Cd-17-Major Project Report PDF

Project Report
On
DESIGN OF RETAINING WALL FOR A MINOR BRIDGE
A project report submitted in the partial fulfillment of

Requirement for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Technology
In
Civil Engineering
By
SIRIPURAM ANUSHA
(09241A0157)
M.BALAKOTESHWARI
(09241A0160)
R.SABITHA RAJ
(09241A0195)
A.SWETHA
(09241A01A7)
Under the guidance of

Mrs.C.Lavanya
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering.
GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

BACHUPALLY, KUKATPALLY, HYDERABAD-500090
2012-2013
1
GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY, HYDERABAD
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation entitled DESIGN OF RETAINING WALL FOR A
MINOR BRIDGE is a bonafide project work done under the guidance of Mrs. C.LAVANYA ,
Assistant Professor in the Department Of Civil Engineering, GOKARAJU RANGARAJU
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, Hyderabad.
Project done by
Mrs.C.Lavanya
Guide
SIRIPURAM ANUSHA
(09241A0157)
M.BALAKOTESHWARI
(09241A0160)
R.SABITHA RAJ
(09241A0195)
A.SWETHA
(09241A01A7)
Prof.Dr.G.Venkata Ramana
HOD Civil Engineering
External Examiner
STUDENT DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the project entitled DESIGN OF RETAINING WALL FOR A MINOR
BRIDGE is the work done by us during the academic year 2012-13. This project report is
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of bachelor of
technology in CIVIL ENGINEERING from JNTU, Hyderabad.
SIRIPURAM ANUSHA
(09241A0157)
M.BALAKOTESHWARI
(09241AO160)
R.SABITHA RAJ
(09241A0195)
A.SWETHA
(09241A01A7)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Salutations to our beloved and highly esteemed institute Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of
Engineering and Technology for having well qualified staff and labs furnished with necessary
equipment and computers.
Firstly we would like to express our deep sense of gratitude towards Dr. G.Venkata Ramana,
Head of the Department, Civil Engineering for giving us the opportunity to do an industrial
oriented project work.
We would also like to thank our project guide, Mrs.C.Lavanya, Assistant Professor, Department
of Civil Engineering at Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology for always
being available when we required her guidance.
Special thanks to all our team members for this team work and other friends for their support.
CONTENTS
PAGE NUMBER
1. Introduction
2. Objective of the project
3. Site location
3.1 Bridge definition
3.2 Classification of bridges
3.3 Bridge specifications
4. Soil strata analysis
4.1 Type of soil
4.2 Properties of soil
5. Effect of wall movement on earth pressure
12
6. Retaining wall
13
6.1 Types of retaining walls
13
7. Tests
17
7.1 Standard compaction test
17
7.2 Direct shear test
25
7.3 Unconfined compressive test
34
8. Estimation of safe bearing capacity
42
8.1 Factors influencing bearing capacity
43
8.2 Terzaghis bearing capacity theory
43
8.3 Effect of shape of Foundation
48
8.4 Summary of Shape factors
49
8.5 Factor of safety
49
8.6 Calculation of safe bearing capacity
50
9. Design considerations for a retaining wall
52
9.1Wall Deformations And Earth Pressures
52
9.2 Backfill Material
52
9.3 Gravity Retaining Walls
53
9.4 Design
54
10. Designing of retaining wall
57
Existing section
58
Trial section 1
59
Trial section 2
64
Trial section 3
69
11. Conclusion
75
12. Bibliography
76
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig.3
Existing Minor Bridge
Fig 4.1
Moorum soil
Fig. 5
Effect of Wall Movement on Earth Pressure
13
Fig 6.1.1
Gravity Retaining Wall
14
Fig 6.1.2
Cantilever Retaining Wall
15
Fig. 6.1.3
Counter-fort Retaining Wall
15
Fig. 6.1.4
Piling Wall
16
Fig. 6.1.5
Anchored Retaining Wall
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Fig. 7.1.1
Fig. 7.1.2
Fig. 7.1.3
Fig.7.2.1
Fig. 7.2.2
Compaction Mould and Rammer

Compacting the soil sample
Scraping
Direct Shear Apparatus
Components of Direct Shear Mould
18
20
20
25
26
Fig. 7.2.3
Fig.7.2.4
Fig.7.2.5
Fig.7.2.6
Fig.7.3.1
Fig.7.3.2
Fig. 7.3.3
Fig.7.3.4
Fig. 7.3.5
Fig.7.3.6
Components of Direct Shear Apparatus
Proving Ring
Load applied on Soil Sample
Sample conditions before and after the test
Unconfined Compression Test Apparatus
Sample Extractor
Cylindrical Mould
Extracted soil sample
Load applied on soil specimen
Soil Specimen after failure
28
28
29
30
35
36
37
37
38
39
Fig. 8.1
Main components of a structure including soil
42
Fig. 8.2.2
Terzaghis concept of Footing with five distinct failure

zones in foundation soil
45
Fig. 8.2.3
Fig.9.3.1
Fig. 10.1
Fig. 10.2
Terzaghis Bearing Capacity Factors for different
Gravity Retaining wall
Existing section of Retaining wall
Trial section1
48
53
58
59
Fig. 10.3
Trial Section2
64
Fig. 10.4
Trial section 3
69
Fig.10.5
Retaining wall being constructed
74
LIST OF TABLES
Table No.1
Table No.2
Table No.3
Standard Compaction Test

Readings
Direct Shear Test Readings
22
31
Unconfined Compression Test

Readings
Bearing Capacity Factors For
Different
40
Table No.5
Load Details Of The Trial

Section 1
60
Table No.6

Section 2
Section 3
65
Table No. 4
Table No.7
10
47
70
LIST OF GRAPHS
Graph showing the variation

Graph 1
of moisture content and dry
24
density in compaction test
Graph showing variation of

Graph 2
normal load and shear stress in

direct shear test.
11
33
ABSTRACT
Structures which are used to hold back a soil mass are called retaining structures. Our
project is to design retaining wall for a minor bridge. As the metro rail project is running through
Miyapur, there is a need for the extension of 4 lane carriage way to 6 lane carriage way. But the
carriage way includes a minor bridge, which too has to be extended for facilitating the traffic
flow. Thus, this project focuses on the design of retaining wall for the modified section of the
minor bridge.
Retaining walls are the structures designed to restrain soil to unnatural slopes. They are
used to bound soils between two different elevations in areas of terrain possessing undesirable
slopes. They are also used in areas where the landscape needs to be shaped severely and
engineered for more specific purposes like hillside farming or roadway overpasses. They are also
used in bridge abutments and wing walls.
The design of structures like retaining wall requires the knowledge of the earth pressure
acting on the back of the wall because of the soil backfill in contact with it. Hence relation
between the earth pressure on the retaining wall and strains within a backfill is a prerequisite.
The project also includes the estimation of safe bearing capacity of soil and its properties, earth
pressure calculations and design criteria of a modified section of a retaining wall. The design
criteria includes: check for stability against sliding, overturning and bearing capacity.
12
1. INTRODUCTION
A soil mass is stable when the slope of the surface of the soil mass is flatter than the
safe slope. At some locations where the space is limited, it is not possible to provide flat slope
and the soil is to be retained at a slope steeper than the surface one. In such cases, a retaining
structure is required to provide lateral support to the soil mass. Retaining walls are relatively
rigid walls used for supporting the soil mass laterally so that the soil can be retained at different
levels on the two sides. Generally, the soil masses are vertical or nearly vertical behind the
retaining structure. Thus, a retaining wall maintains the soil at different elevations on its either
side. In the absence of a retaining wall, the soil on the higher side would have a tendency to slide
and may not remain stable. However for a minor bridge of span 15 m a retaining wall is
constructed without considering the slope factor but only the soil properties.
The project concentrates on the designing of a retaining wall located on National
Highway-9; Pune- Hyderabad via Miyapur. The road in this region is extended for two lanes,
from four lane road way to six lane road way to accommodate free traffic flow because of metro
railway construction process. The minor bridge located in this region is also to be extended.
Thus, our project is been cleared with the design of a retaining wall to this bridge on one side and
hence replicating it to remaining.
Structures which are used to hold back a soil mass are called retaining structures.
Retaining walls, sheet pile walls, crib walls, sheeting in excavations, basement walls, etc., are
examples of retaining structures. A retaining wall helps in maintaining the ground surface at
different elevations on either side of it. Without such a structure, the soil at higher elevation
would tend to move down till it acquires its natural, stable configuration. Consequently, the soil
that is retained at a slope steeper than it can sustain by virtue of its shearing strength, exerts a
force on the retaining wall. This force is called the earth pressure and the material that is retained
by the wall is referred to as backfill. The gravity retaining wall is the simplest type of retaining
wall along with other common types of retaining walls such as the cantilever, and the counterfort walls.
The design of structures like a retaining wall requires the knowledge of the earth
pressure acting on the back of the wall because of the soil backfill in contact with it.
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The magnitude of earth pressure itself, on the other hand, is a function of the
magnitude and nature of the absolute and relative movements of the soil and the structure.
Problems such as these, where structure is in contact with the soil mass and the behavior of each
one is influenced by that of the other, are classed as soil-structure interaction problems. Often,
the earth pressures are statistically indeterminate and hence pose problems in evaluation. In some
cases, the desired accuracy in determination cannot be achieved. But knowledge of the
relationship between the earth pressure on the retaining wall and strains within a backfill is a
prerequisite for the solution of earth pressure problems.
The design of the retaining structure requires determination of the magnitude and line
of action of the lateral earth pressure. The magnitude of the lateral earth pressure depends upon a
number of factors, such as the mode of the movement of the wall, the flexibility of the wall, the
properties of the soil, and the drainage conditions. It is a soil-structure interaction problem, as the
earth pressure depends on the flexibility of the wall.
The design has been accomplished with few tests which we have done in the college
laboratory. The results extracted were used in the design. The site being in a hard rocky soil
strata, we got very high safe bearing capacity. Hence, two more sections apart from actual
section according to standard specifications were also evaluated for economic reasons with
increased safety factor.
The definition of minor bridge, retaining wall and their types, tests and tests results
with brief procedure were explained in this report in addition to the safe bearing capacity of the
ground, designed sections and their evaluations for safety conditions.
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2. OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

