Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
BLACK AFRICA
by Jean Laude
Translated by Jean Decock
6.
8.
Photos by Edouard Berne, from the film "L'Art negre," Caravelle Films
2.
3.
Two
4.
5.
6.
7.
1.
8.
Museum.
British Museum.
Iff*
n^
u
^ i^-
sfr*"
4-
IV*
h*
The Arts if
BLACK AFRICA
2012
http://www.archive.org/details/artsofblackafricOOjean
The Arts if
BLACK AFRICA
by Jean Laude
Translated by Jean Decock
Berkeley
Los Angeles
London
London, England
.
ISBN: 0-520-02358-7
Number: 71-125165
Designed by Sandy Greenberg and Dave Comstock
Translator's PREFACE
Jean Laude's work
is
museums and
we
acted aesthetically to
heritage in our
pressions.
curiosities
when, a
"discovered" African
it
museums
little
had been
more than
we
re-
we
Translator's Preface
vi
between French
specific relations
painting and Negro art, which began early in the twentieth centu-
He
ry.
and
newfound
their
and
art.
civilizations
He denounces
as
were
in existence
art at the
end of the
still
a battlefield of savage
text).
An
In the
first
ages" of the
late
realistic, naturalistic,
and
positivistic
decades of the
German
wanted
expressionists
to see:
first
saw
in African
in its favorable
it
art,
vital
and the
essential; there
later, after
and
his material,
As
between the
artist
view of African
arts,
They began to
African art was exhibited
and study
art objects.
in
museum showcases
stifled to death,
or piled
categories, placed in
Translator's Preface
vii
approach to
vital
and
live
approach to African
arts.
Michel
Leiris,
perience of reality.
The
by
(to
traveled extensively
way
art historians
little
on the unity
who
who
art is born.
When
concept of
art.
Laude's work
is
occupation
is
and
cultural environment,
by
relating
it
to societies
and
a totalization because
and
his-
torical perspective.
When
held in
Dakar
in 1966,
first
World
Translator's Preface
viii
all
races
and
nationalities
were included among the guests. Africa wanted, perhaps for the
last time, to
thus
look at
made aware
its
reflection in
that, unless
art,
and
will
is
eyes. Outsiders
were
meaning. Africa
Western
Western impression
for African
If art is like
it is
its
book
it is
key
own
also
to the
African peoples.
Jean Decock
CONTENTS
1
Historical
Background
23
The Black
Artist
^5
101
Masks
137
Statuary
181
215
Conclusion
240
Index
279
285
ILLUSTRATIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
7
8
12
13
13
27
28
29
29
31
xi
List of Illustrations
15.
16.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
Nommo
17. Representation of
18.
31
Dogon. Mali.
36. Historical
37.
38.
39.
from the
from the
front.
Wood. Dogon.
Mali.
side (40).
Nommo
47.
48.
49.
43.
44.
45.
46.
Ashanti. Ghana.
Brass. Ashanti.
Funerary
Ghana.
36
38
39
39
41
41
42
43
45
47
48
48
50
50
51
51
56
57
figure.
Abomey, Dahomey.
Behanzin as a shark. Detail of
Abomey, Dahomey.
59
59
60
61
63
65
65
65
Fon.
35
65
51. Statuette of a
54.
33
65
Ashanti. Ghana.
50.
33
59
42.
32
32
65
66
68
69
bas-relief. Clay;
polychrome.
69
List of Illustrations
xii
62.
63.
God
55. Statuette
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
64.
65.
74.
75.
73.
Wood
82.
83.
leaf.
86.
87.
88.
Wood and
94.
93
94
wickerwork. Balumbo.
Bakongo. Congo/Kinshasa.
Raffia. Kuba. Kasai,
Congo/Kinshasa.
Female figurine. Wood. Bena-Lulua. Congo/Kinshasa.
Mintadi with short leg. Wood. Bakongo. Congo/Kinshasa.
Cupbearer. Wood. Baluba. Buli, Congo/Kinshasa.
cupbearer
(88).
92
96
93.
89
92
92
95
89. Detail of
84
86
Osyeba.
83
95
Gabon.
81.
81
82
95
80.
72
80
95
Gabon.
77. Statuette on basket of bones.
79.
72
87
88
66.
72.
72
96
96
103
104
104
105
106
107
108
108
109
109
110
112
114
119
119
121
List of Illustrations
xiii
99. Rider.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
koun, Guinea.
109. Making a mask. Basketwork and painted bark. Makishi. Zambia.
110. Mask. Wood and fibers. Bayaka. Congo/Kinshasa.
111. Mask. Painted wood. Bateke. Congo/Kinshasa.
112. Mask. Wood. Bakwele. Congo/Kinshasa.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
Chad.
Mask.
125.
126.
127.
Djimon, Cameroon.
130.
137.
138.
139.
140.
mask
(135).
126
126
127
127
129
131
131
133
138
140
146
147
149
150
150
151
153
153
153
154
154
154
155
155
155
155
156
157
157
159
160
160
161
161
162
162
162
162
163
164
165
166
168
168
168
169
xiv
141.
142.
143.
144.
145.
146.
147.
List of Illustrations
Mask
Mask
Mask
Nigeria.
148.
149.
150.
151.
152. Funerary
from back
Guinea.
157.
158.
172
172
174
174
174
176
178
182
183
184
185
185
(153).
170
171
185
186
188
189
190
191
192
194
mixed with
beeswax and covered with dried blood. Bambara. Mali.
Female figurine. Wood; necklace and belt of pearls; loincloth of
fabric. Bambara. Mali.
Figurine carried by children to make them grow. Wood.
164.
165.
Bari.
Sudan.
and mirror.
Wood.
Bari.
Wood and
Sudan.
Mother and
child.
and mirror
196
198
198
mirrors.
Bakongo. Congo/Kinshasa.
168.
195
(167).
199
199
200
204
205
171.
Benin, Nigeria.
175. Millet grinder.
176. Millet grinder.
177.
Head
207
208
208
211
212
213
xv
List of Illustrations
214
216
-ljS.
181.
219
coast.
Fon.
Abomey, Dahomey.
223
183.
184.
Monkey with
clay. Fon.
Fon.
bas-relief.
Polychrome;
Abomey, Dahomey.
223
Dahomey.
223
Dahomey.
186. Cloth establishing
224
Dahomey.
187. Fish. Bronze plaque. Benin, Nigeria.
225
226
226
227
227
228
191.
Naked
192. Detail of
193.
naked boy
229
(191).
vassals.
Bronze plaque.
195.
Oba
Nigeria.
Oba
200.
201.
231
Benin, Nigeria.
199.
230
228
Benin, Nigeria.
232
233
234
236
237
238
The course
admired
first
modern
play
its
painters,
it
Twice, in the
and twice
this tentative
ing in bloodbaths or in
when we attempt
understand the
when we
toward
to
made them
insufficient;
it
is
upon uncharted
its
bound-
seas.
who
Youth, discovered
still
had reached the land of Prester John. Yet the yearning for travel
and the wonders of discovery combined with apostolic zeal are
not enough to explain the fascinating influence of Africa upon
European imagination and curiosity as early as the time of the
Crusades. Even before the inception of the slave trade, the sense
of adventure
was rooted
in
economic
The
first articles
the Por-
cups and
salt
Arabs and the Jews of the Rhone Valley, ivory from which the
masterpieces of Mosan art were carved was likewise brought up
from the land of the Zandj in eastern Africa.
who
controlled the
commerce
in exotic
The
Birth of Exoticism
"It
is
well
known
Elder.
When
all
April 1470,
when
known mention
dates from
who
lately presented
natural as well as
him with a
man-made
rooms.
Near Fontenay-le-Comte,
in Bel-Esbat, the
son of Andre
Tiraqueau (1480-1558), Rabelais's protector, had assembled several exotic objects described in verse
vaudeau,
.
who wrote
by
Cleverly
made
his
of small cartilages,
or artistic
life,
it
The
interest
was prob-
and
was strong enough to create a market in Africa itself. Black craftsmen, working under Portuguese merchants, fashioned ivory
pieces eagerly sought by the royal courts of Europe. Ivory spoons,
forks, and horns were among the possessions of Ferdinand I, archduke of Tyrol, in his castle at Ambra. Carved horns, covered cups,
salt cellars, forks, and spoons ordered directly from artists in
Africa were collected by museums in Madrid, Brunswick, Leyden,
and the Vatican. Michael Praetorius illustrated his Theatrum
Instrumentorum (1619) with several ivory horns from Benin or
the Congo.
The
l.
Museum, London.
Photo by the museum.
3.
4.
museum.
is
ite coloring,
Europe
at this time.
Some were
ettes
in 1695.
still
strong under
Mazarin, began to wane. The change in taste was not the only
was the cessation of governmental support of antiqsolely responsible. In Africa, Europe had not absorbed a
cause, nor
uities
own
intellectual
To
was
thereafter
set-
made
depreciated money.
By
house of Centurione
in
by
and
in the
5.
Pigorini,
its
From then
was
in the
hands of companies
known
in the
Sudan
region.
known
when
the falsi-
and the
As
was now
were venturing
plored.
A map
Genovese
drawn
in
1320 according
to the instructions of a
map
to
Tunis
to
its
buyers, Antonio
6.
Portrait
of
Niger Basin;
not the
it is
first to
likely that
he traveled to Timbuktu.
He was
advantage to conceal
present,
all
their competitors.
it
Yet the
falsification
African activity. Travel inside black Africa did not cease after
mentioned
where he proceeded
d'Armagnac.
after
his trip
from Paris
to
Timbuktu,
trial
of Jacques
van Marees (1650), William Bosman (1704), and Father Godefroy Loyer (1714) all said that gold abounded in the
coastal kingdoms of Guinea. Where did it come from? Since
Ghana had traditionally been called the Gold Coast, was Eldorado
situated in Africa? Between Grand Lahou and Accra the alluvial
plains created by the disaggregation of the rock formation containing the original veins were rich in gold dust, though the perPieter
centage of gold content was lower than in the mines. This gold,
which the Agni, the Ashanti, and the Baule melted into alloys to
be fashioned into jewels, pendants, and funeral masks, was called
"fetish gold"
Some
by the
its
ultimate desti-
nation.
10
The discovery
between Africa and Europe and bore heavily upon the fate of
Africa. After 1495 the slave trade became so heavy that a good
part of the European economy and almost all the African economy
depended upon
it.
more
were not
directly
engaged
in
it.
brought
profit to
many who
The
was
not accidental. At that time copper, lead, and tin mines were probably in the hands of Arabs
The need
Chad region.
coastal -kingdoms gave new life
the
and
later,
Europe.
and
civilizations of Africa,
and
definitely
travelers agreed
avenues. Yet an image of the black was soon created which, with
little
ideas were
borrowed
up
Some of the
medieval myth of Sylvain,
from the
Montaigne was careful
directly
Africans have
the
myth
made no
it.
except
for
11
appeared
who became
black in the
Western iconography. (Watteau, Rubens, and Rembrandt made exceptions to this practice.) On monuments, on engraved frontispieces in atlases and travel books, blacks were
represented merely as symbols of their continent.
figures in
The church
is
represented by a black
man and
woman
nursing her
child.
sin:
official
men only
if
a difficult
until
an episode related in
were reputed
to
and smallpox.
that slaves
apply to blacks,
It
much
less pitiable
at
but to
traffic
any
was
afflicted,
rate,
Thus
with Satan.
Were
it
meaning of
black,
and
treatises
all color.
12
7.
of Ferdinand
I.
burned
in
an enormous
pile
form
to
representation of Beelzebub.
Saint-Jacques in Dieppe
belief, blacks
followed the
is
it
The meaning
of the bas-relief in
was not
until
(fidei catholicae et
sacramentorum capaces). In some areas, notably the Lower Congo, there were mass conversions, but they were superficial. After
King Nzinga
13
Nkuwu was
I,
a strong
jects
the blacks as
mere
cattle
which, beginning in
of Utrecht.
was more or
less forgotten.
still
as being of
the
8.
it
dom
San Salvador.
Congo/Kinshasa. Musee
of
museum.
when
Crucifix. Brass
museum.
14
skill,
But nowhere
is
"New
Cythera."
Huron hero comes from America. When Europe finally recognized her ties with other continents, she was
attracted toward the East, from the Indian war to the Egyptian
nored
it:
Voltaire's
people
still
found
it
wandering
in the darkness of
man's infancy.
which
it
15
Primitive Art
Scientific
factor influencing
European
judgment of Africa. Europe, discussing Darwin's biological evolutionism (a threat to her own religious beliefs) and elated by
the
first
industrial revolution,
and
letters.
Non-European
civilizations
were
classified
To
perspective would be to go
principal idea
is
beyond the
The
of
nor philos-
development
all
lem
is
is
in
in
complete harmony
inferior artists. In
his
Jomard (whose
letter to
later
specialist
Edme
vanced in terms of
museum
is
civilization."
The discovery
of cave paintings
which
it
stemmed.
Riegl,
and
16
of a nation. Riegl,
who opposed
disciples of Gottfried
sult of will
is
the re-
tent,
may
of art
itself
it
is
not
to
when
eighteenth century
observations
among
ancient Greeks.
first to
and
if
The
Gennep
reacted vi-
conducted
What
more
a revolting
way
to
conduct
scientific research!
And
all
the
the explorer has neither the time nor the intention to study the
social
The
colonialized.
17
set
up whose apparently
works began
to arrive at
religion.
until
museum showcases
Masks and
statuettes
were
dis-
monographs and
treatises under such headings as religion, cult, and custom. Under
the most favorable circumstances these works were considered
to be mere ritual instruments; usually they were classified as
fetishes and idols. From an artistic perspective they were looked
upon as rough, clumsy, arbitrary representations of men, spirits,
played in
and gods. In
fact,
sculpture which
mate step
or mentioned in
still
in artistic evolution.
Andre Michel,
in the
ulti-
1898 edition
"The Negro possesses the highest degree of sensual feeling without which no art is possible." To be
sure, the author of the Pleiades added a reservation: "The absence
of intellectual aptitudes makes him [the Negro] completely unfit
for the understanding of art and even for the mere appreciation
nevertheless
more
sensitive:
human
intelligence
this restric-
able to produce."
tion.
Yet there
is
been
18
more or
less explicit in
most
artistic
Faure
when he
still
discussed African
art. It
by expressionists.
anthropologists, and aestheticians
Art historians,
all
con-
was nothing
and
its
circumstances. Needless to
no
date,
Der schwarze Dekameron by Leo Frobenius in 1910 and the Anthologie Negre edited by Blaise Cendrars in 1919, Western ignorance of African literature produced important and unexpected
civil identity,
the
works of African
texts.
matter of a painting,
we can
fully
No
iconog-
recall that,
who
could
understand
who aimed
19
at a greater
"autonomy
and
between
No longer was
it
illustrate a text or
terms.
event was one of the factors that drew the attention of a few
painters to black
art.
mask
became
known, the meaning of the work was expressed by strong and
sensitive lines, the tension of contours and surfaces, the relation
and equilibrium of masses, and the richness of volumes. Parisian
artists, in their efforts to reduce the work to the plastic process
and to its own unity, were encouraged by the reluctance of the
African sculptor to convey anything fleeting or personal, by the
rejection of imitation, description, and naturalism evidenced in
fullness of
statuary
its
art.
The German
tent,
some
ex-
Max
when
German
man
it
without adaptation
it
negatively. In
substitute African
statues
were for
sculpture.
20
owned
beautiful pieces.
It
may
movement
still
to
awaken
No
the
Western world
to
if
Pierre Loti
later reviving
it
by add-
ment
En
habillant
to other
rhythms and
colors.
Was
and fashion,
difficult
itself a
answer
to
its arts,
this
It is
as yet
It
its effects,
seen proportions.
As
early as 1920
new
States. Gal-
1931;
New
York,
Museum
21
reflection
re-
sults
received an impetus.
for certain studies
What
The
is
new
by European
directions taken
as significant
is
The work
von
Salis revealed
in the
Middle Ages,
lost contact
and even
in literature
was not
discovered black
known
the situation
preoccupations.
much
alive.
That
of African sculpture
were of
From
very
art.
to these artists
when
still
if
not mediocre,
mask
own work.
no African
to provide
texts
new themes
alien.
There were no
texts
at
One
through ar-
22
more
easily
and
signs.
It
effectively in sculpture or in
on the
role of the
image
it-
performing
modern Western
phenomena, where the traditional relation between words and images was often deliberately
broken and frequently inverted. The real effect of African art
upon the course of modern art can now be appreciated. The arts
of Africa (and all the others produced by civilizations without
alphabets), acting together as formal sets, as catalysts, and as
model boundary lines, caused a reaction. Studies undertaken before the discovery of these arts and hence unrelated to them have
been amply confirmed.
Although cubism is not entirely an outgrowth of black sculpture, it is no exaggeration to say that Matisse, Braque, and Picasso
have given to African art its patent of nobility, and that in so
ture not
grounded
solely in literary
doing they are at the very origin of the true discovery of the black
continent and of Europe's indebtedness to Africa. Truly a debt of
gratitude to Africa and to the primitive world
at least
on the
graphie in
when
was recognized,
artistic level,
in
Historical
With few
Background
in writing.
in
down
in English.
