Science 20 - Review of Unit A

Chapter 1 - Aqueous Solutions

Representing the electron arrangement of elements:
1.
Bohr diagrams
Bohr diagrams use a series of rings to represent

electron energy levels, and a circle in the middle to

represent the nucleus
inside the circle for the nucleus, you must list the

number of protons, and the most likely number of

neutrons
each electron is represented by a dot

2.
Lewis dot diagrams
focuses only on the outermost (valence level), and uses dots to

represent each of the valence

electrons
dots are arranged in a square around

the elements symbol

start by placing single valence electrons into each of the four

valence orbitals
if additional locations are required for electrons, start filling the four

orbitals with a second electron, until up to all eight positions are

occupied.
Bonding
o an atom is more stable if its outermost (valence) electron
shell is full
o atoms are capable of gaining, losing, or sharing electrons to
try to become more stable
metals will lose electrons, and will join with a non-metal
ion to make an ionic compound
non-metals will gain or share electrons
non-metal ions can steal electrons from metals to form ionic compounds
(ionic bond)
non-metal ions can share electrons with non-metals to form molecular
compounds (covalent bond)
Categor
Product
Atoms
y of
Matter
Properties
- brittle
sodium
ionic
- soluble in water
Rock Salt
and
compoun
- high melting point
chlorine
d
- solution conducts
electricity

Plastic

carbon
and
hydroge
n

molecula
r
compoun
d

Aluminum foil

aluminu
m

metallic
element

flexible
low melting point
insoluble in water
does not conduct
conducts electricity
malleable
high melting point
insoluble in water

o explaining properties of matter

high melting point - bonds between ions or metal are strong - takes more energy
(heat) to break them
brittle - inflexible bonds dont rotate
conductivity - the ability to conduct electricity depends on free electrons, as in an
ionic compound or metal
o polarity of water
water is polar because the oxygen atom has
a stronger pull on the shared electron pair
polar molecules attract one another water
molecules tend to stick together more
strongly than other molecular compounds
that are non-polar
polar substances act as good solutes for
other polar molecules and for all ionic
compounds (to some extent)
o aqueous solutions:
because it is polar, water will dissolve all ionic compounds to some extent, and will
dissolve all molecular compounds that are also polar
solvation:

the process of a solute dissolving in a solvent

solute is added to solvent solvent particles attract solute particles bonds
holding solute together break down solute becomes surrounded by solvent
molecules
if the attraction between particles of the solute is stronger than those with
water, the particles of the solute will not solvate very much (e.g. calcium
carbonate)

o electrolytes:
solutions that conduct electricity are called electrolytes
strong electrolytes occur when most of the solute dissolves as ions and the

solution conducts a strong electrical current

weak electrolytes occur when only a fraction of the solute exists as ions;

the solution will conduct only a weak electrical current

o electrolytes separate into individual, electrically-charged ions called
dissociation

o because of these charged ions, an electrical current can pass through the
solution
solutions that do not conduct are non-electrolytes. Recall that most molecular
compounds that form solutions do not conduct electricity.
non-electrolytes disperse electrically-neutral particles

dissociation is the separation of ions that occurs when an ionic compound

dissolves in water.
e.g. NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

the degree of dissociation depends partly on the solubility of the ionic

compound
a compound with low solubility (e.g. calcium carbonate) is assumed not to

dissociate to an appreciable amount

when a molecular compound is dissolved in water, it will not dissociate because it
does not have charged ions. Instead, it will simply dissolve and become aqueous
e.g. C12H22O11(s) C12H22O11(aq)

Concentration: the ratio of the quantity of solute to the quantity of solution

Concentrations can be observed:

qualitatively (using the five senses) it could be a darker colour, smell stronger,
be thicker
quantitatively (using measurement)
When the concentration of a substance is specified, it describes the amount of
solute per amount of solvent - e.g. 5% (v/v), 5.00 g/L, 5 ppm, 5 mol/L
A more concentrated solution will:
be a stronger electrolyte (ie produce a higher reading on the conductivity meter)
behave more quickly in a reaction
collision-reaction theory chemical reactions involve the collision and
rearrangement of particles
the more collisions that occur, the faster the reaction will occur
a more concentrated solution has more particles more potential collisions
heating a solution provides the particles with energy, which makes them
move faster, and can also increase the speed of the reaction.
Percent by volume
often used in consumer products, where a liquid is dissolved in a liquid (e.g. drinks,
cleaners)
symbol used % (v/v)
to calculate percent by volume: % (v/v) = (vsolute / vsolution) x 100%
Parts per million
useful for concentrations where there is a very dilute amount of solute in a large
amount of solution (e.g. the amount of pollutants in drinking water)
1 ppm is equal to 1.0mg of solute per 1kg, or 1L, of solution
symbol used ppm
to calculate parts per million: parts per million = msolute / mcolution x 106 ppm
Molar concentration

amount of moles of solute per litre of solution, often used in labs

remember to convert volumes to litres
standard solution - a solution having a precisely known concentration
symbol mol/L, also refered to as molar
to calculate molar concentration:
C = n/v
n = m/M

