Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
In this chapter we study energy and power spectra and their relations to signal duration, periodicity
and correlation functions.
12.1
Let f (t) be an electric potential in Volt applied across a resistance of R = 1 ohm. The total
energy dissipated in such a resistance is given by
2
E=
(12.1)
f (t) /R dt.
Since the resistance value is unity the dissipated energy may be also be referred to as normalized
energy. In what follows we shall refer to it simply as the dissipated energy, with the implicit
assumption that it is the energy dissipated into a resistance of 1 ohm.
We recall Parsevals theorem which states that if a function f (t) is generally complex and if
F (j) is the Fourier transform of f (t) then
1
|F (j)|2 d.
(12.2)
|f (t)|2 dt =
2
(12.3)
The function |F (j)|2 is called the energy spectral density, or simply the energy density, of f (t).
It is attributed the special symbol f f (), that is,
2
f f () 4
= |F (j)| .
(12.4)
(12.5)
(12.7)
825
826
(12.8)
(12.9)
The function
f1 f2 () 4
=F1 (j) F2 (j)
(12.10)
is called the cross-energy spectral density. The cross energy of the two signals is then given by
1
f f ()d.
(12.11)
E=
2 1 2
Example 12.1 Consider the ideal lowpass filter frequency response shown in Fig. 12.1. We have
FIGURE 12.1
Ideal lowpass filter frequency response.
A
Sa ( t/2) .
2
FIGURE 12.2
A frequency band of lowpass filter response.
827
E (/4, /2) =
2
2
/2
A2 d =
/4
A2
.
4
(12.12)
A2 2
4 2
h2 (t)dt =
Sa2 (t/2)dt.
(12.13)
2
2
/2
hh ()d =
0
A2
.
2
(12.14)
We note that we have thus evaluated in passing the integral of the square of the sampling function.
In particular, we found that
A2 2
A2
.
(12.15)
E=
Sa2 (t/2)dt =
4 2
2
Substituting t/2 = x, we have
Sa2 (x)dx = .
(12.16)
FIGURE 12.3
Truncated sinusoid.
We have
T /2 (t) T Sa (T /2)
AT
{Sa [( c ) T /2] + Sa [( + c ) T /2]}
2
wherefrom the energy spectral density is given by
vT vT () = |VT (j)|2 = (A2 T 2 /4) Sa2 [( c ) T /2]
VT (j) 4
=F [vT (t)] =
828
FIGURE 12.4
Energy spectral density.
12.2
The average normalized power, or simply average power, of a signal f (t) is defined by
T
1
f 2 (t)4
|f (t)|2 dt.
=Tlim
2T
T
The energy E, as seen above, is given by
1
E=
f 2 (t)dt =
|F (j)|2 d.
2
(12.17)
(12.18)
A signal which has a finite energy E has an average power f 2 (t) of zero. Such a signal is called an
energy signal.
A power signal is one that has infinite energy and finite non-nil average power, i.e. 0 < f 2 (t) <
. A periodic signal is a power signal. Its average power P is evaluated as its power over one
period.
Let f (t) be periodic of period T0 . Its average normalized power, or simply average power, is
given by
T0 /2
T0 /2
1
1
|f (t)|2 dt =
f (t)f (t)dt.
T0 T0 /2
T0 T0 /2
From Parsevals relation for periodic functions
T0 /2
X
1
|Fn |2 .
|f (t)|2 dt =
T0 T0 /2
n=
P = f 2 (t) =
(12.19)
(12.20)
n=
12.3
|Fn |2 .
(12.21)
Discrete-Time signals
For discrete-time signals the energy and average power are similarly defined. If a sequence f [n]
has finite energy, defined as,
X
f 2 [n]
(12.22)
E=
n=
829
P = lim
(12.23)
M 1
1 X 2
f [n] .
M n=0
n=
fn (t nT )
(12.24)
(12.25)
such as the one shown in Fig. 12.5 and which can be an ideal sampling of a continuous-time signal,
is considered to be an energy signal if its average power defined as
FIGURE 12.5
Impulsive signal.
1
M 2M T
lim
M
X
n=M
|fn |2
(12.26)
12.4
Energy Signals
Let f (t) and g (t) be two real energy signals. We show that the Fourier transform of their crosscorrelation function rf g (t) is equal to the cross spectral density f g ().
We have already seen that correlation can be written as a convolution
rf g (t) =
f (t + ) g ( ) d = f (t) g (t)
(12.27)
(12.28)
(12.29)
830
i.e. the Fourier transform of the cross-correlation function of two energy signals is equal to their
cross-energy spectral density.
We note moreover, that if the functions f (t) and g (t) are complex then
rf g (t) =
f (t + ) g ( ) d
(12.30)
(12.31)
(12.32)
Moreover
12.5
The Fourier transform of the autocorrelation function rf f (t) of an energy signal f (t) is given by
Rf f (j) = F [rf f (t)] = F (j) F (j) = |F (j)|2 = f f ()
i.e.
rf f (t) |F (j)|2 = f f ()
(12.33)
(12.34)
f f () = Rf f (j)
(12.35)
so that the Fourier transform of the autocorrelation function of an energy signal is equal to the
energy spectral density of the signal.
We note that the Fourier transform F (j) of a complex function f (t) is not in general symmetric
2
about origin, that is, F (j) 6= F (j). The energy spectral density f f () 4
= |F (j)| is real
but not symmetric about the origin. Being real, however, its inverse transform is symmetric, that
is, rf f (t) = rff (t), as already established.
We note on the other hand that if the function f (t) is real then F (j) = F (j) wherefrom
the function f f () = |F (j)|2 is even and its inverse transform rf f (t) is real (and even);
rf f (t) = rf f (t).