It
logical
when
and
traditions. In fact,
such tra-
and dissemination, do
to
young men
at the
time of their
Historical
24
initiation into
in
whose
manhood and
Background
need
own
past and
Rhythmic
growth of a
plant.
Bambara country
by primitive men,
their unclothed and illiterate forefathers. Their myths emphasize,
among other things, the origin of speech and of the art of weaving,
as well as of craftsmanship. They reveal that the main village role
was played by the blacksmith. It is believed that in every village
there lies preserved a copy of each of the tools made by blacksmiths. At each initiation, even before they reached the family
altars, circumcised boys were shown the collection of tools identified with the ancestors who created them. Dogon myths have
similar patterns: three "messages" or "ways of speech" are said
to have been revealed to man. Each one marks an improvement
in the evolution of technical inventiveness and indicates a transition in the concept of space from punctual (the point being
ple believe in the existence of caves inhabited
weaving
craft)
and
(volume be-
make
it
and knowledge of
some consciousness
with an evolutionary
and
P.
Murdock,
oral tradi-
cannot be identified with events as they actually occurred. Traditions really are
myths transformed
into the
customary vehicles
Historical
Background
25
all
to the
ficult
may be
it
to record traditions
dif-
against written
classical
Archaeology also
assists
world history.
Even when
it
a mythical account
seems
to
be formally correct,
mere con-
of the prehistory
what we can
from its relation to Mediterranean and Egyptian cultures. First we must establish a framework within which
the changeable reality of the Sudan, of the Congo, or of the Atlantic
infer
Prehistoric
Data
merous human remains have been collected east of Chad, northeast of Timbuktu in western Africa, in Rhodesia, and in South
Africa.
None
of the
remotely belong to
"they
all
have characteristics
in
common
Historical
26
Background
first,
Grimaldi Negroids
in the
same
may have
location,
an orthogenesis of
may
not
when
a population of small
by
movements
is
available
on
was not
it
is
sub-
Roman Em-
still
tools,
probably used by
lief
rocky re-
Some
institutions
and customs
still
10
in the
on
women,
masked dancer
KM
fSmimaissi
^
MP'
5H
si***
fflff
10.
Masked
Mission H. Lhote.
11
Background
Historical
28
Tassili, Algeria.
Photo by
was found.
found
at the
at the
frieze (7.5
by
3 feet)
that blacks
were
living, at
an un-
now
occupy. They
practiced
by
rural
nonmigratory populations in
and
many
regions of
made
mak-
contact with
whom traveled
to the Sahara.
in the engravings
Raymond Mauny
There
is
evidence of this
movement
classified
by
12
Of
made them
distrust
anyone who
13
It
would be unwise
new
to discard
Historical
Background
12. Historical
map
of
29
western
by Hermann Baumann.
and around her neck and reaching down to encircle her naked
breasts. It brings to mind the earthenware snake goddess discovpits
Historical
30
Background
now
able
settled, practicing
Nu-
prevalent today.
In the
House
is
one African
14
same archaeological period as the snake goddess. CretoMycenaean objects have been uncovered in Egyptian tombs, such
as those of the queen mother Aahotep and of Maket in Kahoun,
and one has been found in a Nubian sepulcher. Pre-Hellenic remains from the Amarnian period are evident in Egypt, even in the
palace of Amenophis IV. And perhaps Egyptian origins can be attributed to certain Mycenaean burial customs. Although it leads
to no definite conclusions, there is an obvious and intriguing
analogy between the so-called Agamemnon mask of Mycenae discovered by Auguste Mariette in the tomb of Khaemoast, son of
Ramses II, and the eighteenth-century mask found among the
treasures of the Ashanti king Koffe Kalkalli. These burial masks
were made by the same lost-wax technique of casting; both are
of gold and were intended for similar purposes.
Among the Dogon, evidence can be grouped in a more uniform configuration. Denise Paulme has drawn parallels between
the facades of African family dwellings and those of ancient
Memphian and Theban houses. The appearance and motifs of the
"tower masks" recall the immense obelisk in Axum, Ethiopia.
15
to the
as well. Certain
Dogon
Historical
Background
31
w ./'*.
14.
Axum,
Ethiopia. Photo
by
Viollet.
15.
woman.
man's
left
Some
Pharaonic sculptures
States.
of them,
is
at the
left
shoulder of the
who
is
16
Nommo,
Dogon cosmogony,
hacked into
is
a spirit
sacrificed to
five parts
and
Nommo, some-
17
Background
Historical
32
17. Representation of
Musee de l'Homme,
Nommo
Dogon. Mali.
Photo by
Paris.
the
16. Seated couple.
with
museum.
Wood. Dogon.
The Barnes
Foundation.
evokes ideas of
fertility
and
ka, with
When
and elevates
it
to the sacred;
it
to
in
it
also unites
18
nique.
The
wood and
women and
in the copper,
wooden Egyptian mirrors fashioned in the New EmFinally, some Baule masks undoubtedly recall Phara-
onic figures.
Numerous
19
other analogies
may
be suggested. In
Ife,
among
theme of the double human figure, probably associated with the worship of twins, is similar to that of some
the Ashanti, the
Historical
Background
33
Coptic
sur
la
art.
On
formation de
la
M.
is
Dogon.
African cultures are characterized by a lengthy chronology
wooden
It is
pieces,
at the
most, evoke or
18.
Akuaba
(doll).
Wood. Ashanti.
19.
Weight
Ghana. Musee de
1'Homme, Paris. Photo by the
Brass. Ashanti.
museum.
Historical
34
beware of
gether,
it
Background
may
Mediterranean culture
be cautiously evaluated in
its
it
di-
gathered to-
actually
is. It
must
is
on the
total data.
to cer-
narrowly
localized stratum.
Archaeology
Archaeology can furnish documents and specify the elements
regions,
knowledge permits scholars to define a historical framework and to advance hypotheses on the origin and
evolution of populations long established in the same territories.
The Rhodesian complex, already an abundant source of indirect
the present state of
is
now
tion
20
was reported
it
Historical
Background
35
when
the kings of
Drik
Djeremaya
# Tago
Ngala
(Nigeria)
Gawi
Fort-Lamy
Damaze
Azeguene
Ndouroukou
25
50 km
d
Holom
20.
Archaeological
map
of Chad. After
J.
P.
Lebeuf.
Historical
36
21. Statuette.
Background
Background
Historical
37
medium
artistic
of the
large
the earliest
known methods
modeled
mixed with
were fashioned
is
of the
same
quality: pieces
in a spiral design.
terior or exterior
all
in a delicate clay
a rough clay
The
firing
in-
technique
jects
fire.
account for the fragility and the poor preservation of the more
show remarkable craftsmanship, and the different moindicate a variety of styles. The most spectacular pieces are
pinkish earthen statuettes representing masked or deified
domestic,
tifs
the
ancestors.
Although of
21
22
common
function.
The Chad
ceramics. According to
Raymond
as their
work displayed
head of a gazelle
(at
(at
Mid-
pieces,
would
Twisted cord,
collection, according to P.
kind of ornamentation.
this
23
Historical
38
22. Statuette.
Background
Historical
39
Background
24.
23.
Head
of gazelle. Bronze.
British
Musee de l'Homme,
Photo by the museum.
Sao. Chad.
Paris.
The
Civilizations of
all
much
still
remains to be ex-
currently living there either settled very early or adapted themselves to an already long-established culture.
Continuous oc-
whose
past,
on the spot,
homogeneous comparative data which
and provides
relatively
has given
It
rise to a certain
left its
mark on
and
people.
Evidences of the
Fagg
in the tin
Nok
it is
mark
civilization
first
millennium
B.C.,
same
origin existed
outside the area under study" or that the pieces "that preceded
them may well have been of crude clay or of wood," thus leaving
no trace.
The art of Nok has unity of style as well as broad diversity
24
40
Historical
It
oscillates
Background
There
no evidence
is
There seems
between
to
Nok
it
that
Nok
art
25
in the second
survived or expanded
is
lacking.
and
art
Ife art.
known
ended
and the
sculpture)
art of Ife."
Nok
it
"logical to
Nok.
but
it is
it is
direct or collateral.
it
(Nubia) in the reign of Justinian and Theodora in the sixth century. Since contacts
movements took
place over a long period of time. Migrations probably came in
successive waves. According to this theory Nigeria was regularly
populated by migrants from Nubia, where pre-Hellenic and Egyptian traditions were kept intact. Because the migrants ended up
in regions occupied by peoples of the same origin, the situation
was particularly favorable to the success of cultural grafting.
existed as early as the fourth century B.C., these
its
own system
it
not the
has recon-
It is
Nok.
We
stools, as well as
are
with
26
courtly art.
The kingdom
of Benin
was formed
Historical
Background
41
who
and
up
art later
evolved in
its
of decadence,
which began
from
its
origins
up
to the period
and ended
it
now
scattered throughout
museums
Leningrad.
The
first
period of Bini
art, still
ended
peans.
The metal
is
thin,
and the
dependent on the
Ife style,
queen mother, a
title
century by the oba Eseguie, and also of the most beautiful ivory
their variety
Nigeria.
from casting
Museum, London.
Films,
at British
26.
Museum,
London. Photo by the museum.
Ife.
Nigeria. British
42
Historical
who
in
exchange for
slaves.
The process
Background
supplied bronze
manufactur-
more numerous, size superseded quality, traditional proportions were no longer heeded, and ornaments became more important at the expense of the facial features.
To the arts of Nok, Ife, and Benin must be added a homogeneous group of almost eight hundred large statues discovered
in Esie, about 60 miles from Ife. This stone statuary may be
dated after the beginning or even at the height of the kingdom of
ing defects were
2j
Monomotapa
is
the
of the king
title
Zambezi
who governed
River.
the ter-
The Portuguese
Gama
The empire disappeared at the beginning of the modern period, but numerous sites distinguished
by stone architecture remain. The ruins of Van Niekerk, of Inexistence of this land in 1498.
28
27.
Head. Stone.
Esie, Nigeria.
Historical
Background
43
CONGO
200 km
y-
Lac Nyassa
BECHUANALAND
OCEAN INDIEN
REP. D'AFRIQUE
DU SUD
O O
-j.
Cuivre
Fer
Etain
L
28.
Map
Historical
44
Background
make
credible
"The
in 1517:
It
traveler
Monomotapa
is
Good
Hope/'
In
all
theoretical, or
was
the result of a
arose
it is
If this
cultural traits
which formed
a political
whose
common
chiefs,
among them
the
Monomotapa
literally
his-
all
build-
that
all
is
the Christian era agriculture and the use of iron gradually ex-
by men of
different origin.
The Bantu
Historical
Background
45
Up
towers.
to
now
only about
excavated.
It
is
percent of the
hill
of
Mapun-
arti-
From
its
coins and Chinese porcelain of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries as well as eighth-century Indian pearls
there.
rule of the
as intermediaries, but
under the
seems
at times to
(1083),
famous for
its
al-
29. Ellipse of
29
Background
Historical
46
whence they
are
through the Arabs, however, that Africa held the exclusive market
in slaves
geographer
Idrisi,
India
was ordering
to the
Arab
iron.
The presence
who
of the Arabs,
sometimes even inland, and commerce with the Orient have often
served and
do serve as evidence
still
no
doubt made the discussions more emotional, thus hindering and
finally paralyzing all research. The monuments, the most famous
of which is Zimbabwe, were of African origin and can be linked
to a culture whose traces still exist among the Chona, present inhabitants of the area. Archaeologists have outlined three broad
periods.
the fourth
and led
to the
When
Mambo
period, called
eighteenth century.
30
31
The backs
of the standing
Zimbabwe
figures are
32
tapa.
The
Zimbabwe probably
marked by
The archi-
Monomo-
upward
site.
Historical
Background
47
Museum, London.
Historical
48
Background
desia. P.
velle Films.
32.
Outside wall of
ellipse of
Great
Historical
Background
49
far
from solving
and chronology.
It is
is
civilizations.
quered peoples.
If this
supposition
the
Congo River
is
from Mozambique
to the
mouth
of
The
made
in Nigeria depict a
wax
which extended from Guinea to Cameroon, a culture whose traits were reinforced by the presence
of Europeans and the slave trade.
The civilization of Chad, which calls for a more subtle intation of a type of culture
Chad turned
to Islam at
Sudanese
men
or
was some artistic activity in the preIslamic period. Ceramics unearthed in Djenne and Mopti, between
the southern border of the Sahara and the fifteenth parallel, have
been attributed by Raymond Mauny to the twelfth century. The
private collection of Baron du Menil contains a terra-cotta figure
from the Dogon country whose style, texture, and firing point to
a significant link connecting the Mopti, Djenne, and Chad figures.
animals. Nevertheless there
33
34
33
50
Historical
34.
Background
Woman
cotta.
by Edouard
Western Sudan
In the pre-Islamic period (before the ninth century), accord-
36
ritanian
whom
ruins,
The
woodwork belonging
was
to
high dignitaries.
living in
Historical
Background
51
tribes.
Arab
historians
35.
when
Dogon. Mali.
Baron du Menil Collection, New
York. Photo by O. E. Nelson,
Kamer
36. Historical
map
archives.
of western Africa
was
Historical
52
Background
limits
was
also
its
Its
wealth, however,
One
kingdoms resumed
When
their in-
ing
its
of
now
to
called
Mandingo
or Mali "bear
with eleven of his sons. Soundiata, the only son spared, mobilized
retaliated,
The
Historical
prince
Background
53
who augmented
cruel monarchs,
this
were overthrown by a
is
represented on European
Mecca
to
in
Kankan Moussa maintained close relations with the Muslim states of Morocco and Egypt, and invited merchants from the
Maghreb and various scholars to join him. One of the latter was
height.
is
Sudanese architecture.
weakened despite
1390
scarce.
From 1400
on, data
become
still
thought of Mali
1484 John II of Portugal sent ambassadors there. In 1534 the reigning emperor called in vain for the
help of the Portuguese settled around the Gulf of Guinea. In
as a
powerful
state,
and
in
last of the
their
had been the cradle of his dynasty. In 1670 the Mali empire
disappeared from the history of the Sudan.
that
when Colonel
Historical
54
Background
Omar's
arrival.
The
first
in
two
rival
Niger
groups,
group consisted of
fisher-
who founded
Dahomey
live in the
as their leader
Koukya, whose site remains unknown. In 890 they conquered Gao, and in 1010, when
a Berber
the
first capital in
The new
center.
capital
became an important
political
and commercial
is
is
much
merchants.
From 1325
came about
at the
expense of the
rival
new
em-
pire, primarily
Mossi of Yatenga and finally defeated them in 1483. The son of Sunni Ali was overthrown in
1492 by one of his father's lieutenants, Mamadou Toure (14931529), who founded the Askia dynasty and showed excellent
qualities as a statesman and organizer. He undertook a series of
reforms, attracting scholars and learned Muslims. After a period
of battles and conquests, Mamadou, by then old and blind, abIn 1480 Sunni Ali repulsed the
dicated.
the Askia
prevailed.
all interest,
Historical
Background
country's poverty.
ritories subject to
55
Anarchy prevailed until 1780, when the terMorocco actually lived under the rule of the
Omar
in Senegal. Hajj
Omar
Bam-
bara and the Peuls. In 1861 he entered Segu and in 1862 captured
known about
Sudan because
were
when
first
men-
by
Wadai disappeared
in constant strife
to 1810),
and Fouta
amawa
On
identified themselves as
Adthe
Usman. When he died he left an empire encompassing the Hausa states, the kingdom of the Nupe, and northern
Cameroon. The anarchy and revolt that followed soon after his
leadership of
37
Historical
56
37. Historical
map
Background
when
work perished
An
Historical
Background
57
who
as
and economic
interests.
and extremely
myth
his vehicle of
adulterated
soil; a
conveyance
is
first,
which
38.
exists in
rider
many
Trough with
horse's head.
Wood. Dogon.
Mali. H. Kamer
Collection,
New
York. Photo by
O. E. Nelson,
Kamer
showing a
known among
archives.
with un-
The
and
is
The
his
mount.
38
Historical
58
tion rites preceding a military campaign.
live partly in
impossible.
Background
From
among
charac-
Even though
are borrowed, they have since been fully
these characteristics
assimilated.
If
sentation of
central
human
all
repre-
of empires or kingdoms.
It is
vocabulary or themes
ing
40
Dogon
41
Ivory Coast, or
among
3g
art. If,
may
work
similar to
Dogon, such discoveries would in fact be mere coincidences. Too many elements are missing to permit an interpretation of these analogies, or to consider them significant.
the
African
wooden
Without
specific indications
42
numerous
two
it is
difficult to
centuries.
more
of Bandiagara have
When
It
was pre-
and
dating of orig-
Historical
Background
59
39. Statuette of
Kamer
Collection,
New
face.
York.
Wood. Dogon.
Collection,
Mali.
New
from
J.
front.
J.
Sweeney
York.
from
side (40).