Chapter 2 - Redox reactions

Mole ratios
balancing equations
when an equation is balanced, you can use the coefficients to compare the ratios
of one compound to another
mole ratio the ratio of the coefficients in a balanced chemical equation

a ratio does not tell you the exact amounts, but it tells you proportions
e.g. a mole ratio of 3:1 means three moles of the wanted for every mole of the
given
if you know the number moles of the given, you can use the mole ratio to
calculate the number of moles of the wanted
steps to a mole ratio problem:
write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction
under the equation, write the number of moles of the given and nw = ? under
the wanted
find the mole ratio
multiply the number of moles of the given by the mole ratio (w/g) to find the
number of moles of the wanted
Oxidation and reduction:

Oxidation: The loss of electrons

when an atom loses an electron it is oxidized
oxidation is a chemical process which a substance loses electrons
two types of oxidation reactions
o metal atom (neutral) metal ion + electrons
e.g. Fe(s) Fe2+(aq) + 2e
o non-metal ion (charged) non-metal atom + electrons
e.g. Cl-(aq) Cl(g) + 1e

Reduction: The gain of electrons

when an atom gains an electron it is reduced
two types of reduction reactions
o metal ion (charged) + electrons metal atom
e.g. Fe2+(aq) + 2e- Fe(s)

o non-metal atom (neutral) non-metal ion + electrons

e.g. Cl(g) + 1 e- Cl-(aq)

Single replacement reactions

in order to get a valuable metal our of an ionic compound, a less valuable metal
can be used to take its place in the compound
recall, in a single replacement reaction, an element reacts with a compound to
produce a new element and a new compound
e.g. Most silver is found as the compound silver sulfate. The pure silver can be
collected by reacting the silver sulfate with zinc metal.
Ag2SO4(s) + Zn(s) ZnSO4(s) + 2Ag(s)
the zinc loses electrons and is oxidized

the silver gains electrons and is reduced

the sulfate is unaffected and is called a spectator ion

Some metals, like gold, tend to be very stable and will not break down over time
Other metals undergo corrosion (tarnishing or rusting) very easily
corrosion is the oxidation of a metal (metal atom metal ion + electrons)

Metal
copper
zinc
silver

2+
(aq)

Cu
no reaction
reaction
no reaction

Solution
Zn2+(aq)
no reaction
no reaction
no reaction

Ag+(aq)
reaction
reaction
no reaction

Based on this demonstration, list the metals from most reactive to least reactive; list
the ions from most reactive to least reactive.
Zn(s) Cu(s) Ag(s)

Ag+(s) Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq)

o the more stable a metal atom, the more reactive a metal ion
o the more stable a metal ion, the more reactive a metal atom

The activity series

an activity series is a list that organizes metal ions from most to least reactive

when read from left to right, you have the reduction half-reaction

o the top half-reaction is the most reactive (will happen the easiest)
when read from right to left, you have the oxidation half-reaction

o the bottom half-reaction is the most reactive

the activity series is useful for:

o comparing the relative reactivity of metal ions

o comparing the relative reactivity of metals
o determining whether a reaction will occur spontaneously or not
a spontaneous reaction is one that occurs without the addition of energy
when the reduction half-reaction (LR) is listed above the oxidation halfreaction (RL), the reaction will occur spontaneously
o the ion wants to take in electrons and the atom wants to give them away

when the reduction half-reaction is listed below the oxidation half-reduction,

the reaction will be non-spontaneous and will require external energy
added into the reaction

Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

a reduction half-reaction never occurs without a corresponding oxidation half

reaction
a reducing agent is the substance that causes an atom to be reduced and is itself

oxidized
an oxidizing agent is the substance that causes an atom to be oxidized and is

itself reduced

Voltaic and electrolytic cells

Voltaic cells
when an electronic device is operating, voltaic cells provide a continuous flow

