Running head: THE UBIQUITOUS GOLDEN RATIO

The Ubiquitous Golden Ratio

Maria Salome Ariza Arenas
State College of Florida Collegiate School

THE UBIQUITOUS GOLDEN RATIO

2
Abstract

The Golden Ratio is an irrational number defined by the number phi,

(Hyde,

2004). It has made several appearances in ancient architecture, including the Great Pyramid of
Giza in Egypt and the Parthenon in Greece (Kalajdzievski, 2008). The Golden Ratio was first
defined by Euclid in his mathematical treatise The Elements, although the Greek philosopher
Plato prophesied its significance before Euclid introduced his definition. Several mathematicians
helped define and name the Golden Ratio based on Euclids definition (Livio, 2003). The Golden
Ratio is closely related to the famous Fibonacci sequence and continues to reveal itself, both
intentionally and unintentionally, in modern architecture, as it was linked to the compositional
plan of Aldo van Eycks Pastoor Van Ars church in The Hague (Fernandez-Llebrez & Fran,
2013). The Golden Ratio also appears frequently in the human body, especially the face, and is
significant in developing new approaches for face detection (Hassaballah, Murakami, & Ido,
2013). It is omnipresent throughout nature, which enables it to continue to be rediscovered and
studied, despite the centuries since its first application (Klar, 2002; Livio, 2003). Indeed, the
Golden Ratios propensity to emerge in unexpected places has allowed it to remain significant to
various fields of modern studies, particularly those pertaining to architecture and the scientific
world.

THE UBIQUITOUS GOLDEN RATIO

The Ubiquitous Golden Ratio

The Golden Ratio, also known as the Golden Mean, Golden Section, or Divine
Proportion, is an irrational number defined by the number phi,

(Hyde,

2004). It represents a certain dimensional relationship between two elements that form part of a
set, a product of a larger composition, or that are simply associated with each other. (FernandezLlebrez & Fran, 2013). The number has appeared in Ancient Egyptian and Greek architecture,
as well as prominent buildings of modern architecture and numerous modern studies. Although
the application of the Golden Ratio pre-dates Christianity, the irrational number continues to
intrigue mathematicians and scientists alike, as it has a tendency to appear and be rediscovered in
unexpected places- including architecture, nature, and other modern scientific studies.
Mathematical Concept of the Golden Ratio
Given three points on a line, A, B, and C, if point C divides line segment AB such that
, then both ratios,

and

, are known as the Golden Ratio, and point C is a golden

cut of segment AB (Hyde, 2004; Kalajdzievski, 2008). The same method, explained differently,
used to calculate the aforementioned ratios is shown in Figure 1. The value of the Golden Ratio
does not depend on the length of the original segment; it is always equal to

formula for the Golden Ratio states that

. Another

. In this expression, the pattern

within the square root is never-ending, although it does lead to the Golden Ratio (Kalajdzievski,
2008).
Several shapes can be defined by the Golden Ratio, including isosceles triangles. An
isosceles acute triangle is an acute golden triangle if the ratio of the length of the side over the

THE UBIQUITOUS GOLDEN RATIO

length of the base, b/a, is the Golden Ratio. An acute golden triangles interior angles will always
be 72, 72, and 36, so any isosceles triangle with these interior angles must be an acute golden
triangle (Kalajdzievski, 2008). Figure 2 shows a detailed acute golden triangle. Additionally,
obtuse isosceles triangles can be obtuse golden triangles if the ratio of the length of the base over
the length of any of the other two sides, a/b, equals the Golden Ratio. Similarly to an acute
golden triangle, an obtuse golden triangles interior angles are also fixed, only they must be
108, 36, and 36. Every regular pentagon, a convex polygon that has five equal sides and five
equal interior angles, can be subdivided into two obtuse golden triangles and one acute golden
triangle, as shown in Figure 2 (Kalajdzievski, 2008).
Appearance in History
Ancient Architecture
The application of the Golden Ratio dates back to the days of the ancient Egyptians. It
was discovered that the Golden Ratio seemed to be used in the construction of the Great Pyramid
of Giza in Egypt, around 2,550 BC. The semi-base, height, and apothem of the Great Pyramid
are in the proportions

, where

is the Greek letter phi used to denote the Golden Ratio

(Affleck, 2010). The Golden Ratio also emerged within the dimensions of the kings chamber, a
compartment in the interior of the Great Pyramid. Whether this was intentional or a mere
coincidence depends on the interpretation of the choices made for the chambers dimensions.
Once the height was chosen to be half of the diagonal of the rectangular base, then the Golden
Ratio was bound to appear in the dimensions of the chamber (Kalajdzievski, 2008). However,
this exemplifies how the golden ratio has a propensity to appear in unexpected places, often
unnoticed for years (Livio, 2003).