Gabon
Fang
(or
duced no sculpture since 1934. An artificial palm-oil patina protects the wood, so that the sculpures of this people, among the
most beautiful
it is
Still,
impossible to go
The
brief interval
between
this date
and especially
art,
among
60
42.
Historical
Nommo
New
Background
Historical
Background
61
43.
Historical
62
43
At
Background
from
traditional coiffure
were proscribed,
to
just be-
and the
hashish.
The Kingdoms
of Guinea
history
may
in the
Congo,
art
and po-
art.
the
White Volta
Tenkodogo on the
right
bank of
who
Historical
44.
Background
63
45.
front.
from
lection.
A few masks,
side.
called
Desplagnes in 1906, as
(i.e.,
contact
works attributed
It is
44
45
Historical
64
of Mossi culture
is
Background
many
Ghana: the Adansi, the Dyenkera, and the Akwamu. Around 1590
the Adansi dominated the Akan group, which included the
Ashanti, the Agni, and others. The Adansi, in turn, were subjugated by the Dyenkera who maintained their hegemony until
about 1680, when a young Ashanti chief rebelled and, with the
help of his tribesmen, defeated the rulers of the country and
expanded his territory. On this firm base he laid the foundation
of the Ashanti empire which remained in power until the twentieth century. When he died between 1720 and 1730, his nephews
Dakon and Apokou Ouare struggled over the succession. When
Dakon was killed, his sister, Aura Pokou, assembled his followers
and fled with them to the central Ivory Coast where she founded
the Baule kingdom. It lasted until 1880. Apokou Ouare ruled until 1740 or 1749, strengthening his authority and power over the
countries conquered by his uncle. For his ventures he bought firearms on the coast and exploited the resources of the land, particularly its gold mines.
46
It is
Apokou Ouare
the
use of funeral masks on royal tombs and of pendant masks representing kings taken captive or killed in
war became
general.
47
Closely associated with the gold trade, small copper weights came
48
into use; their earliest motifs are thought to have been purely ab-
49
stract or geometrical.
50
figurative
carried
art is essentially
Historical
65
Background
Mask. Gold. Ashanti. Ghana. Musee
I. F.A.N.
Dakar. Photo by the museum.
46.
mmm
Ghana. Musee de
l'Homme, Paris. Photo
by the museum.
Weight,
48.
illustrat-
49.
Weight,
Musee de l'Homme,
Paris.
Photo by the
museum.
Musee de l'Homme,
Paris. Photo by the
museum.
by the museum.
lost process of
molded
in clay
wax casting in
known for their
by the
women and
The group that emigrated with the queen Aura Pokou and
took the name of Baule are distinguished by their sculpture in
wood (masks, statuettes, doors, etc.) and their lost wax casting
(gold masks, jewelry, pendants, etc.). The Baule may have learned
the technique of carving and the use of masks and statuettes from
their
in the area
when
51. Statuette of a
Paris.
queen.
Wood.
Historical
Background
67
it
seems, art
is
and
his family,
statuette of a
beautiful
known
presently
One
cult, to beliefs
51
about
celestial life
by
earlier
more
carefully
As
slaves
some
to oral
new
state
its
among members of the royal family. One of the pretenders founded a small kingdom north of Abomey, and in the
south another set up the kingdom of Porto-Novo. Although both
by
rivalry
these
kingdoms were
became
vir-
52
68
52.
Historical
Couple.
Wood.
Museum
Background
of Primitive Art,
New
York.
Historical
Background
The kingdom
69
of
Abomey
flourished through
first
king was
its profits
from
Deko (1625-1650),
the coastal
cities.
tribute,
whom
he disposed of
at great profit
on the
coast.
He
concluded a
commercial treaty with France in July 1851. His son Glegle (18581889), and above
all
by French
troops in 1894.
Abomey
ing the
and
religion. Sculptures
as
Glegle as a lion.
Detail of bas-relief.
Clay; polychrome.
l'Homme, Paris.
Photo by the museum.
54.
Behanzin as a
by the museum.
and
at the
same
concern-
53
an actual participant
54
reliefs
70
Historical
is
endowed with
Background
of divine essence,
a sacred character.
It
the
customary for
its
was
It
its
a hunter-magician, a foreigner
Congo River
valleys. In 1491,
when
it
to the
as a simple native
When
the sovereign,
Nzinga Nkuwu,
in 1580,
both of
whom
to the country.
Historical
Background
71
nated with war. Several provinces broke away from the kingdom
of
is
itself
contemporaneous
reflected in
and
ceased to be Christian.
staffs of religious
art.
Many
dignitaries
far
was not
at all Christian.
seems reasonable
This land
to think, as
some
is
whose usage
56
on
S7
cer-
55
the Cross.
The
tain sculptures,
it
abdominal part of
saints.
kingdoms of
Lunda and Luba in Angola, are much more scarce and contradictory. Recent research in ethnology and archaeology, however,
suggests that an individualistic and homogeneous civilization,
closely related to the empire of Monomotapa and the Rhodesian
complex, flourished in that area. Division into small kingdoms and
Data concerning the Congolese
common
as a result of secession
interior, the
and migration.
be explained
Some
the
Bakuba
in particular,
in-
was
a skilled blacksmith.
During
known
He
memory
him
Historical
72
Background
However
line
fleeting
and changing
it
may
art
ethnic groups
still
ties or,
with
55. Statuette
rel-
Wood;
painted eyes.
Loango. Congo/
Kinshasa. Musee de
l'Homme, Paris. Photo
by the museum.
with
nails.
Congo/Kinshasa. Musee de
l'Homme, Paris. Photo by the
museum.
raMR
virbtS
hPJIfSv'"
A \^&
v *5r^wC ^vSW
l^jcK''
H^B^Ty*^ **r it j4">
*
Ij/F
^%
'
*L
*t S3*'
*.r<
'-
f,
"
m'3r
"^miKp?S3!
M
*0IHSSffblBI
J
3>
^aBLwti-
ml.
>
n^'ir
>5H
' ^Qrmr'~
Sr '"'SJ
ss w*
K*
***
*&J*fi
<
^
&v>tafi&fa*i0fNt0&l&$&''<
xF^VJm
W^m
WW'
57.
Animal pierced
with
and
nails.
nails.
Wood
Ba-
kongo. Congo/
Kinshasa. Musee
de l'Homme,
Paris. Photo by the
museum.
Historical
Background
73
some innovations,
Most
dry savanna.
aroused the
Huge
spirit of
came
stretches of land
or
The dynasties
who
village chiefs
Many
dowed with
and a
spirit of
political sense
opportunism.
When
The course
who
clung to their
own
cultural
and economic background. This diversity partly explains the continuity of beliefs
litical
and cultural
po-
system
that, in
some
As
founded
also
in
They were
this connection,
West
was evidenced both economically and psychologically. It introduced a new conceptual and observational perception of the
world. Even when encompassing diverse populations, these kingdoms were far from being federations, for the central authority
was close to the areas it governed. Provinces sent their representatives to the court,
cities
were
built,
with
Historical
74
The
Background
king, surrounded
chieftains, ruled
by an
through
divine right.
When,
it
had
its
as in the
own
ritual
cults,
its
own
cult.
The sub-
Kingdoms
Guinean or Congolese
type reveal a clear difference in the materials of which objects
were made, according to whether they were designated for the
the observance of them.
of the
it
did,
it
was
less
group.
These observations
sonality
art
and
ture
invite
new
Only
examined.
statues,
and
reliefs
be systematically
its
in dramatic,
sometimes romantically
man who
painted
it
it.
shows
little
the
West
when
is
is
craftsman.
A
cause
painting or a sculpture
its
are
still
creator
hinder the
is
is
it.
The Black
76
unity.
What is
Is it
Artist
him
in order to describe
artist
environment.
used
is
the
wood
els
masks and
statuettes
is,
like the
tree
or
from which
it
Some
or,
Depending on
more or
less
hollow
chisels,
this
equipment he
and
The Black
77
Artist
is
quite limited.
from European
have appeared.
marks
for carving.
in the
fac-
wood, such
as a
seems suitable
a natural distortion
artist fells
enhance his
own
idea.
He now
has
finished piece.
to
wide-bladed chip ax
is
To rough
artist utilizes
thin, slightly
bent blade.
details,
is
a long,
then used to
on
It is
possible to carve
by
holding the blade firmly in the hand between thumb and index
finger, the
artist's
elbow. In
Ituri
lowing out
wood have
also
to
by successive
stages, but
some
work except
for a
finish the
mind
few decorative
its
members. ...
It
seems that
details/
wood
The Black
78
Kissi
work in Nigeria
Sangha is Dogon
in
Esie
as well as in
in
in style
that
Ife
and
A sculpture acquired
Zimbabwe.
and theme;
Artist
its
it is
come
works include horns not always expressly made for Europeans, pendant masks, and leopards in pairs. It is very likely that
ivory was used in Benin because of Portuguese interest in a material rare and precious in the West. In the Congo, ivory was used
for musical instruments and ritual objects; the masks and small
Bini
Warega
are famous.
Pottery
is
women's
by
craft; starting
it
made by
spirally,
the
Mangbetu. The
woman potter
layers,
paste
sometimes adding
With
jar.
in-
gourd frag-
she decorates with fine incisions and finishes with a coat of veg-
in
The
etable glaze.
jars are
women
these sculptures or
in
Ghana,
tomb
it is
not
used.
same
style,
of rougher clay
On
when
wax
core
is
then covered
top of this
first
wax
floss.
When
everything
The smith
is
or the
The Black
79
Artist
With
clay.
flames of an open
melt, the
mold
is
which he
fire
stokes.
When
left
chisel.
African
artists,
55
$g
60
areas:
61
62
63
64
jects
it
entitled
and qualified
rituals. In addition to
to carve
In western Africa he
sculptor
is
is
is
masks and
statuettes
assumes further
and even
social responsibil-
who, on occasion,
Two
6s
66
The Black
80
O.
E.
Nelson,
Kamer
archives.
New
Artist
York. Photo by
The Black
Artist
O.
E.
Nelson,
81
Kamer
archives.
New
York. Photo by
O.
E.
Nelson,
Kamer
archives.
New
York. Photo by
Paris.
Photo by Mardyks.
The Black
84
Paris.
Artist
Photo by Mardyks.
The Black
85
Artist
kingdoms with
a centralized and hierarchical power structure, and in most instances works in close proximity to the sovereign and his court.
system; the professional
political
artist is
found
in
The Blacksmith
Close study of African art reveals, in the background, an
who seems
enigmatic character
to
have
key
whose origins and mechanisms otherwise reobscure. The smith is unquestionably a central
to African cultures,
main singularly
many major
Africa.
The blacksmith
produces the
weapons
(spears, dag-
needed by an agrarian or
depend on
who
is
life
of the
them
tools,
he
is
in the carving
To
this dual
activity,
He
members
The
locality.
community
a hunt-
Sometimes he
is
living.
him
is
she
is
who
not at
all
fashions,
Among
among
is
the potter;
bellows.
the
first
men and
animals.
Among
and
The Black
86
similar
ciety
is,
myth seems
initiatory so-
Because he
is
is
by
tools, the
metallurgy and
artistic activity is
who
vital
deals
among
Kono
Artist
it is
it
is
part of the
weakened and
finally
its
Or perhaps
may
well
the original
To
by
cultures
would
answer the important unsolved question of the diffusion of iron in Africa. At any rate, the crucial role of the blacksmith in diverse African legends of origin emphasizes the hisalso be to
torical
lurgy,
As
to the origin
God
Wrought iron.
Abomey, Dahomey. Musee de
63.
of war.
l'Homme,
museum.
Paris.
Photo by the
Fon.
The Black
87
Artist
64. Detail of
god of war
(63).
The Black
88
65. Headrest.
J.
Artist
The Black
Artist
89
by Mardyks.
Raymond Mauny,
iron
was transported
via
J.
came down from Meroe and the Nubian region. A study of the
networks of communication and migration neither denies nor
confirms either theory. The iron coming down from Libya or
Kouch was used as early as 300 b.c. in the Sudanese savannas and
had spread far beyond the forests by the end of the first cenit
tury A.D.
In Meroe, slag heaps are located rather close to the
the Sun, implying that the art of ironwork
The
was
Temple of
a royal or priestly
thesis of the
prime minister.
The groups
the
new
techniques were
The Black
90
tion of the blacksmith.
Artist
between
was
myths of
origin,
life.
status
The Professional
There
smith
is
when
Artist
The
left
shoulder. In Benin,
for the
oba and
the guild of
work
his family.
in
Craftsmen
Iguneromwo and
in
In societies
in the
by the
it
chief.
Their
work
sult of
of art
is
an exalted and
is it
the re-
to be characteristic of African
The Black
art.
91
Artist
artists
It is
with
artist is a
man who
first
of
all
A
tion
young man may become an artist either through inclinaor through election by his colleagues. Among the Bakuba,
may
or
may
not be accepted.
When, moreover,
is
When
the
those of a craftsman.
Among
the
Dan and
Ngere of the Ivory Coast, for example, the son succeeds his
father who teaches him the craft; yet even in this instance the
the
apprentice
is
encouraged
excels.
"Some peoples
attitude
toward the
in
Dahomey/
artist
which
recalls, in a
our
is
respected for
and
The Black
92
The
Artist
Clientele
In Africa
all artistic
work
is
social
is strictly
and
is
closely
An
may
order
state.
and vanity
67
68
6g
70
iron axes
7*
72
for
it
weaving
in the
be a brass weight
67.
is,
strictly
ing.
Wood.
Baule. Ivory
Photo by Mardyks.
68.
Bobbin used
ing.
Wood.
in
weav-
Baule. Ivory
Photo by Mardyks.
69.
The Black
Artist
93
yo. Detail of
bobbin
(6y).
Photo by Mardyks.
The same
skillfully
is
shapes.
The
fine
affectation
dress
human
to
shown by
Africans,
men
as well as
women,
in their
nificance.
music
is
sig-
cult.
Examples are
The Black
94
71. Pestle
von der
Artist
The Black
95
Artist
:ifcM^m^^ffim^i
museum.
74. Detail of
75.
harp
(73).
The Black
96
y6.
Reliquary figurine.
leaf.
Artist
Wood
yy. Statuette
on basket of
Wood and
wickerwork.
Balumbo. Gabon. Musee de
l'Homme, Paris. Photo by the
bones.
museum.
yS. Stool
Wood. Dogon.
Mali.
Owner
unknown.
75
the
73
strange
74
dite, recalling
78
figures supporting
Mangbetu
genii, the
The
harp, with
neck shaped
Nommo, who
like a
76
hermaphro-
religious
dimension
is
man.
cups
the
cult.
its
objects ordered
and
at the
prosperity.
dead
in a
The Black
97
Artist
hammered and embossed copper leaf. The wellknown Balumbo statuette at the Musee de l'Homme also seems to
covered with
from
When
became
the whole population, families were split up. The chief of the
newly created group, carrying with him some of the earth from
the altar, had a new statuette made so that the ties of the family
with the ancestor of the group would be preserved. At the village
level the procedure is the same. When a new community is
founded, the chief of the village orders a statue which is sometimes buried on the premises. The sculptor is responsible for the
production of statuettes, ritual and everyday objects that only
rise
a basket of bones.
a village
who wants
commemorated.
It is
perhaps in
and those of
it
is
the
his ancestors
and
it
may
art, if this
term
is
it
may
on occasion,
be designated a popular
art, as in
it
mon
the people
is
Although
it is
tribal, courtly,
enon, even
if its
of a society.
great
function
is
many romantic
an anonymous phenom-
still
and
social
needs
encumbered with
yy
The Black
98
the collective unconscious.
If
Artist
would have
to suppress his
own
in-
delivers
is
not
itself
appropriate rites
meaning.
or
An
is it
unconsecrated sculpture
thrown out
as rubbish, for
it is
may
lifeless.
is
is
bound
is
work does he
is
group
It
may
The
natural gifts, the sculptor succeeds his father or his older brother
who
him
a trade along
and even an
intellectual art;
it is
exactly
Nevertheless,
it
German
expres-
it.
artist is
not an in-
evolution.
The obvious
The Black
99
Artist
many more
ically,
artisans
who work
in their
is
own villages
yet the directions given to the latter deal with the purpose of the
work, not
its style.
On
European
tourist, or the
copy of a
specific
pearance and
who work
for the
style.
The
village sculptor
when an
artist
group that he
same
works
traditional
He
own ethnic
abstract elements.
It
to
his ethnic
all
cannot be overemphasized
sorts of improvisations.
that, in the eyes of Africans,
an
artist
example of a Dogon
artist,
a certain Ansegue,
An
who
Even
cites the
enjoyed a
antelope-shaped mask
According to Baule
beliefs,
every
human
one with
wife)
whom
may
celestial
husband
(or
calls
his
first
in a
dream
to a
man
ordered by some
spirit
The Black
100
to
Artist
have his image carved and worn. Sculptors are well aware that
artists.
One
of them, questioned
Dahoman
When
artist
who postponed
reminded that
in
is
by
an
comdays gone by
the
"What
use would
my
to the
king?
Good
body
artists
of proof
in
some
is
by
beauty.