Let f (t) be generally complex. Writing
4
rf f,R (t) 4
=< [rf f (t)] , rf f,I (t) == [rf f (t)]
(12.36)
(12.37)
(12.38)
f f () =
rf f (t)ejt dt
=2
(12.39)
rf f (t) =
=
1
2
1
2
f f () ejt d
f f () cos t d + j
i.e.
rf f, R (t) =
1
2
f f () sin t d
f f () cos t d
(12.40)
(12.41)
831
1
2
1
2
We note that
rf f (0) =
f f () sin t d.
(12.42)
f f ()d.
(12.43)
rf f (t) cos t dt
(12.44)
(12.45)
f f () cos t d
(12.46)
and
rf f (t) rf f (0) = E
(12.47)
FIGURE 12.6
A rectangle, spectral density and autocorrelation function.
832
y(t)
h(t)
FIGURE 12.7
Linear system with input and output.
12.6
Let an energy signal f (t) be the input to a linear time invariant LTI system of impulse response
h (t), as shown in Fig. 12.7.
Let rf f (t) and ryy (t) be the autocorrelation of f (t) and of y (t), respectively. We have
Rf f (j) = F [rf f (t)] = |F (j)|2
(12.48)
(12.49)
(12.50)
(12.51)
(12.52)
yy () = f f () |H (j)|2 .
(12.53)
F 1 [H (j)] = h (t)
(12.54)
(12.55)
Now
wherefrom
i.e.
Hence
Moreover
we have
i.e. the autocorrelation of the system response is the convolution of the input signal autocorrelation
with the convolution h (t) h (t).
12.7
X
=
f [n] (t nT )
(12.56)
(12.57)
n=
n=
(t nT ) =
n=
fc (nT ) (t nT ) .
(12.58)
833
FIGURE 12.8
Signal with equidistant impulses and discrete-time signal counterpart.
Associated with fc (t) and fs (t) we also have a discrete-time function, namely, the sequence
f [n] = fc (nT ) shown in Fig. 12.8 (b). The energy of the signal fs (t) as well as that of f [n] are
defined by the summation
X
|f [n]|2 .
(12.59)
E=
n=
If the energy is finite then the signal fs (t) and the sequence f [n] are energy signals. The autocorrelation of the signal fs (t) can be obtained by evaluating the auto-correlation rf f [n] of the
corresponding sequence f [n]. In fact the auto-correlation of fs (t) is given by
rfs fs (t) =
fs ( ) fs (t + ) d
=
=
m=
XX
m
=
=
f [m] ( mT )
XX
m
i
m= i=
i=
f [i] (t + iT ) d
f [m]f [i] ( mT ) (t + iT ) d
f [m]f [i]
( mT ) (t + iT ) d
f [m]f [i] (t (i m) T ) .
Letting i m = n we have
rfs fs (t) =
m= n=
f [m]f [m + n] (t nT ) .
(12.60)
n= m=
f [m] f [m + n] (t nT ) =
where
n =
n=
f [m]f [m + n] .
n (t nT )
(12.61)
(12.62)
m=
On the other hand the discrete auto-correlation of the corresponding sequence f [n] is given by
rf f [n] =
m=
f [m]f [n + m] .
(12.63)
834
FIGURE 12.9
Auto-correlation of an impulsive signal.
Hence
n = rf f [n] .
(12.64)
X
1 X
2n
f [n] (t nT ) =
Fs (j) = F
Fc j + j
.
(12.65)
T n=
T
n=
This is equal to the Fourier transform F ej of the discrete-time counterpart, the sequence
f [n] with = T .
X
jn
j
f [n]e
= Fs (j) =/T = Fs j
F e
=
.
(12.66)
T
n=
The energy density fs fs () of the signal fs (t) is given by
fs fs () = |Fs (j)|2
(12.67)
and is therefore periodic of a period 2/T . Similarly the energy density of the sequence f [n] is
given by
2
f f () = F ej
(12.68)
and is periodic with a period 2. The autocorrelation rfs fs (t) maybe written as the convolution:
rfs fs (t) = fs (t) ? fs (t) = fs (t) fs (t)
Rfs fs (j) =
Fs (j) Fs
2
Rf f ei = F ej F ej = F ej = f f () .
X
X
n ejnT
n (t nt) =
fs fs () = Rfs fs (j) = F
(12.70)
(12.71)
(12.72)
(12.73)
n=
n=
and
(12.69)
X
f f () = Rf f ej =
rf f [n]ejn .
n=
(12.74)
835
Since f (t) is real we have rf f [n] = rf f [n] and rfs fs (t) = rfs fs (t), i.e., n = n .
fs fs () = 0 + 2
n cos nT = rf f [0] + 2
f f () = rf f [0] + 2
rf f [n] cos nT
(12.75)
n1
n=1
and
rf f [n] cos n .
(12.76)
n=1
FIGURE 12.10
Impulsive signal and its autocorrelation.
Its autocorrelation is shown in Fig. 12.10 (b). The autocorrelation may be found by evaluating
the auto correlation of the corresponding sequence f [n] = [n 1] + 2[n 2]. We have
n = rf f [n] =
n=
The sequence f [n] and its auto correlation rf f [n] = n are shown in Fig. 12.11.
FIGURE 12.11
A sequence and its autocorrelation.
836
Alternatively, we have
Fs (j) = ejt + 2ejt = (cos T + 2 cos 2T ) j (sin T + 2 sin 2T )
Similarly f f () = Rf f e
Example 12.5 Let
fs fs () = |Fs (j)|2 .
= 5 + 4 cos .
fc (t) =
t/10,
0 t 30
6 t/10, 30 t 60.