THE UBIQUITOUS GOLDEN RATIO

A couple of centuries later, the Golden Ratio was used extensively to derive the
proportions of the Parthenon and the detail of the Erechtheion. (Hyde, 2004). Built around 448432 BC, the construction of the Parthenon in Athens conformed to ancient Greek concepts of
proportionality, and many historians believe that the Golden Ratio was used in its construction.
When observing an image of the Parthenon, several rectangles can be superimposed on the
image so that they are golden rectangles, meaning that the ratio of the rectangles base over its
height is exactly the Golden Ratio. Figure 3 demonstrates how golden rectangles abound in the
Parthenon. Although, there are disagreements as to whether the Golden Ratio was consciously
used in the Parthenons construction, since it is relatively simple to superimpose the golden
rectangle upon any sufficiently complicated structure in a way that fits (Hyde, 2004).
Defining the Golden Ratio
When Ptolemy I rose to power in 323 BC, one of his first great acts was the founding of
the Museum, a school in Alexandria, Egypt, in 300 BC. Among the teachers in this ancient
university was the father of formal deductive geometry- Euclid of Alexandria (Livio, 2003). In
his mathematical treatise The Elements, Euclid defined the extreme and mean ratio, writing in
Book IV of Elements that A straight line is said to have been cut in extreme and mean ratio
when, as the whole line is to the greater segment, so is the greater to the less." (FernandezLlebrez & Fran, 2013). In other words, Euclid proposed that a line could be divided into two
segments such that the ratio of the whole line to the larger segment is equal to the ratio between
the larger and smaller segments, what is now known as the Golden Ratio and is illustrated in
Figure 1. This magically recurring ratio, made up of an interminable, never-repeating
sequence, was to be further studied and rediscovered centuries later in new and often unexpected
places (Livio, 2003).

THE UBIQUITOUS GOLDEN RATIO

Although Euclid was the first to truly define the Golden Ratio, the great Greek
philosopher Plato prophesied the significance of the number before Euclid articulated his
extreme and mean ratio. Though he was not a distinguished mathematician and died about two
decades before the establishment of the Museum in Alexandria, Plato introduced symmetry and
geometry into cosmology and brought forward the Golden Ratio as a minor actor in the universe
through the volumes and surface areas of two of his solids (Livio, 2003).
Naming the golden ratio. In a book published in 1509, mathematician Luca Pacioli
referred to the Golden Ratio as the Divine Proportion. Later, famous cosmologist Johannes
Kepler (1571-1630), who had a great admiration for the Golden Ratio, wrote, Geometry has two
great treasures. One is the Theorem of Pythagoras; the other, the division of a line into extreme
and mean ratio. The first we may compare to a measure of gold; the second we may call a
precious jewel. Kepler believed the Golden Ratio- which he, too, called the Divine
Proportion- served as a fundamental tool in Gods creation of the universe (Livio, 2003). In
1835, a series of books by mathematician Martin Ohm referred to the number as the Golden
Section, Golden Number, as well as the Golden Ratio. Additionally, the Greek sculptor
Phidias (ca. 490-430 BC) is thought to have used the Golden Ratio when proportioning his
sculptures. The first letter of his name, phi, was designated to the Golden Ratio by 20th-century
mathematician Mark Barr to honor its application in art (Livio, 2003).
Connection to Fibonacci Numbers
Around the year AD 1200, 30-year old Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci (AD 1170-1250),
nicknamed Fibonacci, started hand-writing his first book, Liber Abaci. In this book, published
two years later, Fibonacci introduced his Fibonacci sequence, made up of Fibonacci