Our Project focuses on design of retaining wall for a minor bridge. The project, designing
of retaining wall for a minor bridge is the consequence of road widening due to prestigious metro
rail project. In the construction course of metro railway, a four lane road way has to be extended
to six lanes, to avoid the occurrence of traffic problems. As there is a minor bridge existing there
it should also be extended as a part of road widening.
The idea behind our project is to design a modified section of existing retaining wall for
the extension of the bridge. Before designing part, all the soil properties which include dry
density, optimum moisture content, cohesion, shear strength parameters were evaluated by
conducting corresponding tests. The safe bearing capacity of the ground is then calculated with
the test results.
Taking existing retaining wall as an example each modified section has been analysed for
stability against bearing capacity, sliding and overturning with the reduced dimensions according
to the area of the total project so as to make it economical.
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3. SITE LOCATION
The site is located opposite to Talkie Town, Miyapur on Pune-Hyderabad section of NH-9.
The figure here shows the existing minor bridge.
cc
Fig 3 Existing Minor Bridge
3.1 BRIDGE
A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles such as a body of water, valley, or road,
for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle.In other words Bridge is a structure
having a length of above 6 m between the inner faces of dirt walls for carrying traffic or other
moving loads over a depression or obstruction such as channels,raods,railways etc. There are
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many different designs that all serve unique purposes and apply to different situations. Bridges
can be categorized in several different ways. Common categories include the type of structural
elements used, by what they carry, whether they are fixed or movable, and by the materials used
and by the span of bridge..In this project we carried out work for designing of retaining wall for a
minor bridge.
3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES

Classifications based on span of bridge are categorized as follows.
3.2.1 MINOR BRIDGE

A Major Bridge is a bridge having a total length of upto 60 m.This is a cross drainage structure
consisting of 4 piers and 2 abutments currently in this project.Centre to centre span between piers
is 3m.Total length of the bridge is 15m and hence called minor bridge.Retaining walls are
otherwise called Wing walls which are supported to the two abutments.Type of retaining wall
existing at this site is gravity retaining wall or gravity wing wall.
3.2.2 MAJOR BRIDGE

A Major bridge is a bridge having a total length upto 60m.These can also be a cross drainage
structures. It includes all other bridge structures including large or complex culverts. Major
bridges are typically built from site-specific drawings, but can also be built from standard girder
drawings. Typically major bridges are river crossings, highway interchanges or railway
crossings.
3.2.3 CULVERT
Culverts are cross drainage structures having a total length upto 6m or less between the inner
faces of dirt walls or extreme vent way boundaries measured at right angles thereto. A large
number of culverts are needed for taking care of the streams crossing the railway lines. A culvert
is a cutting under or beside a road which allows water to drain, rather than pooling and making
road conditions hazardous.
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3.3 SPECIFICATIONS
The work shall be carried out as per M.O.R.T & Hs (Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways)
The work will be governed by design considerations & specifications contained in IRC
codes of practice for roads/bridges.
The materials of construction shall be governed as per relevant I.S codes.
The grading, size, quality of coarse aggregates shall be strictly as per Specifications for
Road and Bridge works M.O.R.T & Hs and relevant I.R.C codes.
The size, quality of aggregates and mixing etc for plain concrete and R.C.C works shall
be as per Specifications for Road and Bridge works and relevant I.S codes
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4. SOIL STRATA ANALYSIS

For any type of retaining wall design it is necessary to evaluate the engineering properties of
soil mainly the strength parameters as all retaining walls serve to hold back a vertical or near
vertical face of soil that would, without adequate retention, cave, slump or slide to a more natural
slope. Therefore the following parameters need to be assessed
4.1 Type of soil
4.2 Properties of soil
4.2.1. Safe bearing capacity
4.2.2. Dry density
4.2.3. Optimum moisture content
4.2.4. Shear Strength parameters
4.2.4.1 Cohesion
4.2.4.2 Angle of internal friction
4.2.5. Unconfined Compressive strength of soil
4.2.6. Lateral Earth Pressures
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4.1. TYPE OF SOIL

Soil is composed of particles of broken rock (parent materials) which have been altered by
physical, chemical and biological processes that include weathering (disintegration) with
associated erosion (movement).Soil existing at our site is Moorum. Moorum means powdered
rock. It consists of small pieces of disintegrated rock or shale, with or without boulders. These
are products of decomposition and weathering of the pavement rock. Visually these are similar to
gravel except presence of higher content of fines. Site is completely a rocky area with this type
of granular soil. Generally Moorum soil possess maximum dry density and therefore good
strength.
Fig 4.1 Moorum
4.2. PROPERTIES OF SOIL

4.2.1. SAFE BEARING CAPACITY
In geotechnical engineering, bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support the loads applied
to the ground. The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure between
the foundation and the soil which should not produce shear failure in the soil. Ultimate bearing
20
capacity is the theoretical maximum pressure which can be supported without failure; allowable
bearing capacity is the ultimate bearing capacity multiplied by a factor of safety. Sometimes, on
soft soil sites, large settlements may occur under loaded foundations without actual shear failure
occurring; in such cases, the allowable bearing capacity is based on the maximum allowable
settlement. Terzaghis Bearing Capacity theory is used in this project to calculate safe bearing
capacity of soil which can be further used to evaluate stability analysis of retaining wall.
4.2.2. DRY DENSITY
This is one of the important strength parameters need to be calculated. It can be determined from
Standard Compaction Test. The safe and economic design of retaining wall depends on the dry
density of surrounding soil. Bearing capacity of soil in turn depends on dry density of the soil. If
the soil is not having sufficient dry density the structure built on it couldnt carry loads. To make
it strengthened soil is stabilized which will be expensive. Hence dry density of oil is the
important parameter for any structure. Dry density of soil can be achieved by Compaction.
Compaction is the process of increasing the density of the soil by packing the solid particles
closer together by reducing the volume of the air. The degree of compaction is measured in terms
of dry density, d. The dry density after compaction depends on;
type of soil
water content of the soil
amount of effort supplied by the compactive equipment
4.2.3. OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT

