INDONESIA

GROUP 1
AMJAD ALI MEMON
MAIDA AJMAL
SAMEEL NOMAN
GHUFRAN SHERAZ
AHMED ABDUL WAHID
NAWAB GHAZAFAR AHMED

AGENDA

BRIEF HISTORY
REGIMES
TRADE
EFFECT OF OIL SHOCKS ON INDONESIA ECONOMY

POVERTY
POPULATION
URBANISATION
HEALTH AND EDUCATION

ALL POLICY IMPLICATION COVERED ALONG WITH TOPICS

INDONESIA HISTORY
INDONESIA IS ANCOUNTRY OF 17,508 ISLANDS (6,000 INHABITED)
IN 1602 THE DUTCH ESTABLISHED THE DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY
WORLD WAR II AND JAPANESE INVASION
SUKARNO PROCLAIMED INDEPENDACE IN 1949

REGIMES

MAJOR PRODUCER OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

INTENSIVE IN ISLANDS OF JAVA AND BALI THAT ACCOUNT 7% OF TOTAL LAND

AREA

 WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION RANKS INDONESIA AS 27TH LARGEST EXPORTING COUNTRY

TOP 5 MAJOR EXPORTS
TOP 5 MAJOR IMPORTS
COAL BRIQUETTES (12%)
PETROLEUM GAS (9.3%)
PALM OIL (8.3%)
CRUDE PETROLEUM (5.9%)
RUBBER (4.1%)

REFINED PETROLEUM 15%

CRUDE PETROLEUM 5.5 %
PLANES, HELICOPTERS 2.4 %

VEHICLE PARTS 1.8%

CARS 1.5 %

INDONESIA FROM 1980S

INTEGRATION INTO WORLD ECONOMY BEGAN IN 1980S

TRADE BARRIERS REDUCED AND ECONOMY OPENED OF FOREIGN INVESTMENT

CHINESE DOMINATION SUCH AS SINAR MAS GROUP, LIE MO TIE, LIEM SIO
LIYONG.

HERITAGE ECONOMIC FREEDOM SCORE

 LOOKING AT TRADE POLICIES IT AVERAGE TARIFF STOODS AT AROUND 2.6 PERCENT ALONG WITH OTHER
IMPORT LICENSING AND QUOTAS THAT FURTHER RESTRICT TRADE

INFANT INDUSTRY ARGUMENT

FINANCIAL SECTOR
TWO MEASURES TO CHECK EFFICIENCY

BANKING SPREAD

NON PERFORMING LOANS

FIGURE 5 BANKING SPREAD COMPARISON,

INDONESIA AND WORLD, INDONESIA IN RED,
WORLD IN GREY

FIGURE 6 NON PERFORMING LOANS TO

GROSS LOANS

PREBISCHSINGER HYPOTHESIS
BASIS OF HYPOTHESIS ON FLUCTUATING PRICES OF PRIMARY PRODUCTS
LOW INCOME ELASTICITY OF AROUND 0.5 TO 0.6
PRIMARY PRODUCTS PRICE IS FALLING, AS LDCS BECOME RICHER THEY MAKE DEMAND MORE
MANUFACTURED GOODS, SO FLOW OF INCOME FROM LDCS TO DEVELOP.

 EXCHANGE RATE INSTABILITY

WHETHER TERMS OF TRADE HAVE WORSENED?
POSITION OF FOREIGN RESERVES

Terms of Trade
1.22
1.21

1.2
1.19
1.18
1.17
1.16
1.15
1.14
1.13
1.12
2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

Figure 10 Foreign Exchange reserves

Figure 9 IDR compared to US dollar 1991-2014

EFFECT OF OIL SHOCKS

1970S OIL SHOCKS LEAD TO MAJOR REVENUES FOR GOVERMNET
AT THE END GOVERMNET REDUCED ITS EXPENDITURE
THE EXCHANGE RATE WAS REALIGNED IN 1973, 1983, AND 1986 IN RESPOND TO THE DRAMATIC CHANGES
IN INTERNATIONAL OIL PRICES