THE UBIQUITOUS GOLDEN RATIO

numbers (Kalajdzievski, 2008). In the sequence {

7
}, each new term is generated by

adding the preceding two terms (Hyde, 2004). The Golden Ratio is closely related to Fibonaccis
sequence; as seen in Figure 4, the ratio of two successive Fibonacci numbers approaches phi
(Fernandez-Llebrez & Fran, 2013). Kepler discovered the Golden Ratios relation to Fibonacci
numbers (Livio, 2003).
The Golden Ratio and Fibonacci Numbers in Modern Architecture
In 1968, architect Aldo van Eyck designed and built the Roman Catholic Church Pastoor
Van Ars in The Hague, a prominent building of modern architecture. The churchs compositional
scheme of the plan was linked to Fibonacci relationships and the Golden Ratio. The presence of
the Golden Ratio in the churchs design was related to the appearance of two golden rectangles,
inscribed one inside the other, that established a geometric echo: the outer perimeter (58) and
the space dedicated to the liturgy (53) (Fernandez-Llebrez & Fran, 2013).
If squares are constructed whose sides represent Fibonacci numbers, a rectangle drawing
resembling the golden rectangle is obtained, known as a Fibonacci rectangle (shown in Figure
5). The visual and conceptual outline that organized the plan of the church seemed to exactly
match this resulting composition, raising the question about van Eycks intentionality- whether
the use of Fibonacci relationships and the Golden Ratio were deliberate. A review of the sketches
and line drawings of the church seemed to reinforce the idea that Fibonacci relationships were
used in designing the floor plan of the Pastoor Van Ars. Therefore, while van Eycks intentions
are debatable, the presence identified in the compositional scheme of the church seems to
correspond to the Fibonacci sequence as well as the golden rectangle (Fernandez-Llebrez &
Fran, 2013).

THE UBIQUITOUS GOLDEN RATIO

Appearances in Modern Studies

Livio (2003) stated that the Golden Ratios allure stems primarily from its propensity to
pop up where its least expected The golden ratio has captivated mathematicians and scientists
for so long because it keeps being rediscovered in new and often unexpected places in nature.
Indeed, the Golden Ratios omnipresent- yet subtle- nature is one of its most remarkable
qualities. Its ubiquitousness is what has allowed it to remain significant to modern studies and
continue to be examined, despite the centuries passed since its first appearance.
Fields of Science and Biology
The human body. It has long been believed that rectangles with sides in the Golden
Ratio offer the most pleasing aspect ratio (Hyde, 2004). Studies have shown that peoples
perception of beauty in a face is closely related to whether the face fits well into a vertical golden
rectangle (Kalajdzievski, 2008). The Golden Ratio frequently appears in the physical proportions
of the human body and, especially, in the human face.
Many facial parts or elements, such as the height and width of the face, form among each
other the Golden Ratio, which helps in estimating the size of a face according to the distance
between eye centers (Hassaballah et al., 2013). The Golden Ratio between the facial parts
provides the following reactions:

and

(where h = height of the face; w =

width; deye = distance between the centers of the eyes; and m = width of the mouth), as shown in
Figure 6. Thus, the height and width of the perfect human face may be approximated based on
the distance between eyes as follows:

and

(Hassaballah et

al., 2013). The relation of several facial parts close to the Golden Ratio make it very significant
in developing new approaches for face detection.

THE UBIQUITOUS GOLDEN RATIO

Plant biology. The Golden Ratio has also made its appearance in nature, in the
phyllotaxis of plants- the arrangement of their leaves- as well as the arrangement of branches
along plant stems and of veins in leaves (Klar, 2002; Affleck, 2010). The spiral arrangements of
leaves on a stem represent successive Fibonacci numbers, as does the number of petals, spirals,
and sepals in flower heads during the development of most plants. Sunflowers, especially, seem
to have a liking for the Golden Ratio in the arrangement of their seeds, which are arranged in two
spiral rows- one curving to the right and the other to the left, as seen in Figure 7 (Klar, 2002).
The numbers of clockwise and counterclockwise spirals formed by sunflower seeds are
consecutive Fibonacci numbers, and the new seeds are offset at an angle of

