, which will transfer considerable
heat from its heated end to the cooled area. An intimate metal to- metal contact with
the die steel is essential for efficient heat transfer . The maximum performance is
reached when its condenser end is vertically above the evaporator. Heat pipes have been
in use since the mind seventies , but have not gained universal acceptance.
Thermal oil-operated die cooling /heating units are used increasingly by die
caster in spite of the relatively high purchase price. The popularity of the units is due
to their superior performance against conventional die cooling by recalculated water .
The upper temperature limit of these system is around 350C if screwed pipe joints are
used and 250C if quick connect coupling are used to join the pipes to the die.
Heat flow and cooling /heating calculations: Die designers could not carry out accurate thermal calculation in the past due to the
lack of available data. The rather basic equations recommended by various sources use
some empirical constants to simplify the involved calculating process but we need more
accurate and predictable cooling design to reduce the numerous process variables . The
complex nature of the heat flow calculations in a die makes these ideally suited for
computer Fig 18.7 illustrates the conventional heat transfer model, and Fig. 18.8
downs the temperature variations in the die during on casting cycle.There is also a
temperature drop in the die steel caused by the effect of the thermal resistance . The
thermal losses at the boundaries are rather small compared to the losses with in the
steel . One has to know the heat transfer coefficients and the thermal conductivity of
the steel to calculate the temperature drops. During the design stage, the following
thermal parameter must be determined : -
-3-

- 4 -16
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
(1) The net thermal input to the die ( heat content of the metal poured heat content
of the ejected casting).
(2) The thermal losses of the die (heat dissipated to the environment, absorbed by the
machine patents, and taken away by the die spray).
(3) The die heat-up energy requirements.
(4) 4.The die heating energy requirements during production ( this is essential if
the calculated thermal losses are greater or near equal to the heat input to the
die).
(5) The die cooling channels ( this is best accomplished by dividing the die into
zones and each zone considered separately).
(6) Heat flow analysis (this calculation will determine the optimum die and metal
temperature).
C2.2
DEFINATION
COOLING SYSTEM
OF ELEMENT AND
FUNCTION OF
The Cooling System in Die Casting Contain Following Elements: -
a) Water Line: - To maintain the required temperature difference between the die
and metal, Water, ( or other fluid) is circulated through holes or channels is termed
as water ways.
b) Orings : - To prevent leakage of coolant orings are fitted around the care and
cavity inserts.
c) Baffle: - To ensure that the coolant circulates down each individual hole, baffles
must be fitted into each The baffle is usually made of brass.
d) Connecting Plates: - ( Main folds ) Instead of using an internal cross drilling a

milled slot may be used in conjunction with a connecting plate.
e) Plugs: - The end of certain holes are necessary to be plugged to form a continuous
circuit The plugs have a squares or hexagonal projection ( or depression so that a
suitable Key can be used to ensure a leak free joint when the plug is scuwed into the
die.
f) Nipples: - For inlet and outlet of water into the die nipples are used.
C2.2 PRINCIPLE OF COOLING DIE CASTING DIES
Waterlines: The drilled hole through which cooling water is pumped is the primary thermal
control feature in the die Locating the Waterline The amount of heat that must enter
any particular thermal section of the cavity surface can be computed The values qj of
heat flow for vary greatly from place in the cavity surface, the interior of the die must
be colder than the average surface temperature of the cavity . The concept is illustrated
-4-

- 5 -16
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
in Fig 10-5 The relationship between the interior die temperature Td, average cavity
surface temperature Tc and the distance between them d is given by equation 10-1
Tc Td = Qj
d
KA
Where:
Tc = Average cavity surface temperature, F deg ( C deg.)
Td = Interior die temperature, F deg ( C deg.)
d = Distance from cavity surface to Td, in. ( mm)
Qj = Rate at which heat must flow through the j zone of the die, Btu/ hr (watts)
K = Thermal conductivity of the die material Btu/hr. in -F ( Watts/mm-C
A = Cavity surface area of the j zone, sq. in. (sq. mm.)
Equation 10-1 is only valid for large flat castings. However, its results offer a first
approximation that can be modified where necessary for curved cavity
surfaces.
Waterline Size and Flow Rate: If the waterlines shown in Fig 10-7 have too much total length , are the wrong
diameter or have too much water flowing through them, they will remove too much
heat. The die temperature , Tm, around the lines will then drop below the 175F
required , causing too much heat to flow the cavity surface. The average cavity surface
temperature Tc, will drop Eventually the heat flow will balance, but the colder die may
cause defective castings. Short lines or insufficient water flow will have the opposite
effect.
-5-

- 6 -16
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
The diameter of the waterline is usually the tap drill size for the threading tap of
the pipes used to connect the cooling water supply to the die . To simplify set-ups in
the die casting machines , a single pipe size is usually used for all dies in the plant.
Holes of 7/16 in. (11 mm.) diameter are the most efficient in the normal range of heat
transfer for die casting dies. A 5/ 16 in. (7.9 mm.) dia. hole for a 1/8-in pipe thread
may be more controllable if the heat removal rate is less than 800 Btu/hr-in ( 9.23
watts/mm.), of line.
The heat absorbed by a waterline is: Qj = Rate at which heat must flow through the die in zone j, Btu/hr ( Watts)
A = Area of water line, sq. ft. (Sq.m.)
Td = Temperature of die around waterline, deg. F (deg. C)
Tw = Temperature o f the water flowing through the waterline, deg. F (deg. C)
hc = Heat transfer coefficient , Btu /hr - sq . ft . - F) (Watts /Sq.m. - C)
And:
A = DL
Where:
D = Diameter of the waterline, ft ( m.)
L = Length of waterline, ft. ( m)
The die temperature is one of the most important process parameters besides the
specific pressure, metal velocity and the alloy type.
-6-

- 7 -16
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
The recommended working temperature, which may vary slightly

according to type of casting are as follows: ALLOYS KELVIN
333- 393
PB, SN K
423 -473
ZN
K
453 AL
573K
473 MG
523K
573 CU
623K
OC
60 -
120
150 - 200
180 - 300
200 - 250
300 - 350
Calculation of the Cooling Capacity: PK = n. mS. q

PK = Cooling capacity (Kw)
n = Number of shot per second (n/sec)
mS = Shot weight
( kg )
q = Total heat factor (KJ /kg )
A1 , Mg
= 607 KJ /Kg
Cu
= 275 kg /kg
Zn
= 201 KJ /kg
T 200 K
See E. Brunhuber: Praxis der Druckgussfertigung
Example
Calculation Of The Cooling Capacity
Solution:
GIVEN: NUMBER OF SHOTS PER SECOND n = 0.11/SEC
TOTAL HEAT FACTOR
q = 607 Kj/KG
SHOT WEIGHT
mS = 2.5 KG
PK = n. q. mS = 0.011 .607. 2.5 = 16.7 kW
Where:
PK = Cooling capacity (kW)
mt = n. MG = ( kg /sec)
mG = Shot weight without runner ( kg)
n = Number of shots per second (n/sec)
q = Total heat factor kJ/kg
Zn - alloys q = 17
-7-

- 8 -16
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
AlSi - alloys q = 887

AlMg- alloys q = 795
Mg - alloys q = 712
Ms60 alloys q = 452
Pk = m t . q . S f
Sf = Safety factor: 1.2 1.4 for the determination of the heating units
Example
Calculation Of The Cooling Capacity
Given: ALLOY
ALSiCu
TOTAL HEAT FACTOR
q = 887 KJ/K
SHOT WEIGHT WITHOUT RUNNER
m G = 2.5
NUMBER OF SHOTS PER SECOND
n = 0.11/SEC
mG . n = mt = 0.025 KG/SEC
SAFETY FACTOR
S f = 1.2
Solution:
PK = q. m t. Sf = 887. 0.025. 1.2 = 26.6 kW
The next step is the calculation of the throughput of the cooling or heating media.
We use the following equation:
Flow Rate: V = Flow rate (1/min)

Q = Rate of heat kWh
C = Spec. heat of fluid kJ/kgk
Calorific oil C = 0.5
V=
Q________
C . T . . 60
T = Admissible temperature drop
(K) on the die
(difference between inlet and outlet temperature of fluid)
p = Spec. weight of fluid kg/dm
Calorific oil 0.8
EXA MP LE
Calculation Of The Flow Quantity
GIVEN: COOLING CAPACITY
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
PERMISSIBLE DIFFERENCE IN TEMPERATURE OVER DIE
SPECIFIC DENSITY OF OIL
Solution:
Vt = PK .60 = 13.3.60____ = 23.8 L/min
C.T.
2.093.20. 0.8
-8-

- 9 -16
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
One should have regard to the following points when die cooling or heating
channels are designed.
(1) The channels should be divided into zones ( as already discussed sprue /biscuit
runner zone, gate area, casting area and die frame).
(2) Cores and areas adjacent to thick walled casting sections have to be well cooled.
(3) One should take good care to design uniform die cooling to avoid stress
cracks.
(4) A number of smaller diameter cooling channels are better than a few of large
diameter.
(5) Fixed cores forming large hollow castings may be cooled. with spiral fountains.
(6) The cooling channels have to be placed so far below the surface that there is no
changer of any through cracks.
The minimum distance for water cooled channels is 20-25 mm. Minimum distance
for oil cooled channels in 10-20 mm.
CLASSIFICATION OF COOLING SYSTEMS

Table 10-1 Minimum Distances Between Waterlines and Other Features of the Die as
Illustrated in Fig 10-20
_________________________________________________________________________
Dimension in ( mm
Feature
Identification
in Fig 10-20 1/8" Pipe
D
5/17 (7.9)
Tap Drill Size
-9-
1/4" Pipe
7/16(
11.1)
3/8" Pipe
37/64 (14.7)

- 10 -16
DIE CASTING
THEORY
Length of thread or pipe plug

Pipe clearance hole. Size
Centre distance between
waterlines
Clearance to cavity surface
when casting
( Zinc )

D
5/16 ( 8.0)
7/16(
12.0)
0.56
(14.0)
TG-2
7/16(
12.0)
9/16( 15.0
19/32 (15.0)
0.68 ( 17
0)
0.875 (
22.0)
0.75 ( 19.0)
0.50 ( 13.0)
( Aluminum
0.75(19.0)
(Magnesium)
0.75(19.0)
( Brass)
1.00 (
25.0)
0.62 (
16.0)
0.25 ( 6.5)
0.75 (
19.0)
0.75 (
19.0)
0.75 (
19.0)
1.00 (
25.0)
0.62 (
16.0)
0.25 ( 6.5)
0.75(19.0)
0.50 (
13.0)
0.50 (
13.0)
P
Clearance to parting Surface
Clearance to edge of insert
or to ejector pin
( * Dies for Zinc)
23/32( 11.0)
E&R
0.75 ( 19.0)
0.75 ( 19.0)
1.00 ( 25.0)
0.62 ( 16.0)
0.25 ( 6.5)
Feature
Normal ( Pipe) size
of Waterline, D
Actual Water line
Diameter, D
Pipe P' ud, P
TAP Drill , T
Size,
In.
( mm)
1/8
0.312
( 7.9)
3/8-18
0.578
(14.7)
1/4
0.439
( 11.1)
1/2-14
0.703
( 17.9)
3/8
0.578
( 14.7)
3/4-14
0.921
( 23.4)
Diameter of Raffled
Hole, 1
Area Ratio
0.500
( 12.7)
1.4
0.688
( 17.5)
1.4
0.875
( 22.2)
1.4
A correctly sized baffled waterline will remove more heat than a straight hole.
Waterlines in die casting dies usually form many individual circuits. Pipe nipple are
screwed into the melts and outlets and these are connected to control valves or drains
with hoses clamps . by adjusting the control valves . There are instances where a series of
lines may operate with the same flow rate and a single inlet would suffice These may be
connected by appropriate drilled holes in the die. When drilling is not convenient, the
holes may be connected permanently with copper or steel tubing as shown in Fig. 10-23
- 10 -

- 11 -16
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Controlling the Heat Flow Path: Heat flow paths can be controlled by the arrangement of features in the die. Such
features must create heat flow paths that will result in the required gradients at the cavity
surface.
Heat Sinks & Heat Dams: A cavity such as that illustrated in Fig 10-25 however, does not require uniform
heat flow paths.
The heavy sections and the areas of converging heat flow must be compensated
for by shortening the heat flow paths and /or by terminating the paths in colder heat
sinks such as waterlines.
The measure are designed to control the heat flow paths through the interior of
the die material so that the required gradients will be achieved all over the cavity surface
- 11 -

- 12 -16
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Cores and Insert: It is often tempting to design the die to facilitate its construction instead of to
obtain an ideal heat flow, Cores and other inserted pieces are useful and other inserted
pieces are useful and often necessary but the heat flow
The amount of resistance to heat flow is dependent upon the actual fit obtained
and therefore may be nearly total in some instance s Thermal barriers at insert seams
can sometimes be used to advantage. The thermal problem illustrated in Fig 10-26 is
solved by the design modifications shown in Fig 10-27.
- 12 -

- 13 -16
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Die Materials: Heat flow can also be controlled through the proper selection and use of die
materials. If a constricted heat flow condition cannot be designed out of the die, the
use of a die material with a high thermal conductivity such as molybdenum or tungsten
alloy might reduce the calculated gradient sufficiently . When water cooling is too
severe, or when water cooling cannot be built into die, air cooled high thermal
conductivity materials may be used . These materials may be inserted into the area to be
cooled as shown.
Table 10-2 Typical Thermal Conductivity k Values for Various Die Material
- 13 -

- 14 -16
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Thermal Conductivity
Btu
Btu
Btu
Watts
KFactor
28.7 x 10-3
1.00
33.2 x 10-3
1.16
11.2 x 10-4
0.39
79.6 x 10-3
124.6 x10-
2.78
4.35
Material
H- 13 ( Steel)
16.5 1.3 8
P-20 ( Steel )
Titanium
( 6% A1, 4% V)
19.2 1.6 0
Tungsten
6.5
4
6.0
0.5 4
3. 83
72.
TZM
6. 00
62.
Copper Beryllium
Air
5. 17
1.28 x 100.0154 3
0.384x10'3
0.444x10'3
0.150 x103
1.065 x103
1.667 x103
1.435 x103
0.35 x 106
107.3 x103
3.75
26.2 x 10
0.00
Runner and Overflows: Runner and overflows are also heat sources. They must be considered as integra l
parts of the casting when analyzing heat flow paths. However , the physical size, shape,
and often the location of a runner of overflow can be modified to increase or reduce
the heat input to a certain area of the die.
Logical evaluation of the thermal patterns should determine the initial design of runners and
overflows.
Waterline Diagrams: For the system of waterlines in the die to be effective the water flow rate
through each must be effective, the water flow rate through each must be accurately
controlled . Such control is beyond the scope of the die designer. The control of the water
flow is the responsibility of the die casting machine operator a set-up person, or a process
technician.
(1) The path of the waterline through the die. (This is not always obvious from the
outside of a completed die.)
(2) The effective cooling area of the line ( Clearance holes around pipe nipples
block heat flow to the water flowing through the pipe)
(3) Which control valve is connected to which waterline? (When a die has several
waterlines, the mass of connecting hoses makes it difficult to trace the connection.)
- 14 -

- 15 -16
DIE CASTING
THEORY
- 15 -
TG-2

- 16 -16
DIE CASTING
THEORY
- 16 -
TG-2

- 1 -20
DIE CASTING
THEORY
CHAPTER : C3 Ejection Systems/Techniques.
UNIT-3
CHAPTER C3
EJECTION SYSTEM
/TECHNIQUES
-1-
TG-2