DURING THE LATE 1980S TO 1990S, INTERNATIONAL OIL PRICES CONTINUED TO DECLINE AND
INDONESIAS POLICY MEASURES

POLICY RECOMMENDATION
INADEQUATE INFRASTRUCTURE
DOMESTIC MARKET IS BIG ENOUGH, SUPPORT FROM GOVERNMENT
IMPROVE QUALITY OF PRODUCTS TO MEET INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
INWARD VS OUTWARD LOOKING APPROACH
TRADE AGREEMENTS
COMPETITION MAY LEAD TO EFFICIENCY

 AN IMPORTANT ISSUE THROUGHOUT WORLD

WIDESPREAD ISSUE IN INDONESIA
SLIGHT IMPROVEMENT IN RECENT YEARS
TYPES OF POVERTY
RURAL POVERTY
URBAN POVERTY
DIVERSE NATURE POVETY STATISTICS DIFFER

SOME POVERTY STATISTICS

 OVERALL A CONVINCING TREND

GROWTH IN RECENT YEARS
IMPROVEMENT IN HEALTH AND EDUCATION
PPP HAVE DOUBLED FOR A DECADE TILL 2012

DISPARITY B/W RICH AND POOR

GROWING TREND
GENERAL PERCEPTION: PEOPLE GETTING BETTER IN TERMS OF CONSUMPTION AND LIVING STANDARDS
CONTRAST IN THE FIGURES
2003-2010
REAL CONSUMPTION: 4%
RICH-5.9%
POOR-1.3%

CONCLUSION

RICH ARE GETTING RICHER AT A FASTER RATE THAN THE

POOR

GINI COEFFICIENT & LORENZ CURVE

GINI COEFFICIENT IN LINE WITH DEVELOPING COUNTRY
SUPPORTS THE GROWING DISPARITY ISSUE
2000: 0.29
2011: 0.38
SLIGHT CHANGE BUT CAN BE VERY DANGEROUS IF IT CONTINUES
GOVERNMENT NEEDS TO CONTROL THIS

 LORENZ CURVE FOR INDONESIA HAS SLIGHTLY SHIFTED OUT

MIGRATION FIGURES
RURAL TO URBAN MIGRATION
PRESENCE OF URBAN INFORMAL SECTOR
3MILLION PEOPLE MIGRATE , JAKARTA- SEARCH OF BETTER JOBS
LOWER END JOBS
CONSTITUTES 70% OF THE GDP INFORMAL SECTOR

DEVELOPMENT PLAN 2005-2025

IMPROVING HR QUALITY
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
STRENGTHENING OF ECONOMIC COMPETITIVENESS

IN TERMS OF KUZNETS'S ASSUMPTION

INEQUALITY IN EARLY STAGES OF GROWTH
STATISTICS SUPPORT THIS
EXPECTATION OF EQUALITY IN LATER STAGES
POVERTY REDUCTION:
MOVING FROM AGRICULTURAL TO INFORMAL SECTOR, AND MORE IF MANUFACTURING SECTOR

STILL POOR INFRASTRUCTURE

SOME STATISTICS

CHILD LABOR
ONE OF THE MOST POPULOUS COUNTRIES
POPULATION ABOUT 220M
30% POPULATION BELOW AGE OF 15
A LOT OF YOUNG PEOPLE, ISSUE EXISTS
MANY STUDENTS DO NOT ATTEND SCHOOL
DROP OUT RATES HIGH
EXPLOITATION
POVERTY RELATED, PARENTS FORCED TO SEND THEIR CHILDREN FOR WORK

POLICY RECOMMENDATION?