Evaluate the sampled function fs (t), the discrete-time function f [n] and their auto-correlations,
assuming a sampling interval of T = 10 sec. We have
fs (t) = (t T ) + 2 (t 2T ) + 3 (t 3T ) + 2 (t 4T ) + (t 5T )
n,
0n3
f [n] = fc (nT ) = fc (10n) =
6 n, 3 n 6
n = rf f [n] = [n + 4] + 4 [n + 3] + 10 [n + 2] + 16 [n + 1]
+ 19 [n] + 16 [n 1] + 10 [n 2] + 4 [n 3] + [n 4] .
The sequence f [n] and its autocorrelation [n] = rf f [n] are shown in Fig. 12.12 (a) and (b),
respectively.
FIGURE 12.12
Sequence f [n] and its autocorrelation.
The energy spectral density f f () of the sequence f [n] is shown in Fig. 12.13.
Alternatively,
Fs (j) = ejT + 2ej2T + 3ej3T + 2ej4T + ej5T
837
FIGURE 12.13
Energy spectral density.
fs fs () = |Fs (j)|2 = Fs (j) Fs (j) .
Letting
z = ejT , z = ejT = z 1 .
We have, with z = ej ,
fs fs () = z 1 + 2z 2 + 3z 3 + 2z 4 + z 5
z + 2z 2 + 3z 3 + 2z 4 + z 5
12.8
Powers Signals
(12.77)
where
T
1
|f (t)|2 dt
(12.78)
T 2T
T
and that a periodic signal is a power signal having an average power evaluated over one period
X
1 T /2
P = f 2 (t) =
|f (t)|2 dt =
|Fn |2 .
(12.79)
T T /2
n=
f 2 (t) = lim
In the following the cross and auto-correlation of such signals are defined.
12.9
Cross-Correlation
Let f (t) and g (t) be two real power signals. The cross-correlation rf g (t) is given by
T
1
rf g (t) = lim
f (t + )g ( ) d
T 2T
T
(12.80)
838
(12.81)
as is the case for energy signals. If f (t) and g (t) are complex then
T
1
f (t + ) g ( ) d
rf g (t) = lim
T 2T
T
(12.82)
rf g (t) = rgf
(t)
T
1
rf f (t) = lim
f ( )f (t + ) d
T 2T
T
(12.83)
(12.84)
rf f (t) = rf f (t)
and
1
T 2T
rf f (0) = lim
12.9.1
T
T
(12.85)
|f (t) |2 dt = f 2 (t) .
(12.86)
For a real power signal f (t) the power spectral density denoted by Sf f () is by definition the
Fourier transform of the autocorrelation function.
Sf f () = F [rf f (t)] = Rf f (j).
(12.87)
Since rf f (t) is real and even its transform Sf f () is real and even. We have
Sf f () = 2
rf f (t) cos t dt
(12.88)
and
rf f (t) =
Sf f () cos t d.
(12.89)
Let
fT (t) = f (t) T (t) = f (t) {u (t + T ) u (t T )}
(12.90)
f (t)ejt dt.
(12.91)
The average power density over the interval (T, T ) is the energy over the interval divided by the
duration 2T . Denoting it by ST () we have
ST () 4
=
1
|FT (j)|2 .
2T
(12.92)
Sf f () = lim ST () = lim
T 2T
|FT (j)|2 .
(12.93)
In fact
Sf f () = F [rf f (t)] = F
1
= lim
T 2T
1
T 2T
= lim
1
T 2T
lim
fT (t + ) fT ( ) d
T
fT (t + ) fT ( )d ejt dt
fT ( )
fT (t + ) ejt dt d.
(12.94)
Let
t+ = x
(12.95)
1
T 2T
Sf f () = lim
= lim
T 2T
fT ( )
T
T
839
fT (x) ej(x ) dx d
fT ( )ej FT (j) d
T
1
1
FT (j)
FT (j) FT (j)
f ( )ej d = lim
T
T 2T
2T
T
1
= lim
|FT (j)|2 = lim ST () .
T 2T
T
= lim
12.10
(12.96)
Let f (t) be a power signal applied to the input of a linear time invariant LTI system the impulse
response of which h (t) is an energy signal. The system response may be written
y (t) = f (t) h (t) =
f ( )h (t ) d.
(12.97)
Let rf f (t) and Sf f () be the autocorrelation and spectral density respectively of the input f (t).
The autocorrelation of the output signal y (t) is given by
T
1
y ( )y (t + ) d
ryy (t) = lim
T 2T
T
(12.98)
T
1
= lim
h (u)f ( u) du
h (x)f (t + x) dx dt.
T 2T
T
T
T u
1
= lim
h (u)
h (x)
f ()f ( + u + t x) d dx du
T 2T
T u
=
h (u)
h (x)rf f (u + t x) dx du.
(12.99)
(12.100)
i.e.
z (t) = h (t) rf f (t)
we have
ryy (t) =
(12.101)
(12.102)
We conclude that the system response y (t) is a power signal the autocorrelation ryy (t) of which is
the convolution of the input signal autocorrelation rf f (t) with the function h (t) h (t) that is,
the convolution of h (t) with is reflection. Moreover,
Syy () = F [ryy (t)] = F [rf f (t)] H (j) H (j) = Sf f () |H (j)|2 .
(12.103)
840
We conclude that the time domain convolution y(t) = f (t) h(t) leads to the power spectral
density transformation
Syy () = Sf f () |H (j)|2
(12.104)
and that more generally, the convolution y(t) = f (t) x(t) of a power signal f (t) and an energy
signal x(t) leads to the power spectral density transformation
Syy () = Sf f () |X (j)|2 .
(12.105)
(12.106)
wherefrom rf f (t) = (t) and Syy () = |H (j)|2 , i.e. the power density of the system response
is equal to the energy density of the impulse response h (t).
Example 12.6 Let f (t) = K, where K is a constant. The autocorrelation of f (t) given by
1
T 2T
rf f (t) = lim
K 2 dt = K 2
is a constant, and
as shown in Fig. 12.14.