- 2 -20
DIE CASTING
THEORY
CHAPTER OUTLINE
C3.1
INTRODUCTION.
C3.2
VARIOUS ELEMENTS OF EJECTION SYSTEMS &

FUNCTIONS.
C3.3
VARIOUS EJECTION TECHNIQUES.
C3.4
PRINCIPLE OF EJECTION SYSTEMS.
-2-
TG-2

- 3 -20
DIE CASTING
THEORY
C3.1
TG-2
INTRODUCTION
The ejector pin is a pin passing through the ejector block and its end forms part
of the cavity surface on which the molten metal is cast. After the casting has solidified and
the die is opened, the ejector pins are moved forward to push the casting out of the
ejector die half. The end of the ejector pin opposite the cavity has a head which is
sandwiched between two plates known as the ejector plate and the ejector retaining
plate. These plates are moved by the machines ejector system to actuate the ejector
pins and push the casting out of the ejector die half.
The ejector die block bridges across the space within the ejector box rails.
However, the ejector die block must still withstand the forces imposed upon it without
deforming enough to exceed the dimensional criteria So, it is common practice to place
steel supporting pillars through clearance holes cut through the ejector and ejector
retaining plates Four round support pillars and their clearance holes are shown near
the centre of the die.
If the ejector plate is not hydraulically returned to its casting position it will be
returned with the return pins as the die closes . The return pin is secured between the
ejector plate and retainer plate like the ejector pins However, the end of the return
pin at the die parting surface is not in any cavity , runner or overflow area . It bears
directly against the cover die. As the die closes , the return pins will contact Then as the
die closes , the return pins will contact Then as the die closes. The return runs will push
back the ejector assembly.
C3.2
VARIOUS ELEMENTS FO EJECTION SYSTEM AND
FUNCTION
Stripper Plate: - A steel plate insulated between the core and the cavity plate, generally
in a multi-part design for the purpose of ejection.
Stripper Ring: - A hollow steel disk incorporated in a die design to serve as a local
stripper plate.
Ejector System: - The casting as it cools shrinks on the core and this means that
some sort of ejector system is necessary to get the component pushed out from the
core.
Ejector Grid: - The ejector grid is that part of the mould to which ejector elements
are attached The assembly is contained in a pocket, formed by the ejector grid , directly
behind the core plate. The assembly consists of an ejector plate on to which are mounted a
number of conveniently shaped support blocks.
Ejector plate assembly : - This is that part of the mould to which ejector elements
are attached The assembly is contained in a pocket, formed by the ejector grid , directly
behind the core plate.
-3-

- 4 -20
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Ejector Retainer Plate: - This is the plate, in which the counter bores for the ejector
pin collars are provided.
Ejector plate: - Plate used to actuate ejector pins. This is the block plate for the ejector
retaining plate which is fixed to retaining plate with cap screws.
Ejector Pins: - Pins used to eject castings from a die.

Retainer pin: - The function of Retainer pins is to return the ejector assembly when the
die is closed.
-4-

- 5 -20
DIE CASTING
THEORY
C3.3
TG-2
VARIOUS EJECTION TECHNIQUES
Most die casting dies utilize the basic pin and plate ejection system described
above. Some castings. However, require variations of that system. If the two sides of a
casting have die pull directions at an angle to each other, the ejection system may need
to be set up at an angle to the die pull opening travel as shown in Fig 15-2 It is not
always necessary to mount the ejector plate at a right angle to its travel The example in
Fig 15-3 shows the ejector plate travel, however, is at an angle to the die opening
travel.
-5-

- 6 -20
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Sleeve Ejection: Another variation to the ejection system is the use of sleeve or ring ejectors. The
most common sleeve ejector type is shown in Fig 15-4 The core extends through the
ejector plate and is mounted to the die mounting plate. An alternative sleeve
construction is shown in Fig 15.5. There, the sleeve is cut away to from legs which slide in
slots of the core shank. The core is then mounted to the ejector die block..
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Ring Ejection: Similar to sleeve ejection is ring ejection. An example of ring ejection is shown in
Fig 15-6 The ring ejection is used when a simple sleeve or a ring of pins could leave
unacceptable flash lines on the casting surface. The ring will form a substantial portion of
the cavity.
Blade Ejection: For ease of construction, round ejector pins should be used whenever possible. In
some instances. However, the use of non-circular forms is essential. This situation arises
when ejection must be on the edge of thin walled sections and circular ejectors would
be much too fragile to be effective. The ejectors used must conform to the shape of the
recess.
Two forms of non-circular are satisfactory , and then only when it is possible
to mount them at a joint in the die . The first is of plain rectangular section and can be
made of any convenient width. It is housed in a slot in the shouldered core or die insert ,
as seen in Fig 15-7
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
The second type is flat on three sides but conforms to the curvature of the
casting wall on the fourth . Both these ejectors can be accurately fitted , whereas other
non-circular forms require much laborious bench work. Acceptable and non-acceptable
forms are shown in Fig 15-8.
Two Stage Ejections: Many dies require only the simple single action ejection systems described
above. However, there are occasions when the ejector pins should be divided into two
groups that have different action, strokes or sequencing . When only a few ejector
pins are required for the secondary motion , they may be operated by a slip action
through the first ejector plate. In that instance s, the second ejector plate may be omitted.
A possible construction is shown in Fig 15-11.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Slender Pins: Situations will arise where the ejector pin diameters must be small but their lengths
great. Such long slender pins are subject to buckling. Any pin smaller in diameter than
recommended in the section. Ejector Pins and Sleeves, of should be considered a long
slender pin. Similarly, if the pin is the recommended diameter, but considerably longer
than normal for the machine size, it would be considered a long slender pin.
There are several ways to minimize the length of the pins. First is to have the
ejector plates as close to the ejector die block as possible. The ejector dies block as
possible. The ejector die block can be recessed to provide clearance for features of the
ejector plate. And, the ejection stroke can be kept to a minimum. Another technique to
stiffen long slender pins is to use a steeped diameter as shown in Fig- 15-13 The
stepped pin can be made by reducing the diameter of the end of a larger pin, or by
placing a sleeve over the long small diameter pin.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
Few examples are below for different ejection systems.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
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THEORY
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
C3.4
TG-2
PRINCIPLE OF EJECTION SYSTEM
In the preceding discussions several hints were given for positioning the cavity
to facilitate the ejection of the casting. Usually the cavity is placed so that it penetrates
into the die steel a minimum distance. The primary rule is to place the most restrictive
situation in the ejector side of the die. The casting tends to shrink onto the die members
which form the castings internal surfaces and away from these die members whereby
external surface are shaped.
Generally, to satisfy this primary rule, cavities will be sunk in the cover die and
protrude from the ejector side as shown in fig 7-18.
As the die opens, the casting will stick to these ejector die surface and be pulled out
of the recessed cover die cavity. The ejector pins then push the casting off the ejector die
surface. In some instances the general orientation shown in Fig 7-18 will be reversed
because there are no surface on which to place ejector pins. If for example , ejector
pin marks could not be tolerated on the side of the casting formed by the ejector die in
Fig 7-18 it might be necessary to reverse the cavity as shown in Fig 7-19 It is
sometimes possible to provide sufficient ejection from the gate runner and overflow
encircling the part. If such outboard ejection is possible with the arrangement in Fig 7-18
the No Ejector Pin Marks requirement could be met. Similarly, ejector pins outside the
cavity may be required to pull the casting clear of the cover die in Fig 7-19. It is
sometimes possible to use moving submarine cores which travel parallel to the die pull
direction to facilitate ejection . The part shown in Fig 7-20 has restricted draft
conditions on both the cover and ejector surfaces. The requirement for no ejector pin
marks is on surfaces. that would normally be made in the ejector side. A movable core as
shown in Fig 7-21 is a solution to such a problem. As the casting solidifies and cools before
the die opens, it shrinks onto the moving core and away from the cover die cavity. When
the die begins to open , the core maintains its position in respect to the ejector die as it
would if it were a fixed core. The core pulls the casting from the cover die. As soon as
the casting is free of the cover die, the moving core is retracted into the ejector die.
The casting is then free of all restricted draft surfaces. It is contacting the die cavity
only with the surfaces. It is contacting the die cavity only with the
surface . It is contacting the die cavity only with the surface marked A in Fig 7-20
The ejector pins behind the peripheral gate runners and overflow can eject the casting
readily. Sometimes a casting can be ( or in some instances must be) Positioned to use
angular ejection It is not necessary to have the ejector pins move in a direction parallel
to the die opening Fig 7-22 illustrates a cavity feature that can be formed with a moving
core ( left), or angular ejection ( right ). If the product shown has close dimensional
requirements they might determine which construction is used The features formed by the
moving core in Fig 7-22 ( Left), are close to the cover die as shown. The moving core
arrangement could still be used if the cavity were reversed as to the cover /ejector
orientation.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
The angular ejection construction shown at the right in Fig 7-22 offers a simplified
cavity construction but more complex ejection system. The casting features that would
have been formed by the moving core are now formed by the ejector die cavity and are
therefore in dimensional relationship to the ejector instead of to the cover die.
The angular ejection construction is more limiting as to the choice of parting
location. Also, the cavity can be reversed in its cover/ejector orientation only if a severely
stepped parting plane is adopted.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
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THEORY
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TG-2

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THEORY
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THEORY
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THEORY
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THEORY
CHAPTER: D1 PRE CASTING
UNIT-4
CHAPTER D1
PRE CASTING
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TG-2

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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
CHAPTER OUTLINE
D1.1
INTRODUCTION.
D1.2
PRINCIPLE OF METAL CASTING TECHNIQUE.
D1.3
CLASSIFICATION OF METAL CASTING TECHNIQUE.
D1.4
PRE CASTING TECHNIQUE.
D1.4 (a)
PRE CASTING TECHNIQUE RELATED EQUIPMENTS.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
D1.1
TG-2
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the types of furnaces and metal handling
practice, so that the diecaster will be able to provide his machines or permanent mold
casting stations efficiently with metal of good, controlled quality. To produce castings of a
satisfactory standard economically a supply of molten metal in the correct condition for
casting must be available. The diecaster can choose from a variety of furnace types,
depending on the volume of production, the energy and fuels available and the
environmental conditions, which must be maintained. The arrangements for melting and
the distribution of the metal require a number of decision and choices to be made.
D1.2
PRINCIPLE OF METAL CASTING TECHNIQUE
Metal casting is a process in which molten metal is feed into a precisely

dimensioned steel molds, within which pressure is maintained untill the solidification has
been completed.
D1.3
CLASSIFICATION OF METAL CASTING TECHNIQUE
Metal casting process can be classified into following method based on its
precasting condition and metals used for casting.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
D1.4
Sand casting.
Pressure diecasting (cold and hot chamber).
Gravity diecasting.
Investment casting.
Low-pressure casting.
PRE-CASTING TECHNIQUE.
To process casting we required molten metal, this can be achieved with pre-casting
technique.
The melting and handling of zinc alloy can entail five operations: 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Melting prealloyed ingot.

Alloying virgin ingot.
Remelting scrap.
Handling molten metal.
Transferring molten metal.
Some shops find it economically advantageous to manufacture their own alloys,

and to perform melting and holding as separate operations. The furnaces generally used
for melting and alloying are pot and immersion-tube furnaces. Some zinc suppliers for
alloying use large reverberatory furnaces. In practice a melting furnace should have a bath
capacity of approximately six times the amount of metal required per hour. Most holding
furnaces are the open-pot type and immersion-tube.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
The amount of molten metal required: A small foundry making limited quantities of casting in several alloys might use
one, or two side-by-side melting/holding furnaces at each machine. Medium-sized and
large plants will have one or more bulk-melting stations to provide large amounts of
molten alloy, which is distributed to the holding furnaces at diecasting machines while
aiming to achieve maximum quality, fuel economy and minimum metal loss.
Choice of fuel: Oil of a wide range of viscosity and quality is used in many parts of the world;
town gar or, more likely natural gas is widely used when such supplies are available and
economic. Electric melting is efficient and clean and has been used for many years in
countries with great resources of hydro-electric furnace, for bulk melting and holding,
have been installed world-wide. Some companies take advantage of the lower tariffs for
night-time electricity; they install a medium-sized coreless induction furnace, melting
about 2 tonnes per hour through the night, regularly transferring molten metal into a large,
very economical electric radiant furnace, which holds the molten metal ready electric and
fossil fuel furnaces has been complied by an Australian author efficiencies, energy
consumption and annual fuel costs of different types of furnaces, but individual
calculations have to be made for each country, taking all aspects into account.
Metallurgical efficiency and metal quality: Metal is so expensive that furnaces which convert too much metal into oxide are to
be avoided, no matter what speed of melting is offered.
Diecastings, which contain inclusions or practicals of oxide, will cause damage to
cutting tools, so will not be acceptable for the automated machining operations that will
be performed on them.
Ecology: Employees, factory inspectors and neighboring residents expect that working
conditions will be of a high standard, with emissions of fume and abtrusive noise being
brought to a minimum.
Molten metal deliveries: The heat required to raise the temperature of one tone of aluminium from room
temperature to melting point, then to change it from solid to liquid and then to raise the
temperature of the molten metal to 700 degree C is theoretically 253000 K (a K Cal is
1000 calories). Thus under ideal conditions it would require 27 liters of oil, 294 KWh of
electricity, 1 003 125 BTUs or 10 therms of gas to bring one tonne of aluminium up to
casting temperature. These figures might be compared with the actual requirements of any
diecasting plant.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
D1.4 (a)
TG-2
PRE-CASTING TECHNIQUE RELATED EQUIPMENTS.
Central melting: Reverberatory furnaces: Furnaces such as those shown in Fig. 22.1 are popular in the US for the central
melting of large quantities of aluminium alloy required, allowing for additional capacity
as production expands. The reverberatory furnace shown in the illustrations is used for
receiving molten metal deliveries or for melting large, solid materials. Materials scrap
would increase melt loss in this furnace.
To obtain the best possible performance of theses furnaces the wise diecaster will
perform at least the following furnace maintenance routine.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Check the gas analysis regularly.

Adjust burners for the most efficient combustion.
Clean the burners regularly.
Check and calibrate the pyrometers regularly.
Clean air filters regularly.
Keep the furnace refractory lining clean, an din good repair.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
In addition to routine maintenance, attention should be focused on the following

fuel conservation measures:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Open charging doors only when necessary

Avoid prolonged holding periods.
Cover exposed wells, to reduce heat loss.
The use of recuperates.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Rotary furnaces: The rotary furnace is basically a refractory-lined drum, which rotates to bring the
metal into contact with hot refractory. It is fired centrally at one end of the drum and
exhausts from the other. The constant movement of the metal bath disturbs and breaks the
oxide inclusion in the metal. Rotary furnaces are more often used to extract free
aluminium from scrap skims and drosses. Large additions of a wet type flux are charged
with the scrap to aid better separation of the oxides from the metallic aluminium. The
metal can then be ingoted of transferred molten to another reverberatory furnace for
chemical adjustment and cleanliness treatment.
Electric induction furnaces: In areas where electric power is competitive with fossil fuels, or in plants, which
require a high standard of metal quality, serious thought should be given to central
melting in induction furnaces. They are clean, efficient and give a lower melting loss than
any other type of furnace. Although they are not yet used extensively in the US, they are
available, and widely used elsewhere. In contrast to other furnaces, in which heat is
transferred by radiation, the power is from the normal 50 Hz for very large units, 500 to
1000 Hz for diecasting bulk melting, to 10000 Hz for small furnaces in laboratories.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
There are three types of induction furnace: channel furnace, coreless furnaces and,
a recent development, channel less detachable inductor furnaces. The first two are used in
diecasting, the channel furnace mainly for holding and the coreless furnace for metal
melting.
The channel furnace shown in Fig. 22.7a consists of a large upper bath with a
small channel at the bottom of the furnace. Heat is induced in the channel through a coil
surrounded by ceramic refractory, which permanently contains molten metal. It is the
most energy efficient induction furnace but is only economic if run continuously so is not
suitable for plants, which operate, only single or double shift working. In the past the
cleaning of this holding furnace presented a further problem: particles of aluminium oxide
tend to accumulate at the side of the inductor channel, causing clogging which had to be
cleared by rodding and fluxing or be the use of a nitrogen lance.
For induction melting, the following components are essential: 1. A power source, such as a line transformer, or a 50 to 60 cycle, main line voltage
supply.
2. Capacitor banking for correction the one power factor to near unity.
3. Power switching gear, temperature recording instruments and safety circuits.
4. A cooling system for the power coils leads and control components.
Some advantages of the induction furnace are 1. Close temperature control.