(current) of electrons, which is converted into current to power the device

Structure of a voltaic cell:
an electrode is a solid piece of metal that is suspended in a solution and connected to
an external circuit.
one electrode is immersed into an electrolyte solution, where it acquires an excess of
electrons, becoming negatively charged
the other electrode is usually composed of a different material, suspended in its own
ionic solution and will become positively charged
once a current is closed between the two electrodes, the electrons will repel from the
electrode, pass through the circuit and be used by whatever device is connected, then
flow through the positive electrode
the reaction will continue until one substance can no longer be
sustained
Salt bridges
a salt bridge is a glass U-shaped tube that is filled with an
ionic solution
this is to allow for free flow of electrons from one solution to
the other
How the cell works:
because it is the more reactive of the two metals, the zinc electrode will become
oxidized, giving away electrons
these electrons will travel from the electrode, through a metal wire, and then into an
electronic device
the electrons will pass through the device, back through another wire, into the copper
electrode
these electrons will be attracted to the Cu2+(aq) ions in the solution

over time, the zinc electrode will shrink in size (as Zn Zn2+) and the copper
electrode will grow (Cu2+ Cu)
if the two solutions were not connected, the zinc would run out of electrons and the

cell would stop working

the solution in the salt bridge allows a continuous flow of electrons back into the
zinc solution

Analyzing a voltaic cell

Step #1: identify the electrode where oxidation occurs

o the metal closer to the bottom of the activity series will be oxidized = reducing
agent
o the electrode that is oxidized is the anode, the other is reduced, and is the
cathode

Step #2: describe the oxidation process in the anode

o write the oxidation half-reaction
o the anode will decrease in size over time because the metal is turning into
metal ions
o electrons leave the anode and travel to the external circuit running the
electronic device
o because the anode is the electrode where the electrons originate, it is
considered the negative electrode
Step #3: describe the oxidation process in the cathode
o the electrons will travel through the electronic device and back into the cathode
o the electrons will be attracted to the positively-charge metal ions in the cathode
solution
o the cathode ions will be deposited on the metal electrode
Step #4: describe how the salt bridge completes the circuit
o eventually, the anode would run out of electrons and the voltaic cell would stop
working
o the salt bridge connects the cathode back to the anode to allow the
replenishment of electrons on the anode side
the salt bridge contains a third solution
the positive ions from the solution will be attracted to the cathode, while the
negative ions from the solution will migrate toward the ion
voltaic cells can also be represented using short hand cell notation
Zn(s) | Zn2+(aq) | | Cu2+(aq) | Cu
anode

salt bridge

cathode

oxidation reduction
o the anode is listed on the left, the cathode on the right
o the vertical line | represents a boundary between a metal and its solution
o the double line || represents the salt bridge
Electrolytic vs. voltaic
an electrolytic cell is a system where a non-spontaneous redox reaction occurs
recall that a reaction that is non-spontaneous will only occur if energy is added
in an electrolytic cell, energy is added in the form of electricity
spontaneous?

Voltaic
yes

Electrolytic
no

requires energy
produces voltage
use
change in energy

no
yes
energy source
exothermic

yes
no
electroplating
endothermic

Electroplating
the metals, like gold, that are the most stable and corrosion-resistant are also the
most precious
if you want to manufacture a metal object that is resistant to corrosion it would not
be cost-effective to make the whole thing out of gold
instead, a thin coating of gold could be applied to the surface of a more affordable
metal
the object to be coated will be submerged in a solution of metal ions (e.g. gold ions)
an external energy source supplies energy to the electrons to force them to flow
from the electrode into the solution
this turns the metal ions into metal atoms, which will accumulate on the surface of
the
metal
object.

electroplating is a particularly good way to protect metals that are easily oxidized, like
iron
metals that work as good electroplaters are chromium, platinum, silver and gold

Chapter 3 - Organic Chemistry

Carbon as the building block
o organic chemistry - the word organic means of, relating to, or derived from living
organisms
o why is carbon the ideal building block?
carbon has the highest number of bonding electrons of any element (4 bonding
electrons)

ability to form chains, rings, spheres, sheets, and tubes of almost any size
can form single, double, and triple covalent bonds

o one way to speed up the process is to expand the molecular

formula into clusters of carbons (e.g. CH3-CH2-CH2 etc)
e.g. to the right are four different ways of illustrating
the compound C5H12:
1 the Lewis dot diagram