POVERTY AND CHILD LABOR INTERRELATED

REDUCTION IN INEQUALITY B/W RICH AND POOR
MORE OPPORTUNITIES FOR POOR IN MANUFACTURING SECTOR
LEARNING, TRAINING PROGRAMS AND SCHOLARSHIPS

TO GET AS MANY CHILDREN IN SCHOOL AS POSSIBLE

REDUCE DROP OUT RATES
INCENTIVES TO PARENTS
VOCATIONAL TRAINING PROGRAMS

JOB OPPORTUNITIES

ASIAN FINANCIAL CRISIS JULY 1997

STARTED IN THAILAND
THAI GOVERNMENT BURDENED WITH FOREIGN DEBT
DECISION TO FLOAT BAHT CURRENCY
MAIN IDEA: STIMULATION OF FOREIGN REVENUES
HIT OTHER EAST ASIAN COUNTRIES
NOT ONLY FINANCIAL, BUT ECONOMIC POLITICAL AND SOCIAL
FOREIGN INVESTORS INITIALLY KEPT CONFIDENCE IN INDONESIA
LATER IT BECAME ONE OF THE LARGEST HIT COUNTRIES

POPULATION
INDONESIA RANKS #4 AMONG THE MOST DENSELY POPULATED
COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD.

DEVELOPING COUNTRY WITH MUSLIM MAJORITY.

PAST REGIMES (SUHARTO-OLD ORDER, SUKARNO- NEW ORDER).

POPULATION

SOURCE: http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/Country-Profiles/IDN.pdf

POPULATION

Trends in Indonesias HDI component indices 1980-2012

SOURCE: http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/Country-Profiles/IDN.pdf

POPULATION
THE RUPIAH, WHICH HAD BEEN IN THE RP 2,600/USD1 RANGE AT THE
START OF AUGUST 1997 FELL TO 11,000/USD1 BY JANUARY 1998, WITH
SPOT RATES AROUND 15,000 FOR BRIEF PERIODS DURING THE FIRST
HALF OF 1998.

FOR 2006, INDONESIA'S ECONOMIC OUTLOOK WAS MORE POSITIVE.

ECONOMIC GROWTH ACCELERATED TO 5.1% IN 2004 AND REACHED
5.6% IN 2005.

POPULATION
THE COUNTRY IS THE LARGEST ECONOMY IN SOUTHEAST ASIA AND A
MEMBER OF THE G-20 MAJOR ECONOMIES.

BY NOVEMBER 1997, RAPID CURRENCY DEPRECIATION HAD SEEN

PUBLIC DEBT REACH US$60 BILLION

THE RUPIAH, WHICH HAD BEEN IN THE RP 2,600/USD1 RANGE AT THE

START OF AUGUST 1997 FELL TO 11,000/USD1 BY JANUARY 1998.

POPULATION

THE RUPIAH, WHICH HAD BEEN IN THE RP 2,600/USD1

RANGE AT THE START OF AUGUST 1997 FELL TO

11,000/USD1 BY JANUARY 1998, WITH SPOT RATES
AROUND 15,000 FOR BRIEF PERIODS DURING THE FIRST
HALF OF 1998.

FOR 2006, INDONESIA'S ECONOMIC OUTLOOK WAS MORE

POSITIVE.

ECONOMIC GROWTH ACCELERATED TO 5.1% IN 2004 AND

REACHED 5.6% IN 2005.

POPULATION

AMONG DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, INDONESIAS

POPULATION CONTROL PROGRAM IS CONSIDERED TO BE ONE

OF THE MOST SUCCESSFUL.

YET, INDONESIA CONTINUES TO STAY IN THE TOP 10 MOST

POPULOUS COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD.

HOW DO WE EXPLAIN THIS?

POPULATION
1.

THE MALTHUSIAN POPULATION TRAP

2. THE GENERAL VIEW ON CHILDBIRTH

CONTROL

1.

POPULATION
DOES HIGH POPULATION LEAD TO HIGH
EMPLOYMENT?

2. FOR THE SAKE OF PREVENTING ECONOMIC

CONSTRAINTS, CAN INDONESIA TAKE
EXTREME MEASURES TO REDUCE ITS
POPULATION?