Fischer contends that the
individuality of his style
Masks "have
image of
It is
sculptor
is
is
conscious of the
to produce.
the divine
initely
to
Dan
is
works def-
good reason, the work of another artist because the heads of his
statuettes were too thick as compared with their bodies." Thus
the African artistic scene includes the full range of artists, models,
critic,
not absent.
so necessary a part of
and
political situations.
Can
it
and determine
stylistic
artistic styles?
may
be defined. The
first
in the chief,
who
is
by
is
similar political
Two
102
artistic
works of a
among
indi-
viduals and groups and to the link between the ethnic group and
the rest of the world. Sculptures are not exhibited but are hidden
from sight
in the
shadows of
they play.
Congolese Societies
The
is
political
is
Bumba,
beings. The
human
blood even in war; not to touch the ground. His slightest ailment
103
Sometimes
a necklace
is
shells.
image of a
of
specific sovereign.
The
full,
is
the
a lively
is
and
tempered,
artist did
The
lips,
thick and
his chin
by the head;
However
striking or
complex
their
nontemporal, religious
kuba. As works of art they are strong and severe, serene and
meditative; the posture of the king represented, however noble,
remains human.
Shamba Bolongongo
predicted that
when
his
Kata-Mbula. Wood.
Kuba. Kasai, Congo/Kinshasa.
Musee Royal de l'Afrique
Centrale, Tervueren. Photo by
79. Statue of
the
museum.
yg
104
MGETSH
* aBifcffi
fllfc^,
Jjjg
j|
Lj|
^"*-i
yri
design
clarifies
tasteful contours,
free
seem almost
to
distinct.
In the
have transmitted
Traditional authority
80
is
personage, his headdress, his cowrie bracelets, his belt and cap,
81
finally,
but not
in
105
ri^r-
num-
life
much
later date,
They cannot,
in 1895).
at the
probably in the
is
that the
as
best-known
Each
is
him, referring to events contemporaneous with his reign or narrated in his biography.
Summed up
in
an unpretentious carving,
the events portrayed are concerned with the king not as an individual, but as a national symbol, inseparable
embody mythical
from the
fate of the
them
and cosmic
life,
human
82
106
to personalize the
may be
entirely different,
organization
may
known
Bakuba
is
un-
missionary fanaticism.
Some models
meant
to
who
on top of a command
staff, chiefs thrones supported by caryatids. The Bakongo used
to sculpt statues that were called mintadi (lit., "guardians") and
tions of chiefs or their ancestors, figures
7
Command
Wood. Baluba.
Congo/Kinshasa. Musee Rietberg,
Zurich. Photo by the museum.
83.
staff.
107
Bakongo. Congo/
Kinshasa. Musee Royal de
Steatite.
1'Afrique Centrale,
museum.
mfumu,
by the family until the death of its last member. Then they were
displayed on his tomb as embodiments of the spirit of the deceased chief and as guardians of his descendants and the destiny
of his people. At first they were carved in wood, but later examples are in stone, probably because of a desire for permanence
and durability.
finely sculpted
them with
scarifications
rite
ended
in 1880,
watch over
The posture
when
intro-
masculine figurines,
itself.
war or
Such statues
of the royal
Bakuba
statues
is
identical with
84
108
cross-legged
conveys the
is
in meditation,
own
still
is
is
style.
itself.
is
similar to
85
86
the
Congo/Kinshasa. H. Kamer
Collection, New York. Photo
by Edouard Berne, Caravelle
Films.
Female figurine.
Wood. Bena-Lulua.
Congo/Kinshasa. Musee Royal
86.
,j*f
109
it
remains
to claim that
statuettes
One
of the presently
it
8j
a unique example.
is
tried to in-
even when
it
was made
figures predominate.
Among
to
commemorate
kings, feminine
who
to
insignia.
Among
the Baluba,
have been
88
89
stylistically classified
form
where the
artist
presumably
lived).
showing
leg.
88.
Musee Royal de
of the
87.
name
1'Afrique
by the museum.
a dis-
These works
89. Detail of
cupbearer
(88).
111
Baluba
is
art is
all
works show a
workshops
if
is,
The
more
specifically as Baluba.
A chief's
all
art.
and
or Bena-Lulua
as African,
Woman) by
it
realism, never-
Some
by the
And,
to
role of
not the
women
artistic style.
with
the use
gn
in political
life.
mat-
soft, flowing,
fined
women
go
ter,
shown by
and the
is
On
the contrary,
works
as-
These
traits
profiles.
might appear
trayed. Yet the individualization that at first glance seems characteristic of certain
Congolese
arts is
Bakuba
archized,
is
112
lection, Paris.
Photo by Mardyks.
Verite Col-
113
who
are en-
who, because of
their rank,
on the
by causing
style created.
On
demand
who have
respect and
only a moderate
among
artists or a
by divine
As
right
the very
by
definition stable.
The
god Chembe,
become a god after his death. As he is the incarnation of a god anything individualistic about him is negligible,
but the memory of his passage on earth will remain in the guise
will himself
There
pacifist.
The
is
One
king in-
one restriction
it
The
life
or reign.
Only
one to identify a
occasionally
is
there a
on a system of thought hierarchizing physical elements according to the importance conferred upon them,
rather than on a faithful portrayal of the anatomy. Whatever
reasons are put forward to justify the proportions of the body
and head, they can all be reduced to the same common denominator: the head is generally more important and better carved
because it is considered the center of man's primary activity. The
then the emphasis
is
is
which can be solved only within the realm of aesthetics. The artist
creates a harmony founded on sculptural proportions rather than
on the features of the anatomy
in order to
Photo by Mardyks.
116
instance, the crouching posture of the
body was
is
an
effort
and linked
original
on the
sculptor's part to
specific expressions,
traits of a living
model.
to the artist,
who
Any
sometimes
than to repro-
individuality that
expresses his
own
taste
He
is
careful to abide
and the
landmarks dating as
It is
names
likely that
far
had
favorable influence on the development of a historical consciousness. Events are not seen in the perspective of the cyclic time of
myth, but
The
in a linear chronology.
tory
is
When
retold
might be traced
by the people,
his-
ual
The manifestations
forces. They express
man
em-
blems rather than for symbols, for the decorative rather than for
the functional. In short, such an art corresponds to a type of cul-
117
it is
to other civilizations,
at least,
such as those of
Congo
Ife
Superficially,
Ife
and Benin.
political systems.
and Benin
techniques.
The oba,
power,
descendant of Eweka
I,
who
was considered
He had complete
was
entitled to legislate
and
all
monopoly
transactions.
He
alone
Military chiefs were directly responsible to him, and for the most
part they remained faithful. Slaves taken captive during wars
The
tical
oba's
in the traditional
and mys-
religious
palace
118
the
as issuance of
new
laws,
wag-
his de-
their reactions
in smaller
of people
upon the
latter
nonhereditary
titles.
The
rulers
to the
point where, from the seventeenth century on, there was a continual stream of
and
city-states
From the oni the most important kings received the right to wear
the crown of red pearls, made of bloodstone or of Ilorin carnelian.
The oni was believed to be one of the three descendants of Olorun,
the head divinity sent to earth to supervise creation. Ife, said to
be the
beliefs, the
hub
from the
of the world.
It
sea,
for
first in-
sculpture, stools
tal
and
terra-cotta
humans and
monumen-
been
119
Supposed head of
usurper Lajuwa.
Terra-cotta. Ife,
Nigeria. British
Museum, London.
Photo by the museum.
Supposed head of
Obalufon II. Bronze.
Ife, Nigeria. Photo by
93.
Antiquities
Commis-
preservation of
Nigeria's art).
One
of the most
is
probably a rep-
92
geneous
II.
style;
they were
all
than one or two hundred years, in the thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries.
The
art of
working
in
bronze was
later to
become famous
in
Benin. Until about 1400, in the reign of Oguola, the sixth oba,
the
who might
works of Benin (dated about 1500), a certain stylization is apparent as artistic objects became less individualized and tended
toward the creation of a type.
The only influence of Ife arts felt by Benin was in the use
of a molding technique, which
for
bronze casting. Apparently Benin has produced neither terracotta nor stone carvings.
The
art
was exclusively
93
120
the strict sense
class of artisans,
bronze basins or bracelets (called manillas) for slaves. The expansion of bronze
was
The
commerce.
amount of metal, and the weight of bronze heads increased fourfold. As output increased, the work was no longer limited to
heads (uhumwelao) to be put on ancestors' altars. During the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries plaques were cast and were
Dapper
left a
art.
It
gained in
momentum
until the
is
an
art
whose
sheet metal.
of the state.
monopoly
of bronze.
The
slaves
right.
The
Oba
with two guards. Bronze plaque. 16th or 17th century. Benin, Nigeria. Musee de 1'Homme, Paris. Photo by the museum.
94-
122
beliefs that sanctified the
pow-
These
who,
in spite of their
and luxury.
It
it
was
to celebrate
work.
Thus
main
of the oba and his
episodes of
civil, religious,
and military
life
artists to
The forms
of the
by engravings
in illustrated European books which the artists had in their possession. But even if this hypothesis should be verified, it must
be remembered that the pursuit of illusionistic effects and perspective
is
related to a psychological
mode
of apprehending the
concept
is
human
if
it.
This
dency
in
Benin
is
not so
fact
much
it
and psychology.
The bronzes
many
123
long familiarity
since these
directly
The same
ing device.
wood
Ife,
or bark as a polish-
and dating
after the
beginning
if
looks as
if
It
style.
One
tomb at
Abiri, 10 miles from Ife, is naturalistic while the other two are
carved in abstract, geometrical forms. The material used, the fir-
in a
origin.
It is
artistic
technique that
spectacular
between
we can assign
Wunmonije heads.
Nor can
a political
system and an
and worked
common
lived
same district of the city, and their output corresponded to the demands of the oni and the oba. Although
woodworkers and ivory carvers were also grouped into guilds,
they were not like bronze artists either in clientele or in the purpose of their work. They catered to the community, mainly filling
orders for family and village cults or supplying the demand of
merchants who bought carved ivories for European royal courts.
Such commissions must have favored creative liberty and ingenuity among artists who became socially more independent.
The academism that was rapidly spreading throughout courtly
art was not felt in tribal art, whose aesthetic values were paradoxically preserved by the very absence of formalism. The celebrated
in the
works of
art
Museum
are
among
the last
124
country.
Among
the
Dogon each
village
was under the authority of a hogon, the eldest and most respected
member of the community. The grouping of villages depended,
at least in
chief,
upon
at
an early age in
a prescribed
outward signs of
political
artists
common
in
power, as Congo
artists did,
nor did
Dogon have
Ife
and Benin.
It is
true that
from
when
the genii
is
may be
extreme
di-
when nations
of both myth and legend
occur only
Its
to express
its
own
Dogon
125
Some
them form a single undifferentiated volume, front and back. The head and the body are secondary forms
added onto the plane defined by the uplifted arms and the legs.
This plane recalls the blade that surmounts the head of a tall
mask. In some statues the plane grows out of a cylindrical base;
in others the legs, carved in the same block or separated, are more
as an example.
or less evident. In
of
g$
g6
still
body become
ative rain.
They may
it
to
the
human body
work.
One
of dry savanna.
in
animals.
With
blacksmith broke
to
at the joints.
leg,
The
Nommo
The development
are
gj
legs.
works
more
is
his ar-
tations eventually
sculptors,
it
broken
When
other, both
legs.
theme and
statues of androgynes
Among
the
numerous
gS
126
95. Figure
Wood. Tellem-Dogon.
Ibi,
Lazard Collection,
Paris. Photo by Kamer
Mali.
J.
archives.
96. Figurine
with pestle.
127
mmmmmmnmnmmmmmiim
97.
Nommo
with one
Wood. Dogon.
leg.
Mali. R.
Miller Collection,
York. Photo by
New
Kamer
archives.
with raised
arm. Wood. Tellem-Dogon.
Mali. H. Kamer Collection,
New York. Photo by Kamer
98. Figurine
archives.
128
raised arm, others two,
still
a plastic modifica-
It
would be useless
to think of all
works
as graduated variants of
The
Myths
endow
se.
definite
it
would
still
all
clarified.
is
ini-
mysteries are
into an ever-
Orosongo
at first suggests
gg
would be aware of
99- Rider.
Mardyks.
Wood. Dogon.
Mali.
M. Griaule
Collection,
Paris.
Photo by
130
meaning would express vibration. The ramifications of this meaning would be much richer and, in the eyes of
the initiated, much more essential than a sequence of the myth.
They would manifest at the same time a concept of matter, a
cosmogony, a certain wisdom, and even the founding of social
whose
essential
strictures.
movement
of the
it
The work
The problem
groups.
and
his traits
of
to
is
modes
etc.),
and by prescribing a
set of
and
rules
to
man by
conform.
The study
concept.
One
of a
Dogon work
man
man
perched on the
refers to a migration
myth. The
100
it
a name, appropriated
it.
him and,
rejoined
131
woman who
The representation
of
Arou on
Dyon
him
to
become
a hogon.
marks
which
itself
on
a legitimate social
confers
It
The two
am
familiar
details
In
such as the
aim of the sculptor was to represent myth, not just any realistic
form. For this reason Arou, who is a young boy, is depicted with
the attributes of the hogon, the headdress and the beard. In the
initial
Arou on brother's
shoulders. Wood. Dogon.
Mali. Owner unknown.
100.
Arou on brother's
Wood. Dogon.
Mali. H. Kamer Col-
101.
shoulders.
lection,
New York.
Photo
by Edouard Berne,
Caravelle Films.
Dogon
101
132
(or
it
what appears
to us as
an anecdote)
mediate present, which can bring tradition up to date and prefigure things to come.
The
Mande
region represent
either genii or heroes of their legends, but they never depict real
Some
of
life.
On
least,
they
constituted models.
Sculpture
of a given
02
is
monarch than
It
upon which
seems that
Style
Statuettes
They have
a specific
function and a specific purpose. Yet this purpose and this function
of the
work
is
Art
is,
133
102.
Queen
statuette.
Bambara. Mali.
Wood.
P. Langlois
by
whose
social, religious,
it
responds. This
processes irrelevant to
art,
but
it
sculptor draws
from
and
is
creative quality.
and society
its
If
environment,
all
that
is
he then ar-
a product of the
The
if
art
were simply
characteristic of
and spe-
to art
is
it
"the identification of
at freshly
it
it
grows.
is
Looked
which
man"
itself
and about
itself.
At
134
same time
the
its
theme: a
it is
also
rider, a couple, a
The
artist
mother and
many mythic
is
child.
possibilities in a particular
The
artist
field of
choice
is
if
the
If at
function of the work. Since such instructions are of a very general nature, the finished
degree,
by
its
theme.
The
artist
all
imposed on
From
from
social requirements
demands of a community having strictly fixed limitations than from the more or less extensive stock of inherited forms
upon which the artist draws. Thus the workshops and even the
artists themselves can be identified and sometimes located. Such
or from the
are the
to differ increasingly
more concrete
terms of the links already established between artistic style and
the social and political background. The feeling of repetition,
immutability, and impersonality which one sometimes experiences
when seeing all the works of a single ethnic group is probably a
strictly European impression. If there is a relation between art
and institutions, it is of the same nature as that observed in the
Middle Ages or in the baroque period.
Such a relationship is more obvious in societies where power
These observations permit consideration
is
in
so-called tribal
135
Moreover,
artist.
in isolation.
in such
They
Benin or Da-
it
It
became
by
institutionalized, not
al
The circumstances are entirely different if we consider tribart, keeping in mind the contrast between societies ruled by
centralized power and those grouped into federations. The
his father.
number
at his
and
difficult to discover,
the artist
is
is
left to his
is
less
both limited
own
devices,
The broad
diversity of statuary in
clarified.
specialist of course
own
art of his
become
differentiated
earlier.
The Dogon
word
in their
is
only one
and was, so
it
to
oc-
136
it
also en-
dowed with
of that
is
thought.
It
serves as a
new
and
if
this
if
mean-
ing occupies a specific position in the shifting and iridescent pattern of the myths,
it
is
artistic
artist
as different as Flemish
all
itself,
and the
meaning of
a single
work
in
background,
it
Masks
From
Chad, masks have been used for an undetermined period, probably beginning before the Christian era.
Nowadays masks
are
initiatory ritis
principally
may be
minimum. The
Peuls,
who
no sculpture, probably
to avoid transporting
instructions. Certain
Dogon
Masks
138
103. Cup.
Wood. Dogon.
Masks
139
were
103
at least are of
Peul inspiration.
There are
many
The
is
from
northern Chad) and in courtly poetry. Peul women, renowned
in western Africa for their beauty, wear highly complicated
hairdos, which are in themselves sculptures. At the time of the
istence of genuine courts of love (reflected in paintings
girls
choose
Masks and
Ritual Ceremonies
which masks are exhibited are usually agrarian rituals or funerals. These ceremonies are spectacles in which
music, chanting, and measured recitation of mythical poems form
Ceremonies
in
The
initiated serve
and the spectators are those villagers who are not bound
by any prohibitions, temporary or permanent. The wearing of
as actors,
masks
to see
is
women
Mende
in Sierra Leone,
how-
At
masks serves
to recall
104
Masks
141
and the
society.
when
was conceived and projected by the god and his genii. Among
the Kurumba, masked dancers repeat the deeds of the herofounder Yirigue and his children, mask wearers descended from
Heaven. Dogon dancers wearing kanaga masks (one of the meanings of kanaga is "hand of God") reproduce, by circular movements of the upper body, the gestures of the god who created
it
the universe.
