Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
pg. 1
Unlike other liquids, water expands upon freezing. Thus, the ice is less dense than water and
floats on water.
This characteristic allows aquatic life to survive during winter. When the lake water freezes, ice
floats on the surface. Since ice is also a good thermal insulator, the water underneath it does
not freeze. This allows life to continue under the freezing lake.
pg. 2
pg. 3
Observation/Results
The melting/freezing point of water is 0oC and the
boiling point of water is 100oC (also used to determine
the purity of water)
Changes from blue to pink
Changes from white to blue
O
H
pg. 5
Evaporation
Boiling
- Heat energy is absorbed and converted into kinetic energy.
- Liquids become gases
Slow
Fast
At any temperature below boiling point
At the boiling point
Occurs only on the surface of water
Occurs throughout the water
No visible effect
Air bubbles are formed in water
- Humidity
- Air pressure
- Surrounding temperature
- Presence of impurities
- Surface area of water
- Rate of heating
- Air movement
- Volume of water
pg. 6
Water vapour has the same temperature as the air, while the temperature of steam is above
the boiling point of water
pg. 7
Figure above shows that when some sugar is added to a beaker of water and stirred, the sugar
is no more visible.
The sugar which is soluble in water is called solute.
The water is called solvent because it dissolves the sugar.
The mixture that is formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent is called a solution.
The particles of a solute and a solvent are evenly distributed in a solution. At any part of the
solution, the taste, appearance and composition are the same. Thus, a solution is
homogeneous.
When a solution is formed, the solute cannot be separated from the solvent by filtration.
However, solute can be obtained by evaporating the solution to dryness.
Water is the most common solvent because it dissolves many types of substances.
Petrochemical solvents are used to dissolve oil and grease.
pg. 8
5.4.4 Solubility
Solubility is the maximum amount of solute in grams that will dissolve in 100 g of solvent at a given
temperature.
pg. 10
pg. 11
Organic solvents are volatile. Therefore, products such as paints, lacquers, varnishes and inks
become dry in a short period of time.
However, products containing organic solvents should be handled carefully.
They are flammable and should be stored away from heat.
They are toxic and carcinogenic (likely to cause cancer).
5.5.1 Acid
An acid is a substance that has a hydrogen atom, which can be replaced by a metal or
ammonium.
Acids can be classified as :
Organic acids
Inorganic or mineral acids.
pg. 12
Organic acids.
Organic acids which contain carbon are normally found in plants and animals.
Common organic acids are shown in the Table above.
Inorganic acids
Mineral salts are used to prepare inorganic acids. Therefore, it is also called mineral acids.
Common inorganics acids are :
Nitric acid
Sulphuric acid
Hydrochloric acid
pg. 13
Example :
React with reactive metals (magnesium / aluminium / zinc / iron) to release hydrogen and
form salts
Example :
5.5.2 Alkali
An alkali is hydroxide or metal oxide that dissolves in water.
Example: potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide (lime water), ammonium
hydroxide (ammonia solutions).
Alkalis have the following properties :
Taste bitter
Feel slippery like soap when touched with the fingers
Corrosive
Change red litmus paper to blue
Have pH values of more than 7
Reacts with ammonium salts to release ammonia when heated
Example:
5.5.3 pH values
The pH value of a substance shows if the substance is acidic, neutral or alkaline.
The pH scale has values from 1 to 14.
Acidic conditions (pH 1 - 6) : a substance with a value of pH 1 is far more acidic than a
substance with a pH value of 6
Neutral condition (pH 7) : neither acidic nor alkaline
Alkaline conditions (pH 8 - 14) : a substance with pH value of 14 is far more alkaline than a
substance with a pH value of 8
pg. 14
The pH values of substances are determined by using pH paper or universal indicator solutions.
Colour of solution
Indicator
Acidic
Neutral
Alkaline
Litmus solution
Red
Purple
Blue
Methyl orange/red
Red
Orange
Yellow
Phenolphthalein
Colourless
Pink
Red
Universal indicator
Red/orange/yellow
Green
Purple
pg. 15
5.5.5 Neutralisation
Neutralisation is the reaction that occurs between an acid and an alkali to form salt and water.
The word equation below represents the neutralisation reaction between an acid and an alkali.
At the neutralisation point, all the acid completely reacts with the alkali; they cancel out each
others properties. The solution formed does not show acidic or alkaline properties and has a
pH value of 7.
The salt formed from the neutralisation process depends on the type of acid and alkali used, as
shown in the following table.
The method of mixing an acid with an alkali using a burette to achieve the point of
neutralisation is known as the titration method. In this method,
The correct amounts of an acid and an alkali are mixed using a burette.
An acid-alkali indicator is used to detect the end-point of neutralisation.