2. Low melting loss.
3. In the coreless type, charges can be 100% fines while still achieving a
comparatively low melting loss.
4. Close composition control, with maximum recoveries when alloying.
5. Very little operation skill required.
6. A more pleasant working environment than obtained with other types of furnaces.
The disadvantages are 1. The initial investment is much higher than a fuel-fired furnace of the same
capacity. However the capital cost of induction melting and holding equipment has
declined in real terms in recent years. Most important, this has been coupled with
an improvement in performance, so the fewer kilowatt-hours are now needed to
melt or hold a fixed amount of metal.
2. Installation costs are higher compared with a fossil fuel furnace.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Tilting crucible furnaces: The ole-fashioned tilting crucible furnace is not really suitable as a bulk melting
init in a diecasting plant. It is hardly ever used in America and only to a limited extent in
small European foundries. A more recent development, the basin tilting crucible furnace
is more widely, used by some medium sized producers. The products of combustion are
taken over the top edge of the crucible, which improves thermal efficiency and results in a
fast melting rate. As the flame is not in contact with the molten metal, losses are kept to
less than one percent for aluminium.
These furnaces are made in suitable sizes to accommodate basin type crucibles
from 65 to 900 kg aluminium capacity. The large open basin makes charging of bulky
scrap easier than with tall crucibles used in the traditional tilting furnaces. Most basin
tilting furnaces are fitted with manually operated burners of the low pressure air type
which because of the nature of the flame, must be brought to full heat gradually to avid
damaging the crucible. To eliminate this warming cycle and to reduce burner operation to
a minimum, automatic push button burners, similar to those fitted to bale- out furnaces,
can now be supplied with basin tilting furnaces. These burners can be arranged to switch
off automatically once the metal has reached the preset temperature.
Holding furnaces: In the years before energy costs escalated, furnaces in diecasting plants were
inefficient and were often used to melt and to hold it at the diecasting machined. A typical
crucible furnace would consist of an ouster steel shell, lined with refractory bricks; into
which consist of clay bonded graphite or silicon carbide was placed. The combustion
gases circulated around the crucible. Such equipment, when used for melting and holding,
would require 2 million K calls for 1 tonne of aluminium alloy, a figure ten times the
theoretical amount of heat that should be needed.
Melting and fluxing: Zinc melting furnaces can be made for both alloying and remelting, with in
difference. New alloyed metal is seldom fluxed, while remelting zinc is usually fluxed.
When alloying, special high-grade zinc ingots or sows (99.99% pure) are used. The
aluminium and magnesium are added as hardener, usually purchased as alloy shot which
is either melted in a separate furnace and added to zinc in a molten condition, or it is
added as slid shot. Alternatively power transmission line clippings such as wire, which is
relatively pure aluminium and to which the magnesium is added as ingot clippings or
scrap, may be used.
In some cases, scrap is melted along with zinc to be alloyed, followed by hardener
and special high-grade ingots. This practice holds the hardener in the melting and mixing
of the hardener can occur to homogenize the alloy. During the treatment care must be
taken to avoid entrapped air by excessive stirring.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Depending in the flux used, over fluxing may cause the flux layer in the bath to
thicken or because of the exothermic nature of the relation, the dross may become
superheated (750 degree C or higher) causing the zinc to vaporize. Any superheated flux
should be skimmed off as soon as possible and the melt composition checked. Careful
control of melt temperature and flux usage will result in the least amount of dross
formation and a clean melt. Equipment is available to reclaim zinc from the hot dross, but
normally it is sold to a smelter for recovery. Fluxes, commonly used in the past.
Products of copious fume create pollution problems, although in recent years,
nonfuming proprietary fluxes containing magnesium chloride have been developed which
also retard the rate at which magnesium is removed from the alloy.
The choice of whether to flux or not depends on the standard procedures of each
foundry, but such practice can only result in cleaner metal for casting. When handling
metal: 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Store ingots in dry, preferably heated areas.

Preheat metal to be charged, when economically advantageous.
Use minimum pouring height to transfer molten metal.
A continuous charging method is recommended.
Keep pot type furnaces as full as possible.
Good furnace maintenance increases melting efficiency and this can be improved
by the following precautions.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Furnace covers should be used t reduce heat losses from the metal surface.
Furnace linings should be checked intervals.
Burners should be kept clean, and the gas air mixture adjusted regularly.
Dross should not be allowed to build up on the furnace walls, pots, or immersion
tubes, thereby decreeing heat transfer.
The magic word in handling zinc alloys is temperature. Overheating above 850
degree F (455 degree C) should be avoided. Careful temperature control and judicious use
of flux will help to ensure a good clean supply of metal for casting. A program of
preventive maintenance is advantageous for furnace covers. Linings, burner combustion
ratios, temperature controllers, and other similar areas.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
CHAPTER: D2 POST CASTING
UNIT-4
CHAPTER D2
POST CASTING
-1-
TG-2

- 2 -19
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
CHAPTER OUTLINE
D2.1
INTRODUCTION.
D2.2
PRINCIPLE OF METAL CASTING.
D2.3 (a)
CLASSIFICATION OF POST CASTING TECHNIQUES.
D2.3 (b)
TRIMMING.
D2.3(c)
POST MOLDING.
D2.3 (d)
SURFACE DECORATION.
D2.3 (e)
COATING.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
D2.1
TG-2
INTRODUCTION
Often, it is possible, and even desirable, to design features into the die casting die
that will be reproduced on the cast shot to help a subsequent operation that must be
performed on the casting. These features must be planned early in the development of
the die design .Once a die design is hardened , or even nearly complete, there is a
reluctance to make major changes to incorporate these post casting processing aids.
Yet, when planned early, these features are usually simple and can greatly improve the
efficiency of secondary Cooperation.
D2.2
PRINCIPLE OF METAL CASTING
Parting Line and Flash: The most obvious and is the control of flash to help the trimming operation. In many
instances, it is desirable to build the die so some flash will from along the trim line. Some
flash will form along the trim line. Some flash will invariably occur even when dies are
built to shut-off the flash completely. At first, such flash will form as thin feathers. These
do not trim well. Usually thin feathery flash will be folded down by the trimming die. It
will not cut off cleanly. If the die is built to allow 0.010 to 0.020 in. ( 0.25 to 0.50 mm.)
of flash, the casting can be trimmed efficiently with a trimming die . Controlled flash
thickness conditions are shown in Fig 11-1.
Tie- Ins: Tie ins are small runners between overflows, cavities, and runners, These small
runners are used to hold the cast shot together . They can be used to minimize bending
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
during ejection. Sometimes they are used in multiple cavity dies to brace one casting to
another to minimize warpage of the shot for accurate trimming . The four cavity cast
shot 18 in Fig 11-2 shows both controlled flash ( around each casting),and tie-ins
between each pair of castings.
The small runner like Tie-Ins is usually cut into die face with a ball end cutter. The
depth is cut to less then half the width as shown in Fig 11-3a to insure draft. The half-round
shape is most common although other shapes can be used. The width of the Tie-In will
usually be about 0.25 in. (6.5mm).
Locators: Locating pins called locators can be cast into the die cast shot to help register
the casting in the tools of secondary operations. This author prefers the primary
secondary locating system shown in Fig. 11-4 When these locators are built properly
and used properly in the secondary tooling ( i.e trimming dies drilling fixtures ,
tapping fixtures, etc.), the secondary operation will be dimensionally precise and parts
loading and unloading will be easy.
The relationships between the various dimensions of the locator are shown in
Table 11-1 The locator engages sockets in the secondary tool as shown in Fig 11-5
for trimming die. Exact location is established in the trimming die through the sequence
shown in Fig 11-6. The casting is placed on the lower part ( i.e. nest) of the trimming die
as shown in Fig 11-6. The shot can be placed on the die mechanically, but it is usually
done by hand. Normally, there are three or four locators on the cast shot. The locators are
placed in the funnel shaped sockets as shown.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
-5-
TG-2

- 6 -19
DIE CASTING
THEORY
Dimension
X
DD
Typical Sizes
Relationships
0.75 to 1.50 in.
Design for easy
(20.0 to 40.0 mm). loading into DD in
Fig11-5 of tool for
secondary
operation.
0.25 to 0.375 in.
Select size to give
(6.0 to 10.0 mm.)
suitable ejector pin
diameter.
0.625 to 1.125 in
DD = d + X/2
( Fig 11-5
(16.0 to 30.0 mm.)
0.50 to 1.75 in.

L > L' if X /2 does
(12.0 to 45.0 mm.) not fall on casting's
side wall > L" at
point X /2 on least
draft portion ( A') of
casting's
0.125 to 0.25 in.
Designer 's choice
( 3.0 to 6.0 mm.
A < A'
Sph. R
0.06 to 0.125 in.

(1.5 to 3.0 mm).
0.375 to 0.625 in.
(10.0 to 16.0
mm.)
0.125 to 0.250
in.
(3.0 to 6.0 mm.)
Designer 's choice
X'
TG-2
D =2 [ Sph .R.
+ tan A ( L - l)]
Designer 's choice
Fig 11.5 the locator cast onto an overflow as Fig 11.4, is hear shown (phantom), in
locating socket of the trimming die. The light die spring is moderately pre-loaded to insure
ejection of the locator as the die opens. The heavy die spring should be pre-loaded in excess
of the compressed force (i.e. in the position shown) of the light die spring.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Fig 11-6. The locator shown in Fig 11-4 reaches its final located position as in Fig.
11.5 through the sequence shown here The ejector pin side ( diameter d.) is placed into
the funnel shaped pre-locating socket of the tool for the secondary operation ( a). In this
example, the tool is a trimming die. Closes, the trimming steel contacts the spherical radius
( b) of the upper locator and pushes the lower locator ( diameter d) down the conical
surface of the lower percolating socket ( c). The dimensional relationships specified in
Table 11-1 insure that the cutting edge of the trimming steel will not touch the casting.
Once the overflow contacts the top rim of the funnel shaped pre-locating socket , the
upper locator will compares the light spring in the trimming steel. The hole in the
trimming steel engages the D diameter of the locator to insure exact positioning of the
casting to the trimming steel ( d). The final closing of the trimming die compresses
the heavy spring below the funnel-shaped pre-locating socket to facilitate trimming as
shown in Fig 11-5.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Wing Nut casting: The small straightforward wing-nut die-casting shown at the top in Fig 11-9
illustrates some trimming considerations. If the surface finish is unimportant, the cheapest
treatment is barrel tumbling ( i.e. burnishing The as-cast hole can then be tapped without
clearing to size. The draft on the core will not allow a full-from thread at the outer end of
the bore, but often that is not a disadvantage.
Assuming the component is to tumbled, the flash around the core should not be
close to the hole . Fragments of flash are likely to be bent over and impacted rather than
broken away cleanly. A position on the flat end face remote from the cored hole is also
unsatisfactory. If exceptionally heavy flash should form in that position, it may not be
bear upon a flat surface when in use . The most favorable position for the flash-line is
that indicated at ( a) in Fig 11-9. The flash is around the largest diameter, as shown in ( a) ,
it is more likely to be broken away cleanly by tumbling. The end-face formed by the core is
perfectly clean and flat.
If a better quality thread were required, clearing or reaming would be necessary to

size the bore. It would then be advantage to have the flash around the edge of the hole, as
at (b) in Fig 11-9 A shouldered cutting tool could be used to clear the bore and
simultaneously shear away the flash. A bevel or radius may be added to the edge of the hole
at the same time. The cutter could extend to face the whole area of the base.
If the wing-nut were to be polished and plated die-trimming would be preferable
to tumbling for flash removal. A trimming die will remove, at one pass. both the flash
around the main parting and that are the core intersection. If the flash around the core is
at the edge of the hole there is nothing to shear against during the first half of the stroke ,
consequently the edge of the hole is likely to break away-raggedly To avoid that
problem, it is necessary to shoulder the core, having the flash about half-way between the
cored hole and the outside diameter of the wing nut as at ( c), Fig 11-9 Solid metal
then supports the flash through out the trimming stoke.
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DIE CASTING
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Splined Cap: The splined cap shown in Fig 11-10a is another example of how finishing
operations can affect the die ( and even the part) design As shown at ( a) , the splines
end the same at both top and bottom. That necessitates a parting line at one end of the
splines. End the same at both top and bottom. That necessitates a parting line at one end of
the splines. A modified design shown in ( b) is much more suitable for die casting . In (
b) of Fig 11-10 the outside diameter below the serrated portion is increased by more
that the depth of the serrations or splines.
For the first design , the radiuses portion of the wall would be formed in the
ejector die, and the parting surface would be at the bottom of the splined portion as
shown at ( a). Subsequent trimming is accomplished with a serrated shaving die. There can
be some difficulty preserving an accurate register between the two halves of the cavity.
The modified design, (b), also a radius along the outside bottom corner,
necessitating a raised parting line. However, since the part is around , it could be cast with
a sharp square corner at the bottom as shown at ( c) The radius would then be cut on
the part and the flash removed with a turning operation as depicted in ( d). Machin ing
marks can be masked by wire brushing the surface immediately after machining.
Cast in Features VS. Secondary Operations: It is frequently necessary for the die caster to decide wheather some particular
feature of a component shall be formed in the die or produced by subsequent machining.
The problem arises where small holes are required through thin sections. A choice must be
made between coring (which entails flash clearance), piercing or drilling. Sometimes the
issue is more obscure the provision of some feature in a die may be difficult , while its
omission , necessitating subsequent machining, may be equally unsatisfactory . An
example is provided by the clip shown in Fig 11-16 which is required to have a 0.032- in.
(0.8-mm.) Slot between the two cored lugs when the faces are parallel. The internal bore
is also required to be reamed to remove the coring draft.
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DIE CASTING
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If the part was to be cast solid and the slot cut later with a slitting saw, the
large mass of metal through which the saw must cut is likely to contain excessive
porosity However the lugs could be cast slightly open as shown in the right hand
illustration of Fig 11-16.
The examples of cast or machine problem could go on indefinitely. These, however,

suffice to show the importance of a correct balance. The die casting die should form as
much of the part as possible. But, when the die becomes too complicated , or when its
operating cycle becomes uneconomically long, restrictive features can be formed by
inexpensive operations on the casting.
Trimming Handles : Often the trimming operation can be made much more efficient and safe by
casting a handle onto each shot. The handle is usually a flat runner-like feature extending
outward from the sprue or biscuit. The trimming operator can grasp this handle and use it to
place the shot into the trimming die without exposing his hand to pinch areas in the die.
Summary: The design of the die casting die can be made to help operations that are
performed to the casting after it is die cast. Placement of the parting line and flash, tie-ins,
locators, cavity and run identification, base or work lines and insert detail can effect the
secondary operations.
D2.3
CLASSIFICATION OF POST CASTING TECHNIQUES