Sf f () = F [rf f (t)] = Rz zj = 2K 2 ()
FIGURE 12.14
A constant, autocorrelation and power spectral density.
The power by direct evaluation is P = K 2 and, alternatively,
1
2
Sf f ()d = K 2 .
P = f (t) =
2
Note that functions that are absolutely integrable such et u (t) have finite energy and thus
represent energy signals whereas functions such as the step function and unity represent power
signals.
Example 12.7 Evaluate the autocorrelation and spectral density of the signal
f (t) = Ku (t) .
The signal is shown in Fig. 12.15(a).
K2
T 2T
rf f (t) = lim
u ( ) u (t + ) d.
841
FIGURE 12.15
Unit step function, autocorrelation and power spectral density.
u( )u (t + ) d
T
and
rf f (t) = lim
d = T
o
K2
K2
I=
, t > 0.
2T
2
12.11
n=
f [n] (t nT ) .
(12.107)
If the average power of f (t) is finite and not zero, that is,
N1
1 X
|f [n]|2 <
N 2N
n=N
0 < lim
(12.108)
then f (t) is a power signal. As noted earlier fs (t) may be the result of ideal sampling of a
continuous-time function fc (t)
fs (t) =
n=
fc (nT ) (t nT ) .
(12.109)
842
The discrete-time representation of the same signal is the sequence f [n] defined by f [n] = fc (nT ).
The autocorrelation of fs (t) is given by
1
T 2T
fs ( ) fs (t + ) d.
(12.110)
As in the case of impulsive and discrete-time energy signals it can be shown that
rfs fs (t) =
n=
n (t nT )
(12.111)
where
1
M 2M T
M
1
X
n = lim
f [m]f [m + n] .
(12.112)
m=M
n ejnT = 0 + 2
"
n=
n (t nT )
n cos nT .
(12.113)
n=1
n=
rf f [n] = lim
so that
n =
M
1
X
f [m]f [n + m]
1
rf f [n]
T
(12.115)
(12.114)
m=M
rf f [n]ejn
n=
rf f [n] cos n.
(12.116)
n=1
12.12
Periodic Signals
Let a real signal f (t) be periodic of period T . Its autocorrelation rf f (t) is periodic defined by
rf f (t) =
=
1
T
f ( )f (t + ) d =
0
1
T
f ( )
0
Fn ejn0 (t+ ) d
n=
X
1 X
Fn ejn0
f ( )ejn0 d =
Fn ejn0 t Fn
T n=
0
n=
i.e.
rf f (t) =
n=
(12.117)
(12.118)
843
which has the form of a Fourier series expansion having as coefficients |Fn |2 . We can therefore
write
1
rf f (t)ejn0 t dt
(12.119)
|Fn |2 =
T
T
rf f (t) =
n=
rf f (t) = |F0 |2 + 2
The power spectral density is given by
|Fn |2 cos n0 t
n=1
Sf f () = Rf f (j) = 2
(12.120)
|Fn |2 cos n 0 t.
n=
(12.121)
|Fn |2 ( n0 ) .
(12.122)
1
2
f 2 (t) dt =
Rf f (j)d =
1
2
Sf f ()d.
(12.123)
Moreover,
P =
1
T
n=
|Fn |2 .
(12.124)
Example 12.8 Evaluate the power, the spectral density and autocorrelation function of the signal
f (t) = A cos 0 t where 0 = 2/T . We have
P =
1
T
1
A2
T
2
A2 cos2 0 t dt =
The evaluation of the average power of a sinusoid is often needed. It is worth while remembering
that the average power of a sinusoid of amplitude A is simply A2 /2.
We also note that the Fourier series coefficients of the expansion
f (t) =
Fn ejn0 t
n=
are given by
Fn =
wherefrom
P = f 2 (t) =
Sf f () = 2
P =
1
2
A/2, n = 1
0,
otherwise
|Fn |2 = 2 A2 /4 = A2 /2
|Fn |2 ( n0 ) =
A2
{ ( 0 ) + ( + 0 )} d = A2 /2
2
rf f (t) = |F0 |2 + 2
We note, moreover, that
Rf f (j) =
A2
{ ( 0 ) + ( + 0 )}
2
X
1
A2
{ ( 0 ) + ( + 0 )} = Sf f () .
2
844
12.12.1
let x(t) = sin(t + ) be the input to an LTI system. We evaluate the power spectral density at
the input and output of the system.
The power spectral density of the input is
Sxx () = 2
n=
|Xn |2 ( n0 ) .
(12.125)
n=
|Yn |2 ( n0 ) == 2
n=
|Xn |2 |H(jn)|2 ( n) .
(12.126)
|Xn |2 = A2 /2.
(12.127)
(12.128)
P = x2 (t) =
n=
n=
Example 12.9 The signal x(t) = A sin(t), with A = 1 and = , is applied to the input of an
LTI system of impulse response h(t) = 0.5 (t). Is the system response y(t) an energy or power
signal? Evaluate the energy and power, and the spectral density at the system input and output.
The input signal x(t) and response y(t) have infinite energy and are hence power signals. since
their energy is infinite. The spectral densities are
Sx () = (/2)[( ) + ( + )]
and
Sy () = Sx ()|H(j)|2 =
2
Sa (/2)[( ) + ( + )] = 0.637[( ) + ( + )]
2
1
2
1
2
Sx ()d = 0.5
Sy ()d = 0.203
Alternatively, note that the input sinusoid Amplitude is A = 1 and its power is Px = x2 (t) =
A2 /2 = 0.5. The output is y(t) = A|H(j)| sin(t + arg[H(j)]) = B sin(t + ), where B = 0.6366
and = /2, and its power is Py = y 2 (t) = B 2 /2 = 0.203.