, or

; this is true

for pine cones, as well (Hyde, 2004). Sunflowers seem to have almost a preference for
displacement angles obtained by dividing 360 by the Golden Ratio- or powers of it- as they
result in healthy looking flowers. Only under those conditions are the two numbers of clockwise
and counterclockwise spirals two consecutive Fibonacci numbers (Kalajdzievski, 2008).
Conclusion
In conclusion, the application of the Golden Ratio pre-dates Christianity, as it dates back
to the days of the Ancient Egyptians. The ratio has a tendency to appear in unexpected places,
thus it is often rediscovered by scientists and mathematicians, even in modern studies. The
Golden Ratio not only continues to make contributions to the world of mathematics, but to
modern architecture and scientific studies. Though it often goes unnoticed by the general
population, the Golden Ratio is omnipresent throughout the natural world. Despite the centuries
passed since its first appearance, this Divine Proportion continues to be rediscovered and
studied in the worlds of design, natural sciences, as well as other scientific fields.

THE UBIQUITOUS GOLDEN RATIO

10
References

Affleck, I. (2010). Golden ratio seen in a magnet. Nature, 464, 362.

Fernandez-Llebrez, J. & Fran, J. M. (2013). The church in The Hague by Aldo van Eyck: The
presence of the Fibonacci numbers and the golden rectangle in the compositional scheme
of the plan. Nexus Network Journal, 15(2), 303-323.
Hassaballah, M., Murakami, K., & Ido, S. (2013). Face detection evaluation: A new approach
based on the golden ratio . Signal, Image & Video Processing, 7(2), 307-316.
Hyde, H. (2004). The golden ratio. Australian Mathematics Teacher, 60(1), 30-31.
Kalajdzievski, S. (2008). Math and art: An introduction to visual mathematics. Boca Raton, FL:
CRC Press.
Klar, A. J. S. (2002). Plant mathematics: Fibonaccis flowers. Nature, 417(6889), 595.
doi:10.1038/417595a
Livio, M. (2003). Searching for the golden ratio: a geometric proportion discovered in antiquity
turns up in sculpture, botany, planetary orbits, and in the thermodynamics of black holes.
(Cosmology). Astronomy, 31(4), 52.

THE UBIQUITOUS GOLDEN RATIO

11

Figure 1. An alternate example of how a line divides into the Golden Ratio. Adapted from
Golden Ratio, In Math is Fun, by R. Pierce, 2014, Retrieved from
http://www.mathsisfun.com/numbers/golden-ratio.html. Copyright 2014 by Rod Pierce. Adapted
with permission.
D
36

72

72
a

Figure 2. A regular pentagon divided into two obtuse golden triangles (sides) and one acute
golden triangle (middle), with degrees and sides.

Figure 3. A demonstration of how golden rectangles abound in the Parthenon in Greece. Adapted
from Golden Ratio, In Math is Fun, by R. Pierce, 2014, Retrieved from

THE UBIQUITOUS GOLDEN RATIO

12

http://www.mathsisfun.com/numbers/golden-ratio.html. Copyright 2014 by Rod Pierce. Adapted

with Permission.

Figure 4. An example of how the ratio of two successive Fibonacci numbers approaches phi, the
Golden Ratio. Reprinted from The church in The Hague by Aldo van Eyck: The presence of the
Fibonacci numbers and the golden rectangle in the compositional scheme of the plan, by J.
Fernandez-Llebrez & J. M. Fran, 2013, Nexus Network Journal, 15(2), 309.

Figure 5. A Fibonacci rectangle, obtained by building blocks with sides equal to the Fibonacci
numbers. Reprinted from The church in The Hague by Aldo van Eyck: The presence of the
Fibonacci numbers and the golden rectangle in the compositional scheme of the plan, by J.
Fernandez-Llebrez & J. M. Fran, 2013, Nexus Network Journal, 15(2), 310.

THE UBIQUITOUS GOLDEN RATIO

13

Figure 6. The perfect human face based on the Golden Ratios between elements of the face.
Reprinted from Face detection evaluation: A new approach based on the golden ratio , by
Hassaballah et al. (2013), Signal, Image & Video Processing, 7(2), 309.

Figure 7. Spiral arrangement of sunflower seeds. Adapted from Nature, The Golden Ratio and
Fibonacci Numbers, In Math is Fun, by R. Pierce, 2012, Retrieved from
http://www.mathsisfun.com/numbers/nature-golden-ratio-fibonacci.html. Copyright 2011 by Rod
Pierce. Adapted with permission.