The post casting operation of die casting dies can be classified as follows: (a)Trimming
(b)Post Machining
(c)Surface Decoration
(d)Coating
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DIE CASTING
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These operations are done to give the final shape to die casting components.
D2.3 (a)
TRIMMING
Present day automatic diecasting equipment provides a product, which more than
ever before, can be described as the shortest distance between raw material and finished
product. Ten year ago, the runner sprue and flash of a diecasting were often removed
manually or by separate clipping processes. Nowadays these are included in the machine
cycle time, where a robot or extractor device removes the casting and sprue from the die.
Places it in a quench tank, removes it after a predetermined cooling period and then locates
it in a clipping press., after clipping the casting is deburred or placed in a transfer line or
machining centre for drilling, tapping or other secondary operation and is ready for
consignment to the customer or for surface treatment processes.
During the post decade there has been an ever-increasing insistence by the
diecasting company undertakes all the machining operations, so that the product goes
straight to the assembly line.
Runner and overflow removal: The scientific developments in runner and overflow design which have been
introduced in the past decade have led to runner systems being substantially thinner and
lighter than those used before. The shape and thickness of the gate and the section thickness
from casting to overflow often determines how the surplus metal must be removed and
whether it will be a fast process or a troublesome one.
Breaking off needs to be done carefully, whether by robot, extractor or manually.
Simple fixtures can assist breaking off and often there is only one way in which this can be
done. Where the gate mouth is in one half of the casting, as shown in Fig 26-1, the
operation should be carried out in one direction only to avoid Breaking-in, which
frequently creates an extra fettling or banding operation to restore the proper contours of the
casting, consequently the gate mouth is often shaped to avoid this effect. With equal areas
of the gate mouth in each die half, as shown in Fig 26-2, breaking-in is not normally
encountered, because the draft angles exercises control over both broken edges. Where the
gate mouth need to follow the contour of a circular casting, as shown in Fig 26-3, it is often
beneficial to design the gate mouth and runner as shown in Fig 26-4, to keep the witness at
either end as small as possible. Failure to appreciate removes the gate witness. When a
casting extractor of the robot type can be programmed to carry out the breaking-off
operation, large time and labour savings can be made, provided there is effective separation
of castings from sprues, so that damage is avoided and the sprues can then be controlled
and carried away for re-melting.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
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Deburring operations: The oldest and simplest form of deburring plant consists of a steel barrel mounted
on a drive shaft. Many of these, still in operations, are used for the separation of small
castings from sprues. Several versatile machines, developed from the original barrels,
remove sharp edges or flash from diecasting or prepare surfaces for subsequent painting or
plating.
During deburring controlled metal removal is required, usually along the parting
line of the casting, where flash has occurred or where small upstanding parts of the gate
require removal. Vibratory barrels are wither circular or straight but the principles involved
in both types are the same. A container, lined with rubber or neoprene, contains media;
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- 13 -19
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
the castings to be duburred are loaded into the container; water, containing a detergent and
other compounds is circulated thorough the mass of castings and media, then the whole is
subjected to vibration. Light deburring can be done on diecasting for furniture and cabinet
hardware by vibratory finishing with steel media; enormous tonnages of zinc alloy parts are
treated by such techniques. Ceramic products of natural and synthetic stone, fused
aluminum oxide and related materials are often used when a strong cutting action is
required.
D2.3 (b)
POST MACHININIG
The alloy used for pressure die casting die are free machining and comparatively
soft. For turning, milling spot, facing and boring, tungsten carbide tools are used to grate a
advantage, the especially with aluminium-silicon alloy which have associate problems of
wear. High speed, high rake angles and low feed give the best results. Since castings are
produced closed to finish size, they amount of metal to be removed is generally very small.
In the machining of zinc and aluminium alloys there is a tendency fore the metal being cut
to be build up on the cutting action. This may be minimized by using the correct cutting
angles, setting the tool correctly and lapping the cutting edges to fine finish to e4ncourage
the sheared metal to flow away from the cutting edge. The choice of lubricant will also
play a major role in this problem.
Drilling: The possibility of drilling holes instead of coring them should be kept regularly
under review.The increasing cost of labour, the need to obtain maximum utilization of
diecasting machines, the coast of die maintenance compared with the extra raw material
cost of a die casting which requires machining, all must be taken into account. Drilling
holes, therefore, is an important secondary operation in any die-casting plan and the
collection of example shown in Fig 26-16 is only a small cross-section of the types of
castings that require drilling.
Satisfactory results in drilling both zinc and aluminium alloy castings are easily
achieved using high-speed steel drills.
In drilling aluminium alloys high rates of speed and penetration can be used, hence
disposal of swarf is very important.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
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Zinc alloy readily clogs the drill flutes and, because of the relatively low melting
point, the heat generated by cutting operation can result in zinc alloy softening sufficiently
to welt to the flutes. To avoid these problems, drills with wide polished flutes should be
used and the drill should be break out of the hole to relive the swarf. High lip relief, longer
drill point angles, very thin webs at the point and narrow margins should be used,
particularly on deep holes.
Magnesium alloys require fairly high drilling speeds and heavy feed rates. Because
of the high penetration rates, drills are required with ample chip space and equipment must
have provision for efficient chip disposal.
The recent development in CNC equipment have given a new look to a vide range
of industries for automated drilling, tapping and light milling. Fig 26.19 shows a CNC drill
developed in Britain. It has a unique cubic table with a facility to provide component
unloading, loading and swarf debris elimination. The three axis drill head allow the
component to remain stationary during machining and eliminates the need for any
additional tool changing system. With transfer speeds of about 20 meter per minute, the
cubotic drill head is able to service a stationary and accessible 15-state tool loft. After
component loading, work changeover is speedy, with the cube indexing thorough 90
degrees in about four seconds.
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- 15 -19
DIE CASTING
THEORY
D2.3 (c)
TG-2
SURFACE DECORATION
When zinc alloy diecastings require a decorative corrosion resistant or

functional finish it is usual to electroplate the surface with a metal coating giving the
required a decorative corrosion-resistant or functional finish it is usual to electroplate
the surface with a metal coating giving the required properties to withstand the
conditions under which it is to be used in service. Electroplating systems developed
over the past decade are available to satisfy the requirements of all present day
standards Satisfactory performances are, however are, However, only obtainable when
attention is paid to the following factors.
1. The diecasting should be of sound design with sympathetic consideration for the
case of polishing /vibrating and electroplating.
2. The diecasting should be produced using only high purity alloy. They should be
metallurgic ally sound .free from surface porosity and general imperfections, and
process the so-called hard wear surface finish.
3. The die-casting should be prepaid and electro plated w2ith an approved process, the
choice of thickness being adequate for the enviournment in which it is to be used.
D2.3 (d)
COATING
Electroplating: When zinc alloy diecasting require a decorative corrosion-resistant or functional

finish it is usual to electroplate the surface with a metal coating giving the required
properties to withstand the conditions under which it is to be used in service. Electroplating
system developed over the past decade is available to satisfy the requirements of all
present-day standards. Satisfactory performances are, however, only obtainable when
1. The die-castings should be of sound design with sympathetic consideration for the
ease of polishing/vibrating and electroplating.
2. The die-castings should be produced using only high purity alloy. They should be
metallurgical sound, free from surface porosity and general imperfection, and
3. The die-castings should be prepared and electroplated with an approved process, the
Relevant specifications are British standard 1224 1970. International standard 1456
1974 and US specification ASTM B456-1979.
Design for polishing/vibrating: Prolonged experience in design requirement has now eliminated the uneasy working
relationship between die casters and the metal finishing industry that was due to poor
communication and misunderstanding of each others problems and requirements. It is not
the intention of the metal finisher to stifle the creative ability of any stylist or designer, as
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
without their contributions to industry products would soon become drab and uninteresting.
However, good design enables trimming, pretreatment and electroplating to be carried out
with minimum time, labour and materials. Poor designing can make a component difficult
to polish to a suitable standard, and virtually impossible to electroplate except at a
prohibitive cost. It is therefore recommended that the designer should have a working
knowledge of the finishing processes he specifies, thus avoiding time consuming and costly
errors, minimizing production costs, maximizing output and ensuring good service life for
the finished product.
After clipping, parting lines are usually given and initial smoothing operation,
usually by mechanical polishing, with a lightly abrasive-coated mop or belt, or an initial
finishing operation in a tumbling or vibratory barrel using abrasive media. Articles should
be of as simple shape and contour as is practical; intricate designs tend to become, indistinct
and blurred, with sharp edges and projections becoming rounded.
Large flat areas should be lightly broken up with a simple design, or the surface
made slightly concave or convex. Flat surfaces are difficult to polish or vibrate to achieve a
uniform finish, and are vulnerable to scratching during subsequent operations, which may
well result in the rejection on final inspection. Components for vibratory finishing should
be robust enough to withstand the severe mechanical action, and designed not to interlock.
Design for electroplating: After a suitable cleaning operation, the components to be electroplated are
connected to the cathode or negative electrode of a low voltage de supply. The positive
electrode or anode is usually of the metal to be deposited, or in special circumstances, an
insoluble metal may be used. When the current is switched on, the metal ions flow to the
cathode and are deposited as metal.
Current flows between anode and cathode and, as the ions prefer to take the shortest
path, far more are attracted to edges and projections, proportionally less into recessed. In
most electroplating systems, therefore (these include nickel and chromium), an uneven
thickness of deposit is produced, the distribution being dependent on the plating solution,
the method of jigging and the current density. The protective value of any coating depends
on the minimum thickness, as the strength of chain depends on the articles being
electroplated (the more complicated the shape), the greater the thickness of electro deposit
which needs to be applied in order to obtain minimum thickness requirements. Sharp
changes in contour should be avoided, as projections will attract excess thickness may well
be impossible to achieve adequate coating thickness and premature failure will occur in
service. Fig 29.1, reproduced by permission of the American Zinc Institute, illustrates how
designs can be improved to achieve better palatability.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
- 17 -
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Surface finishing prior to electroplating: Well-designed dies, regularly maintained with a mirror-bright surface, will result in
substantial savings during finishing by reducing the time required for th initial mechanical
operation and significantly improve the finish achieved after electroplating. The gate and
vents should be as thin as practical and the trimming operations carried out as close to the
main casting as possible. Due to the relative ease by which zinc alloy diecastings can be
prepared for electroplating, the overall cost of this surface finishing operation prior to
electroplating was estimated to be around 30% of the whole finishing operation when done
by automatic machine polishing. By adopting the now widely-used Vibratory Mass
Finishing Techniques, the above figure can be substantially reduced. Components can be
handled in bulk and neither individual handling nor fixing of the parts in require. Consistent
results can be achieved and, although there is some loss of reflectivity, the work is
acceptable for electroplating.
Chromate conversion coatings on aluminum diecastings: Where a coating of lower protective value is required or where it is necessary to
increase the durability of subsequent organic coating, a simple immersion chromate coating
can be applied. Most chromate conversion coatings are of the proprietary type, generally
based on two formulations:
Type 1. based on Acid Chromate
Type 2. based on Chromate-Phosphate
ASTM B440-1972 gives the following information on class, colour, and use film
weight.
Class
1
Color
Yellow to brown
Use
For maximum corrosion
resistance, usually unpainted.
Coating weight
3.2-1.1 mg/dm2
Iridescent yellow
1.1-3.8 mg/dm2
Colorless to yellow
General purpose good base

for paint.
Decorative applications, low
electrical contact resistance,
can be used as base for paint.
Below 1.1 mg/dm2
Acid chromate.
Proprietary mixtures are based on acid chromates, fluorides, boric acid and
ferricyanide or other activators. Application by immersion spray, concentration,
temperature and immersion times can b varied to achieve coatings from colourless through
yellow to golden brown. The more intense the colour the better the corrosion-resistance.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
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Coating weights vary from 1.0-1.2 mg/dm2. Films can be dried at relatively high
temperature around 90 Centigrade.
Chromate phosphate.
Also of proprietary nature, the process is usually based on a complex mixture of
phosphate and chromic acid together with fluorides, applications is by spray or immersion.
Concentration temperature and immersion times can be varied to achieve films ranging
from light iridescent to a heavy opaque green; coating weights vary from 5-30 mg/dm2. A
number of process recommend a final swill with a weak chromic acid dip to improve the
corrosion performance prior to drying at a temperature which should not exceed 70
centigrade.
Electroplating on magnesium alloy die-castings.

Due to their chemical activity and their affinity for oxygen, which results in rapid
formation of tenacious oxide film on surface, magnesium alloys are not easy to electroplate.
Like aluminium, their strength-weight ratio is attractive and electroplating is used to
improve surface appearance, increase corrosion resistance, wear resistance and electrical
conductivity. The general procedure for pretreatment is similar to the employed for the
electroplating of aluminum, ie. To remove the oxide film and prevent it from reforming by
the deposition of an immersion deposit prior to conventional electroplating.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
UNIT-4
CHAPTER D2
POST CASTING
-1-
TG-2

- 2 -19
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
CHAPTER OUTLINE
D2.1
INTRODUCTION.
D2.2
PRINCIPLE OF METAL CASTING.
D2.3 (a)
CLASSIFICATION OF POST CASTING TECHNIQUES.
D2.3 (b)
TRIMMING.
D2.3(c)
POST MOLDING.
D2.3 (d)
SURFACE DECORATION.
D2.3 (e)
COATING.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
D2.1
TG-2
INTRODUCTION
Often, it is possible, and even desirable, to design features into the die casting die
that will be reproduced on the cast shot to help a subsequent operation that must be
performed on the casting. These features must be planned early in the development of
the die design .Once a die design is hardened , or even nearly complete, there is a
reluctance to make major changes to incorporate these post casting processing aids.
Yet, when planned early, these features are usually simple and can greatly improve the
efficiency of secondary Cooperation.
D2.2
PRINCIPLE OF METAL CASTING
Parting Line and Flash: The most obvious and is the control of flash to help the trimming operation. In many
instances, it is desirable to build the die so some flash will from along the trim line. Some
flash will form along the trim line. Some flash will invariably occur even when dies are
built to shut-off the flash completely. At first, such flash will form as thin feathers. These
do not trim well. Usually thin feathery flash will be folded down by the trimming die. It
will not cut off cleanly. If the die is built to allow 0.010 to 0.020 in. ( 0.25 to 0.50 mm.)
of flash, the casting can be trimmed efficiently with a trimming die . Controlled flash
thickness conditions are shown in Fig 11-1.
Tie- Ins: Tie ins are small runners between overflows, cavities, and runners, These small
runners are used to hold the cast shot together . They can be used to minimize bending
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
during ejection. Sometimes they are used in multiple cavity dies to brace one casting to
another to minimize warpage of the shot for accurate trimming . The four cavity cast
shot 18 in Fig 11-2 shows both controlled flash ( around each casting),and tie-ins
between each pair of castings.
The small runner like Tie-Ins is usually cut into die face with a ball end cutter. The
depth is cut to less then half the width as shown in Fig 11-3a to insure draft. The half-round
shape is most common although other shapes can be used. The width of the Tie-In will
usually be about 0.25 in. (6.5mm).
Locators: Locating pins called locators can be cast into the die cast shot to help register
the casting in the tools of secondary operations. This author prefers the primary
secondary locating system shown in Fig. 11-4 When these locators are built properly
and used properly in the secondary tooling ( i.e trimming dies drilling fixtures ,
tapping fixtures, etc.), the secondary operation will be dimensionally precise and parts
loading and unloading will be easy.
The relationships between the various dimensions of the locator are shown in
Table 11-1 The locator engages sockets in the secondary tool as shown in Fig 11-5
for trimming die. Exact location is established in the trimming die through the sequence
shown in Fig 11-6. The casting is placed on the lower part ( i.e. nest) of the trimming die
as shown in Fig 11-6. The shot can be placed on the die mechanically, but it is usually
done by hand. Normally, there are three or four locators on the cast shot. The locators are
placed in the funnel shaped sockets as shown.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
-5-
TG-2

- 6 -19
DIE CASTING
THEORY
Dimension
X
DD
Typical Sizes
Relationships
0.75 to 1.50 in.
Design for easy
(20.0 to 40.0 mm). loading into DD in
Fig11-5 of tool for
secondary
operation.
0.25 to 0.375 in.
Select size to give
(6.0 to 10.0 mm.)
suitable ejector pin
diameter.
0.625 to 1.125 in
DD = d + X/2
( Fig 11-5
(16.0 to 30.0 mm.)
0.50 to 1.75 in.