12.13
n=
(t nT ) .
(12.129)
845
FIGURE 12.16
Impulse train, autocorrelation and power spectral density.
To evaluate the power spectral density of the impulse train we may proceed by applying the
correlation definition directly over one period.
1 T /2
1
rxx (t) =
(12.130)
( ) (t + ) d = (t) , T /2 t T /2
T T /2
T
that is, rxx (t) is an impulse train of period T and impulses of intensity 1/T
1
1 X
(t nT ) = T (t) .
rxx (t) =
T
T
(12.131)
1
2 X
0 0 () = 2
( n0 ) .
T
T n=
(12.132)
n=
|Xn |2 ( n0 ) =
2 X
( n0 ) .
T 2 n=
(12.133)
Example 12.10 Let v (t) be the periodic ramp shown in Fig. 12.18. Evaluate the power spectral
density. We have found in Chapter 2 that the fourier series coefficients are
FIGURE 12.17
Periodic ramp.
Vn =
A/2,
n=0
jA/(2n), n =
6 0
n=
X
|Vn |2 ( n0 ) = A2 /2 () +
A2
( n0 )
2n2
n=
n6=0
846
n=1
X
n=1
1
2 2 n2
cos n0 t.
A direct evaluation of the periodic autocorrelation of the periodic ramp v(t) by the usual shiftmultiply-integrate process as shown in Fig. ?? we obtain
FIGURE 12.18
Periodic ramp and its shifting in time.
rvv (t) =
1t
(t + ) d +
1
1t
(t + 1) d , 0 < t < 1
= (1/6) 2 3t + 3t2 , 0 < t < 1.
A Fourier series expansion of rvv (t) as a verification produces the trigonometric coefficients
1
1
, n1
an = 2
(1/6) 2 3t + 3t2 cos n2t dt =
2 n2
2
0
and a0 = 1/2 as expected. The functions Svv () and rvv (t) are shown in Fig. 12.19 and Fig.
12.20, respectively.
FIGURE 12.19
Power spectral density.
847
FIGURE 12.20
Autocorrelation of a periodic function.
Example 12.11 Let
v (t) = A cos (m0 t + ) , m integer
where 0 = 2/T . Evaluate Svv () and rvv (t).
We have
(A/2) ej , n = m
Vn =
0,
otherwise
Svv () = 2 |Vm |2 ( m0 ) + |Vm |2 ( + m0 )
=
A2
{ ( m0 ) + ( + m0 )}
2
rvv (t) = 2 (A2 /4) cos m0 t = (A2 /2) cos m0 t.
12.14
x[n] = lim
(12.134)
A real sequence x[n] is an energy sequence if it has a finite energy which can be defined as
E=
x [n]2 .
(12.135)
n=
A real aperiodic sequence x[n] is a power sequence if it has a finite average power
M
X
1
x [n]2 .
M 2M + 1
n=M
P = x[n]2 = lim
(12.136)
N1
1 X
x [n]2 .
N n=0
(12.137)
848
Example 12.12 Let the sequence x [n] = 3n u [n]. Evaluate its energy.
E=
32n u [n] =
9n u [n] =
n=0
n=0
9
1
= .
1 91
8
100
15
X
cos (n/8)
n=0
7
X
100
cos2 (n/8)
2
16
n=0
25
=
(1 + 0.8536 + 0.5 + 0.1464 + 0 + 0.1464 + 0.5 + 0.8536) = 50.
2
12.15
n=
|x [n]|2 .
2
The energy spectral density is given by x () = X ej .
Paresevals Relation states that
n=
12.16
|x [n]|2 =
1
2
2
1
j
()d.
X e
d =
2
n=
12.17
849
N
X
1
|x [n]|2 .
2N + 1 n=N
N
X
1
x [n + k]x [k]
2N + 1 k=N
12.18
x2
N
X
1
1
2
[n] = lim
Sx ()d
|x [n]| =
N 2N + 1
2
n=N
Let x [n] be the input and y [n] the output of a linear time-invariant discrete-time system.
2
If x [n] is an energy sequence its energy spectral density is x () = X ej and that of the
output is
2
2
2
y () = Y ej = X ej H ej .
If x [n] is a [power sequence its energy spectral density is Sx () and that of the output is
2
Sy () = Sx () H ej .
12.19
Problems
n=
(t nT ) .
850
b) Evaluate the autocorrelation rf f (t) of the function f (t) and its Fourier transform Rf f (j).
c) Can the Fourier transform F (j) of f (t) be evaluated from F (s) by letting s = j? Justify
your answer.
d) Evaluate |F (j)|2 and compare it with Rf f (j). e) Is f (t) a power or energy signal ?
Evaluate the energy or power spectral density of f (t). Evaluate the energy / power of f (t).
f ) Let H (s) = F (s) be the transfer function of a linear system. Let the input to the system be
the signal
X
(t n) .
x (t) =
n=
Evaluate the power spectral density of the system response y (t). Evaluate the average power of y (t)
in the frequency band 0 < f < 1.5 Hz.
Problem 12.5 Consider a signal x (t) of which the auto correlation function is given by
rxx (t) = e|t| , < t < .
851
Problem 12.6
FIGURE 12.21
System block diagram.
In the system shown in Fig. 12.21 the transfer function G (s) is that of a causal system and is
given by
G (s) = 100/(s + 100).
a) Evaluate the system impulse response between the input x (t) and the output y (t)
b) Given that the input is
x (t) = 1 + cos 120t
evaluate the average normalized power of the output y (t). Evaluate the power spectral density of
y (t).
Problem 12.7 Consider the signals
x (t) =
n=
{u (t 2n) u (t 1 2n)}
y (t) = et u (t)
d)
y (t) =
n=
w (t 5n) .
