VIRUSES!

Chapter 18.1-18.2

Outline
Viral structure
Viral reproduction
Retroviruses
Viruses can introduce genetic variation in hosts

Viral Structure
Three parts to

a virus:
Genetic
information
Protein coat
= capsid
Lipid
membrane
(only
sometimes)

Viral Reproduction
Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites.
What does this even mean?

Viral Reproduction
Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites.
What does this even mean?
Viruses cannot carry out their life cycle

independent of a host cell. Viruses are not

even made of cells. They are not traditionally
considered to be alive.
as if our rhetorical
arguments over whether or
not viruses are live really
matter in the grand scheme
of things
poliovirus

Viral Reproduction
Viruses replicate via a component assembly model,

allowing one virus to produce many progeny

simultaneously.
Viral reproduction in general:
1. Virus injects genetic material into host cell
2. Viral genome takes over the hosts organelles,
copying the viral genome and synthesizing viral
protein coats
3. Viruses assemble and burst from host cell
Two different reproductive cycles:
1. Lytic cycle
2. Lysogenic cycle

Viral Reproduction: Lytic Cycle

Lytic reproductive cycle: one

that ends with the virus

bursting from (lysing) the
host.
Steps of Lytic Cycle
1. Attachment to
glycoproteins
2. Entry of Viral genetic
material
3. Synthesis of viral parts
4. Assembly of mature
virus
5. Release

Viral Reproduction: Lytic Cycle

Bacterial defenses:
1.

2.

3.

Mutant receptor
sites no longer
enable phages to
enter cell.
Restriction
enzymes cut up
foreign DNA.
Lysogenic cycle
(coexistence)

Viral Reproduction: Lysogenic Cycle

In general: replicates the phage genome without destroying the

host.
Steps:
1. Phage binds to surface of host cell and injects its genetic
material.
2. Phage DNA is incorporated by crossing over into a specific
site on the host cells chromosome.
3. Host cells copy their DNA and divide many times, creating a
large population of cells with phage DNA hiding in their
genome.
4. Environmental signals (radiation, chemicals) can trigger the
phage DNA to leave the hosts genome and initiate the lytic
cycle.

Lysogenic Details
Temperate phages can use both modes of viral

reproduction.
a phage is a virus that specifically infects bacteria.
Viral DNA codes for a protein that will prevent the

bacteria from transcribing the other prophage genes

until the viral DNA switches to the lytic cycle.
The switch is caused by environmental factors
(radiation, chemicals, etc)

Lysogenic Cycle- Temperate Phages

Animal Viruses
Symptoms of viral infection can come from a range of

sources
damage or death by release of enzymes from
lysosomes inside the cell
cause cells to produce toxins
toxic envelope proteins (or other molecular
components)
death by busting of cell

Classification
We classify animal viruses by the nature of their genome

and how it functions in the host cell.

I. Double-stranded DNA (dsDNA)
II. Single-stranded DNA (ssDNA)
III. Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)
IV. Single-stranded RNA (ssRNA); serves as
mRNA
V. ssRNA; template for mRNA synthesis
VI. ssRNA; template for DNA synthesis

Breaking the Central Dogma:

Retroviruses!
Most animal viruses have RNA as their genetic material.

Retroviruses: RNA viruses with the enzyme reverse

transcriptase.
Reverse transcriptase transcribes the viral RNA
template into DNA. That DNA is then incorporated
into the host genome.
RNA viruses lack replication error checking

mechanisms, so they have high rates of mutation.

Breaking the Central Dogma:

Retroviruses!
RNA DNA
Breaking the
Central Dogma!

Viral Evolution Case Study: HIV

Structure
Two molecules of single-stranded RNA
Reverse transcriptase
Capsid
Matrix made of viral proteins
Surrounded by lipid membrane when it
lyses from cell
GP120 Glycoproteins

Viral Evolution Case Study: HIV

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=odRyv7V8LAE

Viral Evolution Case Study: HIV

How it works
HIV enters human bloodstream
Surface of HIV has GP120 proteins which binds to cell

surface protein on macrophage called CD4 receptor.

Viral RNA and enzymes released into cytoplasm.
Reverse Transcriptase synthesizes viral DNA from the
viral RNA and that DNA integrates into host DNA- used
to make complete HIV viruses which then leave the
macrophage.
HIV continues to multiply, not causing many problems.

The Problem:
Eventually the gene for GP120 protein is altered

by mutation, changing its structure so it now

binds to the CXCR-4 receptor on T cells.
Same processes occur, resulting in new virus

particles, but they kill the T cells as they leave

the cell. This weakens the bodys immune
system.

Viral Evolution Case Study: HIV

HIV evades the immune system
HIVs reverse transcriptase makes

mistakes that change the proteins on

the surface of HIV. This is called
antigenic drift.

Viral Evolution Case Study: HIV

Antigenic drift:
Viral genome gets mutation
which alters the cell surface
protein (antigen) structure

Antigenic shift:
Two or more different strains of a virus
combine to form a new strain. This
happens when a cell is infected with
multiple versions of a virus at the same
time.

Viral Evolution Case Study: HIV

HIV evades the immune system

Antibodies produced by a
previous infection with the
ancestor strain cannot
effectively fight the
mutated virus, and
disease results.
This is why one HIV
vaccine just wont fix the
problem.

What about the flu (influenza)?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rpj0emEGShQ

http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/news/130201_flu
http://www.cdc.gov/flu/professionals/vaccination/effectiveness-studies.htm

Viruses Can Introduce Genetic Variation in their

Hosts
How it can happen:
1.
2.

Generalized transduction in bacteria due to virulent

phages
Specialized transduction in bacteria due to
temperate phages

Viruses Can Introduce

Genetic Variation in their
Hosts
Generalized Transduction

due to Lytic Cycle

Phages carry bacterial
genes from one host cell
to another if host DNA is
accidentally packaged into
the phage capsid along
with the phage genetic
material.

Viruses Can Introduce Genetic Variation in their

Hosts
Specialized Transduction due to Lysogenic Cycle
Temperate phages (lysogenic cycle) pick up a little

bit of extra DNA on either side of their prophage

DNA every time they exit the lytic cycle and enter
the lysogenic cycle.

Notecards
Lysogenic Cycle
Temperate Phages
Retroviruses (reverse transcriptase)
Structure of HIV
Mechanism of HIV reproduction (generalized)
9 steps in detail (look at pg.342)
antigenic drift
vaccinations (pg.343)
Viroids (pg.345)
Prions- infectious proteins (pg.345)