L > L' if X /2 does
(12.0 to 45.0 mm.) not fall on casting's
side wall > L" at
point X /2 on least
draft portion ( A') of
casting's
0.125 to 0.25 in.
Designer 's choice
( 3.0 to 6.0 mm.
A < A'
Sph. R
0.06 to 0.125 in.

(1.5 to 3.0 mm).
0.375 to 0.625 in.
(10.0 to 16.0
mm.)
0.125 to 0.250
in.
(3.0 to 6.0 mm.)
Designer 's choice
X'
TG-2
D =2 [ Sph .R.
+ tan A ( L - l)]
Designer 's choice
Fig 11.5 the locator cast onto an overflow as Fig 11.4, is hear shown (phantom), in
locating socket of the trimming die. The light die spring is moderately pre-loaded to insure
ejection of the locator as the die opens. The heavy die spring should be pre-loaded in excess
of the compressed force (i.e. in the position shown) of the light die spring.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
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Fig 11-6. The locator shown in Fig 11-4 reaches its final located position as in Fig.
11.5 through the sequence shown here The ejector pin side ( diameter d.) is placed into
the funnel shaped pre-locating socket of the tool for the secondary operation ( a). In this
example, the tool is a trimming die. Closes, the trimming steel contacts the spherical radius
( b) of the upper locator and pushes the lower locator ( diameter d) down the conical
surface of the lower percolating socket ( c). The dimensional relationships specified in
Table 11-1 insure that the cutting edge of the trimming steel will not touch the casting.
Once the overflow contacts the top rim of the funnel shaped pre-locating socket , the
upper locator will compares the light spring in the trimming steel. The hole in the
trimming steel engages the D diameter of the locator to insure exact positioning of the
casting to the trimming steel ( d). The final closing of the trimming die compresses
the heavy spring below the funnel-shaped pre-locating socket to facilitate trimming as
shown in Fig 11-5.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Wing Nut casting: The small straightforward wing-nut die-casting shown at the top in Fig 11-9
illustrates some trimming considerations. If the surface finish is unimportant, the cheapest
treatment is barrel tumbling ( i.e. burnishing The as-cast hole can then be tapped without
clearing to size. The draft on the core will not allow a full-from thread at the outer end of
the bore, but often that is not a disadvantage.
Assuming the component is to tumbled, the flash around the core should not be
close to the hole . Fragments of flash are likely to be bent over and impacted rather than
broken away cleanly. A position on the flat end face remote from the cored hole is also
unsatisfactory. If exceptionally heavy flash should form in that position, it may not be
bear upon a flat surface when in use . The most favorable position for the flash-line is
that indicated at ( a) in Fig 11-9. The flash is around the largest diameter, as shown in ( a) ,
it is more likely to be broken away cleanly by tumbling. The end-face formed by the core is
perfectly clean and flat.
If a better quality thread were required, clearing or reaming would be necessary to

size the bore. It would then be advantage to have the flash around the edge of the hole, as
at (b) in Fig 11-9 A shouldered cutting tool could be used to clear the bore and
simultaneously shear away the flash. A bevel or radius may be added to the edge of the hole
at the same time. The cutter could extend to face the whole area of the base.
If the wing-nut were to be polished and plated die-trimming would be preferable
to tumbling for flash removal. A trimming die will remove, at one pass. both the flash
around the main parting and that are the core intersection. If the flash around the core is
at the edge of the hole there is nothing to shear against during the first half of the stroke ,
consequently the edge of the hole is likely to break away-raggedly To avoid that
problem, it is necessary to shoulder the core, having the flash about half-way between the
cored hole and the outside diameter of the wing nut as at ( c), Fig 11-9 Solid metal
then supports the flash through out the trimming stoke.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
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Splined Cap: The splined cap shown in Fig 11-10a is another example of how finishing
operations can affect the die ( and even the part) design As shown at ( a) , the splines
end the same at both top and bottom. That necessitates a parting line at one end of the
splines. End the same at both top and bottom. That necessitates a parting line at one end of
the splines. A modified design shown in ( b) is much more suitable for die casting . In (
b) of Fig 11-10 the outside diameter below the serrated portion is increased by more
that the depth of the serrations or splines.
For the first design , the radiuses portion of the wall would be formed in the
ejector die, and the parting surface would be at the bottom of the splined portion as
shown at ( a). Subsequent trimming is accomplished with a serrated shaving die. There can
be some difficulty preserving an accurate register between the two halves of the cavity.
The modified design, (b), also a radius along the outside bottom corner,
necessitating a raised parting line. However, since the part is around , it could be cast with
a sharp square corner at the bottom as shown at ( c) The radius would then be cut on
the part and the flash removed with a turning operation as depicted in ( d). Machin ing
marks can be masked by wire brushing the surface immediately after machining.
Cast in Features VS. Secondary Operations: It is frequently necessary for the die caster to decide wheather some particular
feature of a component shall be formed in the die or produced by subsequent machining.
The problem arises where small holes are required through thin sections. A choice must be
made between coring (which entails flash clearance), piercing or drilling. Sometimes the
issue is more obscure the provision of some feature in a die may be difficult , while its
omission , necessitating subsequent machining, may be equally unsatisfactory . An
example is provided by the clip shown in Fig 11-16 which is required to have a 0.032- in.
(0.8-mm.) Slot between the two cored lugs when the faces are parallel. The internal bore
is also required to be reamed to remove the coring draft.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
If the part was to be cast solid and the slot cut later with a slitting saw, the
large mass of metal through which the saw must cut is likely to contain excessive
porosity However the lugs could be cast slightly open as shown in the right hand
illustration of Fig 11-16.
The examples of cast or machine problem could go on indefinitely. These, however,

suffice to show the importance of a correct balance. The die casting die should form as
much of the part as possible. But, when the die becomes too complicated , or when its
operating cycle becomes uneconomically long, restrictive features can be formed by
inexpensive operations on the casting.
Trimming Handles : Often the trimming operation can be made much more efficient and safe by
casting a handle onto each shot. The handle is usually a flat runner-like feature extending
outward from the sprue or biscuit. The trimming operator can grasp this handle and use it to
place the shot into the trimming die without exposing his hand to pinch areas in the die.
Summary: The design of the die casting die can be made to help operations that are
performed to the casting after it is die cast. Placement of the parting line and flash, tie-ins,
locators, cavity and run identification, base or work lines and insert detail can effect the
secondary operations.
D2.3
CLASSIFICATION OF POST CASTING TECHNIQUES

The post casting operation of die casting dies can be classified as follows: (a)Trimming
(b)Post Machining
(c)Surface Decoration
(d)Coating
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
These operations are done to give the final shape to die casting components.
D2.3 (a)
TRIMMING
Present day automatic diecasting equipment provides a product, which more than
ever before, can be described as the shortest distance between raw material and finished
product. Ten year ago, the runner sprue and flash of a diecasting were often removed
manually or by separate clipping processes. Nowadays these are included in the machine
cycle time, where a robot or extractor device removes the casting and sprue from the die.
Places it in a quench tank, removes it after a predetermined cooling period and then locates
it in a clipping press., after clipping the casting is deburred or placed in a transfer line or
machining centre for drilling, tapping or other secondary operation and is ready for
consignment to the customer or for surface treatment processes.
During the post decade there has been an ever-increasing insistence by the
diecasting company undertakes all the machining operations, so that the product goes
straight to the assembly line.
Runner and overflow removal: The scientific developments in runner and overflow design which have been
introduced in the past decade have led to runner systems being substantially thinner and
lighter than those used before. The shape and thickness of the gate and the section thickness
from casting to overflow often determines how the surplus metal must be removed and
whether it will be a fast process or a troublesome one.
Breaking off needs to be done carefully, whether by robot, extractor or manually.
Simple fixtures can assist breaking off and often there is only one way in which this can be
done. Where the gate mouth is in one half of the casting, as shown in Fig 26-1, the
operation should be carried out in one direction only to avoid Breaking-in, which
frequently creates an extra fettling or banding operation to restore the proper contours of the
casting, consequently the gate mouth is often shaped to avoid this effect. With equal areas
of the gate mouth in each die half, as shown in Fig 26-2, breaking-in is not normally
encountered, because the draft angles exercises control over both broken edges. Where the
gate mouth need to follow the contour of a circular casting, as shown in Fig 26-3, it is often
beneficial to design the gate mouth and runner as shown in Fig 26-4, to keep the witness at
either end as small as possible. Failure to appreciate removes the gate witness. When a
casting extractor of the robot type can be programmed to carry out the breaking-off
operation, large time and labour savings can be made, provided there is effective separation
of castings from sprues, so that damage is avoided and the sprues can then be controlled
and carried away for re-melting.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Deburring operations: The oldest and simplest form of deburring plant consists of a steel barrel mounted
on a drive shaft. Many of these, still in operations, are used for the separation of small
castings from sprues. Several versatile machines, developed from the original barrels,
remove sharp edges or flash from diecasting or prepare surfaces for subsequent painting or
plating.
During deburring controlled metal removal is required, usually along the parting
line of the casting, where flash has occurred or where small upstanding parts of the gate
require removal. Vibratory barrels are wither circular or straight but the principles involved
in both types are the same. A container, lined with rubber or neoprene, contains media;
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
the castings to be duburred are loaded into the container; water, containing a detergent and
other compounds is circulated thorough the mass of castings and media, then the whole is
subjected to vibration. Light deburring can be done on diecasting for furniture and cabinet
hardware by vibratory finishing with steel media; enormous tonnages of zinc alloy parts are
treated by such techniques. Ceramic products of natural and synthetic stone, fused
aluminum oxide and related materials are often used when a strong cutting action is
required.
D2.3 (b)
POST MACHININIG
The alloy used for pressure die casting die are free machining and comparatively
soft. For turning, milling spot, facing and boring, tungsten carbide tools are used to grate a
advantage, the especially with aluminium-silicon alloy which have associate problems of
wear. High speed, high rake angles and low feed give the best results. Since castings are
produced closed to finish size, they amount of metal to be removed is generally very small.
In the machining of zinc and aluminium alloys there is a tendency fore the metal being cut
to be build up on the cutting action. This may be minimized by using the correct cutting
angles, setting the tool correctly and lapping the cutting edges to fine finish to e4ncourage
the sheared metal to flow away from the cutting edge. The choice of lubricant will also
play a major role in this problem.
Drilling: The possibility of drilling holes instead of coring them should be kept regularly
under review.The increasing cost of labour, the need to obtain maximum utilization of
diecasting machines, the coast of die maintenance compared with the extra raw material
cost of a die casting which requires machining, all must be taken into account. Drilling
holes, therefore, is an important secondary operation in any die-casting plan and the
collection of example shown in Fig 26-16 is only a small cross-section of the types of
castings that require drilling.
Satisfactory results in drilling both zinc and aluminium alloy castings are easily
achieved using high-speed steel drills.
In drilling aluminium alloys high rates of speed and penetration can be used, hence
disposal of swarf is very important.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Zinc alloy readily clogs the drill flutes and, because of the relatively low melting
point, the heat generated by cutting operation can result in zinc alloy softening sufficiently
to welt to the flutes. To avoid these problems, drills with wide polished flutes should be
used and the drill should be break out of the hole to relive the swarf. High lip relief, longer
drill point angles, very thin webs at the point and narrow margins should be used,
particularly on deep holes.
Magnesium alloys require fairly high drilling speeds and heavy feed rates. Because
of the high penetration rates, drills are required with ample chip space and equipment must
have provision for efficient chip disposal.
The recent development in CNC equipment have given a new look to a vide range
of industries for automated drilling, tapping and light milling. Fig 26.19 shows a CNC drill
developed in Britain. It has a unique cubic table with a facility to provide component
unloading, loading and swarf debris elimination. The three axis drill head allow the
component to remain stationary during machining and eliminates the need for any
additional tool changing system. With transfer speeds of about 20 meter per minute, the
cubotic drill head is able to service a stationary and accessible 15-state tool loft. After
component loading, work changeover is speedy, with the cube indexing thorough 90
degrees in about four seconds.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
D2.3 (c)
TG-2
SURFACE DECORATION
When zinc alloy diecastings require a decorative corrosion resistant or

functional finish it is usual to electroplate the surface with a metal coating giving the
required a decorative corrosion-resistant or functional finish it is usual to electroplate
the surface with a metal coating giving the required properties to withstand the
conditions under which it is to be used in service. Electroplating systems developed
over the past decade are available to satisfy the requirements of all present day
standards Satisfactory performances are, however are, However, only obtainable when
1. The diecasting should be of sound design with sympathetic consideration for the
case of polishing /vibrating and electroplating.
2. The diecasting should be produced using only high purity alloy. They should be
metallurgic ally sound .free from surface porosity and general imperfections, and
3. The die-casting should be prepaid and electro plated w2ith an approved process, the
D2.3 (d)
COATING
Electroplating: When zinc alloy diecasting require a decorative corrosion-resistant or functional

finish it is usual to electroplate the surface with a metal coating giving the required
properties to withstand the conditions under which it is to be used in service. Electroplating
system developed over the past decade is available to satisfy the requirements of all
present-day standards. Satisfactory performances are, however, only obtainable when
1. The die-castings should be of sound design with sympathetic consideration for the
ease of polishing/vibrating and electroplating.
2. The die-castings should be produced using only high purity alloy. They should be
metallurgical sound, free from surface porosity and general imperfection, and
3. The die-castings should be prepared and electroplated with an approved process, the
Relevant specifications are British standard 1224 1970. International standard 1456
1974 and US specification ASTM B456-1979.
Design for polishing/vibrating: Prolonged experience in design requirement has now eliminated the uneasy working
relationship between die casters and the metal finishing industry that was due to poor
communication and misunderstanding of each others problems and requirements. It is not
the intention of the metal finisher to stifle the creative ability of any stylist or designer, as
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
without their contributions to industry products would soon become drab and uninteresting.
However, good design enables trimming, pretreatment and electroplating to be carried out
with minimum time, labour and materials. Poor designing can make a component difficult
to polish to a suitable standard, and virtually impossible to electroplate except at a
prohibitive cost. It is therefore recommended that the designer should have a working
knowledge of the finishing processes he specifies, thus avoiding time consuming and costly
errors, minimizing production costs, maximizing output and ensuring good service life for
the finished product.
After clipping, parting lines are usually given and initial smoothing operation,
usually by mechanical polishing, with a lightly abrasive-coated mop or belt, or an initial
finishing operation in a tumbling or vibratory barrel using abrasive media. Articles should
be of as simple shape and contour as is practical; intricate designs tend to become, indistinct
and blurred, with sharp edges and projections becoming rounded.
Large flat areas should be lightly broken up with a simple design, or the surface
made slightly concave or convex. Flat surfaces are difficult to polish or vibrate to achieve a
uniform finish, and are vulnerable to scratching during subsequent operations, which may
well result in the rejection on final inspection. Components for vibratory finishing should
be robust enough to withstand the severe mechanical action, and designed not to interlock.
Design for electroplating: After a suitable cleaning operation, the components to be electroplated are
connected to the cathode or negative electrode of a low voltage de supply. The positive
electrode or anode is usually of the metal to be deposited, or in special circumstances, an
insoluble metal may be used. When the current is switched on, the metal ions flow to the
cathode and are deposited as metal.
Current flows between anode and cathode and, as the ions prefer to take the shortest
path, far more are attracted to edges and projections, proportionally less into recessed. In
most electroplating systems, therefore (these include nickel and chromium), an uneven
thickness of deposit is produced, the distribution being dependent on the plating solution,
the method of jigging and the current density. The protective value of any coating depends
on the minimum thickness, as the strength of chain depends on the articles being
electroplated (the more complicated the shape), the greater the thickness of electro deposit
which needs to be applied in order to obtain minimum thickness requirements. Sharp
changes in contour should be avoided, as projections will attract excess thickness may well
be impossible to achieve adequate coating thickness and premature failure will occur in
service. Fig 29.1, reproduced by permission of the American Zinc Institute, illustrates how
designs can be improved to achieve better palatability.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
- 17 -
TG-2