852
Problem 12.10 Let x (t) be a function, X (j) its Fourier transform and
p
|X (j)| = 1/ 1 + 2 + /2 { ( ) + ( + )} .
c)
x (t) =
d)
z (t) = A.
n=
receives an input x (t) and produces an output y (t). Assuming x (t) = A cos 0 t, where A = 5
Volt and 0 = 2f0 = 2 500 Hz.
a) With K = 1 and c = 500 r/s, evaluate the average power of the signal y (t).
b) With K = 1 find the value of c so that the average power of y (t) be 5 Watt.
c) With c = 1000 r/s evaluate K so that the average power of y (t) be 5 Watt.
Problem 12.13 Given the signals v (t) = x (t) y (t) and f (t) = x (t) z (t), where
x (t) = 5R3 (t) = 5 [u (t) u (t 3)]
y (t) = 20.5 (t) = 2 [u (t + 0.5) u (t 0.5)]
z (t) = 1 + cos (t + /3) .
a) Evaluate V (j) and F (j), the Fourier transforms of v (t) and f (t) as well as the Fourier
series coefficients Fn of f (t).
b) State whether each of the signals v (t) and f (t) is an energy or power signal, evaluating the
energy or power spectral density, the total energy or the average normalized power in each case.
Problem 12.14 A signal f (t) of average value f (t) = 15 is applied to the input of a linear
system of impulse response
h (t) = 5e7t sin 5t u (t) .
What is the average value y (t) of the system output y (t)?
Problem 12.15 A signal x (t) has a Fourier transform
X (j) = 2 Sa (/400) ej/100
( 100n) .
n=
853
The signal is applied to the input of a filter of frequency response H (j) and output y (t), where
1 [( 300) / (200)]2 , 100 < || < 500
|H (j)| =
0,
otherwise
arg [H (j)] =
/2, > 0
/2, < 0.
a) Evaluate the exponential Fourier series coefficients Xn of x (t) with an analysis interval of 0.02
sec.
b) Sketch the frequency response |H (j)|.
c) Evaluate the Fourier series coefficients Yn of the output y (t) over the same analysis period.
d) Evaluate the output y (t) and the normalized average power of each components of y (t).
Problem 12.16 A system receives an input x (t) and produces an output y (t) that is the sum of
x (t) and a delayed version x (t ) where = 0.4 103 sec. The signal x (t) is a sinusoid of
amplitude 5 Volt and frequency 1 kHz.
a) Draw the block diagram describing the system.
b) Evaluate the impulse response h (t) and frequency response H (j) of the system between its
input x (t) and output y (t).
c) Evaluate and sketch the power spectral density Sx () of the signal x (t), expressed in terms of
the Fourier series coefficients Xn of x (t).
d) Evaluate and sketch the power spectral density Sy () and the average power y2 (t) of the output
y (t).
Problem 12.17 The signal
response H (j) given by
5, 1.1 6 || 6 3
0, otherwise
854
0
2
0
10
20
30
40 50
2.5 3.5
2
1
0
10 20 30 40
Problem 12.21 A spectrum analyzer displays the amplitude spectrum in Volt and phase spectrum
in degrees as the Fourier series coefficients Fn versus the frequency in Hz of a function f (t) as
shown in Table 12.1 and with Fn = Fn .
a) What is the period and the average value of the function f (t)?
b) Write the value of the function f (t) as a sum of real expressions.
c) The signal f (t) is fed to a filter of frequency response H(j) where
|H(j)| = B ()
where B = 50000 rad/sec, arg [H(j)] = (103 /180) rad/sec and the filter output g(t) is
modulated by the carrier cos(40000t) producing an output y(t). Sketch the Fourier transforms
G(j) and Y (j) of g(t) and y(t).
d) What is the average power of the output signal y(t)?
Problem 12.22 Consider the signal:
v(t) = u(t + t0 ) u(t b + t0 )
where b > t0 > 0.
a) Evaluate the autocorrelation rvv (t) of v(t).
b) Evaluate the Fourier transform Rvv (j) of rvv (t).
c) Evaluate the Fourier transform V (j), the energy spectral density and deduce therefrom the
total energy of v(t). Compare the result with Rvv (j).
Problem 12.23 Evaluate the energy spectral density for each of the following signals:
a) x (t) = et [u (t) u (t 1)] .
b) y (t) = et sin (t) u (t) .
Problem 12.24 Given the signal v (t) = et u (t)
a) evaluate the energy of the signal v (t),
b) evaluate the energy of the signal contained in the frequency range 0 to 1 Hz.
Problem 12.25 Given the signal v (t) = et u (t) .
a) Show that v(t) is an energy signal.
b) Evaluate the energy spectral density of v(t).
c) Evaluate the normalized energy contained in the frequency range 0 to 1 r/s.
d) Evaluate the normalized energy contained in the frequency range 0 to 1 Hz.
e) Evaluate the auto-correlation function rvv (t) of v(t).
f ) Show how from rvv (t) you can deduce the energy spectral density of v(t).
Problem 12.26 The signal v (t) = 4e2t u (t) is applied to the input of a filter of frequency
response H (j).
a) What is the total normalized energy Ev of v(t)?
b) What is the total normalized energy Ey of the signal y(t) at the filter output in the case where
the filter is an ideal lowpass filter of unit gain and cut-off frequency 2 r/s?
c) What is the total normalized energy Ey of the signal y(t) at the filter output in the case where
the filter is an ideal bandpass filter of unit gain and pass band extending from 1 to 2 Hz?
d) What is the total normalized energy Ey of the signal y(t) at the filter output in the case where
the filter transfer function is H (s) = 1/ (s + 2)?
e) What is the total normalized energy Ey of the signal y(t) at the filter output in the case where
the filter frequency response is H (j) = ejT , where T is a constant?