3. HOW CAN A LARGE POPULATION PROSPER

POPULATION
DOES HIGH POPULATION LEAD TO HIGH EMPLOYMENT?
NO, IT ONLY LEADS TO SEVERAL HEALTHCARE ISSUES.
CONGESTION, EASE OF WIDESPREAD FATAL DISEASES AND
OVERALL UNSANITARY CONDITIONS (REMEMBER ROSLINGS
POVERTY VIDEO-TED)

HOW CAN A LARGE POPULATION PROSPER THEN?

o
o
o
o

THROUGH EFFECTIVE MASS EDUCATION

EMPHASIS ON IMPROVING THE EDUCATION OF WOMEN
AWARENESS IN THE USE OF MODERN CONTRACEPTIVES
CONTINUATION OF TWO-CHILD POLICY: SIMILAR EXAMPLE OF CHINAS

ONE-CHILD POLICY

POPULATION FIGURES

LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH

FACTS
58% LIVING ON THE ISLAND OF JAVA, THE WORLD'S MOST POPULATED ISLAND
INDONESIA'S POPULACE IS ANTICIPATED TO SURPASS USA AND TURN INTO THE GREATEST AFTER CHINA
AND INDIA BY 2043.

INDONESIA INCORPORATES VARIOUS ETHNIC, SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND LINGUISTIC GROUPS, SOME OF
WHICH ARE IDENTIFIED WITH ONE ANOTHER WITH INDONESIAN BEING THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGE

LITERACY
DEFINITION: AGE 15 AND OVER AND CAN READ AND WRITE
TOTAL POPULATION: 92.81%
MALE: 95.5%
FEMALE: 90.4% (2011 EST.)

EDUCATION IS NECESSARY FOR YOUNGSTERS THROUGH TO GRADE 9 EVEN THOUGH ITS NOT FREE.

ETHNIC GROUPS
THERE ARE OVER OF 300 ETHNIC GROUPS IN INDONESIA. 95% OF THOSE ARE OF NATIVE INDONESIAN
HERITAGE. JAVANESE IS THE GREATEST ONE WITH 100 MILLION INDIVIDUALS (42%), FOLLOWED AFTER BY
SUNDANESE WHO ADD UP TO ABOUT 40 MILLION (15%).

RELIGIONS
INDONESIA IS THE WORLD'S MOST POPULATED MUSLIM MAJORITY NATION, WITH VERY NEARLY 87.18%
OF INDONESIANS PROCLAIMING MUSLIM IN THE 2010 CENSUS. 9.87% OF THE POPULACE IS CHRISTIAN
(OF WHICH MORE THAN 70% ARE PROTESTANT), 1.69% ARE HINDU, 0.72% BUDDHIST, AND 0.56 OTHER.

MOST INDONESIAN HINDUS ARE BALINESE AND MOST BUDDHISTS IN ADVANCED INDONESIA ARE
TIONGHOA.

LANGUAGES
THERE ARE AS OF NOW 737 LIVING DIALECTS, THE MOST GENERALLY USED BEING JAVANESE DIALECTS.
VARIOUS CHINESE LINGOS, MOST NOTICEABLY MIN NAN, ARE ADDITIONALLY SPOKEN. PUBLIC
UTILIZATION OF CHINESE, PARTICULARLY CHINESE CHARACTERS, WAS FORMALLY DEBILITATED BETWEEN
AROUND 1966 AND 1998.

FACTS
URBANIZATION IN INDONESIA EXPANDED HUGELY TAKING AFTER THE NATION'S QUICK ADVANCEMENT IN
THE 1970S.

IN 1950, 15% OF INDONESIA'S POPULACE EXISTED IN URBAN AREAS.

BY 2010 THE URBAN POPULACE REACH 44% AS REPORTED IN 2010
THE AVERAGE POPULATION DENSITY OF JAKARTA, THE CAPITAL, HAD ESCALATED TO MORE THAN 14,400
INDIVIDUALS FOR EVERY SQUARE KILOMETER

SOCIO-ECONOMIC EFFECTS
THERE IS A 'SOCIO-ECONOMIC DUALISM' WHICH IS PERCEPTIBLE INSIDE URBAN SOCIETY IN INDONESIA.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC DUALISM DEPICTS INNOVATION AND 'KAMPUNG (TOWN)' SOCIETY EXISTING
TOGETHER IN URBAN TERRITORIES.

IN CENTRAL JAVA, THERE ARE 14.1% OR 2092500 INDIVIDUALS WHOSE LIVELIHOODS ARE UNDERNEATH
THE POVERTY LINE.