The
truth
role of the
mask
is
in
everyday
life.
Masks strengthen the collective existence in all its complex aspects. The Dogon exhibit masks depicting foreigners (Peuls, Bambara, even Europeans) as proof of the diversity of the world.
all
aspects of
life.
tic
spectacles during
Masks
ceremonies.
in
an isolated area
at the
They undergo an
their physical
them
The masked
initiator himself
to
summoned
mind
mankind. At
the original
meaning of
new
which
initiation:
adulthood.
The
Masks
142
grandson.
masks are used in this way by the dreaded sect Aniota, the leopard
men, and also in dances preceding military campaigns.
the wearer.
It is
designed to
other being.
spirit or a
is
thus
temporarily represented.
The mask
the dancer
it
mask
also safeguards
at the
art
seems
to
be a hunter's
art:
of
wood carved
in its likeness.
or creatures with
human
traits.
Masks
are idealized
among
the
Masks
143
Mpongwe and
Dan,
seem to be caricatures of
young coquettes, old women, stammering men, or foreigners.
Other examples, more complex, represent objects: for instance,
the house where the initiated make their retreat, or, in Dahomey
the
for example, or
whose
ceremony,
may
rightly be
matter what their function, which varies from one group to an-
may
other,
must be distinguished from anything that constitutes a permanent modification of outward appearance, such as tattooing, scarification, or dental filing. The
the duration of the dance, they
latter
for they
human
support,
a particular individ-
human
new being is
not, however, without danger for the masked man. The mask
usually represents a well-known being already classified among
gods and spirits, possessing its own history and biography. It
To
act as a
its
To
this
off
with a cowl of
come undone;
or
fibers,
it
may
may
be finished
it
does not
is
When
the size of
call for
it,
the dancer
is
mask
the
If
Masks
144
stant,
where
Bundu female
their
a genie
might
society of the
enter.
Mende
in Sierra
Masks
is
common
also
of the
slit
for the
in other areas.
may be
life-force.
This function
is
so
by the mask or
by the infringement of a prohibition concerning it, "by the sight
or the touch of a portion of the dance costume, ... by the too
close proximity of a dancer during a ceremony, or by meeting
him unexpectedly while he walks about the village" (Marcel
Griaule). The mask traps spiritual forces whose unchecked wandering must be prevented. After any contact whatsoever, these
forces can invade anyone who has not been trained to endure
them. The mask wearer, however, knows what measures to take:
while carving his mask and before dressing he must observe prohibitions, mainly of a sexual nature; he also purifies himself and
important that possession
performs
directly caused
sacrifices.
mask
is
not in
itself
the being
it
represents;
it is
only a
it
tinuity of
life,
is
linked with
it
the
life
of the cosmos.
and that
him
to
his
own
strength
is
nourished by
Masks
145
The German
on
whose ceremonies
who
numerous
cults
cults of possession
others,
all
the
that
regions
is
Among some
Ovimbundu and
the
Chokwe
in
Angola, several
and matriarchal
societies.
these possession
cults are
is,
in Nigeria
agricul-
however, arbitrary
have recourse
to pos-
Among
Dogon
statues
hogon or
a totemic priest.
tures
lit-
to be a
monkey
phenomena.
the mask entraps the power of otherworldly
In short,
It is
is
who
properties.
spirits.
It is
its
We
image.
To
really
it
as a dy-
To
regard the
105
106
Masks
146
Primitive Art,
of the
Museum
of
Masks
106.
Monkey
Paris.
147
genie.
Wood.
Photo by Mardyks.
Masks
148
as the
Types of Masks
Only
lections
heads.
The
may
to faces or
wooden
face. Also,
Leaf and
Woven Masks
we might
call
They form
as
Maindo
re-
who wears
costume made of
and then
is
fibers,
resurrected
107
costume.
from the
107.
Mask with
stilts.
Fabric.
WBk
Masks
150
The
log
transition
between
flexible
1
'
f^
^9
-V*
*%?s
Masks
151
The Bayaka
of the
of Zurich
Kwango
region in the
Congo sometimes
mask with
110
figure
The world
of the
mask
is
108
crests.
The
re-
Masks
152
markable spontaneity
is
masks
includes
elements,
if
as
is felt
ceremony
It
that
is
it
richly
Masks
The human physiognomy has been
Facial
attention
by
who
who have
These forms seem so new
African sculptors,
all
multiplicity of images.
critic,
thus produced a
to the uninitiated
meaning
and the
artists
helpless
Western
art. It is
cubist, or that
ogies based
totally
We
on
works of
is
ex-
superficial resemblances
different
Bamoum mask
their
is
our analysis.
to classify the
The first
distinction can be
or
and the robust, powerful pieces whose "extroverted" volumes expand freely into space. At one extreme are
works cut out of a wooden board and painted. Although once believed to be emblazoned decorative panels, they
have the unmistakable eye slits of a mask. They are so bare of
certain Bateke
111
sculptural.
The
The
closely related
mask
Sometimes Bakwele masks are heart-shaped and are incised with harmonious
is
153
Masks
112.
Photo by Mardyks.
face.
pictorial
is
reliefs. In
some
of their
work
the
Pangwe
is
in
Gabon seem
good example
in the
to
have
113
former
112
Masks
154
the Bakwele
masks
115
116
117
118
114
as well as of the
114.
Photo by Mardyks.
115.
Ivory Coast. H.
New
116.
Kamer
Collection,
Paris.
Masks
155
Paris.
Photo by
Camille Lacheroy.
119.
118.
lection, Paris.
Photo by
Camille Lacheroy.
Caravelle Films.
The Dan of the Ivory Coast make the plane surfaces of their Dea
masks slightly more flexible to round off or soften the sharp
edges. The Guere-Wobe manipulate secondary volumes; the
sculptural rhythm here is a result of oppositions or juxtapositions
of built-up forms and is dominated by discontinuous broken
planes. Finally, in Dogon masks the face is cut by straight planes
which create
In
all
their
own
articulation.
i^g
120
121
156
Masks
Mask, front and profile. Wood. Dogon. Mali. Madame Griaule Collection, Paris. Photo by Mardyks.
121.
157
Masks
123. Soul
Gold. Baule.
carrier.
Ivory Coast.
Musee
I.F.A.N.,
Films.
among
When
these
When
their positions in
relief
they
is
122
123
Masks
158
soul (okrafo),
entitled to
who had
to
made
prisoners in war.
The motif
mask
that
alufon
is
Ife,
Ob-
II.
richface.
124
The
differences result
124-
British
Museum, London.
Masks
160
125.
Masked
figure. Ivory.
Warega.
from
style.
The
artist's
is difficult
to another
Warega do
125
the
126
there are
12J
of the material
few
to
work
with.
When
an
artist shifts
in carving the
qualitative
African genius.
worn on
and there
pieces, a sculp-
When
the
Dan began
to
make
their little
masks
the
161
Masks
Wood.
Warega. Congo/
Kinshasa. H. Kamer Col-
127. Statuette.
lection,
New
York. Photo
by Edouard Berne,
Caravelle Films.
tury.
Djimon, Cameroon.
Masks that are limited to the face are not always in low
relief. Masks of the Bamoum and Bamileke, whose successes are
rare and not too convincing, are characterized by a proliferation
of volumes in space, a taste that may J\ave been encouraged by an
early modeling technique. An example found at Djimon in 1948,
on the
site
veals the
Bamoum
is
a terra-cotta statue
which
re-
immoderate dynamism,
rigorous stability of
Sudan
pieces
and
128
Masks
162
129.
Museum, London.
museum.
eroon. British
Photo by the
130.
Helmet mask.
Wood. Mende.
Leone.
W.
Sierra
Plass Col-
lection, London.
Photo by Alec Tiranti. From L. Underwood, Masks of
West Africa (London:
Tiranti).
Helmet mask.
Wood. Pangwe.
Gabon. Musee de
1'Homme, Paris.
Photo by the
131.
museum.
132.
Museum
fiir
Volkerkunde, Berlin.
iig
Guinean
art.
Helmet Masks
is
barely
Masks
163
130
131
initiation
all
the
masks
Cameroon, have up to
face in very low relief. The
in
mark out
132
the
The work, however, revolume which must be perceived from all angles,
mains a true
even though
its
though not too far removed from the half sphere with which they
started, they
Nor can
ciated
from a
single angle,
network of
in
such a
circles
way
with a polychromatic
arcs
move
133.
Double masks.
Wood.
Ekoi.
Nigeria. British
Museum, London.
Photo by the
museum.
133
fibers.
Baga. Guinea.
Musee de l'Homme,
Paris.
Masks
165
135.
Photo by
Mardyks.
woman and
a bearded
135
man. The two heads, powerfully chiseled and hollowed into the
136
homogeneous unit.
This kind of mask is related to another one from the same region
made up of a basketwork helmet crowned by a carved head.
The nimba masks used by the Baga of Guinea are not made
from a single block whose surface has been more or less carved.
Rather, they are the counterparts of statuary busts. The sculpted
form
134
own
midway be-
parts extend farther than the head and the dancer places his
is
dancer's head,
is
it
it
envelops the
it is
also
worn
lief.
The
it
seems to be a
re-
on the spectator's point of view. Certain Holli masks from Dahomey which one might assume to be vertical are worn almost
horizontally on the skull.
a structure of planes
which branch out from the basic half sphere of the unadorned
These planes are so oriented that the observer perceives the mask in three dimensions along a series of varying per-
skullcap.
l^y
mask
(135).
Photo by Mardyks.
Masks
168
137.
138.
C">.
139.
Museum, London.
in a limited sphere.
of helmet masks,
worn horizon-
139
140
138
produced the most successful models of this type; a beautiful example can be seen at the British Museum.
169
Masks
140.
Helmet mask.
Wood.
Coast.
Baule. Ivory
British
Muse-
Helmet Peaks
The series of facial masks or helmets showing a single figure
includes other works that do not hide the face or the head of the
dancer but are supported on a woven cap. These works are of
two kinds.
The well-known sogoni-kun, representing an antelope and
used by the Bambara for the agrarian ceremonies of the Tyiwara,
141
of a single plane.
rhythm is
nating and growing in three dimensions. Female antelopes are not
formed along the same closed-curve shape. Their horns are tall
and tapered, almost straight. On their backs they carry a small
fawn instead of a mane. These works have been conceived to be
viewed in profile. The Kurumba also have helmet peaks that are
antelope-shaped, but they are true three-dimensional sculptures,
painted on
all sides,
143
142
Blade-shaped Masks
Some masks
are
crowned with
As
far as
is
and by
the
Dogon, the
a fourth
On
144
141.
Mask
Collection,
New
Wood. Bambara.
Mali. H.
Kamer
142.
Volta. H.
Films.
Masks
172
143.
Mask
representing fe-
Masks
the
173
two horizontal
ilar to
the
wango
rites the
Mossi use
mask on which,
The Tellem-Dogon
statuettes
may
be
in front of the
classified according to a
The small
cutout plank then represents the two raised arms with hands
The lower limbs become even more distinct, and the plane
continues only to the hips. The meaning of the flat plane
joined.
itself
may
it
human
pecially
when
or
among
the reliefs.
Some
symbols
to
be perceived are
grouped on a single facade. The small sculptures over the face are
linked to the whole only by their subject matter.
14s
Masks
174
145.
the
Epa mask
carved by Ajiguna.
146.
by
William Fagg.
146
The mask
147
Iloffa
by Ajiguna
in
at that.
Masks
175
woman
woman
is
is
sample of a
woman
masks."
The linkage of masks and statuary is carried out in two distinct ways. At times the plank surmounting the masks is analogous
arms
to the
lean.
it is
mask may be autonomous, whatever its iconographic rapport with the mask might be.
The first series of works does not explain the evolution of mask
ture or the sculpted group crowning the
as models.
Masks and
Expressivity
mask
as
As noted above,
there is in fact a link between masks and the phenomena of possession. According to Ulli Beier, some Yoruba masks show the
expression of a living person who has already joined the Bazimu
it
spirit.
148
148.
Mask.
Paris.
Wood
fibers.
Masks
177
to jut out
tration
and
when he
an adoring believer
prepares to receive his god into his soul or just after the
Can we pursue
Can we
search
humor? Here
made between
by the mask and the
a distinction should be
feeling to be aroused in the spectator. Besides, the code of affective expression often varies
language
exists,
it
to another. If a
mask
population or group
it
it
in the
Our
interpretation of
African art could subject us to every kind of mockery. The "terrifying" appearance of certain
ex-
use them.
of a supposed expression
by
here
is
to
referring to models
different.
of pagans or novices,
when they
is
often,
if
owes a great deal to the ideology of the German expressionists. One must carefully refine these judgments
and opinions. The art of the Fang from the Republic of Gabon,
who live in dark, forested, menacing surroundings, is one of the
interpretation that
most peaceful
to
be found.
149
Masks
178
who
misunderstand-
this
Even Paul
the most fantastic
itself to
he wrote that
if
it
would not
last
much
longer.
Ma-
its
studies of
is
far
from being
either nat-
uralistic or expressionistic.
Among
There
we
is
is
one of the
art as a
by the
type of
comprehension.
face of a mysterious
art
does
not smile. The mute faces and expressionless eyes convey none
of the emotion that classical art lets us share even today. Psy-
all its
characteristics
is
not a
man
Masks
but a
179
spirit,
may
not
steal.
In the
mask
and
is
style
Still,
is
spirit,
it
Why
mammary
ity?
we
The
are
Why
male fecundity
fertility.
Sex
is
is
works
emphasized
in
it is
because
it
Besides, in-
life.
it
premise
works of
The
art.
numerous,
ing
method
by analogous, synthetic
signs.
sculptor proceeds.
It is
To
.,
exactly in this
manner
is
found
is
more or
less
Masks
180
the
life
ies
them
as they
to
him by
tradition
and
whose
elements are not an imitation of nature but bear a particular intellectual stamp.
risian artists
who were
as to
to start
magazine Action
in April 1920,
sculptures, as "diverse
ciples
To an
inquiry in the
Greek art which "based itself on the individual in order to attempt an ideal type," succeeds in "individualizing the general."
This formulation can be accepted only with the reservations
that in Africa there
is
no
distinction
the bottle, and that the individual does not exist as such.
is
What
an unquenchable
He became
conscious of
his
semble of categories and their functioning upon every phenomenon, he could not arrive at anthropocentrism.
he considers
man
as a cog, neither
When
more nor
On
the contrary,
less essential
then
withdraw behind
a sufficiently simple
image
that
Statuary
A mask
port;
by the African always requires human supmoving sculpture. Both the wooden mask hiding the
as perceived
it is
and the helmet entirely covering the dancer's head are only
parts of a costume, the costume in turn being part of a dynamic
face
is
network of
practices, statuary
seems
ritual
and
On
the other
Even though
exists in
it
is
terms of religious
autonomy.
by private
lectivity
concern the
life
of the col-
only indirectly.
is
classified
by two major techniques: carving and modeling. A brief discussion of these methods is prerequisite to an evaluation of their
technical role in the creation of style.
Statuary
132
Djenne and
works seem
to
60 miles distant.
found
in the
method
Dogon
region,
The
Made
is
fig-
analogous in tech-
150
works
is rather coarse-grained and was probably baked over an open
fire or dried in the sun. Nok works are varnished, and Mangbetu
151
152
of baking.
clay used
ornament which
153
154
The
15 5
fields as rice
156
Kissi of
later.
dug up from
their
may
original feature or
statuettes
is
perhaps a survival of an
is
wood. Information
i
151. Detail of jar with
woman's head
(150).
Sammlung
by the museum.
185
Statuary
from
front.
H. Kamer Collection,
New York. Photo by
Edouard Berne,
Caravelle Films.
women who do
It is
traditionally
is
still
as a rule close
associates.
rines
These
commemorating
pieces, the only
mask
shelters the
their predecessors,
Dogon
the
preserve figu-
Andoumboulou.
techniques coexist
essential techniques in
The
art of carving
among
the Sao.
Some
187
Statuary
masked
tray
dancers. Obviously
no
Even
could be
made
for one
priori to others,
modeling over
priority of
community,
it
if
such a judgment
even to neighbors.
and
grain.
They
are
form
They possess
itself
and,
There are
in Africa
wooden
effects of earthen or
if
life
own
consistency,
of art forms."
rare. In
is
and most
It is
art is
dominated by wood
its
arts.
privileges;
made
The
His
to sustain or to express
ruled
and
158
157
tion.
(ibeji)
style.
On
the
157-
Mother and
Museum
189
Statuary
158.
Twin
figures (acquired
in 1854).
Wood. Yoruba.
wood; the
entire nature of
just
Working
below
and across
upward
at the
produce
moment. The ironwork objects testify to a faultless plastic inventiveness which responds to the suggestiveness of and the possibilities inherent in the material, subjecting them to a central,
guiding thought. These works are devoid of expressionism; only
the line itself is expressive, sensitive and alive, but intellectually
controlled.