855
Problem 12.27 Each of the following signals is given in Volt as a function of the time t in seconds.
For each signal evaluate the total energy if it is an energy signal or the average power if it is a
power signal.
a) xa (t) = 3 [u (t Ta ) u (t 6Ta )], where Ta > 0.
b) xb (t) = xa (t) cos (2t/Tb ), where Tb = Ta .
+
X
xb (t nTc ), where Tc = 15Ta .
c) xc (t) =
n=
d)
xd (t) = xa (t) + 1.
Problem 12.28 Consider the three signals x(t), y(t) and z(t):
x (t) = u (t) u (t 1) , y (t) = u (t + 0.5) u (t 0.5) , z (t) = sin (t) .
a) Is the sum v (t) = x (t) + y (t) an energy or power signal? Depending on the signal type,
evaluate the total normalised energy or the average normalized power, respectively.
b) Is the convolution s (t) = x (t) z (t) an energy or power signal? Depending on the signal type,
evaluate the energy spectral density or the power spectral density, respectively.
Problem 12.29 Evaluate the power spectral density and the average power of the following periodic
signals:
a) v (t) = 5 cos (2000t) + 3 sin (500t) .
b) x (t) = [1 + sin (100t)] cos (2000t) .
c) y (t) = 4 sin2 (200t) cos (2000t) .
+
X
104 t 103 n u t 103 n u t 103 [n + 1] .
d) z (t) =
n=
Problem 12.30 Let x(t) be a periodic signal having a period 5 102 seconds. Its exponential
Fourier series expansion with an analysis interval equal to its period has the Fourier series coefficient
1, n = 0, 4
Xn = j, n = 1
0, otherwise.
Let y(t), be a signal having the Fourier transform Y (j) = 150/ (125 + j).
a) Let z (t) be the convolution z (t) = x (t) y (t). Evaluate the average power z 2 (t) of z(t).
b) Let v (t) = x (t) + y (t). Evaluate the average power v 2 (t) of v(t).
Problem 12.31 Let x (t) = 3 cos (1 t) + 4 sin (2 t), where 1 = 120 and 2 = 180. The
signal x(t) is applied to the input of a filter of transfer function H(s) = 1/ (1 + 120/s) .
Evaluate the power spectra density Sy () of the the signal y(t) at the filter output. Evaluate the
average power y 2 (t) of y(t).
Problem 12.32 A filter which has a transfer function H (s) = K/ (1 + s/c ) receives an input
signal x (t) = A cos (2f0 t), where A = 5 Volt and f0 = 500 Hz, and produces an output signal
y(t).
a) Let K = 1 and c = 500 r/s. Evaluate the average signal power at the filter output.
b) Let K = 1. Determine the value of c so that the average power of the output signal y(t) be
5 Watt.
c) Let c = 1000 r/s. Determine the value of K so that the average power of the output signal
y(t) be 5 Watt.
Problem 12.33 The periodic signal v (t) =
n=
856
Problem 12.34 A voltage vE (t) is applied to the input of a first order lowpass RC filter with
RC = 1, of which the output is vS (t). For each of the following cases evaluate the average power
of the input and output signal vE (t) and vS (t), respectively.
a) The power spectral density of vE (t) is SvE () = A [ ( + 1) + ( 1)].
b) The power spectral density of vE (t) is SvE () = u ( + 1) u ( 1).
c) The power spectral density of vE (t) is SvE () = A.
Problem 12.35 The signal x (t) = sin (4t) is applied to the input of a filter of transfer function
H (s) = 1/ (s + 1) and output y (t).
a) Evaluate the power spectral density Sx () of the signal x (t).
b) Evaluate the average power of the signal x (t).
c) Evaluate the normalized energy of one period of the signal x (t).
d) Evaluate the power spectral density Sy () of the signal y (t) at the filter output.
e) Evaluate the average power y 2 (t) of the filter output signal y (t).
Problem 12.36 The signal v (t) =
n=
of impulse response h (t) = sin (t) [u (t) u (t 12)]. Evaluate the power spectral density of the
filter output signal y (t).
Problem 12.37 Let x(t) be a periodic signal of period 5 103 seconds and exponential Fourier
series coefficients Xn , evaluated with an analysis interval equal to its period, given by
1,
n = 1
j/5,
n = 2
Xn =
(1 2j)/10, n = 4
0,
otherwise.
The properties of the message m (t) are m(t) = 0 Volt, m2 (t) = 2 Watt, |m(t)|max = 5 Volt.
M (f ) = 0 for |f | > 7.5 103 Hz.
For each of the five possible frequency responses of the bandpass filter evaluate the maximum
amplitude of the modulated signal y(t).
Defining the Harmonic Distortion Rate HDR as
HDR =
Ph
100%
PT
where Ph is the average power of the signal harmonics other than the fundamental and PT is the
total signal average power.
a) Evaluate the HDR of the signal x(t).
b) The signal x(t) is applied to the input of a filter the transfer function of which is given by
1
H (s) =
.
s + 1 ss/(400)
Evaluate the HDR of the filter output signal y(t).
Problem 12.38 Let x (t) = v (t) + a v (t t0 ), where v (t) is a power signal and t0 is a constant.
Show that x2 (t) = 1 + a2 v 2 (t) + 2a rv (t0 ), where x2 (t) is the average power of x (t), v 2 (t)
is that of v (t) and rv (t0 ) is the autocorrelation function of v (t) evaluated at t = t0 .