The optimum moisture content for a specific compactive effort is the moisture content at which
the maximum density of soil is obtained. The optimum moisture content is an important control
parameter of the soil base construction. This is also an outcome of Standard Compaction Test.
Dry density and Optimum moisture content results are required to conduct further tests like
direct shear and unconfined compression test. The optimum moisture content is an important
control parameter of the soil base construction. Compaction is a process that brings about
an increase in soil density or unit weight, accompanied by a decrease in air volume. There is
usually no change in water content. The degree of compaction is measured by dry unit weight
21
and depends on the water content and compactive effort (weight of hammer, number of impacts,
weight of roller, number of passes). For a given compactive effort, the maximum dry unit weight
occurs at an optimum water content.
4.2.4. SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS
The shear strength of a soil is a function of:
The particle shape -- (Angular vs. rounded)
The gradation of the soil (Poor vs. well graded)
The soil density (Loose vs. dense)
The amount and types of fines
The pore pressure u and how the rate of loading affects it
4.2.4.1. COHESION
This is the shear strength parameter which is determined from direct shear test. Shear
strength is a term used in soil mechanics to describe the magnitude of the shear stress that a
soil can sustain. The shear resistance of soil is a result of friction and interlocking of
particles, and possibly cementation or bonding at particle contacts. Soil derives its shear
strength in two forms - Cohesion and angle of internal friction. Cohesion is the interlocking
strength between the soil particles. It is stress independent component.
4.2.4.2. ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION

Internal Friction angle () is the measure of
the shear strength of soils due to friction. It is
stress dependent component. This is due to frictional resistance due to particles. The
mechanical strength of soil is an important concept in considering (and predicting) soil
behavior. We use strength to represent the reaction of a soil to an applied force. Highstrength soils resist deformation (compaction especially), break-up (shearing and shattering),
and slippage. However, high-strength soils also resist root penetration and exploration.
Strength is imparted to a soil by virtue of:
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cohesive forces between particles; and
frictional resistance met by particles that are forced to slide over one another, or move
from interlocked positions.
4.2.5. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF SOIL

The unconfined compressive strength (qu) is defined as the compressive stress at which an
unconfined cylindrical specimen of soil will fail in a simple compression test. In addition, in this
test method, the unconfined compressive strength is taken as the maximum load attained per unit
area, or the load per unit area at 15% axial strain, whichever occurs first during the performance
of a test.
4.2.6. LATERAL EARTH PRESSURES
Retaining walls shall be designed to withstand lateral earth and water pressures, the effects of
surcharge loads; the self-weight of the wall Lateral earth pressure is the pressure that soil exerts
against a structure in a sideways, mainly horizontal direction. The common applications of
lateral earth pressure theory are for the design of ground engineering structures such as retaining
walls, basements, tunnels, and to determine the friction on the sides of deep foundations. These
are of three types:
At rest Earth pressure
Active Earth Pressure
Passive Earth Pressure
The above specified earth pressures are used according to the situation i.e according to the
movement of the wall and the soil pressure acting on it.
5. EFFECT OF WALL MOVEMENT ON EARTH PRESSURE

When the wall is rigid and unyielding, the soil mass is in a state of rest and there are no
deformations and displacements. The earth pressure corresponding to this state is called the earth
pressure at rest. If the wall rotates about its toe, thus moving away from the backfill, the soil
mass expands, resulting in a decrease of the earth pressure. This is a consequence of the
23
mobilization of shearing resistance in a direction opposing the movement of the earth mass.
When the wall moves away from the backfill, a portion of the backfill locates next to the
retaining wall tends to break away from the rest of the soil mass and tends to move downwards
and outwards relative to the wall. Since the shearing resistance is mobilized in directions away
from the wall, there is a resultant decrease in earth pressure which continues, until, at a certain
amount of displacement, failure will occur in the backfill and slip surfaces will be developed. At
this stage, the entire shearing resistance has been mobilized. The forces acting on the wall at this
stage does not decrease anymore beyond this point even with further wall movement. This force
is called the active earth pressure.
On the other hand, if the wall is pushed towards the backfill, the soil is compressed and
the soil offers resistance to this movement by virtue of its shearing resistance. Since the shearing
resistance builds up in directions towards the wall, the earth pressure gradually increases. If this
force reaches a value which the backfill cannot withstand, failure again ensues and slip surfaces
develop. The pressure reaches a maximum value when the entire shearing resistance has been
mobilized and does not increase any more with further wall movement. This pressure is called
the passive earth pressure.
The active earth pressure and passive earth pressure develop corresponding to two
limiting states of equilibrium. The soil mass is said to be in a state of plastic equilibrium at these
two stages. A small increase in stress at this stage will cause a continuous increase in the
corresponding strain- a condition known as plastic flow.
24
Fig. 5 Effect of Wall Movement on Earth Pressure
6. RETAINING WALL
A retaining wall is a structure that retains holds back any material usually earth and prevents it
from sliding or eroding away. It is designed so that to resist the material pressure of the material
that it is holding back.
6.1 TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

There are four common types of retaining walls. They are
6.1.1 Gravity Retaining wall
6.1.2 Cantilever Retaining Wall
6.1.3 Counter-fort Retaining Wall
6.1.4 Piling Retaining wall
6.1.5 Anchored Retaining Wall
25
6.1.1 GRAVITY RETAINING WALL

It is that type of retaining wall that relies on their huge weight to retain the material behind it
and achieve stability against failures. Gravity Retaining Wall can be constructed from concrete,
stone or even brick masonry. Gravity retaining walls are much thicker in section. Geometry
of these walls also help them to maintain the stability. Mass concrete walls are suitable for
retained heights of up to 3 m. The cross section shape of the wall is affected by stability, the use
of space in front of the wall, the required wall appearance and the method of construction.
Fig 6.1.1 Gravity Retaining Wall
6.1.2 CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL

A cantilever retaining wall is one that consists of a wall which is connected to foundation.
A cantilever wall holds back a significant amount of soil, so it must be well engineered. They are
the most common type used as retaining walls. Cantilever wall rest on a slab foundation. This
slab foundation is also loaded by back-fill and thus the weight of the back-fill and surcharge also
stabilizes the wall against overturning and sliding.
26
Fig 6.1.2 Cantilever Retaining Wall
6.1.3 COUNTER-FORT RETAINING WALL

Counter fort walls are cantilever walls strengthened with counter forts monolithic with the back
of the wall slab and base slab. The counter-forts act as tension stiffeners and connect the wall
slab and the base to reduce the bending and shearing stresses. To reduce the bending moments in
vertical walls of great height, counter forts are used, spaced at distances from each other equal to
or slightly larger than one-half of the height Counter forts are used for high walls with heights
greater than 8 to 12 m.
Fig. 6.1.3 Counter-fort Retaining Wall
6.1.4 PILING RETAINING WALL

Sheet pile retaining walls are usually used in soft soils and tight spaces. Sheet pile walls are
made out of steel, vinyl or wood planks which are driven into the ground. For a quick estimate
the material is usually driven 1/3 above ground, 2/3 below ground. Taller sheet pile walls will
27
need a tie-back anchor placed in the soil a distance behind the face of the wall that is tied to the
wall, usually by a cable or a rod. Anchors are then placed behind the potential failure plane in the
soil.
Fig. 6.1.4 Piling Wall
6.1.5 ANCHORED RETAINING WALL

An anchored retaining wall can be constructed in any of the aforementioned styles but also
includes additional strength using cables or other stays anchored in the rock or soil behind it.
Usually driven into the material with boring, anchors are then expanded at the end of the cable,
by mechanical means. This method is very useful where high loads are expected, or where the
wall itself has to be slender.
Fig. 6.1.5 Anchored Retaining Wall
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7. TESTS CONDUCTED TO EVALUATE SOIL PROPERTIES