IN WEST NUSA TENGGARA, THE QUANTITY OF POOR INDIVIDUALS IS ACCOUNTED FOR TO BE 23.7%.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC EFFECTS (CONT..)

WITHOUT AVAILABILITY OF EMPLOYMENT CATERED TO THE NEEDS OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRANTS, THE
INCOME SEGREGATION BETWEEN RICH AND POOR IN URBAN AREAS WILL WORSEN.

THE CONSISTENT CONVERGENCE OR RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION MAY POSE A GENUINE DANGER TO THE
INFRASTRUCTURE IN THE URBAN COMMUNITIES.

TRANSPORTATION, MOVEMENT EMERGENCY COSTS JAKARTA $1.4 BILLION A YEAR BECAUSE OF ACTIVITY
BLOCKAGE AND PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION WHICH ARE DIRECT RESULTS OF TRAFFIC CONGESTION.

IMPLICATIONS
POPULACE AGED IN EXCESS OF 60 IN INDONESIA IS EXPECTED TO INCREASE BY 16% BY 2050
THERE ARE MORE YOUNGSTERS MOVING TO URBAN AREAS LOOKING FOR BETTER WORK OPPORTUNITIES
NOW BECAUSE OF URBANIZATION

AGRICULTURAL MINISTRY STATES THAT OUT OF THE 140 MILLION AGRICULTURISTS IN THE NATION, 80%
OF THEM ARE AGED 45 OR MORE.

IMPLICATIONS (CONT..)
VP BOEDIONO CAUTIONED THAT THE CURRENT LEVELS OF NOURISHMENT CREATION WON'T BE
SUFFICIENT TO ADJUST THE INCREASING POPULATION EVEN IN THE SHORT/MID-TERM FUTURE.

POPULATION OF INDIVIDUALS LIVING IN URBAN ZONES IS ANTICIPATED TO INCREASE BY MORE THAN

65% BY 2030

LACK OF INVESTMENTS
INFRASTRUCTURE SUFFERING BADLY.

CURRENT CONDITIONS
ONE OF THE FEW FROM THIS CATEGORY WHO HAVE ACHIEVED GOOD RESULTS AS A RESULT OF THEIR
POLICIES

AS A DEVELOPING NATION, INDONESIA IS STILL PLAGUED BY MANY PROBLEMS

KEY HEALTHCARE INDICATORS IN

INDONESIA

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE HEALTHCARE

THE DEMOGRAPHIC AND GEOGRAPHICAL LAYOUT OF INDONESIA
A DECENTRALIZED LAYOUT FOR PROVIDING HEALTH CARE FACILITIES
33 PROVINCES WITH OVER 500 MUNICIPALITIES EACH HAVE THEIR OWN HEALTH BUDGET AND
FACILITIES

 HOME TO THE WORLDS MOST ACTIVE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANO ZONE

CORRUPTION IN GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS
TRADE-OFF IN PUBLIC SPENDING
LACK OF QUALIFIED PERSONNEL (LINKED TO EDUCATION)
HEALTHCARE IS TOO EXPENSIVE FOR MANY IN SOME AREAS
LOW INCOMES, LOW EDUCATION AND CULTURAL BARRIERS

NHIP
NATIONAL HEALTH INSURANCE PROGRAM
INITIATED IN 2004 AND PLANNED FOR A DECADE
LITTLE PROGRESS TILL 2010
48% WITH HEALTHCARE INSURANCE BY 2014
100% OR 247 MILLION BY 2019

OBSTACLES IN THE NHIP PROGRAM

LACK OF INFORMATION TO HOSPITAL STAFF
FEAR OF NON-REIMBURSEMENT BY HOSPITALS
LOW PAYMENT TO DOCTORS
LACK OF QUALIFIED PERSONNEL IN LARGE NUMBERS
CORRUPTION AND BUREACRACY

MEDICINE
INDONESIAN GOVERNMENT SPENDS AROUND $12 PER CAPITA PER YEAR ON
MEDICINES

IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR, AVAILABILITY IS LARGELY LEFT TO MARKET FORCES, AND

IS GENERALLY GOOD

INDONESIA HAS GRADUALLY OPENED UP ITS PHARMACEUTICAL MARKET TO

INTERNATIONAL TRADE

 IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR MOST OF THE SUPPLY OF MEDICINES IS OBTAINED FROM

THE DRUG WAREHOUSE OPERATED BY THEIR DISTRICT HEALTH OFFICE

DISTRICT DRUG WAREHOUSES ARE SUPPLIED BY MULTIPLE PUBLIC SECTOR

SUPPLY CHAINS.