12.20
Problem 12.1 a)
n=
Y (j) = 2
= j
Y (j) =
h
n=
857
n=
n=
Hn ( n0 )
i
ejn+jT/2 Sa (n T /2) ejnjT /2 Sa (n + T /2) ( n0 )
i
ejn+j11/2 Sa (n 11/2) ejnj11/2 Sa (n + 11/2) ( n2/11)
ii)
Y (j) = j { ( ) ( + 6)}
j/2 , n = 6
0 , n 6= 6
h (t) = sin t {u (t) u (t 12)}
Yn =
b)
Sy () = (/2) { ( ) + ( + )}
Problem 12.2
a) The signal, having an impulsive spectrum, is periodic. b)
3
3
Sf () = 98 ()
+ 18 3 2 10 + 3+ 2 10
+2 8 10 + + 8 10
c)
P = f 2 (t) =
n=
d)
P =
1
E,
T
E = TP =
e)
Gn =
g 2 (t) =
n=
Problem 12.5
a)
2
xx () = 1+
2
b) E = 1
|Fn |2 = 49 + 2 9 + 2 1 = 69
2
69 = 69 103
0
j 3 K, n = 1
0, n 6= 1
|Gn |2 = 2 9 K 2 = 18 K 2
E=1
2
c) E = 0.4373A /
Problem 12.6
858
Yn =
Sy () = 2
n=
j
,
2(100 j)
n = 1
0 , otherwise
|Yn |2 ( n0 ) = 2 0.1475 { ( ) + ( + )}
y 2 (t) = 0.295
Problem 12.7
See Fig. 12.22
y(t)
x(t)
1
1
e
2
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
(a)
-t
t
(b)
y(t)
1
(c)
FIGURE 12.22
Figure for Problem 12.7
(s2
K s2
+ 1) + 1.4142 s (s2 + 1) + s2
2
K = 1.
b)
L = 1.6180
c)
|HBP (j0 )| = 5.01
z (t)
859
b) *Energy
4 signal, being of finite duration
Ew = 0 t2 /16 dt = 1.333 joules
c) Ex = 11 Ew = 14.63 joules
d) y 2 (t) = 15 Ew = 0.267 Watt.
Problem 12.10
a) x (t) = 0 since X (j) has no impulse at the origin = 0.
b) x (t) is not periodic. To be periodic the spectrum has to be composed solely of impulses.
c) See Fig.12.23
FIGURE 12.23
Figure for Problem 4.10
Problem 12.11
a) Total Energy =A2 2 watt. Power signal
b) Total Energy =A2 2000 Joule. Average normalized power = 0. Energy signal [equal to a single
period of v (t)].
c) x2 (t) = 16 1 e6 = 0 15. Power signal. Energy =
d) z 2 (t) = A2 , Power signal. Total Energy =.
Problem 12.12
a)
y 2 (t) = 2.5 Watt
b) Note that the average power of a sinusoid of Amplitude A is A2 /2
c = 2565.1 r/s
c)
K = 0.8944
Problem 12.13
a)
b)
15, n = 0
Fn (5/) ej7/6 , n = 1
0, otherwise
Problem 12.14
y (t) = f (t) H (0) = 15
25
= 3.984
72 + (5)2
860
Problem 12.15
a)
Xn = 1, 0.9, 0.636, 0.301, 0, 0.18
FIGURE 12.24
Amplitude and phase of frequency response, Problem 12.15
c)
d)
Problem 12.16
a) See Fig. 12.25
y (t) = 0.955 sin 200t 0.6 sin 300t + 0.27 sin 500t
x(t)
y(t)
Delay
t
FIGURE 12.25
Figure for Problem 12.16
b)
c)
d)
x () =
1
2 + 49
861
FIGURE 12.26
Figure for Problem 12.16
b)
y () =
25
, 1.1 6 6 1.3
2 + 49
0,
otherwise
Problem 12.18
Svv () = [ ( W/4) + ( + W/4)]
FIGURE 12.27
Figure for Problem 12.19
E = 50T ,
v () = |V (j)|2 .
v () = 25T 2 Sa2 [T ( /2)] 2Sa [T ( /2)] Sa [T ( + ) /2]
+25T 2 Sa2 [T ( + ) /2] .
P = 0,
b) 100T
Problem 12.20
n = 1
5,
Vn = j2.5, n = 4
4,
n = 10
25, n = 1
Sn = |Vn |2 = 6.25, n = 4
16, n = 10
862
Problem 12.22
a)
For t0 t + b t0 b t0 i.e. 0 t b
rvv (t) = t + b t0 + t0 = b t
For t0 t t0 b t0 i.e. b t 0
rvv (t) = b t0 + t + t0 = b + t
b)
c)
() = Rvv (j).
E = b joules
Problem 12.23
a)
b)
|X (j)|2 = 1 2e cos () + e2 / 1 + 2
|Y (j)|2 = 41+4
Problem 12.24
+ t 2
e dt = 0.5.
a) Energy : 0
b) V (j) 1/ 1 + 2
+2 1
1
+2
1
1
tan () 2 = 0.45
Energy= 2
d = 2
2 1+ 2
Problem 12.25
a) Energy signal.
b)
The energy spectral density is 1/ 1 + 2
c)
0.25.
d)
0.45.
e)
Problem 12.26
a) Ev = 4.
b)
Ey = 2
c)
Ey = 0.383.
d)
Ey = 0.5
e)
Ey = 4.
Problem 12.27
a)
E = 45Ta Joule.
b)
E = 22.5Ta Joule. P = 22.5Ta /15Ta = 1.5 Watt
863
c)
P = 1 Watt.
Problem 12.28
a)
E = 0.5 + (4 0.5) + 0.5 = 3
b)
Problem 12.29
5Sol 51
a)
P = 17
b) P = 0.75
c)
P =3
d)
P = 33.33
Problem 12.30
a) z 2 (t) = 3. b) v 2 (t) = 5.
Problem 12.31
Ss () = 0.637 [ ( + ) + ( )]
Problem 12.32
Sol 54
a) x2 (t) = 2.5. b) y 2 (t) = 0.4.
c = 2565 r/s.