The following tests have been conducted in order to evaluate the given soil properties.
7.1 Standard Compaction Test
7.2 Direct Shear Test
7.3 Unconfined Compression Test
7.1 STANDARD COMPACTION TEST
Purpose:
This laboratory test is performed to determine the relationship between the moisture content and
the dry density of a soil compacted in a mould of given size.
Significance:
Mechanical compaction is one of the most common and cost effective means of stabilizing soils.
An extremely important task of geotechnical engineers is the performance and analysis of field
control tests to assure that compacted fills are meeting the prescribed design specifications.
Design specifications usually state the required density (as a percentage of the maximum
density measured in a standard laboratory test), and the water content. In general, most
engineering properties, such as the strength, stiffness, resistance to shrinkage and imperviousness
of the soil, will improve by increasing the soil density.
The optimum water content is the water content that results in the greatest density
for a specified compactive effort. Compacting at water contents higher than (wet of) the
optimum water content results in a relatively dispersed soil structure (parallel particle
orientations) that is weaker, more ductile, less pervious, softer, more susceptible to shrinking,
and less susceptible to swelling than soil compacted dry of optimum to the same density. The
soil compacted lower than (dry of) the optimum water content typically results in a flocculated
soil structure (random particle orientations) that has the opposite characteristics of the soil
compacted wet of the optimum water content to the same density.
29
Equipment:
1. Proctor mould having a capacity of 944cc with an internal diameter of 100mm and
effective height of 127.3mm. The mould shall have a detachable collar assembly and a
detachable base plate.
2. Rammer
3. Sample extruder
4. Straight edge
5. Graduated cylinder
6. Mixing tools such as mixing pan, spoon, spatula, etc.
7. Moisture tins
Fig. 7.1.1 Compaction Mould and Rammer
Procedure:
1. About 3kg of air-dried, pulverized soil passing 4.75mm sieve is taken. Thoroughly mix
the sample with sufficient water to dampen it.
2. The mould is cleaned, dried and greased lightly.
3. The mass of the empty mould with the base plate, without collar, is taken.
4. The collar is then fitted to the mould.
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5. The mould is placed on a solid base and filled with fully matured soil to about one-third
its height.
6. The soil is compacted by 25 blows of the rammer, weighing 2.6kg, with a free fall of
310mm.
7. The blows are evenly distributed over the surface. The soil surface is scratched with a
spatula before the second layer is placed.
8. The mould is fitted to about two-thirds height with the soil and compacted again by 25
blows.
9. Likewise, the third layer is placed and compacted.
10. The third layer should project above the top of the mould into the collar by not more than
6mm.
11. The collar is rotated to break the bond between the soil in the mould and that in collar.
12. The collar is then removed, and the soil is trimmed off flush with the top of the mould.
13. The mass of the mould, base plate and compacted soil is taken and thus the mass of
compacted soil is determined.
14. The bulk density of the soil is computed from the mass of the compacted soil and the
volume of the mould.
15. Representative soil samples are taken from the bottom, middle and top of the mould for
determining the water content.
16. The soil is removed from the mould.
17. More water is added to the soil so as to increase the water content 2-3%. It is thoroughly
mixed and allowed to mature.
18. The test is repeated and the dry density and water content are determined.
19. Continue this series of determination until there is either a decrease or no change in the
wet unit weight of compacted soil.
31
Fig. 7.1.2Compacting the soil sample
Fig. 7.1.3 Scraping
32
Analysis:
1. Calculate the moisture content of each compacted soil specimen.
2. Compute the wet density in grams per cm3 of the compacted soil sample by dividing the wet
mass by the volume of the mold used.
3. Compute the dry density using the wet density and the water content determined in step 1. Use
the following formula:
d= / (1+w)
Where w = moisture content in percent divided by 100, and = wet density
Formulae:
Wet density (gm/cc) = weight of compacted soil/944
Dry density = Wet density/ (1+w)
Where w is the moisture content of the soil.
Observations:
Diameter of the cylinder = 10 cm
Height of the cylinder = 12 cm
Volume of the cylinder = 944 cc
Weight of the empty cylinder = 2219 gm
33
TABLE.NO.1 : STANDARD COMPACTION TEST READINGS
Details
Water to be added (%)
10
12
Weight of water to be added (gm)
240
300
360
Weight of cylinder + compacted
4151.36
4250.48
4294.85
Weight of compacted soil (gm)
1932.36
2031.48
2075.86
Container No.
12
14
Weight of Container + wet soil
99
105
98
Weight of container + dry soil (gm)
94
100
92
Weight of empty container (gm)
49
52
48
Water content (%)
6.8
9.2
12.8
Wet density (gm/cc)
2.047
2.152
2.199
Dry density (gm/cc)
1.915
1.97
1.949
soil(gm)
(gm)
34
Calculations:
1. For 8% water,
Wet density = Weight of compacted soil / 944
= 1932.36/944
= 2.047 gm/cc
Dry density = Wet density / (1+w)
= 2.047 / (1+0.068)
= 1.915 gm/cc
2. For 10% water,
= 2031.48 /944
= 2.152 gm/cc
= 2.152 / (1+0.092)
= 1.97 gm/cc
3. For 12% water,
= 2075.86/944
= 2.199 gm/cc
= 2.199 / (1+0.128)
= 1.949 gm/cc
35
Graph 1:
1. Plot the dry density values on the y-axis and the moisture contents on the x-axis.
2. Draw a smooth curve connecting the plotted points.
Fig Graph showing the variation of moisture content and dry density in compaction test
Result:
From the graph,
Maximum Dry Density of the Moorum soil = 1.97 gm/cc
36
Optimum Moisture Content = 10.8 %
7.2 DIRECT SHEAR TEST

Purpose:
This test is performed to determine the consolidated-drained shear strength of the given soil. The
shear strength is one of the most important engineering properties of a soil, because it is required
whenever a structure is dependent on the soils shearing resistance. The shear strength is needed
for engineering situations such as determining the stability of slopes or cuts, finding the bearing
capacity for foundations, and calculating the pressure exerted by a soil on a retaining wall.
Fig.7.2.1 Direct Shear Apparatus
Significance:
37
The direct shear test is one of the oldest strength tests for soils. In this laboratory, a direct shear
device will be used to determine the shear strength of a soil (i.e. angle of internal friction ()).
From the plot of the shear stress versus the horizontal displacement, the maximum shear stress is
obtained for a specific vertical confining stress. After the experiment is run several times for
various vertical-confining stresses, a plot of the maxi mum shear stresses versus the vertical
(normal) confining stresses for each of the tests is produced. From the plot, a straight-line
approximation of the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope curve can be drawn and is determined.
Equipment:
1. Direct shear device
2. Load and deformation dial gauges
3. Balance
4. Spatula
Fig. 7.2.2Components of Direct Shear Mould
Procedure:
1. A soil specimen of size 60x60x25 mm is taken.
2. The base plate is attached to the lower half of the box. A porous stone is placed in the
box.
38
3. The upper grid, porous stone and the pressure pad are placed on the specimen.
4. The box is placed inside the large container and mounted on the loading frame.
5. The upper half of the box is brought in contact with the proving ring.
6. The loading yoke is mounted on the steel ball placed on the pressure pad.
7. The dial gauge is fitted to the container to give the shear displacement.
8. The other dial gauge is mounted on the loading yoke to record the vertical movement.
9. The locking pins are removed and the upper half of the box is slightly raised with the
help of spacing screws.
10. The space between two halves is adjusted, depending upon the maximum particle size.
11. The normal load is applied to give a normal stress of 25kN/m2.
12. Shear load is then applied at a constant rate of strain. For undrained tests, the rate is
generally between 1.0 mm to 2.0 mm per minute.
13. The sample shears along the horizontal plane between the two halves.
14. The readings of the proving ring and the dial gauge are taken every 30 seconds.
15. The test is continued till the specimen fails. The failure is indicated when the proving ring
dial gauge begins to recede after having reached the maximum.
16. At the end of the test, the specimen is removed from the box and its water content is
found.
17. The test is repeated under the normal stress of 50,100, 200 and 400 kN/m2. The range of
the normal stress should cover the range of loading in the field problem for which the
shear parameters are required.
18. Readings are noted down carefully. Set the dial gauges zero, before starting the
experiment.
Mechanism:
1. The direct shear test uses a box split into top and bottom halves.
2. The bottom half is fixed while the top half can slide.
3. A constant normal force P is applied to the top of the box while a shearing force T is
gradually applied to one side.
4. As the shear force increases, the lateral displacement is measured.
39
5. The normal force divided by the cross sectional area of the box is the normal stress and
the shear force T divided by the area is the shear stress.
Fig. 7.2.3Components of Direct Shear Apparatus
Fig.7.2.4 Proving Ring
40
Fig.7.2.5 Load applied on Soil Sample
Analysis:
1. Calculate the density of the soil sample from the mass of soil and volume of the shear
box.
2. Convert the dial readings to the appropriate length and load units and enter the values on
the data sheet in the correct locations. Compute the sample area A, and the vertical
(Normal) stress sv.
sv=Nv/A
Where Nv = normal vertical force, and sv = normal vertical stress
3. Calculate shear stress (t) using
t = Fh / A
Where Fh= shear stress (measured with shear load gage)
4. Plot the horizontal shear stress (t) versus horizontal (lateral) displacement (H).
5. Calculate the maximum shear stress for each test.
6. Plot the value of the maximum shear stress versus the corresponding vertical stress for
each test, and determine the angle of internal friction () from the slope of the
approximated Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope.
41
Fig.7.2.6 Sample conditions before and after the test
Formulae:
Shear stress = (Proving Ring Reading * calibration) / area of container
1 division of proving ring reading= 0.3797 kg
Observations:
Dimensions of shear box = 6x6 cm
42
TABLE.NO.2: DIRECT SHEAR TEST READINGS
S. No.
Normal
load Normal stress Proving