Whether he works
is
in iron or in
characterized
by
is
almost exclusively
The same
contrasts are
By
itself,
a material cannot
less
impose a
definite style.
It is
never
159
160
161
Peter A. Juley
&
Kamer
archives.
New
York. Photo by
New
York. Photo by O.
E.
Nelson,
Kamer
193
Statuary
When
models seem
certain
to
have
to the
new
result
material or merely
from contemporaneous influences? The Senufo have made, completely of iron, a magnificent twelve-square game whose extraordinary characters are fashioned in a style quite similar to that
of the Baule gold pendant masks. Here a rather limited borrowing
works
The
it is
ap-
rare examples
Art in
New
style of their
wood
from
by transposing
it
factors, technique
and substance, do
is it
enough
to
impede
a fair appreciation
ample
is
found
Kingdom
reama
di
An
ex-
Congo ("Description
of the
of the
guages:
"We saw
man worshiped
162
J.
Statuary
195
ted in stone, in
all
if
a sorcerer
he succeeded and
based his
on
this description.
among
traditional
African religions, but they are also abandoning the term "ani-
it
is
matter
how
As we
we
and
practices.
outset
or, in the
broad
at the
no emotional or
It is
aesthetic intent.
effect
arts are so
un-
produced on viewers.
Very few
on
altars.
Some
Tellem, Dogon,
163
Statuary
196
164.
Female
figurine.
Wood;
necklace
64
sacrificial
coating
Sculpture
may be
its
relation-
ship to a religion or to magical practices: (1) fetishes; (2) sculptures that incarnate nonmaterial or abstract things (ancestors, the
life-force);
and
(3)
commemorative sculpture
recalling a legen-
though
it is
known
for the
it
to
difficult to
The word
nkisi.
or a shell or, as
first
horn
receptacle
197
Statuary
is
how
the object
is
utilized.
is
Al-
uettes
terior
is, it
is
occasionally
among
ment owe
their magical
powers
Thus the
ical
statuettes
seem
to
man
by
a be-
(nganga).
power.
to cause sickness or
must procure,
to the
man he wants
to
is
auxiliary; he
own power
uals.
takes
witch-hunters.
the leopard
sume
occult
It is
men
is
community
that of organizing
bands of
powers as frightening
The
same
tect
Statuary
198
by
l'Homme,
the
Paris.
Photo by
museum.
Wood.
Sudan. Musee de
physical strength.
Bari.
l'Homme,
It
Paris.
Photo by
the
museum.
is
step
is
to
liberated
still
has to
rituals
cer-
power and orients it. When the Maya force by driving a nail into a statbe directed and controlled. His next
is
to
be beneficent or
maleficent.
165
166
possible to establish,
199
Statuary
double reliquary
Photo by Mardyks.
168.
Mother and
Wood.
child.
Mayombe.
Kasadi,
Congo/Kinshasa.
Musee Royal de
1'Afrique Centrale,
Tervueren. Photo
by the museum.
whose closed or clenched fists and tensed faces sugphysical effort. Through such an intermediary the child who
individuals
gest
analogy between
tween the
rapport
lusory.
is
One Bakongo
Pott's disease
nicating
was
statuette
it
showing a
little
man
stricken
il-
by
commu-
it.
Even though
certain
maternal figures.
whose meanings
167
i6g
168
200
Statuary
and mirror
(167).
201
Statuary
Used
is
it.
affect
village.
a fetish
may be
demand
a form;
Sculpture as Incarnation
Michel
Leiris
must be conjoined
of the gods/
Above
sculptors
'heart
'
god with
to create
all,
art of
the image
ornaments must be reproduced with the most scrupulous exactitude, or the god, not being able to recognize his image, will
not enter
it."
is
rather
is
the benefit of the interested group. Such sculptures "do not need
to reconstruct the features" of ancestors, for they serve as "tan-
gible
adds that
many
handle them as
joining
fear
respect.
by the
officiants
statue
The
whatever substance
As temporary
is
is
affective
offered up."
They
who
if
man and
and
situate the
dead an-
202
Statuary
man
grow down
its
tilling,
all
toward the
soil,
from ger-
The
statue
is
home
life-
lived.
Among
(Nommo, Yeban,
cestors
of an ancestral or spirit
etc.),
the
spirit of
Dogon
the life-force of
sessing a history.
Dogon
on private
statuettes used
altars are
Nommo
is
is
pleaded for life-giving rain, but he was sacrificed to Heaven before having purified the primeval fields.
it
sode which the believer can immediately decipher. In some populations, particularly the Yoruba, according to
the statuette
It
is
William Bascom,
German
poet and
its
As
became
plastic characteristics.
critic
Carl Einstein
Each of
artificial
It
his ca-
conveys the
203
Statuary
ern sculpture),
it
realities."
Here Einstein
is
Ger-
cubism, a
in
many. It
in an art that "proscribes evasion,"
interest
whose
suggestions." To say
way
is
"categorical"
is
as
opposed
Einstein's
harmony
is,
free to
in plastic relationships
to
an
art
of affirming that
it
daydream. To grasp
demands
it
as a
hand,
it
refuses, or
is
hand,
reality
has the
it
will,
It is
time.
The
solidity, the
by the
be examined in an
fact that
aesthetic
As Michel Leiris has said, they are "in large part constructed
in the same way tools are made in an economy regulated by precise necessities that hardly permit room for mannerisms." The
light.
trait
African art
is
rarely
it
Cameroon
posts and
Mediterranean
also
monumental. Another
lintels, is that
ture. It
size.
may
art, is
art,
in contrast
with
made
Zimbabwe
buildings,
170
Statuary
204
Dogon. Mali.
Marcel Griaule.
powers and
retreats to
same time formidable energy that pervades the world. There must be a concentration as powerful and
closed as the statuettes to capture and retain the strength of the
gods and the souls of ancestors. These religious practices may
explain why no other people have in this fashion bypassed architecture to devote themselves so intensively and exclusively to
beneficent and yet at the
sculpture.
The concentration on
sculpture
most
Dogon
may
likely of Hottentot
and Pygmy
in southern
origin.
Af-
On the facade
of
sanctuaries,
never go beyond the level of a sign, and they resemble twodimensional sculptures. The Tassili frescoes constitute the only
notable exception to the absence of painting, but they are not
of black creation. Since
in
no way serve
we know
so
little
171
all
They evoke
African art
is
205
01
o
l-J
o
X>
.2
0>
H
o
mi
0>
d
u
in
S-c
-*-
0>
D
01
C
nj
en
(i
0)
X
H
H
Statuary
206
reality.
is fluid,
"the
moment
of the world
He
which passes/
literally lives in
all
creation
archetype.
He
an atemporal present.
Climate
is
When
color
is
ig-
is
true or beautiful in
way
to reach the
non-
172
lope, or a hare as
sense.
is
There
is
perched in a
tree.
That
tree
not observe
it
is
unique in African
blacks live in
it.
Commemorative Sculptures
Works that commemorate
government
art;
is
in the
where the
traditional
di-
and tem-
to a lesser extent,
Mende.
1J3
of
Dogon
statuettes together
tell
at
long series
Statuary
172.
Hunter aiming
207
at bird in tree.
Bronze plaque.
by the museum.
Bini. Nigeria.
Museum
Statuary
208
173.
Dyougou Serou
cover-
lection, Paris.
Museum, London.
Photo by Edouard Berne,
British
Caravelle Films.
pearance of a
first
Nommo,
eight
sacrifice of
ol
two of the
fields;
myth
Arou on
his brother's
country but also the origin of the hogon's function. Yet Arou re-
mains
a legendary figure,
known. The
female figure in
slave.
The
idea
who
really lived
political.
From
Soon
it
and
we go on
to
works
artificially
linked to re-
174
art
ers in
though
209
Statuary
and
In this
way
the oba
The European's
for he at once takes his place in the religious setting but not in
him
to
is
and
emphasize
his difference
an image, and to
The
from an
carnate abstract ideas to an art that tends to offer images can like-
Among
the
Among
king
those of the
has developed
aristo-
in a pe-
way.
the
who
is
said to descend
recall.
Only
in their
at this level
images only
can
we glimpse
in societies
Statuary
210
living.
Daily
life is
Certain
the
woman
life,
Dogon
statuettes of a
woman
is
show
hogon whose
grinding millet
millet.
It is this
growing of
versa, does not give priority to one over the other. Each terrestrial
175
ij6
realism
show
is
is
may
infinitely
manifest
woman
dividual; there
The
is
woman
or an individual
in the
no personalization of an
only the incarnation of an idea.
grinding. There
is
identification of mythical or
hogon
is
human
it
in-
ancestors repre-
it
has
tion.
The
figures of
Arou on
mark
a leg-
is
to recall
real
What
seen
is
is
of a particular king.
It is
analogous intentions.
distinguished. In the
(fetishes, figures of
Two
first,
statuary
is
made
to incarnate abstracts
it
turns to-
ward the spirit world, toward the domain of genii and the dead.
The second group commemorates beings and events whose mag-
S^SSff-
Doson Ma,i
-
Ka
* - **
212
Statuary
Wood. Dogon.
Mali. H.
Kamer
Collection,
New
York.
213
Statuary
177.
Head
ical
Man
terminology used
The personal
is
seems
if
the
Few
statues
manifest a more truly royal bearing than certain Ife or Bini heads,
its
preeminence.
It is
but of the royal person; the haughtiness, the dignity, the impassivity of these
bility
and pride
in
works reveal
all
deeds accomplished.
^77
178. Detail of
(177).
From Myth
to History
Alongside statuary, there exist other works that are not cult ob-
it
and are
relatively
necessary to
make
senses the
omens
of history.
its
way
Kamer
Collection,
New
From Myth
to
217
History
The
example
first
Dogon
is
179
The
entire surface
is
Dogon and
recalling
some
The
shutter
show
eight standing
Nommo, arms
is
marked
the central area four kneeling figures cover their faces with both
Dyougou
Nommo. At
on whose back
first cre-
and
its
is
a croc-
is
covers
it
its
is
dedicated to a
it
also
Nommo. Thus
The myth
is
people
who
To
relate the
myth, and
who had
figures having
no individual meaning,
On
a sculpted door of a
Senufo sanctuary
in the village of
Around
two men on
beak
(or a
man
human
face, a
Above
a bar
one of
whom
a horseman.
On
six
to
be a leopard.
carved characters,
180
From Myth
218
to
History
man, of animals resembling a leopard and a horse, of a bird unfolding its wings, and of a serpent preparing to attack.
between the
invisible world,
humil Holas). In order to narrate the events that took place in the
creation of the universe, the Senufo artist has
employed a com-
upper and lower bands for a linear account. Perhaps the characters succeed
man
situated above
archy?
Or
is
from
their juxtaposition.
human mask,
Did the
artist
is
is
not
vital concern, in
It is
it.
or,
hard to say.
What
is
analogous to a
sky would
radiating source.
181
call
is
and white triangular motifs, a male elephant with bent tusks, and
a black rectangle inscribed in a white rectangle containing nine
black dots.
The lower
is
From Myth
to
219
History
d'Abidjan.
Coast.
Musee
From Myth
220
to
History
From Myth
and
to
History
triangles.
221
According to Baule
beliefs, the
If
elephant
would then
symbol of strength,
is
is
a female, these
to the reign of
Aura
Anougbele. This sculptured door thus represents neither a universal system nor mythical events, but refers back to historical
events.
The system
is
tions
signs.
elements themselves emphasize characteristics, rather than harkening back to mythical beings. The whole ensemble can be interpreted as the coat of arms of the
of
queen
in his true
reign, placing
him
torical
is
Ouarebo
in this
he heads. His-
example there
between the world of the gods, symbolically reby the abstract geometric figures, and the world of the
a clean break
called
living.
The process
of arms has a formal counterpart in another procedure that substitutes allegory for
is
in very
low
relief,
human
being
From Myth
222
is
to
History
the nucleus and the ultimate end. Africa has perhaps never
made
this discovery,
but
we have
man from
the natural
munion.
It is
from
this point of
view that we
now
look at a double
Dahomey Bas-Reliefs
Dahomey artists at one
new king
own
reliefs
modeled
nique Egyptologists
call
is
concave
in
historical events
They seem
to
al-
be mainly concerned
182
184
one hand while trying to seize a second ear with the other hand
163
the leg of a
Nago who
is
trying to
flee,
184.
Polychrome;
Nago. Detail of
clay. Fon.
^^^,,iW*e!>.
Abomey,
Paris.
Monkey with
ear of corn.
Detail of bas-relief.
From Myth
224
the battle.
The representation
Nago
of the
to
History
in the guise of
an ape
The
is
essentially directed
by
his
words,
and
his exploits.
celebrated
that
were dated,
is
and events
seem
to
have
is
186
sewn with brightly colored thread are part of the same mode of
thought. They establish the text of chants composed in honor of a
dead man by his closest friend; the patterns illustrate the words
of the text, at times with the aid of a rebus. For example, the
proper
//
name Huha
,/
is
a razor, ha.
emblems
in historical order.
made
to characterize scenes or
The concern
king-
185. Cloth
establishing theme
of funerary chant.
Polychrome. Fon.
Dahomey. Musee
I.F.A.N., Dakar.
Photo by
Edouard Berne,
Caravelle Films.
From Myth
186. Cloth
to
homey. Musee
dom,
son.
225
History
I.F.A.N.,
Fon.
Da-
clearly in Benin.
Bini Plaques
bands or
in a radiating composition.
Dahomey
vertical
bas-reliefs are
the
call for
From Myth
226
tie
the
way
is
in
to History
harmony with
in
of figuration.
these
heighten the
relief
growing complexity
with
the
grees of depth.
One
187
188
plaque. Benin,
Nigeria.
Museum
fur Volkerkunde,
Vienna. Photo by
the
museum.
plaque. Benin,
Nigeria.
Museum
fur Volkerkunde,
Vienna. Photo by
the
museum.
relief is
^> '
j*
iplsfc"*
v'v9E2HBm
{ft^rJK-
Bii-
Kg
lKLjH
-~
tile^cj '&y
' ...
||^^TttH
\i
189. Panther.
jifc'fc
^H
Museum
J*W
fiir
Volkerkunde,
background
is
finely etched
i8g
is
clear,
at the
museum.
191
igz
From Myth
228
193.
to
History
vassals.
museum.
191.
Naked
ogous
igo
toga.
to the
On
candidate for a
anecdote
Roman
is
life
and protocol.
expressed by the
strict verticality is
man
as-
gesture suggesting an
On
is
The
They form
fig-
who
From Myth
to
192. Detail of
229
History
naked boy
(191).
From Myth
230
to
History
194.
Oba between
two
vassals.
Bronze
Benin, Nigeria.
British
Museum,
London. Photo by
the
194
museum.
versions of this tableau. In the one that William Fagg has as-
signed to the sixteenth century the oba and his vassals are stand-
195
ing. In a
the oba
is
in
The play
who
is
shown
in almost a three-quarter
of crossed lines
gesture of allegiance
is
developed in
all
by
movement and
into
the
two dimensions
Another plaque
193
The
more
succinctly.
at the British
The oba
Museum
From Myth
195.
to
231
History
Oba
seated
Benin, Nigeria.
British
Museum,
London. Photo by
the
museum.
seen fullface.
The
central motif,
was constrained
ental perspective,
may
they are from a vanishing point situated at the front. The page
in this plaque,
however,
In fact, only a
is
on
in a seventeenth-century British
by two
shield bearers
are
men who
office,
who
social level,
Museum
is
made very
clear
same
size as
is
he
belong
They
a small scale:
flanked
is.
Two
oba
at
his head.
196
198
From Myth
232
196.
Oba
to
History
Museum,
London. Photo by
the
same
museum.
size,
excluding the
man
in its scabbard, a
They include
and a sword
by
size
during the funeral ceremony of an oba. Each of four small characters holds
above.
The
is
seen from
risk
istic
eye view.
It
in order not to
see an illusion-
From Myth
to
233
History
where elements situated in threedimensional space are staggered on vertical axes. A final example
of the Bini plaques is one showing a tambourine player with all
as variants of this procedure,
in a semi-
circle.
The modes
more complicated than at first appeared. The artist must form his composition out of diverse and sometimes conflicting elements. The
unmistakable desire to render the third dimension was largely
ignored by Dogon, Senufo, and Baule sculptors and by Abomey
of spatial arrangement are therefore
Once
he
is
per-
by placing
an
arti-
form the background and the lower ones compose the foreground.
Bronze plaque.
igg
198. Detail of
(196).
199-
British
Museum,
From Myth
to
History
237
In this type of
work
is
determined
tiles
The palace
itself is
nonmaterial representations, whether mythical or religious. Presented in this minutely realistic fashion, however,
it
can also be
courtyards.
The order
in
is
probably
200
surrounded by manillas. Bronze plaque. Berlin, Nifur Volkerkunde, Vienna. Photo by the museum.