- 18 -19
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Surface finishing prior to electroplating: Well-designed dies, regularly maintained with a mirror-bright surface, will result in
substantial savings during finishing by reducing the time required for th initial mechanical
operation and significantly improve the finish achieved after electroplating. The gate and
vents should be as thin as practical and the trimming operations carried out as close to the
main casting as possible. Due to the relative ease by which zinc alloy diecastings can be
prepared for electroplating, the overall cost of this surface finishing operation prior to
electroplating was estimated to be around 30% of the whole finishing operation when done
by automatic machine polishing. By adopting the now widely-used Vibratory Mass
Finishing Techniques, the above figure can be substantially reduced. Components can be
handled in bulk and neither individual handling nor fixing of the parts in require. Consistent
results can be achieved and, although there is some loss of reflectivity, the work is
acceptable for electroplating.
Chromate conversion coatings on aluminum diecastings: Where a coating of lower protective value is required or where it is necessary to
increase the durability of subsequent organic coating, a simple immersion chromate coating
can be applied. Most chromate conversion coatings are of the proprietary type, generally
based on two formulations:
Type 1. based on Acid Chromate
Type 2. based on Chromate-Phosphate
ASTM B440-1972 gives the following information on class, colour, and use film
weight.
Class
1
Color
Yellow to brown
Use
For maximum corrosion
resistance, usually unpainted.
Coating weight
3.2-1.1 mg/dm2
Iridescent yellow
1.1-3.8 mg/dm2
Colorless to yellow
General purpose good base

for paint.
Decorative applications, low
electrical contact resistance,
can be used as base for paint.
Below 1.1 mg/dm2
Acid chromate.
Proprietary mixtures are based on acid chromates, fluorides, boric acid and
ferricyanide or other activators. Application by immersion spray, concentration,
temperature and immersion times can b varied to achieve coatings from colourless through
yellow to golden brown. The more intense the colour the better the corrosion-resistance.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Coating weights vary from 1.0-1.2 mg/dm2. Films can be dried at relatively high
temperature around 90 Centigrade.
Chromate phosphate.
Also of proprietary nature, the process is usually based on a complex mixture of
phosphate and chromic acid together with fluorides, applications is by spray or immersion.
Concentration temperature and immersion times can be varied to achieve films ranging
from light iridescent to a heavy opaque green; coating weights vary from 5-30 mg/dm2. A
number of process recommend a final swill with a weak chromic acid dip to improve the
corrosion performance prior to drying at a temperature which should not exceed 70
centigrade.
Electroplating on magnesium alloy die-castings.

Due to their chemical activity and their affinity for oxygen, which results in rapid
formation of tenacious oxide film on surface, magnesium alloys are not easy to electroplate.
Like aluminium, their strength-weight ratio is attractive and electroplating is used to
improve surface appearance, increase corrosion resistance, wear resistance and electrical
conductivity. The general procedure for pretreatment is similar to the employed for the
electroplating of aluminum, ie. To remove the oxide film and prevent it from reforming by
the deposition of an immersion deposit prior to conventional electroplating.
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- 1 -18
DIE CASTING
THEORY
CHAPTER: E1 MAIN, SAFETY & STORAGE
TG-2
UNIT-5
CHAPTER E1
MAINTENANCE, SAFETY AND STORAGE WITH RESPECT TO
DIE CASTING DIES AND MACHINE
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Chapter Outline
E.1.1.1
Introduction of Maintenance.
E.1.1.2
Check list for Maintenance of die and machines
E.1.1.3
Concept of safety
E.1.1.4
Safety of die casting die
E.1.1.5
Safety of die casting machines and their equipments
E.1.1.6
Safety of personnel
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
E1.1.1
TG-2
INTRODUCTION OF MAINTENANCE
To protect the investment in the diecasting machine and to keep it at peak

performance it must be serviced in accordance with the manufactures instructions and
regular maintenance must be undertaken. Whilst most managements appreciate the reasons
for a planned maintenance system, in practice the immediate needs of breakdown and repair
often dilute the planning activity. One of Murphys laws, very relevant to the diecasting
industry, states when any mechanical contrivance fails, it will do so at the most
inconvenient time. Undoubtedly the needs of immediate repair have to be accommodated
but a planned maintenance programe will gradually reduce the amount of first aid
unplanned work. The maintenance required may be grouped into electrical, hydraulic and
mechanical. The schedule for the machine will detail all the items which must be checked
but there are some basis points to be remembered with regard to the three groups of
maintenance work.
Electrical maintenance.
The intricate and delicate electrical equipment has to sustain continuous operation in
a hostile environment. For this reason it must be sited so that it is affected to the least extent
from damage, moisture, vibration and dirt. The life and successful operation of the
equipment depends on it being protected from attack by water, fumes, heat or cold. It is
desirable to provide the attention on a regular basis and ensure that the electrical circuitry is
not subjected to abuse.
Close attention must be given to the control side of the circuitry which operators on
a low voltage. (The control circuit is generally sequential and therefore the failure of any
one of the many switches or solenoids will stop the machine operating. This may well lead
to lengthy stoppages whilst the fault is diagnosed). All connection must be kept tight and
well-insulated solenoids, timers and pressure switches must be secured to prevent oil and
cause malfunction and failure. The electrical equipment mounting should be checked and
secured, to prevent vibrations, which will create wear and malfunction.
The high voltage electrical circuitry incorporates the hydraulic pump, die height
motor, ancillary equipment and the transformer. Modern motors require the little attention
and a visual check is sufficient to ensure that they are working correctly. The air intakes of
the motor need to be cleared, so that there is no obstruction to the flow of air. Contactors
and overloads need to be inspected, so that the contact faces are clean. Thermal overloads
need a visuals check. The inspection of electrical equipment can be made on a regular basis,
since the time involved is small.
Hydraulic maintenance.
A regular check of the components of the hydraulic circuit, not involving a great
amount of time, will dramatically reduces the occurrence of faults. As with the electrical
circuit, the failure of any part will stop the machine but a fall-off in performance of a valve
may gradually reduces the castings quality without stopping production. The quality of the
field must be checked and kept to specification. The seals, O rings and packing must be
compatible with the fluid and, if thought to be worn, must be replaced. Loss of fluid over
piston heads will reduce the generated pressure, or leaking valves may slow down response
times.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
The pump needs to be checked periodically. The noise level should be noted, if it is
higher then normal it may indicted leaking seals, or aerations of the fluid. The filter needs
to be examined to ensure that it is not clogged. The strainer in the suction line should be
checked, to make sure that it dose not impede suction. The oil heat exchanger needs
periodic checks to ensure that water passages are not restricted, for if they are the fluid will
rise in temperature, which could damage the hydraulic equipment.
The valving and cylinders in the circuits must be checked, either to a planned
programme or fitted into another item of maintenance work. Spool valves must be clean
and undamaged. O rings and seals should be checked for wear and damage. The bores of
the cylinder should be examined for any signed of wear and worn rings which need
replacing. All pipe work joints should be inspected and any leakages repaired.
Mechanical maintenance.
The platen supports slippers are subject to wear and must be adjusted regularly to
prevent the moving platen dropping on to the bars and wearing the bushings through which
they pass. If the scrapers in front of the slippers are missing, they must be replaced. The
bushings should also be examined and turned if possible. The production personal should
make sure that the fixed side tie bar nut dose not come loose, a maintenance routine should
encompass the nut-clamping pin so that it can not turn. Moving part such as l9ink pins or
crosshead depends upon the lubrication system to reduce friction and wear and to force out
foreign metal getting between the bearing surfaces. The pump must operate correctly and
the line must not be flattened or disconnected. The pressure switch must be functioning
correctly to ensure oil flow. Excess oil, which oozes out of the joints should be removed so
that whilst in operations signs of lubricant will indicate that the system is working. Die
height adjustment lubrication must be checked, for, if undue wear occurs on the rear platens
nut bearing surface, the tie bars will be put into unequal tension and there can be real
danger of bar breakage. From time to time, the parallelism of the rear and fixed platen must
be checked so that the tie bars cannot be over tensioned. Covers should be kept on the die
height adjustment and tie bar ends. Above all else, a visual inspection of all fittings, nuts,
bearings and machine components should be made, for a little attention may save a lot of
breakdown time. An inspection of clutches of gears, and all safety scotches must be
included in the checks to be made.
Planned maintenance.
All works engineering activities need some element of planning to ensure that the
best use is made of time, skills and materials. Whilst in the planned maintenance is widely
accepted and abundant documentation is available for all types of maintenance work, in
practice a successful system must be organized to improve the profitability of the business.
It must be capable of improving performance, safety and profitability or it should not be
introduced. It must be seen to be cost-effective and as a means to an end, not an end in
itself. The basic objective is to minimize the volume of corrective maintenance undertaken
at times of breakdown.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Planned maintenance is not a change of method. It must follow the maintenance

schedule, much of which is contained in the machine makers manuals. Where possible the
work should be undertaken by the exiting maintenance personnel. Once started it should not
be interrupted by other short-term priorities.
It is necessary to train the personnel who will be undertaking the scheduled
checking. Above all the programme must be workable and accepted by everyone
concerned; paper work must be kept to the minimum necessary to keep adequate checks
and records. When planning a new maintenance system the person involved must be
practical and dedicated to the need of reducing man power, not adding to the pay roll by a
proliferation of paper work and bureaucracy.
An example of the elements to include in a planned maintenance programme is
shown in the following scheduled. When machine inspections are made, a reading of the
machine running hours meter must be entered on the check list, to identify when the
inspection was made in relation to other machines. The check list helps to detect possible
failure areas before a fault occurs, to allow time to plan a repair, check stock of spares hand
order them if necessary and to investigate any unusual problems that are revealed.
The maintenance supervisor will also make spot checks to ensure that the scheduled
is being operated and he should listen for anything abnormal. A fault can develop over a
long period and those who are constantly with the machine may not have noticed the
gradual deterioration. The supervisor should listen for noise from the pump, linkage locking
or shot impact and any squeaks or electrical hum. He should look for signs of linkages and
check all gauges.
E.1.1.2
CHECK LIST FOR MAINTENANCE OF DIE AND

MACHINES
Scheduled check sheet.
(Frequency of checks to be done according to manufacturers specification and
historical data).
Machine
Inspector
Date
Meter Reading
Hydraulic.
1. Check machine for hydraulic leaks with motor stopped and running.
2. Check pump noise for vibration and temperature if noisy check for leak in inlet
pipe or choked inlet filter lubricate pumps were necessary.
3. Check hydraulic fluid level test fluid characteristics note additions to be made.
4. Clean hydraulic filters.
5. Check line pressure and reset if required.
6. Check accumulator unit check pressure gauge check leaks check fastening
test operations.
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- 6 -18
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
7. Check working of solenoid valves.

8. Clean and descale the oil cooler clean strainer in water inlet.
9. Check cylinders for scoring and leaking fit new piston rings if required.
10. Clean magnet in tank.
Pneumatic.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Check compressed air pressure and operation of gauges.

Check and rectify any air leaks.
Service air supply unit empty drain top up oilier.
Check valve settings and dumping unit.
Automatic lubrication.
1. Check the operation of the central lubrication unit. Check pressure air pipes
damaged or flattened? Top up lubricant.
2. Ensure lubrication to die height adjustment is operating correctly and is being used.
3. Make sure greasing is done for shot end height adjustment, tie bar bushes, motor
bearings.
4. Lubricate safety guarding.
Mechanical.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Check parallelism of platens.

Check tie bar guide bushes for wear.
Slipper shoe wear to be compensated for by re-adjustment of the shoe.
Clean side, re-oil make sure scraper plate is fitted to front of shoe.
Check for uneven tie bar stretch using a tie bar elongation monitor.
Check machine for missing screws, covers and clamping of all equipment.
Check for wear on link pins and bushes.
Electrical.
1. Make sure that the control panel is sealed against dust and moisture test operation
of all relays and switches.
2. Check all circuitry and switches for mechanical damage check insulation on
cabling.
3. See that all switches and solenoid valves are fixed tightly.
4. Check operation of solenoid valves look at all connections.
5. Check the working order of the hydraulic fluid temperature control thermostat.
6. Ensure tidiness of all wiring and security of all equipment.
7. Check head on motor to make sure hydraulic pump is unloading.
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- 7 -18
DIE CASTING
THEORY
E.1.1.3
TG-2
CONCEPT OF SAFETY
1. Test the operation of safety guard lubricate moving parts check for loose screws
and nuts make sure all circuitry functions correctly.
2. Check working order of emergency stop buttons.
3. Test the operation of scotch or platen arrester.
General.
1. Make a general survey of the machine.
2. Clean the machine.
Spares.
The organization of machine maintenance is in line with the availability of spares
parts for service and repair. The more planning which is involved the more time will be
available to marshal the spares in advance in fitting. There are certain essential basic spares,
which the diecaster needs to hold. These will include arrange of machine seals since they
represent a regular need and n minimum stock cost. Other regularly required items include
pump cartridges, springs, spools, solenoids and poppets for the machine valving. Electrical
items will need a comprehensive stock of switches, timers and pressure switches. For hot
chamber machine spare goosenecks will be necessary.
E.1.1.4
SAFETY OF DIE CASTING DIE
During the past twenty years diecastings has been transformed from a dirty and
hazardous occupation to one that is relatively accident-free, with good working conditions.
The change has come about partly from improvements in machine design and partly from
legislation calling for a high standard of safety. Principally, however, there has been a
change of attitude by Managements and a determination to work in co-operation with shopfloor personnel to make all sections of the plant safe and healthy. Attitudes of insurance
companies with good safety records.
Interlocks and guards.