(kg/cm2)
(kg)
reading
ring Shear stress (kg/ cm2)

(proving ring reading
x calibration/ area of
container)
1.
0.5
0.5
6.4
0.33
2.
14.4
0.78
3.
1.5
1.5
18.8
1.03
Calculations:
Maximum Dry Density, d = 1.97 gm/cc
Optimum moisture content = 11%
Volume of the mould, V = 6*6*2.5
= 90 cc
1.97= weight/ 90
Weight of sample to be taken = 1.97*90
= 178.3 gm
Water to be added = 178.3 * 0.11
= 19.6 20 ml
(1) Normal stress = 0.5 kg/cm2
Proving ring reading = 6.4
= (6*5) + 4
= 34
Area of mould = 6*6 = 36 cm2
43
Shear stress (1) = (34*0.3797)/36

= 0.33 kg/cm2
(2) Normal stress = 1 kg/cm2
= (13*5) + 6
= 71
Shear stress (2) = (71*0.3797)/36
= 0.75 kg/cm2
(3) Normal stress = 1.5 kg/cm2
= (18*5) + 8
= 98
Shear stress (3) = (98*0.3797)/36
= 1.03 kg/cm2
44
Graph 2:
Fig: ; Graph showing variation of normal load and shear stress in direct shear test.
Result:
Shear strength of the given soil sample is 0.03 kg/ cm2
45
7.3 UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST
Purpose:
The primary purpose of this test is to determine the unconfined compressive strength, which is
then used to calculate the unconsolidated undrained shear strength of the clay under unconfined
conditions. According to the ASTM standard, the unconfined compressive strength (qu) is
defined as the compressive stress at which an unconfined cylindrical specimen of soil will fail in
a simple compression test.
Significance:
For soils, the undrained shear strength (su) is necessary for the determination of the bearing
capacity of foundations, dams, etc. The undrained shear strength (su) of clays is commonly
determined from an unconfined compression test. The undrained shear strength (su) of a cohesive
soil is equal to one-half the unconfined compressive strength (qu) when the soil is under the = 0
condition ( = the angle of internal friction). The most critical condition for the soil usually
occurs immediately after construction, which represents undrained conditions, when the
undrained shear strength is basically equal to the cohesion (c).This is expressed as:
Su = c = qu/2
Then, as time passes, the pore water in the soil slowly dissipates, and the Inter-granular stress
increases, so that the drained shear strength (s), given by s = c + stan , must be used. Where s
= inter-granular pressure acting perpendicular to the shear plane; and s = (s - u), s = total
pressure, and u = pore water pressure; c is drained shear strength parameter.
Equipment:
1. Compression device
2. Load and deformation dial gauges
3. Sample trimming equipment
4. Balance
46
5. Moisture can.
Fig.7.3.1 Unconfined Compression Test Apparatus
Procedure:
1. Sample is prepared at the desired water content and dry density.
2. It is compacted in three layers in a cylindrical tube of standard dimensions.
3. In this type of unconfined compression testing machine, a proving ring is used to measure
the compressive force.
4. There are two plate, having cone seating for the specimen.
5. The specimen is placed on the bottom plate so that it makes contact with the upper plate.
6. The dial gauge and proving ring are set to zero.
7. Compressive load is applied to the specimen by turning the handle.
8. As the handle is turned, the upper plate moves downward and causes compression.
9. The handle is turned gradually so as to produce an axial strain of % to 2 % per minute.
10. The shearing is continued till the specimen fails.
47
11. The compressive force is determined from proving ring reading and axial strain from dial
gauge reading.
Fig.7.3.2 Sample Extractor
48
Fig. 7.3.3Cylindrical Mould
Fig.7.3.4 Extracted soil sample
49
Analysis:
1. Convert the dial readings to the appropriate load and length units, and enter these values
on the data sheet in the deformation and total load columns. (Confirm that the conversion
is done correctly, particularly proving dial gage readings conversion into load)
2. Compute the sample cross-sectional area A0 = d2/4
3. Compute the strain, e = L / L0
4. Computed the corrected area, A' = A0 / (1- e)
5. Using A, compute the specimen stress, sc = P/ A (Be careful with unit conversions and
use constant units).
6. Compute the water content, w%.
7. Plot the stress versus strain. Show qu as the peak stress of the test. Be sure that the strain
is plotted on the abscissa.
8. Draw Mohrs circle using qu from the last step and show the undrained shear strength, su
= c (or cohesion) = qu/2.
Fig. 7.3.5 Load applied on soil specimen
50
Fig.7.3.6 Soil Specimen after failure
Formulae:
1 Proving Ring Reading = 0.3839 kg
Strain = (Compression Dial Reading) / Initial Height of sample
Axial load = Calibration x 1 Proving Ring Reading
Compressive stress = (Axial load/Area)
Observations:
Diameter of the sample = 3.8 cm
Initial height of the sample = 7.8 cm
Area of cross-section = 11.34 cm2
51
TABLE.NO.3: UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST READINGS

Compression Strain Area
dial reading
(mm)
Proving
Axial
A/(1-c )
ring
(kg)
(cm2)
reading
load Compressive stress

(kg/cm2 )
(div)
50
0.641
11.413
0.7
0.26873
0.02354
100
1.282
11.487
0.8
0.30712
0.02673
150
1.923
11.562
1.8
4.9907
0.4316
200
2.564
11.638
2.6
6.1424
0.5277
250
3.205
11.715
3.3
6.9102
0.5898
300
3.846
11.79
3.6
8.0619
0.6837
350
4.487
11.872
4.4
9.2136
0.776
400
5.128
11.95
5.4
11.1331
0.9316
450
5.769
12.034
5.6
11.9009
0.9888
500
6.41
12.11
6.2
12.2848
1.0144
550
7.051
12.2
6.6
13.8204
1.1328
600
7.692
12.28
7.2
14.2043
1.1567
650
8.33
12.37
7.7
16.1238
1.3034
52
Calculations:
Maximum Dry Density, d = 1.97 gm/cc
Optimum moisture content = 11%
Cross-sectional Area of sample = (*d2)/4
= (*3.82)/4
= 11.34 cm2
Volume of the sample = ((*d2)/4)*h
= ((*3.82)/4)*7.8
= 11.34*7.8
= 88.46 cm3
Density = weight / volume
1.97 = weight / 88.46
Weight of sample to be taken = 1.97*88.46
= 175 gm
Water to be added = 175 * 0.11
= 19.36 20 ml
Result:
Maximum unconfined compressive strength of given soil (qu ) = 1.303 kg/cm2
Shear strength of given soil (qu/2) = 0.6515 kg/cm2
53
8. ESTIMATION OF SAFE BEARING CAPACITY