HUMAN RESOURCES
THE HUMAN RESOURCES LINKED TO THE HEALTH CARE FIELD ARE VERY LOW IN
INDONESIA

25 HEALTH WORKERS PER 10,000 PEOPLE

MEETS THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION'S MINIMUM OF 23
TEND TO BE CONCENTRATED IN URBAN CENTER

RECOMMENDATIONS
IMPROVING CHECKS AND BALANCES OVER HEALTH DEPARTMENTS OF DIFFERENT DISTRICTS
PROMOTE PRIVATE FACILITIES AS WELL AS NGOS.
SPEND MORE ON MEDICAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING

ATTRACT MEDICAL PERSONNEL FROM OTHER COUNTRIES.

 THE NHIP IS ONE OF THE MAJOR PROGRAMS OF THE GOVERNMENT. NEED TO

ELIMINATE CORRUPTION AND BUREAUCRACY FROM THE PROGRAM.

INCENTIVES TO DOCTORS, INFORMATION TO STAFF, TIMELY REIMBURSEMENTS TO

HOSPITALS ARE A MUST FOR SUCCESSFUL IMPLEMENTATION.

FACTS
COMES UNDER THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND
CULTURE AND THE MINISTRY OF RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS

THE INDONESIAN EDUCATION POLICY MAKES IT MANDATORY FOR ALL CITIZENS TO

UNDERTAKE NINE YEARS OF EDUCATION

THESE NINE YEARS ARE BROKEN INTO:

SIX YEARS OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
THREE YEARS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

 THE MINISTRY OF RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS TAKES CONTROL OF ALL EDUCATIONAL

INSTITUTES GIVING ISLAMIC EDUCATION.

THE CONSTITUTION OF INDONESIA NOTES THAT THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF

EDUCATION IN INDONESIA: FORMAL AND IN-FORMAL

SCHOOLS ARE EITHER RUN BY THE GOVERNMENT OR THE PRIVATE SECTOR

 THE GROSS ENROLLMENT RATE IN PRIMARY EDUCATION IS 109% FOR BOTH GIRLS
AND BOYS COMBINED

FALLS TO 91% IN LOWER SECONDARY

AND IS 96% FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS

THE PRIMARY NET ENROLLMENT RATE IN INDONESIA IS 92% AND THE PRIMARY
COMPLETION RATE IS 105%

CURRENT STATE OF EDUCATION

NEW POLICIES TO FOCUS MORE ON ISLAMIC EDUCATION RATHER THAN SCIENCE AND OTHER SUBJECTS.
THESE POLICIES HAVE COME UNDER GREAT CRITICISM BY MANY NON-MUSLIMS LIVING IN INDONESIA AS
WELL AS THE UN

DESPITE NOT BEING AN ISLAMIC STATE, INDONESIA HOUSES A POPULATION OF AROUND 240 MILLION OUT
OF WHICH 88% ARE MUSLIMS

 THERE IS RAMPANT CORRUPTION IN THE EDUCATION DEPARTMENTS

MOST TEACHERS ARE UNQUALIFIED TO TEACH

NOT MANY MAKE IT TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS

TOO MANY DISTRICTS TO BE LOOKED AFTER

RECOMMENDATIONS
CURTAIL CORRUPTION
IMPROVE QUALITY OF TEACHERS

FOCUS ON SECULAR EDUCATION

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION TO BE IN HANDS OF GOVERNMENT

 ENCOURAGING THE ROLE OF PRIVATE SECTOR AND NGOS

CLOSE WATCH ON DISTRICTS
SPEND MORE ON SECONDARY EDUCATION

INCREASE EDUCATION OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE POOR