To neutralise an acid, an alkali is dripped into conical flask containing acid and stop once the
colour changes from red (acidic pH) to green (neutral pH), using universal indicator.
pg. 16
The applications of the neutralisation process in everyday life are shown below:
Using hair shampoo that is alkaline which is neutralised by hair conditioners that are acidic
so that the hair looks clean and soft?
Applying alkaline medicine on insect bites that are acidic. For example, a bee sting, a
mosquito or an ant bite, which is acidic, can be neutralised by applying lotion that contains
zinc carbonate.
Reducing soil acidity by adding slaked line that is alkaline.
Gastric patients drink milk of magnesia or take pills such as magnesium hydroxide or
aluminium hydroxide that is alkaline to reduce stomach acidity
A weak acid such as vinegar can be used to neutralise a wasp sting that is alkaline
Bacteria in the mouth change sugary food into acid that attacks the teeth causing tooth
decay. Toothpaste contains weak alkalis to neutralise the acid in the mouth.
Usage of Water
Domestic use of
water
- Drinking
- Washing
- Watering plants
Agriculture use of
water
- Irrigation
- Generate
hydroelectric power
- Aquaculture
- Recreation
- Transportation
Industrial use of
water
- Cooling
- Washing
- Disposal of waste
pg. 17
Distillation
Using heat to boil water. The steam condenses
into water when cooled. The water produced is
called distilled water or pure water.
Advantage
Disadvantage
Removes solid
Does not kill
particles
microorganisms
Environmentally Does not
friendly
remove
dissolved
Beneficial
mineral salts
minerals are not
removed from
the water
Simple and cost
effective
Removes solid
particles
Kills
microorganisms
Removes
dissolved
mineral salts
Requires heat
energy
Distilled water
lacks essential
minerals
Expensive to
operate
pg. 18
Advantage
Disadvantage
Kills
Does not
microorganisms
remove solid
particles
Beneficial
minerals are not Does not
removed from
remove
the water
dissolved
mineral salts
Requires heat
energy
Chlorination
Dissolving chlorine in water to purify water in
water treatment plants or swimming pools.
Kills
Does not
microorganisms
remove solid
particles and
Decolourises
dissolved
water
mineral salts
Beneficial
minerals are not Chlorine is
harmful if used
removed from
excessively
the water
Changes the
taste of water
Ozonation
Using low levels of ozone to sanitise water in
the swimming pools and spas, and to disinfect
laundry in hospitals and food factories.
Kills
Does not
microorganisms
remove solid
particles
Beneficial
minerals are not Does not
removed from
remove
the water
dissolved
mineral salts
Expensive to
operate
Ultraviolet irradiation
Using ultraviolet light to sterilise the water in
fish ponds, food factories and portable drinking
water dispensers.
Kills
Does not
microorganisms
remove solid
particles
Chemicals are
not added to
Does not
the water
remove
dissolved
Beneficial
mineral salts
minerals are not
Expensive to
removed from
the water
operate
pg. 19
pg. 20
pg. 21
Effects
Rubbish chokes up rivers causing flash
floods.
Plastics wastes are non-biodegradable
(cannot be broken down by
microorganisms). Thus, they remain in
water for a long time, killing many
Ways to control
Educate the public
Reuse and recycle
waste materials
Encourage the use
of degradable and
non-phosphate
pg. 22
Agriculture waste
Pesticides and
fertilisers
Animal waste
Industrial waste
Toxic waste
Acidic or alkaline
substances
Heavy metals
Radioactive
residues
Siltation
Mud and sand
from
deforestation or
construction sites
Oil spillage
From oil rigs, oil
tankers and illegal
cleaning of vessels
based detergents
Relocate residents
in squatter areas
as these areas lack
proper sewage
systems
Educate farmers
on the proper use
of pesticides and
fertilisers
Encourage the use
of biological
control
Implement laws
regarding disposal
of waste from
farms
Implement strict
laws regarding
disposal of
industrial waste
Treating waste
before they are
disposed into
rivers
Control
deforestation to
prevent severe
soil erosion
Constant
surveillance of the
waters
pg. 23
In short, the main steps of water pollution control are prevention, enforcement and
monitoring.
Ways of conserving and preserving water and its quality
Water should be used carefully in order to avoid wastage and shortage of water.
To ensure continuous supply of clean water, we need to conserve and preserve water and its
quality.
Several steps need to be taken to save or conserve water, which includes:
Closing the water tap after using it.
Using water from cup and not running water from tap to rinse teeth after brushing.
Reusing the water used for washing fruits and vegetables to water plants.
Using buckets of water and not running tap water connected to a hose to wash car.
Collect rainwater to water plants and wash floor.
Use an energy efficient washing machine, and wash only full loads.
Install low-flush or dual-flush toilet cisterns.
Some examples of measures that can be taken for preserving water:
Cleaning up polluted rivers.
Promoting public awareness through education, seminars, media campaigns, exhibition
and talks.
Proper disposal of waste.
Strict enforcement of laws in pollution control.
pg. 24