Foundation is that part of the structure which is in direct contact with soil. Foundation
transfers the forces and moments from the super structure to the soil below such that the stresses
in soil are within permissible limits and it provides stability against sliding and overturning to the
super structure. It is a transition between the super structure and foundation soil. The job of a
geotechnical engineer is to ensure that both foundation and soil below are safe against failure and
do not experience excessive settlement. Footing and foundation are synonymous.
Bearing capacity is the power of foundation soil to hold the forces from the
superstructure without undergoing shear failure or excessive settlement. Foundation soil is that
portion of ground which is subjected to additional stresses when foundation and superstructure
are constructed on the ground. The following are a few important terminologies related to
bearing capacity of soil.
Super Structure
Ground Level
Foundation
Foundation Soil
Fig. 8.1 Main components of a structure including soil
54
8.1 Factors influencing Bearing Capacity

Bearing capacity of soil depends on many factors. The following are some important ones.
1. Type of soil
2. Unit weight of soil
3. Surcharge load
4. Depth of foundation
5. Mode of failure
6. Size of footing
7. Shape of footing
8. Depth of water table
9. Eccentricity in footing load
10. Inclination of footing load
11. Inclination of ground
12. Inclination of base of foundation
8.2 Terzaghis bearing Capacity Theory

Terzaghi (1943) was the first to propose a comprehensive theory for evaluating the safe bearing
capacity of shallow foundation with rough base.
8.2.1 Assumptions
1. Soil is homogeneous and Isotropic.
2. The shear strength of soil is represented by Mohr Coulombs Criteria.
3. The footing is of strip footing type with rough base. It is essentially a two dimensional plane
strain problem.
4. Elastic zone has straight boundaries inclined at an angle equal to to the horizontal.
5. Failure zone is not extended above, beyond the base of the footing. Shear resistance of soil
above the base of footing is neglected.
55
6. Method of superposition is valid.

7. Passive pressure force has three components (PPC produced by cohesion, PPq produced by
surcharge and PP produced by weight of shear zone).
8. Effect of water table is neglected.
9. Footing carries concentric and vertical loads.
10. Footing and ground are horizontal.
11. Limit equilibrium is reached simultaneously at all points. Complete shear failure is mobilized
at all points at the same time.
12. The properties of foundation soil do not change during the shear failure
8.2.2 Limitations
1. The theory is applicable to shallow foundations
2. As the soil compresses, increases which is not considered. Hence fully plastic zone may
not develop at the assumed .
3. All points need not experience limit equilibrium condition at different loads.
4. Method of superstition is not acceptable in plastic conditions as the ground is near failure
zone.
56
Fig. 8.2.2 : Terzaghis concept of Footing with five distinct failure zones in foundation soil
8.2.3 Concept
A strip footing of width B gradually compresses the foundation soil underneath due to the
vertical load from superstructure. Let qf be the final load at which the foundation soil experiences
failure due to the mobilization of plastic equilibrium. The foundation soil fails along the
composite failure surface and the region is divided in to five zones, Zone 1 which is elastic, two
numbers of Zone 2 which are the zones of radial shear and two zones of Zone 3 which are the
zones of linear shear. Considering horizontal force equilibrium and incorporating empirical
relation, the equation for ultimate bearing capacity is obtained as follows.
Ultimate bearing capacity, q f = cN c + DN q + 0.5BN
If the ground is subjected to additional surcharge load q, then
q f = cN c + (D + q) N q + 0.5BN
57
Net ultimate bearing capacity, q n = cN c + DN q + 0.5BN D

q n = cN c + D ( N q 1) + 0.5BN
Safe bearing capacity, qs = cNc + D( N q 1) + 0.5BN
] F1 + D
Here, F = Factor of safety (usually 3)

c = cohesion
= unit weight of soil
D = Depth of foundation
q = Surcharge at the ground level
B = Width of foundation
Nc, Nq, N = Bearing Capacity factors
Net safe bearing capacity is the net soil pressure which can be safely applied to the soil
considering only shear failure. It is obtained by dividing the net ultimate bearing capacity by a
suitable factor of safety.
qns
qnu / F
Net ultimate bearing capacity is the net increase in pressure at the base pf the foundation that
causes shear failure of the soil. It is equal to gross pressure minus overburden pressure.
qnu = qu - Df
58
TABLE NO.4
BEARING CAPACITY FACTORS FOR DIFFERENT
Nc
Nq
Ng
N'c
N'q
N'g
5.7
1.0
0.0
5.7
1.0
0.0
7.3
1.6
0.5
6.7
1.4
0.2
10
9.6
2.7
1.2
8.0
1.9
0.5
15
12.9
4.4
2.5
9.7
2.7
0.9
20
17.7
7.4
5.0
11.8
3.9
1.7
25
25.1
12.7
9.7
14.8
5.6
3.2
30
37.2
22.5
19.7
19.0
8.3
5.7
34
52.6
36.5
35.0
23.7
11.7
9.0
35
57.8
41.4
42.4
25.2
12.6
10.1
40
95.7
81.3
100.4
34.9
20.5
18.8
45
172.3
173.3
297.5
51.2
35.1
37.7
48
258.3
287.9
780.1
66.8
50.5
60.4
50
347.6
415.1
1153.2
81.3
65.6
87.1
59
Fig. 8.2.3 : Terzaghis Bearing Capacity Factors for different
8.3 Effect of shape of Foundation
The shape of footing influences the bearing capacity. Terzaghi and other contributors have
suggested the correction to the bearing capacity equation for shapes other than strip footing
based on their experimental findings. The following are the corrections for circular, square and
rectangular footings.
Circular footing
q f = 1 .3cN c + DN q + 0 .3 BN
60
Square footing
q f = 1.3cN c + DN q + 0.4BN
Rectangular footing
B
B
q f = (1 + 0.3 )cN c + DN q + (1 0.2 )0.5BN
L
L
8.4 Summary of Shape factors

Table 7.2 gives the summary of shape factors suggested for strip, square, circular and
rectangular footings. B and L represent the width and length respectively of rectangular footing
such that B < L.
Table 7.3 : Shape factors for different shapes of footing

Shape
sc
sq
Square
1.3
0.8
Round
1.3
0.6
B
(1 + 0.3 )
L
B
(1 0.2 )
L
Strip
Rectangle
8.5 Calculation of safe bearing capacity
For a square footing,

qu = 1.2 c Nc + q Nq + 0.4 B N
Nc , Nq, N are bearing capacity factors.
61
Nq
Nc
Kp
= coefficient of passive earth pressure.
8.6 Factor of Safety

It is the factor of ignorance about the soil under consideration. It depends on many factors such
as,
1. Type of soil
2. Method of exploration
3. Level of Uncertainty in Soil Strength
4. Importance of structure and consequences of failure
5. Likelihood of design load occurrence, etc.
Assume a factor of safety F = 3, unless otherwise specified for bearing capacity problems.
62
From direct shear test graph,

Cohesion, c = 300 kg/ m2
Angle of shear resistance = 330 49
For = 330 49
Nc = 52.6
Nq = 36.5
N = 30.0
Result
Ultimate bearing capacity,
qu = 202.18 t/ m2
Net ultimate bearing capacity,
qnu = 198 t/ m2
Net safe bearing capacity,
qns = 198/3
= 66.06 t/ m2
63
9. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR RETAINING WALLS

9.1 WALL DEFORMATIONS AND EARTH PRESSURES
Earth pressures are a function of both the type and magnitude of wall deformations. In
cohesion less soils, deflections of the order of 0.001H and 0.05H are required to develop active
and passive pressure, respectively, and the order of0.04H to develop active pressure in cohesive
soils. Deflections needed to develop passive pressure in cohesive soils are not exactly defined.
Most retaining walls of the gravity type are normally designed for active pressure. However,
certain categories of retaining walls are restrained at the top and are not free to tilt, as for
example, basement walls restrained by floor slabs and bridge abutments restrained by the deck
structure. In such cases, the earth pressure at rest should be used in the design. Compacting of a
backfill against a rigid wall will result in an increase in the K0 value. In the design of a gravity
wall, the passive resistance in front of the toe is usually ignored unless the wall base is founded
at a considerable depth below grade level.
9.2 BACKFILL MATERIAL