An unguarded diecasting machine causes many hazards. Including trapping hands
between die faces, ejection plates, toggles cams and couplings. If the die has moving cores
there are areas where hands and fingers can be damaged. Once a die is closed and metal is
being injected there is a risk of parting line, or from a burst slug of metal. The guarding on
a diecasting machine must therefore give protection from trapping and in so doing prevent
access to danger areas. The guards must be designed to withstand the rigours of everyday
use and abuse. Interlocked guards must be condition.
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- 8 -18
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Fig. 34.1 shows a guard-linked pressure exhaust valve. With the guard open, as
shown in the upper drawing, valve X is mechanically linked to the guard open-and-close
movements. Thus with the guard open the valve spool is positioned so that the hydraulic
line to the die-close mechanism is open to the tank exhaust. The main die open-and-close
valve Y is in the deenergized condition with the pressure blocked. When the guard is
closed, the spool on valve X is allowed to move, so that oil from valve Y, which is now in
the P to A condition, can flow to close the die.
The moving guard would be monitored by two electrical limit switches, positively
operated, one with the contacts normally open and the other normally closed. If the guard
will open.
Fig 34.3 illustrates guarding with operators guard fitted with a leading edge tripbar, the mesh guards preventing access to the toggle area.
A high standard of preventive maintenance must be carried out on guards and
associated interlocks as well as the other parts of the diecasting machine that were
discussed in chapter 3. Before production begins on each shift the safety features of the
machine should be checked by a supervisor.
Mechanical restraint.
Mechanical restraint devices are designed to arrest accidental die closure while the
moving guards are open. Although unlikely, such and accident could occur if the closing
piston became detached from its rod. Where practical, the piston head and rod should be of
one-piece construction, to lessen the chance of detachment.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Fixed guarding.
Various other parts of the diecasting machine introduce hazards, though of a less
severe nature, but they can cause burn or smashed fingers. The coupling connecting the
main electric motor to the hydraulic pumps must be guarded, usually by sheet metal or a
fine mesh guard bolted in position. the gears form a pinch hazard when the die height is
being adjusted, so they must be guarded, not only to protect the die setter, but to protect the
gears from damage. The scotch itself can constitute a pinch hazard when the die is closing.
This problem is overcome by fitting a tubular cover over the bar, bolted to the block.
Separate top guards are fitted on many diecasting machines, designed t slide back for diesetting. When the machine is in operation the guard is held in position with a catch and is
interlocked with limit switches. In some cases the top guard incorporates fume extraction,
which can be retracted for die changes.Fig. 34.7 shows the end of a modern machine with
planet ring and gear type die height adjustment. The machine has a safety scotch; the guard
has been removed to illustrate pinch points.
Cold chamber pouring hole.

On cold chamber machines the metal is poured into the shot sleeve. When the
injection plunger moves forward, a shearing action is created between the plunger and the
pouring hole. When metal is poured into the sleeve, some may splash on to the sleeve and
solidify. If the machine is operated manually there is a temptation for the operator to brush
the splashed metal with his gloved hand and risk an accident. This problem can be
overcome by fitting a simple stainless steel funnel, coated with a non-wetting refractory
paint, as shown in Fig. 34.8. This prevents fingers from touching the sleeve and helps to
prevent spillage.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Plunger arm coupling.

The coupling connecting the plunger arm to the injection ram piston rod can form a
pinch hazard between the rear of the coupling and the front of the injection cylinder, which
should be designed so that there is a gap of about 25 mm when the injection piston has fully
returned. If this has not been allowed for in the design, a guard may be required.
Presswork and finishing processes.

Power presses and down stroking hydraulic presses are used for removing runners,
overflows and flash from the diecastings. Power presses must be provided with substantial
fixed guards to prevent any part of the body from entering the trapping space. If the press is
operated manually the guard must be interlocked in accordance with power press
regulations which also cover the required inspection, tests and records. If the press is
operated automatically, an equal amount of control be exercised.
Down stroking hydraulic presses must be guarded and interlocked, and fitted with
scotches to prevent the platen from descending while the guard is open. Scotches can be
operated pneumatically and linked mechanically with the movement of the guard at the
operating position, so that the scotches cannot be withdrawn to allow the platen to descend
until the guard is closed. interlinks must be arranged so that a scotch returns to safe
position before the guard is allowed to open. Side and rear guards diecasting machine, fireresistant fluid should be used in the press hydraulic system.
Rumbling machines.
Barrel-type rumbling machines should be guarded or fenced, to prevent contact
while in motion. The loading door should be interlocked so that the barrel is prevented from
rotating either by power or by an out-of-balance load when open. An inching button or
other d3evice for positioning the loading door before opening should be provided.
Rumbling should not be carried out unless dust is prevented from escaping by an efficient
extraction system. This, of course, is not required for wet rumbling machines. Rumbling
should be sited in an area where the inevitable noise does not affect other departments.
Where possible the machines should be fitted with sound insulation panels. The provision
of hearing protection in the rumbaing department will certainly be necessary.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Shot blasting.
Shot blasting is another means of removing sharp edges from castings or for putting
a smooth for decorative finish on the casting surfaces. With this type of equipment
quantities of iron or steel shot are fired at the castings by a rotating wheel. The rubber seals
on the doors must be kept in good condition to prevent shot escaping. Dust is formed with
this process, so it is important that all the dust is extracted before the doors open and the
castings are removed. The dust extraction equipment must be positioned outside the
building and fitted with explosion relief panels. It is good practice to fit a safety barrier to
prevent anyone from standing near these panels.
Shot blasting machines are subject to insurance inspection to make sure that high
standard of extraction and sealing are obtained. The doors must be interlocked with the
mechanism that releases the shot to the throwing wheel, to ensure that no shot can be fired
while th doors are open. When the castings are removed from the shot-blast cabinet, by
conveyor or manually, there is some carry-over of shot which spills on the floor; if this
were left it would make the floor slippery; it is important therefore that the area is cleaned
regularly. Fig 34.9 shows and indexing hanger-type shot-blasting machine.
E.1.1.5
SAFETY OF DIE CASTING MACHINES AND THERE
EQUIPMENTS
Safety and second operation machining.
Machining operations are often carried out after the castings have been presselipped. This can range fro manual drilling of holes to complex operations performed on
numerically controlled machining centers. Likewise the necessary guarding ranges from
simple to complex.
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Drilling machines.
The main points to be borne in comprise the following: a) There is a danger of long hair becoming entangled in revolving spindles, chucks and
drills.
b) Gloves, sleeves, bandages and rings may become entangled at the points of drills.
c) Poor clamping arrangements cause violent spinning of the casting being drilled.
The precautions required to ensure safe operations include effective guarding of
revolving parts, adequate arrangement for clamping castings, education of operators about
the risks of entanglement and supervision that all necessary precaution are taken.
There are many ways in which drills can be guarded; the eventual method will
depend on the design of the component and the type of operation. There is no hard and fast
rule, except that drills must be guarded with one of the following:
a) Adjustable guard attached to a fixed part of the machine.
b) Collapsible guard attached to the quill.
c) Combine guard and the jig.
In radial drilling machine, or where it is not possible to fit a spindle or chuck guard,
it is advisable to fit some from of braking device, as entanglement in this type of machine
could be fatal. the defalcation of a telescopic trip would cause the break to come into effect.
The device can be mechanical or electrical. It is important that the trip fitted in a position
that makes it effective if the operators hand becomes entangled in the drill. Regular checks
must be made to ensure the efficient condition of the trip mechanism.
Special-purpose machines.
Sometimes machines are constructed in the diecasting plant and it is necessary,
when designing such equipment, to plan the guarding and interlinking carefully. The
machine must be made to the same high standard of safety that would be expected from
purchased equipment. The following points should be considered when designing low-cost
automatic set-ups.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
The noise level.

Provision for emergency stops.
Two-hand start control.
Interlocking of moving guards.
Guarding of drills and cutters.
Pinch points on any part of the machine.
The electrical circuit must allow only the correct sequence of movement, either
when the system is working manually or automatically.
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- 13 -18
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
C.N.C. machining centers.

If the components are loaded by an operator, all moving parts should be guarded.
Once the castings are loaded on the fixture and the guard is closed, the cycle can be started.
It must not be possible for the guard to be opened while the machining cycle is in progress.
The guard should be mechanically interlocked, as well as having the normal double electric
interlock. At the end of the production run all motion should be stopped before the guard is
opened.
Safety problems in automatic production.

The basic automatic diecasting machine may comprise an auto-ladle, plunger
lubricator, reciprocating die spray or fixed spray system, casting extraction device or robot
and conveyor, with a technician looking after two or more machines. All the normal
interlocks and guards are fitted on the operators side, but at the rear there should be
perimeter guarding fitted around the extractor and conveyor. The entrance gate to the
extraction area must be interlocked to the required standard, and opening of the gate must
cause the scotch to engage and cut the machine cycle. The perimeter guarding should be of
rigid construction and protect against die splash.
Any auxiliary equipment must have its control interlocked with the diecasting
machine to prevent such emergencies as the ladle pouring with the dies open or injection of
metal before the dies have locked. The extraction device should be fitted with a casting
detection system, for example, sensing proves, infra-red or light beams to ensure that a
complete casting has been extracted before the next cycle takes place. When using large
automatic ladles where there is some distance from the furnace to the machine, it should not
be possible for a person to stand near or under the ladle. Provision should also be made to
collect any drips or spillage from auto-ladles.
Other automatic set ups employ a robot to extract the casting and load it into a press.
The basic philosophy remains the same; no matter how compiled a system becomes, all
names of plant in the unit must be interlocked. Training is of the utmost importance to
ensure that machine minders, supervision and maintenance personnel are fully conversant
with all the safety procedures. A routine should be adopted to ensure that if anyone is
carrying out setting or repair work, the equipment could not be restarted while such work is
taking place.
E.1.1.6
SAFETY OF PERSONNEL
Fire hazards.
The risk of fire in a diecasting plant is ever-present but the possibility of such an
emergency can be reduced substantially if everyone is made aware of the dangers and the
steps to be taken if a fire occurs. Molten aluminum of zinc alloys under proper control are
not hazardous but if split or splashed on to combustible material they can cause fires.
Therefore the accumulation of proper, rags and boxes near furnaces or diecasting machines
should be avoided; if molten metal splashed from a die and settled on a roof it could
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DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
smoulder for hours before igniting. It is also important to keep all areas round machine free
from obstructions, which would hinder escape if a fire started.
One of the most serious dangers involving molten metal is the explosion caused by
immersion of damp ingots, damp scrap or damp ladles which result in horrific dangers
against which all young people should be firmly warned. Operators and setters should be
made aware that oil-based lubricants present a fire risk. They are still used in the production
of difficult diecastings though they have been largely supplanted by water-based lubricants.
All diecasting machines should use fire-resistance fluid in the hydraulic system but
it must be remembered that even these can be ignited under extreme conditions. Any other
equipment, including core-pulls, should also be operated with fire-resistance fluid. All fuel
pipes should be checked regularly for leaks. The fuel pipes and main shut-off points should
be clearly marked and accessible. Fusible links placed at strategic points can prevent
leaking fuel from feeding a fire.
Independent die heating and cooling units circulate a fluid that withstands high
temperatures but it is highly flammable. These units are designed to stop pumping the fluid
round the system if a leak occurs but special care must be taken when handling the
equipment. Bulk containers of the fluid should not be left near the diecasting machine but
put in store. All wiring, switches, switch boxes, plugs and sockets on or near diecasting
machines must be protected to prevent the entry of metal splash, oil, lubricants or water. If
wiring is not in a conduit, it should be armoursheathed to protect from damage. Where
applicable heat-resistant coated wire should be used. Main isolating switches should be
marked clearly, suitably positioned and free from obstruction.
Metal handling.
All ingot and scrap being charged into a furnace or a bath containing molten metal
must be dry and free from moisture. Anything coming into contact with molten metal, such
as ladles, launders and crucibles must be pre-heated. Only authorized persons should be
allowed to carry out adjustment to furnace burners. Care must be taken when putting scrap
or ingot into a crucible, to avoid unnecessary agitation and to avoid damage to the crucible.
Which should be checked at regular intervals for cracks. All personnel involved in bulk
handling of molten metal must wear suitable protective clothing; goggles or visor to molten
metal grade, heat and flame retardant gloves, flame retardant clothing, foundry boots and
gaiters (spats). In some cases aprons and dust respirators may required.
Furnaces burners, whether for gas or oil, should be serviced monthly. The flame
failure equipment should also be serviced and temperature measuring equipment checked
regularly. There should be a purge period sufficient for at least five times the volume of the
chamber being purged. The main burner fuel should be allowed to be connected only if the
pilot flame is sensed by a thermocouple, flame electrode or other device. Where firing is
initiated by spark ignition a purge period capable of removing any explosive atmosphere
must be provided. The source of ignition should be locked out during purge periods.
Supply of gas or oil to the main burners should be prevented until there is correct
gas pressure, combustion air pressure and until the pilot flame is sensed. When an unsafe
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- 15 -18
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
condition occurs, such as failure to ignite, failure of power or air supply, incorrect gas or oil
pressures, flame failure or metal overheating, the burner should return to the lock-out
position.
Foundry environment.
Pollution of rivers and atmosphere, or noise nuisance to local inhabitants can result
in costly legal action. The diecasting process produces waste products such as scrap metal,
hydraulic oil, fuel oil, die and plunger lubricants, dust from wet and dry collectors and fume
extractors. When large investments in plant and manpower have been made, it must be
remembered that the system will not continue in efficient operation if good housekeeping is
neglected. If personnel are working in unpleasant and dangerous conditions, a bad
impression is given to existing or potential customers as well as encouraging employees to
find jobs elsewhere. Good housekeeping costs time and money and advantages are hard to
quantify, but a good environment helps to produce a low labour turnover, fewer accidents
and a reduction in plant breakdown.
The mental attitude of personnel can often be helped by good lighting and by the
use of carefully designed colour schemes. Suitable colours instead of plain whitewashed
walls help to improve the general outlook, provided the paint work is not allowed to
become dingy. Regular cleaning and repairing of windows and lights is an essential part
maintaining a good working environment.
Noise.
Apart from the physical effects, the efficiency of persons working in noisy areas is
affected, by reduced concentration and difficulty in communication. Noise is transmitted in
the following four ways, all of which are found in most diecasting plants.
Structure-borne noise is transmitted through the machine structure by mechanical
vibration. In diecasting machines the sources of noise could be:
a) Vibration caused by rotating machines, e.g. Pumps and motors.
b) Cavitation in the hydraulic system.
c) Turbulence in the fluid flow through valves and pumps; this can be controlled by
attention to the internal shape of parts of the hydraulic system.
Impact noise is also structure-borne and can be found where power presses are used
for trimming and piercing of castings. This source of noise can be reduced by using downstroking hydraulic presses for second operation work instead of power presses.
Radiated noise is usually produced by sheet steel guards and thin case panels on
machines. It can be reduced by constructing guards from sound-deadened steel or by
making the guard from a sandwich of steel-rubber-steel, or by designing carefully placed
ribs to stiffen the panels. Hoppers and chutes other sources of radiation noise and can be
treated in the same way as sheet steel guards.
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- 16 -18
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Airborne noise is caused by disturbance in the air itself. Compressed air is used
extensively in diecasting plants, and some machines are run on compressed air, so this is a
universal problem. Air exhausted from cylinders and valves causes noise. It is important to
use silencers on all exhaust points, or to pipe air to a large exhaust point, out of the working
area. Airborne noise, caused by the use of air jets, can be reduced by keeping the discharge
velocity down to the minimum practical value and only allowing the air to flow at the part
of the cycle when it is required.
The increasing use of air extraction and ventilation in diecasting plants present
another source of air born noise. The intake and delivery sides of the ducts should be fitted
with silencers, or the fans should be aerodynamically designed to move the air without
creating turbulent and hence noise.
Hearing protections.
If it is not possible to reduce the noise generated, the working area should be
designated as a noise area, and personnel should wear hearing protection. Ear muffs are
effective and can achieve noise reduction of between 20 -30 db(A) over the frequency
range.
Recommended audiometric procedures.