2 complete structural diagram

3 condensed structural diagram

4 simplified structural diagram

o classifying organic compounds

in order to manage the enormous number of different organic compounds,
chemists divide them into families based what makes the compound special
types of bonds (single, double or triple)
functional groups
groups of atoms containing elements other than carbon and hydrogen

these groups are believed to be responsible for the properties of the

compound
e.g. in ethanol (CH3 CH2 OH), it is believed to be the hydroxyl functional

group
(-OH) that gives the compound its physical and chemical
properties.
o main families of organic compounds
aliphatics
continuous chains of carbons that are surrounded by hydrogens
include alkanes, alkenes and alkynes

these are the only compounds youll be responsible for in Science 20

aromatics
carbons that are arranged in a ring

aromatic compounds tend to have a characteristic smell

hydrocarbon derivatives
compounds containing elements other than C and H,
such as O, N, and halogens
Alkanes
hydrocarbons are compounds containing only carbon and
hydrogen atoms
alkanes are hydrocarbons with only single carbon-to-carbon
bonds
the general formula for all alkanes is CnH2n+2

name

formula

methane
ethane
propane
butane
pentane
hexane
heptane
octane
nonane
decane
- ane

CH4(g)
C2H6(g)
C3H8(g)
C4H10(g)
C5H12(l)
C6H14(l)
C7H16(l)
C8H18(l)
C9H20(l)
C10H22(l)
CnH2n+2

as the size (and molar mass) of the alkane increases, the boiling point increases as
well
the first syllable of an any organic compound is a prefix that indicates the number
of carbon atoms in the molecule (see right)
the same prefixes are used to name groups of atoms that branch off from the
larger molecule
if the branching atoms are hydrocarbons, the branch is called an alkyl branch, and
the branch is name with the prefix and the ending yl.
to name alkanes:
identify the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms ( the parent chain) in
the structural diagram they may not necessarily be in a straight line, but must
be all connected
number the carbon atoms in the parent chain, starting from the end closest to
the branch or branches.
identify any branches and their location number on the parent chain
write the complete IUPAC name, following this format:

(number of locations) (branch name)(parent chain)

if the compound has more than one of the same type of branch, the number of
both locations is listed, and the same prefixes are used for the branch.

to draw alkanes:
begin by identifying the name of the parent chain and draw the skeleton of the
parent chain
next, identify the branches and position them on the appropriate carbons
lastly, complete any unfilled branches with hydrogen.

Alkenes and alkynes

hydrocarbons with double and triple bonds are important in the petrochemical
industry because they are the starting materials for the manufacture of important
products such as plastics
a double or triple bond affects the chemical properties of the molecule
if an organic compound has carbon-carbon double bonds, it is said to be
unsaturated.
these compounds tend to react readily with small diatomic molecules such as

Br2 and H2.

this reaction is called an addition reaction.

the addition of enough hydrogen molecules is called hydrogenation and

results in a saturated hydrocarbon (the hydrogen atoms take the place of

the double bond)

hydrocarbons with double bonds are called alkenes, and with triple bonds are
called alkynes.
these compounds are named in a similar way to alkanes, but their names will
end in ene and yne.
name
formula is CnH2n and for
the general formula for alkenes
alkynes is CnH2n-2.
ethene
C2H4(g)
propene
C3H6(g)
to name alkenes and alkynes:
butene
C4H8(g)
since the location of a multiple
bond affects the
pentene
C5H10(l)
chemical and physical properties
of a compound, the
hexene
C6H12(l)
name of the compound must
specify the location of
heptene
C7H14(l)
the multiple bond
octene
C8H16(l)
the rules for naming are similar
to alkanes, with three
nonene
C9H18(l)
additional rules:
decene
C10H20(l)
the parent chain must
contain the multiple

bond
- ene
CnH2n
the parent chain is numbered
from the end closest

to the multiple bond (not closest to the first branch as for alkanes)
the name of the parent chain is preceded by the number of the carbon on

which the multiple bond begins.

Organic reactions
(1)
Hydrocarbon combustion
the burning of any compound containing carbons and hydrogens
hydrocarbon reacts with oxygen, and produces carbon dioxide and water
reaction: CxHy
+
O2(g)
CO2(g)
+
H2O(g)
(2)
Cracking
the breaking down of large hydrocarbons into smaller hydrocarbon compounds
example: the cracking of heptane produces butene and propane C7H16(l) C4H8(g)
+ C3H8(g)
(3)
Polymerization
takes smaller compounds and joins them together to make a larger hydrocarbon
this process is used to turn ethene into polyethylene, which is used to make plastic
products like milk jugs
example:
o the double bond in ethene is broken leaving two free, unbonded electrons
o the molecules bond together and form a chain, with each original ethene
molecule like a link in the chain.