Wherever there is a choice, clean, granular backfill material should be preferred because
the computed active earth pressures are more reliable in such cases and there is less likelihood of
hydrostatic pressure build-up under adequate provision of drainage. Some forms of filter material
should be used just behind a retaining wall to preclude pore water pressure development within
the backfill. The water collecting in the filter is led away weep holes which are provided within
the section of the retaining wall.
It may be noted that when the nature of backfill changes from a free drainage to one
having water table at the top of the wall, the lateral pressure will more than double. Even a
change from a simple wet condition to a fully saturated condition may increase the lateral
pressure by 20 to 30 percent. Hence, it is much more desirable to provide suitable drainage than
to design a retaining wall for the larger pressure which will be induced if the backfill does not
readily drain.
Clay backfills should be avoided as far as possible, essentially because they are
susceptible to swelling and shrinkage during rainy and summer seasons, respectively. Swelling is
64
likely to cause unpredictable earth pressures and wall movements while shrinkage may lead to
tension cracks in soil. The cracks may subsequently get filled with water, adding considerably to
the lateral pressure.
9.3 GRAVITY RETAINING WALLS

As in design of all other structures, a trial section is first chosen and analyzed. If the stability
checks yield unsatisfactory results, the section is changed, and rechecked. Figure shows the
general proportions of a gravity retaining wall of overall height H. the top width of the stem
should be at least 0.3m for proper placement of the concrete in the stem. The depth, D, of the
foundation below the soil surface should be at least 0.6m. The base width of the soil is generally
between 0.5H to 0.7H; with an average height of 2H/3.
Fig.9.3.1 Gravity Retaining wall
65
The earth pressure can be computed using Rankines theory or Coulombs theory. For using
Rankines theory a vertical line AB is drawn through the heel point A. it is assumed that Rankine
active condition exist along vertical line AB. However, the assumption for the development of
Rankines conditions along AB is theoretically justified only if the shear zone bounded by the
line AC is not obstructed by the stem of the wall, where AC makes an angle with the vertical,
given by
= (450 + i/2) - l/2 - sin-1(sin i/ sin l)
where i is the angle of surcharge.
The angle which the line AC makes with the horizontal is given by,
= (450+ l/2) i/2 + sin-1(sin i/ sin l)
when i=0, the value of is equal to (450+ l/2)
While checking the stability, the weight of soil (Ws) above the heel in the zone ABC
should also be taken into consideration, in addition to the earth pressure on the back face (Pa), the
forces to be considered are only Pa (coulomb) and the weight of the wall (Wc). In this case, the
weight of the soil (Ws) is not to be considered separately.
Once the forces acting on the wall have been determined, the stability is checked using
the procedure shown in the preceding section. For convenience, the section of the retaining wall
is divided into rectangles and triangles for the computation of weight and determination of the
line of action of the weights.
9.4 DESIGN
The earth pressure is computed using Rankines theory on the vertical plane AB, provided the
shear zone bounded by the line AC is not obstructed by the stem of the wall. The line AC makes
an angle with the vertical given by the equation,
= (450 + i/2) - l/2 - sin-1(sin i/ sin l)
Figure below shows the forces acting on the wall. The Rankine pressure Pa acts at an angle i with
the horizontal. It is resolved into vertical and horizontal components Pv and Ph, as shown. The
66
passive pressure Pp is generally neglected. For convenience, the weight of soil (Ws) over the slab
is divided into two parts. Likewise, the weight of stem is divided into two parts.
a) Factor of safety against sliding
The factor of safety against sliding may be expressed as
Fs = FR / Fd
Where FR =sum of the horizontal resisting forces,
and Fd =sum of horizontal driving forces
hence the final equation is, Fs= ((V) tan 2 + bc2 + Pp) / (Ph)
where b = base width,
V = sum of all vertical forces; Wc, Ws, Pv
Pv = Pa sini, Ph = Pa cosi
Pp = passive force in the front of the wall
= Kp22D2 + 2c2 Kp21/2 D
where c2, 2 and 2 are parameters of the foundation soil.
The factor of safety can also be determined from the equation
Fs = RV / RH
Where RV and RH are vertical and horizontal reaction forces
= coefficient of friction between base of the wall and the soil
= tan 2/3
A minimum factor of safety of 1.5 against sliding is generally recommended.
67
b) Factor of safety against overturning

The wall must be safe against overturning about toe.
The factor of safety against overturning is given by
F0 = MR / M0
Where MR = sum of the resisting moments about toe,
M0 = sum of the overturning moments about toe.
The only overturning force is Ph, acting at a height of H/3
M0 = Ph * H/3
The resisting moments (MR) are due to weights of the soil and the concrete. The vertical
components of pressure Pv also helps in resisting moment. Its resisting moment is given
by
Mv = Pv * b
The factor of safety against overturning is usually kept between 1.5 and 2.
c) Factor of safety against bearing capacity failure
The sum of vertical forces acting on the base is equal to V. The horizontal force is Ph.
the resultant force(R) is given by
R = ((V)2 + (Ph)2)0.5
The net moment of these forces about toe B is given by
M = MR M0
The distance xl of the point E, from the toe, where R strikes the base is given by
xl= M / V
hence, the eccentricity e of R is given by
68
e = b/2 - xl
if e > b/6, the section should be changed as it indicates tension.
The pressure distribution under the base slab is determined as
Pmax = (V/b) * (1+ (6e/b))
Pmin = (V/b) * (1- (6e/b))
The factor of safety against bearing failure is given by
Fb = qna / Pmax
Where qna= allowable bearing pressure.
Generally, a factor of safety of 3 is usually specified, provided the settlement is also within the
allowable limit.
69
10.
DESIGN OF THE RETAINING WALL
By considering the above design procedure and keeping in view of soil analysis, the existing
section should be modified and reconstructed. The Existing section of Retaining wall is shown in
the figure below.
EXISTING SECTION
0.55 m
3.68 m
1m
0.55 m
1.5 m
3.05 m
Fig. 10.1 Existing section of Retaining wall
70
0.5 m
TRIAL SECTION 1
0.55 m
2.245 m
0.5 m
1m
0.5 m
0.5 m
1.6 m
0.5 m
2.6 m
Fig. 10.2 Trial section1
71
TABLE NO. 5 : LOAD DETAILS OF THE TRIAL SECTION 1

s. no
Components
Load
Moment
Lever
arm at sill sill
at Lever
arm at
floor level
Moment at
floor level
Above sill level:-
Heel side triangular

portion
0.50*0.5*2.245*2.3 1.291
0.717
0.926
1.767
2.281
0.275
0.781
1.325
3.763
1.05
Rectangular portion
0.55*2.245*2.3 =
2.84
Toe side triangular

portion
0.5*0*2.245*2.3 = 0
Total
4.131
1.707
6.044
Below sill level:II

4
Trapezoidal footing
a
Rectangular portion
1.05*1*2.3
2.415
1.575
3.804
0.633
0.867
0.549
2.99
1.3
3.887
0.5*3.245*2
3.245
2.123
6.89
Total
13.414
Triangular portion
1*0.5*1*2.3
Final footing
2.6*0.5*2.3
Weight of earth
21.174
72
Check for the stresses at sill level:xl= M / V

=1.707/ 4.131
= 0.413 m
e = (b / 2) - xl
= (1.05/2) 0.413)
= 0.112 m
b / 6 = 0.175 m
e<b/6
Thus, safe against tension
Maximum stress, Pmax = (V/b) * (1+ (6e/b))
= (4.131/1.05)* (1+6*0.112/1.05)
= 6.5 t/m2
Minimum stress, Pmin = (V/b) * (1- (6e/b))
= (4.131/1.05)* (1-6*0.112/1.05)
= 1.32 t/m2 < 53 t/m2 for M20 grade concrete
Factor of safety against bearing capacity,
Fb = qna / Pmax
= (66 / 6.5)
= 10.15 > 3
Thus, safe against bearing failure
Where qna = allowable bearing pressure.
Check for stresses at foundation level:xl = M / V
= 15.13 / 9.283
73
= 1.6
e = -((b / 2) - xl)
= -((2.6/2) 1.6)
=0.3
b/6 = 2.6/6
=0.433
e<b/6
= (10.169/2.6) * (1+(6*0.3/2.6))
= 6.042 t/m2
= (10.169/2.6) * (1+(6*0.3/2.6))
Fb = qna / Pmax
= (66 / 6.042)
= 10.92 > 3
Check for sliding failure:Fs = RV / RH
= (0.674*10.169) / 3.245
= 2.11 >1.5
Thus, safe against sliding
74