Any area in which sound levels may exceed 90 dB (A) time-weighted average over
eight hours should be designated an Ear Protection Zone and warning signs displayed.
Hearing protection should be issued to employees working in these areas and its use made
obligatory for all persons in the zone, including supervisory staff. The following points
need to be observed.
a) All new employees should have an audiometric test as part of the pre-employment
medical check.
b) Persons being posted to work in an Ear Protection Zone should then receive an
audiometric test.
c) Persons employed in Ear Protection Zone should be tested at intervals not exceeding
two years.
d) Audiometric tests should be carried out by, or under the supervision of, a doctor or
qualified nurse. An examination of the ear should be made prior to testing to
ascertain that there is no accumulation of wax.
e) The works doctor should advise individuals whether the results of the test are
satisfactory or not and give any necessary explanation to the person concerned. In
the event of an indication of hearing loss, the employees own doctor must be
advised.
f) The works doctor should advise management whenever a pre-employment medical
check indicate that exposure to noise might result in a hearing loss, to avoid posting
employees to unsuitable of work. He should also inform management when
indications of hearing loss are found in persons employed in Ear Protection Zones
and recommend action to be taken, including advice on whether a person who has
been tested should continue to be employed in the Zone.
g) Record of audiometric test should be dept by the works medical department.
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- 17 -18
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Eyebolt safety.
Dies, some weighing several tones, are lifted with the aid of suitably sized eyebolts,
screwed into the die blocks. In American diecasting companies and Britain, till metric sizes
begin to be introduced, the range of eyebolts were Whitworthly threaded; for example, the
following sizes were used: in., in., 1 in. and in. With the introduction of metric
threaded eyebolts a danger arises. In certain sizes metric threads are so similar to
Whitworth that by accident a metric eyebolt could be forced into a Whitworth threaded
hole. A sub standard lock is produced because of the slightly different shape and size, and
the fact that Whitworth has thread angle of 55 degree and metric 60 degree. The dangers of
mismatch arising from eyebolts being inadvertently screwed into holes with a different
thread from are explained and recommendations are made in the British Safety Executive
Guidance note. PM 16, Eyebolts and in PD 6494 there is an appendix on
recommendations for the safe care and use of eyebolts, and another on the correct fitting of
eyebolts.
In the authors company in UK it was decided to standardized on Whitworth
threaded eyebolts. These stay with the die at all times and are painted a bright colour for
identification. The eyebolts is given a separate plant number for inspection purposes. The
information stamped on each eyebolt comprises plant number, test certificate identification
number and safe working load. There is also a plate attached to the die with the load in
kilograms of tones; the eyebolts type is stamped on the plate, along with the die number. If
a die comes in from a foreign toolmaker, with metric threaded eyebolt holes, they are
drilled out and re-tapped Whitworth.
Maintenance an accident-free plant.

To maintain success in accident prevention directors, managers, supervisors and
shop-floor personnel must be constantly aware of the dangers that surrounded them and the
ways in which complete safety can be achieved. During recent years local health and safety
organizations have co-operated with the diecasting industry to encourage competitions in
safety, with certificates to plants that have outstanding safety records. The following
guidelines are suggested as a foundation for a successful accident-prevention policy.
a) Accident prevention is a major responsibility of management.

b) Joint consultation on accident prevention should be established and continually
improved. The members of the safety committee must be given authority to ensure
that safety precautions are not just theoretically stated but are carried out by
everyone.
c) Accident-prevention programs, designed to achieve measurable results, monitored
by management, must be formulated and published.
Having established an effective company safety policy, a program can be set out as
follows:
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- 18 -18
DIE CASTING
THEORY
TG-2
Safety training.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Of management.
Of supervision.
Of works personnel.
Induction training.
Job training.
f) Refresher courses.
Standardized procedures.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
Plant inspection.
Accident investigation and reporting.
Collection of statistics.
Organization of the safety committee.
Regular contact between management and shop floor.
Protective equipment.
Schemes to encourage interest in safety.
It is easy enough to write safety policies and initiate safety schemes but more
difficult to put them into practice. Fifteen years ago it was common for management
members to deplore the difficulties of persuading machine operators to wear safety glasses
but the same persons would enter the diecasting shop without that protection. Nowadays
there is more feeling of partnership in the effort to make workplaces accident-free.
There are bound to be times when safety compromises production requirements but
as was stressed in the chapter on machine maintenance, good forward planning can reduce
the number of clashes between the needs of production and the need for safety. In the end,
this leads to reduced number of accidents, reduced lost time and reduced insurance
premiums and accident claims.
- 18 -
F.1.1.4
MACHINE SPECIFICATION
Machine selection for making any casting should be based principally on clamping force
and operating stroke, length of shot stroke, maxi. shot pressure, maxi. die opening and die size,
max. & min. die height, clearance between beams, over-all size and cost.
The rule of thumb for selection of die casting machine size is to use the smallest machine
that will do the job. This will ensure fundamental economy of operation, since the larger the
machine, the slower its cycle. For example, 400-ton machine can cycle about twice as fast as an
800-ton machine. Clamping force is not necessary the deciding factor n the selection of a die a
casting machine. Die dimensions must be considered. The machine adequate tonnage for casting a
part may have insufficient platen area or tie-rod spacing for the die, or the opening stroke may not
be sufficient for removal of casting.
Another factor is the cost of the equipment, which must be amortized in the cost of
operation. The cost of auxiliary equipment for die casting machine is usually proportionate with
the size of the machine.
1.13 Specification of HMT die casting machines

Model No.
Locking force
tones
Injection force adjustable
(with intensifier)
tons
Hydraulic ejection force
tons
Die mounting plates
HxV
mm
Space between tie bar
mm
Tie bar diameter
mm
Max. Die height
mm
Min. Die height
mm
Die opening force
mm
Injection plunger stroke
mm
Ejector stroke adjustable
Mm
Free cycle time
Sec.
Motor capacity
kW
Machine area
M
Machine weight
tones
Capacity of oil tank
lts
DC 60
DC 120
DC 180
H- 250-D
D
H 400D
H 660-
80
120
180
250
400
660
11.5
13
22.5
38
43
65
10
15
22
34
530 x 530
555 x 600
680 x 690
800 x 850
920 x 980
1130 x 1190
350 x 350
380 x 410
450 x 450
500 x 550
580 x 640
720 x 780
60
65
80
100
120
150
400
450
600
750
750
880
150
150
200
225
200
350
350
375
460
500
600
630
250
275
300
350
400
600
60
65
100
100
145
150
3.2
3.5
5.5
7.5
11
18.5
22.4
22.4
44.7
4 x 1.1
4 x 1.25
5.0 x 1.3
5.9 x 1.6
6.1 x 1.65
7.2 x 2.1
3.6
5.5
10
12. 5
20
300
350
400
550
550
1000
1.14 Production data HMT die casting machine

Production Data
Plunger dia.
DC - 80
35
40
45
50
55
35
40
50
60
65
kgs
0.43
0.56
0.71
0.88
1.06
0.5
0.6
1.0
1.4
1.6
Max. Injection pressure kg/cm
1200
920
730
590
490
1352
1035
662
460
400
66
87
110
135
163
88
115
181
260
300
Shot capacity for Alumn.
mm
DC - 120
Nominal casting area at above

pressure
cm2
Production Data
Plunger dia.
H 250 - D
DC - 180
mm
kgs
40
50
60
70
80
85
40
45
50
55
60
70
80
85
0.7
1.1
1.6
2.1
2.7
3.0
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.5
1.8
2.4
3.2
3.6
1790
1145
795
585
590
400
3025
2390
1935
1600
1345
985
755
670
100
157
225
307
405
450
82
104
129
156
185
253
331
373

pressure
Production Data
cm2
H 400 - D
H 660 - D
Plunger dia.
Mm
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
40
45
50
55
60
70
8-
85
1.4
2.0
2.8
3.6
4.6
5.7
6.8
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.5
1.8
2.4
3.2
3.6
2190
1520
1115
855
675
545
450
3025
2390
1935
1600
1345
985
755
670
182
263
358
467
592
733
885
200
285
390
510
650
800
965
1150

Kgs
pressure
cm2
SHOT WEIGHT = PLUNGER AREA X PLUNGER STROKE X 0.75 FILLING RATIO X * 2.5 (Density of liquid Aluminum).
* for Zinc alloys

for Magnesium alloys
for Copper base alloys
multiply by 2.5
multiply by 0.65
multiply by 3.2

- 1 -20
DIE CASTING
THEORY
CHAPTER: F1 SPECIFICATION OF DIE, MATERIAL

AND MACHINE.
TG-2
UNIT-6
CHAPTER F1
SPECIFICATION OF DIE, MATERIAL AND MACHINES
-1-

- 2 -20
DIE CASTING
THEORY

AND MACHINE.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
F.1.1.1
Introduction to use and application of the

specifications pertaining to die casting dies,
materials and machines for tool design data
F.1.1.2
Die casting die specification
F.1.1.3
Die casting metal specification
F.1.1.4
Machine specification
-2-
TG-2

- 3 -20
DIE CASTING
THEORY
F1.1.3

AND MACHINE.
TG-2
DIE CASTING METAL SPECIFICATION
Materials Used for Die Parts: Selection of die material for die-casting dies depends mainly on the type of metal
being cast and on production quantities. Following table will gives recommendations for
materials for cavity blocks, cores, slides, ejector pins and mould base parts are listed here.
Fig. 16 Various material used for Die casting die parts

Position
Part Description
Material
Fixed plate, Movable plate, Spacer, Ejector

holder & Ejector bar.
M. S.
Core housing, Cavity housing, Backing plate,

Cooling jacket & Ejector plate.
M. S. or En 8
Ejector guide bush.
Ph. Bronze
(Cu 86, Sn 14)
Guide pillar, Guide bush, Ejector guide pin,

Locator & button pad.
OHNS (O1)
54 58
Angle pin
OHNS (O1)
50 54
-3-
HRc

- 4 -20
DIE CASTING
THEORY

AND MACHINE.
TG-2
Slide, Wedge lock, Angle pin Guide rail &

Wear plate.
Case hardening
steel En 36
or Equivalent
Case 54 58
Core 38 42
Die inserts, Cores, Sliding cores, Plunger

bush, Spreader, Runner plate & Die blocks.
H 11 or H 13
(Hot die steel)
ASSAB - Vidar
supreme or Orvar
supreme
44 48
(Vacuumhardening
50 54)
Small inserts, Core pin, Ejector pin, Return

pin.
H 13
(Hot die steel Nitrided)
Case 64 - 68
Core 40 44
Standard Mould Units: A mould unit may be defined as an assembly of parts, which conforms to an
accepted structural shape & size. The mould unit is purchased with the mould plates
suitably attached together and a guidance system incorporated. Naturally, the mould unit
does not contain the impression form and this aspect of mould manufacture must be left to a
specialist mould-maker.
Mould unit manufacturers adopt the two-part mould as the standard mould unit
because this particular mould construction is the most widely used design in industrial
practice. The unit comprises two mould plates (a cavity plate and a core plate) plus an
ejector system as illustrated in Fig. 18. Along with table for variable plate, sizes are shown
on next page.
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- 5 -20
DIE CASTING
THEORY

AND MACHINE.
TG-2
Advantages of using Standard Mould Units: 1. Drawing sheets for individual unit sizes are available. This reduces drawing
time.
2. Less steel needs to be carried in stock, therefore investment is reduced.
3. Buying and stock control are simplified.
4. The cost of the mould unit is known therefore estimating is easier.
5. Waiting time for steel blanks, etc., is avoided.
6. Shaping, planning and drilling of steel plates and blocks is avoided.
7. Turning, grinding and fitting of guide pillars and bushes is similarly avoided.
8. The ejector plate is pre-positioned and located.
9. The individual mould plates are screwed and dowel together.
10. Machine time is saved as a result of 6 and 7 above.
11. Labour time is saved as a result of 6-9 above.
12. Work on the impression can usually begin immediately.
13. The individual mould unit components are standard: if damage occurs during
manufacture or in production, a part can be quickly replaced.
14. In small moulding companies, one mould unit can be used for several similar
jobs. Only the impression inserts need to be changed.
15. The overall time the mould is in the tool room is reduced.
16. Mould delivery time is reduced.
Fig. 17. Photograph of Standard Mould Base for Die Casting Dies
-5-

- 6 -20
DIE CASTING
THEORY

AND MACHINE.
Fig. 18. Standard Mould Base for Die Casting Dies (See for table on next page)
-6-
TG-2

- 7 -20
DIE CASTING
THEORY

AND MACHINE.
-7-
TG-2

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TRAINER GUIDE - II

TOOL DESIGN THEORY

MSME TOOL ROOM

DIPLOMA IN TOOL & DIE MAKING

NAME OF THE SUBJECT

B Die casting operations

Gravity die casting

Pressure Die casting (cold

Die Casting Background

Classification of cold chamber die casting machines

Process parameters and controls

Pressure Die casting (hot

Cold chamber die casting die

Elements of die casting and their

Definition of elements and fuction of cooling system

E Maintenance, safety and storage

G Computer aided information analysis

Safety of die casting machines and their equipments

Introduction to Use & Work sheet for Mold Design

Component Geometry dimensional and tolerance &

Flow Chart for Development & Design

Different types & soft wares for mould Design

TH 2 . 2 (b) Difference between 2D Drawing to 3D Solid models

Details Drawing from Assembly Drawing

INDO-GERMAN TOOL ROOM, AHMEDABAD

DIE CASTING TG-2

INDO-GERMAN TOOL ROOM, AHMEDABAD

Die casting Background

what is Die Casting

Principle of Die Design and Process

Advantages of Die Casting Techniques

Technique of filling Die Cavity

Comparison of Die Casting with other Process

INDO-GERMAN TOOL ROOM, AHMEDABAD

DIE CASTING BACKGROUND

Die casting are among the highest volume, mass

A1.1.1 (a) WHAT IS DIE CASTING

INDO-GERMAN TOOL ROOM, AHMEDABAD

INDO-GERMAN TOOL ROOM, AHMEDABAD

PRINCIPLE OF DIE DESIGN AND PROCESS

First, a steel mold capable of producing tens of thousands of castings in

A1.1. 3 (a) ADVANTAGES OF DIE CASTING TECHNIQUES

INDO-GERMAN TOOL ROOM, AHMEDABAD

INDO-GERMAN TOOL ROOM, AHMEDABAD

A1.1.3 (b) TECHNIQUE OF FILLING DIE CAVITY

INDO-GERMAN TOOL ROOM, AHMEDABAD

Certain considerations of strength, precision or surface condition indicate a

A1.1.4 COMPARISONS OF DIE CASTING WITH OTHER

INDO-GERMAN TOOL ROOM, AHMEDABAD

cracking in the presence of various regents. Manufacturing cycles for producing

INDO-GERMAN TOOL ROOM, AHMEDABAD

INDO-GERMAN TOOL ROOM, AHMEDABAD

INDO-GERMAN TOOL ROOM, AHMEDABAD

CHAPTER: A1 OVERVIEW OF MASS PRODUCTION OF CASTING ARTS

SUMMARY OF MOULDING AND CASTING PROCESSES

Casting size or weight

relative to tool life

Considerable limited by pattern

Wide range, type of pattern

drawing. No limit with cores.

depends upon total/casting.

High metal patterns have a

28 grms 45 gms and 387

removal of mold from pattern.