(4)
Hydrogenation
the process of turning an unsaturated hydrocarbon (e.g. pentene) into a saturated
hydrocarbon (e.g. pentane)

process is done by breaking the multiple bond and adding hydrogen in its place
reaction:
alkene
+
H2(g)
alkane
e.g. C5H10(l) +
H2(g)
C5H12(ll

Science 20 - Review of Unit A - Worksheet

Chapter 1 - Aqueous Solutions
1. Draw a Bohr diagram and Lewis dot diagram for the following:
a. sodium atom
b. oxide ion
c. fluorine atom
ion

d. lithium

2. Explain the following properties of matter:

a. conductivity of metals
b. brittleness of ionic compounds
c. polarity of water
d. non-electrolyte quality of molecular compounds
e. conductivity of acids in solution
3. Explain the difference between what occurs on an atomic level when salt and sugar
are dissolved in water.
4. What are two ways of increasing the concentration of a solution?
5. Calculate the molar concentration of a solution made by dissolving 20.0g of sodium
hydroxide to make 300mL of solution.
6. Lithium chloride is used to make 250mL of 20.0mmol/L solution. Find the mass of the
solute required.
7. What mass of copper (II) nitrate will be required to prepare 10.0L of 0.100mol/L
solution?

8. What volume of 75mmol/L solution can be prepared from 10.0g of sodium carbonate?
9. A sample of laboratory ammonia solution has a concentration of 14.8mol/L. What
amount of ammonia is in a 25.0mL sample of this solution?

10. A sample of laboratory hydrogen peroxide solution is labeled as 30%W/V. What

mass of solute is present in a 500mL bottle of this solution.
11.

What mass of chlorine is present in 15.0L of a 6.00ppm solution of chlorine?

Chapter 2 - Redox reactions

12. How many moles of sodium hydroxide are needed to neutralize 1.4 mol of sulfuric
acid?
13. How many moles of calcium will completely react with 4.6 mol of magnesium
oxide?
14.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

In the reaction between potassium and lithium oxide, what is the:

element that is oxidized?
element that is reduced?
oxidizing agent?
reducing agent?
number of electrons transferred?
spectator ion?

15.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

List the elements zinc, nickel (II), and copper (II) in order of:
increasing reactivity
increasing strength as oxidizing agent
increasing strength as reducing agent
increasing readiness to give up electrons
increasing readiness to take in electrons

16.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Write the half reaction for:

the oxidation of chloride ions
the reduction of bromine
the oxidation of aluminum
the reduction of calcium ions

17.
a.
b.
c.

Determine if the following reactions will be spontaneous.

silver and calcium sulfide
lead (II) nitrate and chromium
aluminum and zinc oxide

18. A voltaic cell is constructed using aluminum and tin (II). Sodium nitrate is used in
the salt bridge.
a. identify the anode and cathode
b. write the half-reaction for each element and identify which is the oxidation halfreaction and which is the reduction half-reaction
c. draw the cell, label it and show the flow of electrons
d. describe the cell using cell notation

19. A voltaic cell is constructed using zinc and silver. Potassium sulfate is used in the
salt bridge.
a. identify the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent
b. identify the positive and negative electrodes
c. describe the role of the salt bridge
20.

Describe five differences between electrolytic and voltaic cells.

Chapter 3 - Organic Chemistry

21. Describe three reasons why carbon makes an ideal building block for organic
compounds.
22.

Complete the following table.

Organic
Common
compound
use

polyethylene

Chemical
formula

Chemical structure

[C2H4]n
n
C8H16
the fuel used
in most BBQs

23.

Draw the following compounds:

a. 1-hexene
b. 2-pentyne
c. 3,4-dimethyloctane
d. 2-methyl-1-butene
e. 3-ethylheptane
24. Name the following compounds:
a.
b.

c.

25.
For each pair of compounds below, describe which one will have a higher boiling
point and explain why.
a. pentane or propane
b. butane or butene
c. pentyne or pentane
d. 1-butene or propene
26.
For each pair of compounds below, describe which one is more reactive and
explain why.
a. 2-heptene or 2-heptyne
b. propane or ethene
c. ethene or 2-butyne
d. octane or 3-heptene
27.
Which alkanes are gases, which are liquids, and which are solids? What is the
connection between the chemical formula of the alkane and its state at room
temperature?
28.

Complete the following table:

Compound

Alkane, alkene or
alkyne

Types of bonds
present (single,
double or triple)

2,2dimethylpentane
2-ethyl-1-hexene
C2H2(g)
C7H12(l)
3-octene
C8H18(l)
29.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Describe the process that is required to:

make Styrofoam
release the energy stored in gasoline
make a hydrocarbon saturated
produce propene and propane from
hexane

30. You pick two different packages of

cookies from the cupboard and compare
the nutrients in the Nutrition Facts tables.
a. which cookies are healthier?
b. in terms of fat content, describe two
reasons for your choice in question (a).

Saturated or
unsaturated

Suppose you checked the ingredients label next. Which cookies would you
expect to made with butter, and which ones would you expect to be