Museum
From Myth
to
239
History
form
and happenings
As permanent
events.
life,
in his
and memorable
is
result
perceived as
The Portuguese
teenth centuries.
in 1472,
and Western
art
Any
in the early
influential contact
between
gested to black artists by illustrated books introduced by missionaries or merchants, but such hypothetical statements are hard
to authenticate. Nevertheless,
that
enjoyed the most direct and most enduring contact with Europe.
The
arrival of the
of history
accept
it
tonomy
among
Ife,
were disposed
to
only insofar as they had already sensed individual auat the level of the royal person.
a Portuguese soldier
It
artist
who
portrayed
The
at least provisionally,
was no longer
banished
all
history.
201
Conclusion
The foregoing
is
art history.
Black
art,
art,
has
at
It
of
it
expressed.
When
traditional
and
to a
argument
society
to
and
show how
artistic
this
when
society
and
illusion,
although the
is
an optical
It is,
to
borrow
It is
a formula
not,
how-
from Roger
241
Conclusion
Congo shows
the
The
to
that, in places
As
far as religion
convincing.
The
mythology
is still
is
concerned, the
Dogon
experience
is
just as
If,
ones exhibited
at the
must be sought
working conditions.
by
and
his
all
remained more or
less
other
to duties
members
of the
had
to fulfill military
ing time, no longer living with the venerable models that had
sustained his efforts and formed his taste, the artist fashioned
had
arisen.
tourists
The
artisan
who, eager
to
totally different
kind of demand
The
artist filled
more remote
regions,
it
seems correct
pose and function basically determine neither the quality nor the
statuettes,
Conclusion
242
cults. In the
clearly differentiated.
The
artistic
and
in
as a
whole.
It is
or to ascribe to
ject
it
plied
art.
A double motif,
It is
body
is at
is
sustains
it
it;
solidity
is
neither
the prime
and internal
a settled existence
cycles, as evidenced
by the
fact
and material
with Oceanic
the
art,
all
to
art ex-
ing
labor,
horned beasts."
all
these horned
had not read the seventeenth-century salon novels, nor are the
Africans aware of Breton's Discours sur le Peu de Realite.
243
Conclusion
The
To
arts of
and demonic images that Theodore de Bry engraved at the direction of Duarte Lopez and Filippo Pigafetta would require the
fiery and religious imagination of a fifteenth- or sixteenth-century
The African
believer.
verse"; he
all
Dogon and
is
the Bambara,
man is
woven among
dignitary
is
to curve scornfully
human
and Bini
the haughty
skeptically.
own
and
Ife
all
who
features.
He
is
the god
thority,
jects.
vital
Through the
energy
Ife
is
life
and
from
benefits flowing
all
further increased.
Apollonian, but they too share in the sombre, rhythmically expressed energy that
all
African art
critics
it
rhythm alone
it."
and
From Senghor's
Conclusion
244
point of view
the internal
waves he emits
force.
transforms
directly
Rhythm
who
vital
itself into
dances,
who
is
it
life.
These
cults.
is
always as-
The
Upon
and thought
relate
figures in a
instinct.
William
to
the germination and the growing of grain and to the vital force
of the person.
It is
African philosophy governed by dynamic vitalism, a fact confirmed by the acquisition of detailed knowledge about different
ethnic groups. African philosophy, however,
terpreted in the light of
must not be
in-
modern African
intellectuals, these
systems do not
The most
They
augment
aim
masks and
statu-
all
245
Conclusion
is
through cultivation.
It is
the burning and dangerous blood that flows through nature and
and
by trapping
The
traditional African
and
would
never abandon himself to the dark forces that obsess the world or
let
is
himself be carried
away by
stracted
is
deprived of
The
its
natural, tempering,
traditional milieu
is
it
changing. Africa
is
becoming ur-
banized, and roads crisscross the continent. In the villages transistor radios
absorb
still
to
cities
bond with
their
at
beginning to provide a
problems. Large
growth
new
and
new
to assess.
The
training
all
in a while
new
modes
scientific
self
anew.
Conclusion
246
So
it is,
too,
with African
art.
The
spiritual
and
intellectual
first,
and, second, a too tender and too insistent observance of a folkloric past. Either
spread
artistic
energy.
to indulge in futile
To pursue
prophecy and
art,
would be
through
many
centuries, has
Comparative Survey of
248
Date
50004000
B.C.
40003000
B.C.
30002000
B.C.
Ca. 2720-
2560
B.C.
Ca.
2400
B.C.
2000IOOO
B.C.
18th century
1558I53O
15301520
15041483
B.C.
B.C.
B.C.
B.C.
15th and
14th
centuries B.C.
Western Africa
Central and
equatorial Africa
Eastern and
southern Africa
249
Discovery of Africa
African arts
Egypt and
Mediterranean Basin
Beginning of Early
Minoan.
Sudan: Pottery with wavy
patterns.
design.
Middle Minoan.
First
palaces built.
Exploitation of Nubian
mines. Exploitation of lower Nubia by rulers of
Elephantine.
Pepi I has granite obelisks
cut in Nubia for Heliopolis.
tablishment of Kerma.
Colonization of Nubia.
Middle Minoan
III.
The
snake-goddess. Cnossus
frescoes: Sudanese landscape with blue monkey;
white chief leading army
of blacks.
Egyptian expansion
ward Sudan.
to-
Egypt: Amenophis
I.
Introduction of horse
into Egypt
by Hyksos.
Founding of province of
Kouch. Voyage to country
Tuthmosis
I.
of Punt.
Temple
Domination of
Mycenaean
decadence.
Queen Hatshepsut.
at
Deir el-Bahri.
style.
Cretan
250
Central and
Date
Western Africa
equatorial Africa
Eastern and
southern Africa
9th and
8th centuries
B.C.
Beginning of Kouch
expansion toward
north. 1st dynasty of
Napata. Ca. 760: Napata necropolis. Tri-
umphal
stela of
Na-
251
Egypt and
Mediterranean Basin
Discovery of Africa
African arts
Amenophis
II.
Foundation of Gem-Aton
in Nubia. Temple of Amon
at Soleb.
Temples
Kawa
at Faras
and
in Nubia.
Temple
Abu
Simbel.
Battle of Kadesh (carved
decoration).
The four giants.
at
Amenophis IV (1372).
Tutankhamen (13541346). Restoration of
cult of Amon. Ramses
II
(1301-1235).
of
Ptah
Gherf-Hussein.
at Wadi es-Sebou.
Identical Pharaonic temat
Temple
ples in delta, in
Upper
Engravings of chariots in
Sahara. Rock paintings
(age unknown) in Tassili
and Ennedi.
Appearance
nicians by Necho.
Egypt of
metal statuary,
divine or royal. Renewal
of stylization of bodies.
Height of bronze period
official
in
Extension of Pharaonic
in
252
Date
Western Africa
Central and
equatorial Africa
Eastern and
southern Africa
6th-4th
centuries
B.C.
Nok
civilization
(northern Nigeria).
253
African arts
Discovery of Africa
Egypt and
Mediterranean Basin
605
Defeat of Necho
II
by Nebuchadnezzar.
Failure of Ethiopian attempt against Egypt.
Nok
terra-cottas (up to
Growing importance of
Meroe.
525: Conquest of Egypt
by Persians.
(controversial).
Meroe
as artistic center.
Diffusion of Hellenistic
arts into
Meroe.
254
Date
Central and
equatorial Africa
Western Africa
Eastern and
southern Africa
Introduction of agriculture and metallurgy, from Nubia to
the south.
ist millen-
nium
A.D.
A.D. 66
A.D. 86
A.D.
106
2d century
Kingdom of Axum.
End of kingdom of
A.D.
3d and 4th
centu-
Meroe. Beginning of
ries A.D.
pre-Monomotapa
period.
Ca. 350
Ghana:
To 8th century,
first
dynasty in Ghana
(44 kings). People
in-
Berbers
392
5th century A.D.
Ca. 400
Ca. 429
6th century
(?).
255
African arts
Europe
and Islam
Discovery of Africa
Suetonius Paulinus goes
caravan routes.
Maternus reaches
Agisymba.
Julius
maps.
State Christianity in
Rome. Christianity
spreads into southern
Arabia.
Establishment of Mecca,
Canaries.
256
Date
7th century
Western Africa
Songhai dynasty
in Sudan.
First
Central and
equatorial Africa
Eastern and
southern Africa
Massacre of group of
Sao in oasis of Bilma
(ca. 310 miles from
Lake Chad).
622
654
666
8th century
Exploitation of gold
mines of Bambuk
(Upper Senegal) begins. First
kingdom
of the Nupe.
End of kingdom of
Axum. Until 12th
century, trade be-
732
790
After assassination of
reigning prince,
Ghana passes under
rule of
king of
Kaya Maghan,
Ouagadou
2-57
African arts
Europe
and Islam
Discovery of Africa
Until
nth
century,
Arab
conquests in Egypt.
Arabs collect booty and
then introduce into money market precious met-
accumulated in
church treasuries, finally
als
by
Ethiopian mountains
have cut the road.
Hegira
Until
nth
century, Arabs
Tuat
to
Timbuktu.
Arabs
at Poitiers.
258
Date
Western Africa
Central and
equatorial Africa
Eastern and
southern Africa
9th century
800
852-853
890
Arab geographer
Yakubi describes
10th certtury
fe-
verish activity in
goldfields of upper
Nile. Islamization of
eastern Africa. Arabs:
introduce cowries as
money, which prevails in interior of Af;
Migration of Bantu
from central
Ca. 950
Chari Delta.
990
11th century
Beginning of empire
of Sosso. Ruler of
Gambaga extends his
influence over right
bank
1010
of
White Volta.
Gao. Sov-
ereign converted to
Islam.
1050
1061-1075
mention, by
Mande
Chief of province of
converted to
Bekri, of empire of
Islam.
Kanem-Bornu.
Almoravid chief
mounts war against
Ghana, which falls
apart.
First
al-
rica.
ment
259
African arts
Europe
and Islam
Discovery of Africa
Charlemagne crowned.
Shrine of St. Vaast, decorated with Arabian
Until 13th century, stone
gold.
gola of
in
Zimbabwe.
At beginning of 10th
Ifrikia, Djerid,
ment of
oli,
Ife art
and
civili-
from Sudan to
Maroc and then to Spain.
route,
destroy principality
of Tiaret, and occupy
Sijilmassa, thus becoming masters of all gold
routes.
Invasion of Ga'aliin
Arabs
into Ifrikia
(Tunisia) interrupts
route that, through
eastern Sahara, Djerid,
and Tripoli, supplied
Fatimite domain with
Sudanese gold.
In his description of Africa (1068),
Arab geog-
Ghana.
and Trip-
z6o
Central and
Date
Western Africa
equatorial Africa
Eastern and
southern Africa
Mission of blacks
from Zand] country
to China, close to Em-
1083
peror Cheun-Tsoung
Conversion of ruler
of Kanem-Bornu to
Islam.
1086
1095-1099
12th century
Preponderance of
Dyaresso in Sahel.
Formation of Mossi
kingdoms south of
Niger Bend.
Forming of Hausa
cities.
ginning of migration
Bornu.
known
ends
13th century
Dogon
settle at
diagara
Ban-
cliff.
try to
is
spared, reassembles
army, and reestablishes his authority.
Ca. 1234
emperor
Economic
development of Mali
under Soundiata.
feats Sosso
in 1235.
1255
Death of Soundiata.
as
ca.
Chona
1450.
I,
26l
African arts
Europe
and Islam
Discovery of Africa
Ceramic figurines at
Djenne and Mopti. Building of
Zimbabwe.
Crusade.
262
Date
1255-1270
Western Africa
Central and
equatorial Africa
Eastern and
southern Africa
1275
Yoruba dominate
Nupe.
1285-1300
1291
14th century
of Ouedrago (founder
of Mossi empire),
builds settlement of
Sangha and leaves
there one of his sons
Baluba kingdom.
lakes.
whose descendants
mix with the Dogon.
1300-1307
1307-1322
power.
Rule of Kankan (or
Gongo) Moussa. Mali
at its height.
market
at
Fields of
Gold
Gao
active.
West Africa
1324
Kankan Moussa
in
1325
1332-1336
Weakening
1333
of Mali.
Conversion of Hausa
princes to Islam.
263
African arts
Discovery of Africa
Organization of Benin
bronze workers by artist
from
1270: Death of
in Tunis,
Ife.
West
Europe
and Islam
Africa, jewelry,
Genoese
living in Sijilmas-
from
St.
Louis
264
Central and
Date
1336-1359
Western Africa
equatorial Africa
Eastern and
southern Africa
1359-1390
In Mali, fratricidal
struggles and troubles.
End
of
14th
century
15th century
Hottentots in
bezi.
Zam-
Empire of Bech-
uana.
1450(7): In East Africa, Mambo period
called
1402-1405
1405-1413
1415
1417
1434
1437
1439
1441
1442
Chona
II.
265
African arts
1346: Death of Andalusian
architect Es-Saheli in Timbuktu.
Europe
and Islam
Discovery of Africa
1346: Jacme Ferrer in Canaries.
Conquest of Canaries by
the Norman, Jean de
Bethencourt.
Sojourn of Anthelme
d'Ysalguier, of merchant
family from Toulouse, at
Gao, where he marries
Songhai princess.
Conquest of Ceuta.
Henry the Navigator at
Sagres.
Gilianes rounds
Cape Bo-
iador.
Rediscovery of Azores.
Ecumenical council
to
tries
man
Nuno Tristam
Blanc.
at
Cape
266
Date
*443
Western Africa
Central and
equatorial Africa
1444
1445
1446
1447
1453
1455-1456
1460
1465-1492
1468
Timbuktu from
Tuareg.
1469
1470
1471-1475
1472-1504
1473
1477
Ali,
Bagana
(vassal of
Songhai).
1479
king of Bornu.
Eastern and
southern Africa
267
Europe
and Islam
Discovery of Africa
African arts
Nuno Tristam
reaches
country of blacks.
nople.
Years'
End of Hundred
War.
de Cintra in Sierra
Leone.
P.
F.
Gomes
receives
mo-
Bold
orders Jehan d'Aulvekerque paid for several Af(April) Charles the
rican objects.
Goncalvez
(Gabon).
at
Cape Lopez
magnac
Fontenay-le-Comte.
268
Date
Central and
equatorial Africa
Western Africa
1480-1483
Mossi
1482
1481-1485
1484
John
loot
II
Eastern and
southern Africa
Oualata
Power
Loango
weakened.
of
of Portugal,
believing Mali
is still
1487
1490
1491
1492
I.
Mamadou Toure
(1492-1529) over-
1493
1495
Companions of Vasco
1497-1499
da Gama learn of
empire of Monomotapa.
16th century
Chieftaincies of
Adansi, Dyenkera,
chronicles.
and
Akwamu
de-
Ghana.
tianity,
drowned
blood by son of
Nzinga
In Benin, the oba
Eseguie institutes title of queen mother.
1529-1549
Songhai emperor
madou
Ma-
Nkuwu
(1506-1541).
in
269
African arts
Europe
and Islam
Discovery of Africa
G. Dantas travels up
Senegal as far as Felu
falls.
Portuguese penetrate to
Mbali, capital of the Congo.
Fall of
Granada.
Christopher Columbus
discovers America.
tugal.
fic
Beginning of
traf-
in blacks.
per.
visits
discovered lands.
At Dieppe, bas-relief in
church of Saint-Jacques
shows three known continents.
270
Western Africa
Date
1534
Central and
equatorial Africa
Eastern and
southern Africa
Portuguese settled
near Gulf of Guinea.
John
II of Portugal
sends Jesuits to the
1548
Congo.
Mbali, capital of the
1550
1570-1603
1580
Idriss
III.
Philip
II
of Portugal
sends Carmelites to
the Congo. Decline
of kingdom of the
Congo.
Ca. 1590
Adansi dominate
Akan group which includes Agni and
Dyenkera. They are
subject in turn to
1591
Dyenkera.
(12 March) Songhai
army defeated
at
1780. Period of
anarchy.
17th century
Founding of Bambara
1625-1650
1650-1680
1680-1708
kingdom
of Kaarta.
1600-1620: Reign of
Shamba Bolongongo,
king of Bakuba.
Decline of
Monomo-
tapa.
Dutch
in
South Af-
lishment of Capetown.
271
Europe
and Islam
Discovery of Africa
African arts
yards.
slaves.
Publication of Relatione
Congo, owing
to collaboration of Duarte
Lopez, Portuguese agent,
and Italian humanist Filippo Pigafetta. Illustrated
with engravings by de
Bry brothers. Translated
del
reame
di
French cartographers, no
longer understanding
tracings of their predecessors, obliterate interior of
shaped
(1619).
like
Africa.
272
Date
1670
Western Africa
Central and
equatorial Africa
1680
Ashanti kingdom.
18th and
19th
centuries
1727
18th cen-
First half of
tury: Settlement of
1720 or
1730
successor to and
brother of Akaba. By
1729 Agadja controls coast cities.
Death of founder of
Ashanti kingdom.
Quarrels over succession.
1730
Migration of Ashanti
group led by Dakon's
sister
Aura Pokou
who founds
kingdom
Baule
in Ivory
Coast.
1730-1749
Reign of Apokou
and eco-
nomically.