= tan (where = 340)
Check for overturning failure:The wall must be safe against overturning about toe. The factor of safety against overturning is
given by
F0 = MR / M0
= 14.248 / 6.89
= 2.073> 2
Thus, safe against overturning
Where MR = sum of the resisting moments about toe.
M0 = sum of the overturning moments about toe.
75
TRIAL SECTION 2
0.55m
2.245 m
0.5m
1m
0.5 m
0.25 m
0.7 m
2.5 m
Fig. 10.4 Trial section 2
76
0.5 m
TABLE NO.7 : LOAD DETAILS OF TRIAL SECTION 2

S. no Components
Load
Lever
Moment
arm at sill sill
at Lever
arm at
floor level
Moment at
floor level
I Above sill level:-
Heel side triangular 1.29

portion
0.5*0.5*2.245*2.3=
Rectangular portion 2.839
0.55*2.245*2.3 =
Total
0.716
0.923
1.66
2.15
0.275
0.78
1.225
3.47
4.129
1.703
5.62
Below sill level:II

4
Trapezoidal footing
a
Rectangular portion
1.05*1*2.3
2.415
1.475
3.56
0.805
0.716
0.576
2.875
1.25
3.593
0.25*3.245*2
1.6225
2.122
3.44
Total
11.846
Triangular portion
0.7*0.5*1*2.3
Final footing
2.5*0.5*2.3
Weight of earth
16.789
77
Check for the stresses at sill level:xl = M / V

= 1.703/4.129
= 0.412 m
e = xl b/2
= 0.412-(1.05/2)
= 0.113 m
b / 6 = 1.05/6
=0.175 m
e<b/6
= (4.129/1.05)* (1+(6*0.113/1.05))
= 6.47 t/m2
= (4.129/1.05)* (1+(6*0.113/1.05))
Fb = qna / Pmax
= (66 / 6.47)
= 10.2> 3
78

=16.789/10.223
=1.642 m
e = - ((b / 2) - xl)
= - ((2.5/2) 1.642)
=0.392 m
b/6 = 2.5/6
= 0.416
e < b/6
= (10.223/2.5)*(1+6*0.392/2.5)
= 7.93 t/m2
= (10.223/2.5)*(1-6*0.392/2.5)
Fb = qna / Pmax
= (66 / 7.93)
= 8.32> 3; safe against bearing failure
79
= (0.674*10.223) /1.6225
= 4.24 >1.5
= tan (where = 340)
given by
F0 = MR / M0
= 16.78/3.44
= 4.87> 2
Where MR = sum of the resisting moments about toe
M0 = sum of the overturning moments about toe
80
TRIAL SECTION 3
0.55m
2.245 m
0.5 m
1m
0.25 m
0.4m
0.7 m
2.4 m
Fig. 10.3 Trial Section 3
81
0.5 m
TABLE NO.6 : LOAD DETAILS OF TRIAL SECTION 3

s. no
Components
Load
Moment
Lever
arm at sill sill
at Lever
arm at
floor level
Moment at
floor level
I Above sill level:1
Heel side triangular

portion
0.5*0.5*2.245*2.3 1.29
=
Rectangular portion
0.716
0.923
1.66
2.15
0.55*2.245*2.3 =
2.839
0.275
0.78
1.225
3.47
Total
4.129
1.703
5.62
Below sill level:II

4
Trapezoidal footing
a
Rectangular portion
1.05*1*2.3
2.415
1.475
3.562
0.805
0.716
0.576
2.76
1.2
3.312
0.25*3.245*2
1.622
2.123
3.44
Total
11.731
Triangular portion
0.5*0.7*1*2.3
Final footing
2.4 *0.5*2.3
Weight of earth
16.51
82
Check for the stresses at sill level:xl = M / V

= 1.703/4.129
= 0.412 m
e = (b / 2) - xl
= (1.05/2) 0.412
= 0.525 0.412
= 0.113 m
b / 6 = 0.175 m
e<b/6
= (4.129/1.05) * (1+(6*0.113/1.05))
= 6.47 t/m2
= (4.129/1.05) * (1-(6*0.113/1.05))
Fb = qna / Pmax
= (66 / 6.47)
= 10.2 > 3
83

= 16.512/11.731
= 1.407 m
e = -((b / 2) - xl )
= 1.407 1.2
=0.207 m
b/6 = 2.4/6
= 0.4 m
e<b/6
= (11.731/2.4)*(1+(6*0.207/2.4))
= 7.417 t/m2
= (11.731/2.4)*(1-(6*0.207/2.4))
= 2.35 t/m2< 53 t/m2 for M20 grade concrete
Factor of safety against bearing capacity
Fb = qna / Pmax
= (66 / 7.417 )
= 8.898 > 3
84
= (0.674*10.109)/1.622
= 4.205 >1.5
= tan (where = 340)
given by
F0 = MR / M0
= 13.07/3.44
= 3.79 > 2
Where MR = sum of the resisting moments about toe
M0 = sum of the overturning moments about toe
85
Result
The width of the foundation for the third trial section is less when compared to other two
sections. Hence, among the three trial sections, the third trial section is economical.
Fig.10.5 Retaining wall being constructed
86
CONCLUSION
The project, designing of retaining wall for a minor bridge is the consequence of
prestigious metro rail project. In the construction course of metro railway, a four lane road way
has to be extended to six lanes, to avoid the occurrence of traffic problems. The minor bridgein
this course also has to be extended.
We took existing four lane retaining wall as an example and designed retaining wall
for the six lane road way. Each section has been analyzed for failure against sliding, overturning,
tension and bearing capacity. After doing trials for many sections, we got a section satisfying all
the safety conditions, approximating the standard dimensions of a gravity retaining wall.
The location of minor bridge being in rocky strata, with moorum soil, we got a high
bearing capacity value. Taking this as a reference, we also designed two economical sectionswith reduced dimensions. Hence, apart from the main modified section other two sections can
also be considered to make the project economical, which is the main philosophy behind the
project.
87
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering by Dr.K.R.Arora

2. Irrigation Engineering And Hydraulic Structures by S.K.Garg
3. www.nptel.iitm.ac.in
4. www.wikipedia.com
5. www.aboutcivil.com
6. http://elearning.vtu.ac.in
7. http://engineering.sdsu.edu
88

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Project Report

A project report submitted in the partial fulfillment of

Under the guidance of

GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND

2. Objective of the project

3.1 Bridge definition

3.2 Classification of bridges

3.3 Bridge specifications

4. Soil strata analysis

4.1 Type of soil

4.2 Properties of soil

5. Effect of wall movement on earth pressure

6.1 Types of retaining walls

7.2 Direct shear test

7.3 Unconfined compressive test

8. Estimation of safe bearing capacity

8.1 Factors influencing bearing capacity

8.2 Terzaghis bearing capacity theory

8.3 Effect of shape of Foundation

8.4 Summary of Shape factors

8.5 Factor of safety

8.6 Calculation of safe bearing capacity

9. Design considerations for a retaining wall

9.1Wall Deformations And Earth Pressures

9.2 Backfill Material

9.3 Gravity Retaining Walls

10. Designing of retaining wall

Existing Minor Bridge

Effect of Wall Movement on Earth Pressure

Gravity Retaining Wall

Cantilever Retaining Wall

Counter-fort Retaining Wall

Anchored Retaining Wall

Compaction Mould and Rammer

Direct Shear Apparatus

Components of Direct Shear Mould

Components of Direct Shear Apparatus

Load applied on Soil Sample

Sample conditions before and after the test

Unconfined Compression Test Apparatus

Extracted soil sample

Load applied on soil specimen

Soil Specimen after failure

Main components of a structure including soil

Terzaghis concept of Footing with five distinct failure

Terzaghis Bearing Capacity Factors for different

Gravity Retaining wall

Existing section of Retaining wall

Retaining wall being constructed

Standard Compaction Test

Unconfined Compression Test

Load Details Of The Trial

Load Details Of The Trial

Graph showing the variation

of moisture content and dry

density in compaction test

Graph showing variation of

normal load and shear stress in

2. OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES

3.2.1 MINOR BRIDGE