1738
Yoruba
seize
Abomey
1749-1753
Michel Adanson in
Senegal.
Eastern and
southern Africa
273
African arts
Europe
and Islam
Discovery of Africa
17 i 3 Treaty of Utrecht
cline.
274
Western Africa
Date
1775-1789
Central and
equatorial Africa
1779: Beginning of
Kaffir wars between
Dutch and Bantu.
End of Bantu migra-
over Dahomey.
1789-1797
Weakening
authority in
Eastern and
southern Africa
of royal
Da-
homey.
Reign of Kata-Mbula,
109th king of Bakuba.
1800-1810
1804
from Hausa
states,
1818-1858
Gezo reestablishes
authority over Dahomey, defeats Yoruba, and stops paying
them tribute.
Gabon.
1853: Empire of
Kanem-Bornu
dis-
appears.
1854-1864
ters
Segu; in 1862 he
Bandiagara in
1864.
1851
with
France.
1854
1858-1889
Nigeria.
Reign of Glegle in
Dahomey.
1859-1862
Struggles of Bambara
of Segu
against Hajj Omar.
English raid against
Ashanti.
kingdom
1874
1867: Discovery of
diamonds
Free State.
in
Orange
2-75
Europe
and Islam
Discovery of Africa
African arts
missions (geographic
and ethnographic). Large
tific
European
museums
cities establish
of ethnography.
to colonize Africa.
1848: Abolition of slavery.
First missionaries
settlers in
and
Dahomey
in
Glegle's reign.
works
Kyoka
ment.
in
by
northern Angola.
religious
move-
Monomotapa.
276
Date
1879-1894
1884
Western Africa
By
his intransigence,
Central and
equatorial Africa
1881: Establishment
Behanzin brings
of Leopoldville.
about annexation of
Dahomey by France
1883:
in 1894.
Cameroon.
Germans
in
Togo.
1885
Germans
in
Independent
Congo.
state of the
1890
Eastern and
southern Africa
1884: Discovery of
gold in Transvaal.
End of Bambara
kingdom of Segu.
Colonel Archinard
1897
enters Segu.
Punitive expedition of
English to Benin.
Annexation of coun-
(or
Pahouin)
Gabon
estuary.
pean museums.
1900
1944
1958
Conference of Brazzaville.
of the former colonies achieve independence.
Most
277
African arts
Discovery of Africa
Europe
and Islam
movements.
sculptor, Herbert T.
colonies.
New
York, Museum of
Modern Art (1935).
Ca. 1934: Fangs no longer
practice sculpture.
fight in
World War
I.
vide up former
Marsan
(1925); Galerie
Pigalle (1931); colonial exhibit in Vincennes (1931);
pean colonies
1'Homme.
German
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GENERAL WORKS
L' Art
du
by
J.
Matthey-
Sweeney.
New York:
280
Bibliography
RELATIONS OF EUROPE AND AFRICA
De
Sikkel, 1937.
le Commerce dans les archipels du Pacifique et
en Afrique equatoriale." In Histoire du Commerce. Vol. III. Paris: S.P.I.D.,
Labouret, H. "L'Echange et
1953.
siecle/'
Annales
E. S.
C,
(April-June 1947).
"La Route de la Meuse et les relations lointaines des pays mosans
entre le VIII e et le XI e siecle." In L'Art mosan. Paris: A. Colin, 1953.
Ronciere, Ch. de la. La Decouverte de I'Afrique au Moyen Age. Cairo, 1929.
.
3 vols.
IN
M.
1941.
Van Gennep,
France, 1914.
Schlosser,
Leipzig, 1908.
Von
J.
ser. Paris:
Mercure de
J.
Primitivism
in
Modern
Painting.
New York
and London,
1938.
Hermann,
F.
als
Forschungsgegenstand." In
Murdock, G.
P. Africa: Its
New
York,
1959.
Bibliography
281
ARCHAEOLOGY
Fagg, William. "L'Art nigerien avant Jesus-Christ." In L'Art Negre. Special
issue of Presence africaine, nos. 10-11. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1951.
Merveilles de V Art nigerien. Paris: Editions du Chene, 1963.
Hamelin, P. "Les Bronzes du Tchad," Tribus (1952-53).
Lebeuf, J. P. "L'Art ancien du Tchad," Cahiers d'art (1951).
Lebeuf, J. P., and A. M. Masson-Detourbet. La Civilisation du Tchad. Paris:
Payot, 1950.
Wieschhoff, H. A. The Zimbabwe-Monomotapa Culture in South-East Africa. Menasha, Wis., 1941.
.
AFRICAN SCULPTURE
Fagg, William. "De 1'art des Yoruba." In L'Art Negre. Special issue of
Presence Africaine, nos. 10-11. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1951.
Fagg, William, K. C. Murray, et al. The Artist in the Tribal Society. London:
Kegan, 1959.
n.s.,
(1962).
METALWORK
Clement, P. "Le Forgeron en Afrique noire," Revue de Ceographie Humaine
et d'Ethnologie, 2 (April-June 1946).
Davidson, B. U Afrique noire avant les Blancs. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France, 1962.
Laclant, J. Le Per dans VEgypte ancienne, le Soudan et V Afrique. Actes du
colloque international: Le Per a travers les ages. In Annales de I'Est, Memoir no. 16. Nancy, 1956.
Mauny, R. "Essai sur l'histoire des metaux en Afrique occidentale," Bulletin
de I'lnstitut Prancais d' Afrique Noire, XIV (1952).
REGIONAL ART
Dahomey
Herskovits, M. J. "The Art of Dahomey," American Magazine of Art (1934).
Mercier, P. Les Ase du Musee d'Abomey. Dakar: Institut Francais d'Afrique Noire, 1952.
"Evolution de l'Art dahomeen." In L'Art Negre. Special issue of
Presence Africaine, nos. 10-11. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1951.
-.
"Images de l'Art animalier au ''Dahomey," Etudes Dahomeenes
.
(1951).
Waterlot, E. Les Bas-Reliefs des Batiments royaux d'Abomey. Paris: Institut d'Ethnologie, 1926.
282
Bibliography
Ghana
Kjersmeier, Carl. Ashanti Vaegtloeder. Copenhagen, 1948.
Paulme, D. "Les Kuduo ashanti." In L'Art Negre. Special issue of Presence
Africaine, nos. 10-11. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1951.
Ration, Ch. "L'Or fetiche." In ibid.
Nigeria
Bradbury,
M. R. The Benin Kingdom and the Edo-speaking Peoples of Southwestern Nigeria. London: International African Institute, 1957.
1899.
Cameroon
Frobenius, L. Der
Germann,
P.
Das
plastichefigurliche
J.
B. "L'Art
1953.
Truitard, S., and E. Buisson. Arts du
Naples. Naples, 1934.
Cameroun
a I'Exposition coloniale de
LXXXVI
Institute,
(1956).
Maes,
J.
283
Bibliography
Gabon
Andersson, E. Contribution a l'etude des Kuta. Vol. I. Uppsala, 1953.
Chauvet, S. "L'Art funeraire au Gabon," Bulletin des Sceurs Bleues (1933).
Grebert, F. "Arts en voie de disparition au Gabon," Africa (1934).
Peissi, P. "Les Masques blancs des Tribus de l'Ogooue." In L'Art Negre.
Special issue of Presence Africaine, nos. 10-11. Paris: Editions du Seuil,
1951.
Segy,
Guinea
Appia, B. "Masques de Guinee francaise
et
de Casamance," Journal de
la
Man
(1947).
Ivory Coast
Bardon, P. Catalogue des masques d'or baoule de VI. F.A.N. Dakar: Institut
Francais d'Afrique Noire, 1954.
Goldwater, R. J. Senufo Sculpture from West Africa. New York: Museum of
Primitive Art, 1964.
Holas, B. Cultures materielles de la Cbte-d'Ivoire. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, i960.
Portes sculptees du musee d' Abidjan. Dakar: Institut Francais
d'Afrique Noire, 1952.
Olbrechts, F. M. Maskers en Dansers in de Ivoorkurst. Louvain, 1938.
Salverte-Marmier, M. de. Work on Baule art in preparation.
Vandenhoute, P. J. Classification stylistique du Masque Dan et Guere de la
Cote d'lvoire Occidentale. Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum voor
Volkenkunde, IV. Leiden, 1948.
.
Mali
Goldwater, R.
Museum
J.
New
York:
(Jan.-July 1964).
Du
culte des
Dieux
284
Bibliography
1948.
Jahn, J. Muntu. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1961.
Levi-Strauss, Claude. La Pensee sauvage. Paris: Plon, 1963.
Moret, A. Le Nil et la Civilisation egyptienne. Paris: Renaissance du Livre,
1926.
Panofsky, E. Die Perspective als symbolische Form. 1927.
Les Religions traditionnelles africaines. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1965.
Senghor, L. S. "L'esprit de civilisation ou les Lois de le culture negroafricaine," Presence Africaine (1956).
Tradition et Modernisme en Afrique noire. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1965.
INDEX
Abeokuta,
Abiri, 123
Abomey,
Accra, 9
Adamawa,
55
Adansi, 64
Athieme, 67
Atlas, 26
Aura Pokou,
Bafur, 50
Baga, 165
Bagana, 64
Baguirmi, 55
286
Index
Bakaya, 151
Bakongo, 6, 13, 106-107, 108, 109,
in, 117, 199
Bakota, 96
Bakuba, 71, 77, 79, 90, 91, 102, 103,
105, 106, 107, 108, 109, in, 116,
117, 135, 206, 208, 209, 210, 224,
241
Bakwele, 152, 154
Balbara, 52
Baluba, 92, 98, 106, 109,
163, 197
Balumbo, 97, 154
Bambaga, 62
Bambara, 24, 53-55, 58, 79, 85-86,
m,
Bambuk, 52
Bamgboye, 100, 174
Bamileke, 161
Bamoum,
162
Bosman, William,
9,
13
Boulle, Marcelin, 26
Bovide, 139
Bry,
Buli,
Bumba, 102
Bundu, 144
Cameroon,
Cao, Diogo, 70
Casamance, 151
Catalan Atlas, 8, 53
Cendrars, Blaise, 18
Chad, io, 23, 25, 34, 37, 49, 120,
*37/ 139
Chamba, 168
Chari River, 34, 35
Chembe, 102, 113
Chona, 46
Cnossus, 29-30
Bandiagara, 58, 63
Bantu, 44-45
Barbosa, Duarte, 44
Bardon, Pierre, 157
Barros, Joao de, 44, 46
Barth, Heinrich, 89
Bastian, Adolf, 16
Bateke, 152
Baule,
Coptic
Congo,
Baumann, Hermann,
70
Bayaka, 151
Behanzin, 69, 222
Benametapa 44
3, 4, 6, 19, 23,
ioi,
116-120,
33
Dahomey,
Dakon, 64
Dan, 91, 92,
90,
art,
225
Bavili,
Benin,
Bilma, 35
Bini, 41-42, 78, 206, 210, 213, 222,
225, 233, 237, 239, 243
Biton Kouloubali, 53
Blaeu map, 13
Dialloube, 55
Dieriba, 52
287
Index
Dogon,
63, 64,
Dyon, 130-131
Dyougou
Eguae, 119
Egypt, 8, 14, 25, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33,
52, 53, 201
Einstein, Carl, 175, 202-203
Ekoi, 163
Elikeo, 28
Ennedi, 26, 28, 137, 139
Eseguie, 41
Esie, 42, 78,
Guere-Wobe, 155
Guillaume, Paul, 153
Guinea, 4, 9, 13, 32, 49,
Es-Saheli, 53
Ethiopia, 2, 30, 46
Etruscan, 32
^,
6z, 73,
Europe, 1-3,
"7/ 122 12 3/
/
Fagg, Bernard, 39
Fagg, William, 39, 40, 77, 100, 158,
163, 177, 230, 244
Fali, 57
Fang, 59, 154, 177
Faure, Elie, 18, 243, 244
Fetishes, 9, 71, 193, 196, 197,
199, 201, 210
Hajj
Omar,
Hamelin,
54,
P.,
37
Herskovits, Melville, 91
Hodh, 50
Fiot,
Grunshi, 168
123
Gao, 8, 9, 54, 64
Gardner, G. A., 44
Gaspar, 11
Gerewol, 139
Gezo, 69, 222
Ghana. See Gold Coast
198-
70
Fotigue, 53
Fouta Djalon, 55
Frobenius, Leo, 16, 18, 145
Hofra-en-Nahas, 120
Hoggar, 8, 26
hogon, 102, 124, 131, 132, 145, 208,
210, 217
Holli, 165
honhom, 158
Ibibio, 28, 30,
152
Ibn Batuta, 53
Ibo, 152
Idriss
III,
Iguegha, 119
Iguneromwo,
90, 119
Inyanga, 42
Islam, 49, 52, 54, 55, 57/ 58, 73
Ivory Coast, 38, 64, 79, 91, 92, 155,
168
Ivory leopards, 123
iyase,
118
Index
288
Jaman, 168
Kaarta, 53-54
Kakongo, 70
Kante, 52
Kasai, 4, 71, 93, 108
Mandara, 56
Mande, 52, 124, 132, 136, 185
Mandingo, 8, 52, 53
Mangbetu, 4, 77, 78, 96, 182
Mani-Kongo, 11, 89
Mansa Oule, 52
Kaya Maghan, 52
Mapoungouboue,
Marc, Lucien, 63
Marees, Pieter van, 9
Mariette, Auguste, 30
Masks, 17, 19, 20, 21,
Kanem-Bornu, 35,
Kankan Moussa. See Gongo Moussa
Kano, 34, 120
Keita,
8, 52,
53
Khami, 42
Kircher, Father Athanasius, 6
Kissi, 78,
182
Kolomo, 102
Kono, 86
Kotoko,
23, 34
Kurumba, 62,
Kwanza, 70
63, 141,
169
42, 44
Massina,
Masudi, al-, 45
Maindo
Mauny, Raymond,
rites, 148
Makari, 37
Makishi, 151
Malfante, Antonio, 8-9
28, 99-100,
t-75
28, 49, 89
Mauritania, 50
Mayombe,
Mbali, 70
289
Index
Mende,
Ouegbadja, 69
Meroe, 40, 89
Meyerowitz, Eva, 158
Ovimbundu, 145
mfumu, 107
Midigue, 37
Miele, 71
Penhalonga, 42
Mikope Mbula,
Minoans, 30
mintadi, 106-107, 108, 109
42, 44, 46, 71
32, 86,
Porto-Novo, 67
Monomotapa,
Portugal,
Mosan,
nkisi,
196-197
34, 39-40, 42, 123, 182
Nommo,
217
Nubia,
120
Nupe, 33
Nyendael, David, 120
Nyimi, 102, 105, 106
Nzinga Nkuwu, 13, 70
158
Ono, 130-131
Ophir, 44
Orosongo, 128
Ouagadougou, 50-52, 62
Oualata, 8, 53, 64
Ouare, Apokou, 64
Ouedrago,
62, 63
120, 139
Salverte-Marnier, 145
Samory Toure, 55
Sangha, 63,
78,
San Salvador,
99
71
Sao, 34-35, 37, 157, 182, 185
Schuhl, Pierre M., 33
4, 70,
Schweinfurth, Georg, 77
Sefar, 28
Segu, 53-54/ 55
Segy, Ladislas, 30
Senegal, 49, 52, 55
Senghor, Leopold, 243-244
Senufo, 38, 63, 79, 83, 99, 124, 136,
152, 168, 187, 193, 209, 215, 217218, 225, 233, 242
Serer, 30
Shamba Bolongongo, 71, 103, 104
Sierra Leone. 78, 139, 144, 163
Sijilmassa, 8
Sisse Tounkara, 52
Raoua, 63
Read, Herbert, 177
Sahel, 50, 52
Nok,
Sahara,
196-197
sogoni-kun, 169
Songhai, 9, 50, 52, 53, 54, 64, 145
Sosso, 52
Soundiata, 52
Sudan, 2, 3, 6, 8, 25, 30, 33, 34, 49,
50-52, 53, 55, 36-37, 58, 62, 86,
89, 90, 101, 102, 124, 161, 180
Suleiman, 53
Index
290
Tado, 67
Uganda, 49
Tafilalet, 8
Usman, 55-56
Takkedda, 120
Tamstit, 8
Tarikh-es-Fettach, 54
Tarikh-es-Sudan, 54
Tassili, 26, 137, 204
Tauxier, Louis, 63
Tegbessou, 69
Tegdaoust, 52
Tekrun, 52
Tellem, 58, 63, 124-125, 173, 195-
196
Van Niekerk,
42
Tenkodogo, 62
Tibesti, 26
Timbuktu,
64
Tinkisso, 52
Tiywana, 169
Zaire, 70
Toma, 148
Zambezi, 41
Zambia, 150
Zandj,
3, 45,
Zimbabwe,
46
$3.45
"A marvelous
introduction
Museum
of Art Quarterly
News
Bulletin
"Rejecting the old notions of 'Negro art' and 'primitive art,' this
handsome volume lends new perspective to the artistic
achievements of the African peoples."
Black Scholar Book Club
"The
much
94720