4 er 4 - si i : / ea errata ek - bons 7 no Ls | : . a 4 ae ‘aie 5 so at 5 q Hh deel nee ena Aes Den eePublish by Thoms Telford Publishing, Thomas Ter! Lt 1 Heron Quay, London IE} AID. URL Inapeg wee theatre come Dissrihosors for ‘Thomas Telford books a EN > ASCE Pros 1801 Nenler Bll Deve, Reston, VA Japan: Mararen Ces 1, Book Deparrmen, 3-10 Nile {Chae Tap 108 Iuctrafta: [DA Basoks and Journals, 648 Whiteborse Rr Mitcharn 3132, Vietosin 91 aan, USA 2chome, list published 288, Reprinted 26 ‘Also available from Thomas Telford Books Menna! orig emimaring, Falitod by MJ. Reall, G\.R. Parke and J. B. Handing, ISBN 45 Heid ngaering: a gla perp. LassounsVernindey Trova. ISBN 0 7277 3218 3 (Consents trends ride aig sont ai mcetnate 2.5. ISIN 072-7 8001 6 1 eatalergue recur for this honk iy aailable Frans the British Libeaty Ess 0 7207 3238 4 © Thay Tekin Limited 2013 AU rights, inching sanslatinn, reserved. Escape as permitted by the Copy ight, Designs seal Parents Net 1988, no part ofthis publication mat be repeaduced, stored ima reteieval sistem ne transmit! in any firm oe by any means, electmnie, mechanical, photocopying tir erbervise, witha the print writen permission of the Bublishing Dieeetoe, Thomas ein Publishing, ‘Thomas Telford J, 1 Heron Quax, Loan B14 4D. “This bow is palshed on dhe understanding that the author sole respansible forthe statements mise and opinions expressed in and that is publication docs ot necessarily imply that such statements anclor epinions are or eer che views oF opinions oF the publishers. While every effort hay fxn make to ensure thatthe statements made and she fapistons expressed in this publication provide a safe arn aeewrate guide, no liability oe responsibility can be accept in tis reapect by the author oe peblishers Typeset hy Acwlemie + Techie, Bristol Prinnel ara heard Great Britain by Antony Rowe Lad Chippentiam, WiltshieeDedication ‘To my wile Alison, who has visited many bridges over the years, and to my daughters Sarah and Laura, who may come to use theny one dayContents Preface Disclaimer Acknowledgements List of figures List of tables 1. Prestressed concrete in bridgeworks Introdaction Peineiples of prestressing. Pre-tensioning Post-tenstoning Brief history of prestressed concrete bridges Reficrences 2. Prestressing components and equipment introduction Proprietary systems Wires Strands and tendons Bass Anchorages Tendon couplers Deetin Equipment for placing tendons Stressing jacks References 3. Durabilty and detailing Introduction Recent history of durability issues in the UR Corrosion protection and ducting, Comerete 26 28 31 33 34 4 3 %6Detaiting Access Stray current protection Paternal tendon replacement References Grouting post-tensioned tendons Introduction Recent history of grouting ut watertal Gr Grouting equipment st material wests Vents and other details outing tals Pre grin Air pressure testing Water pressure testing, Leskayges Genuting procedure Grease and wax grout References Prestress design Inteoduetion General approach Primary and secondary prestress effects Prestress force and losses Friction losses and tendon extension Liste shortening. and strains Relaxation of tendon steel Creep losses Shrinkage losses ‘Tendon ecee Sceviceability limit sate stress check Deticetioms and pre-camber Vibrations and fatigue in tendons Uigimae moment design Shear design Torsion desiga Longitudi Partial peestressing Construction sequence and ereep “Temperacare effeess Concrete properties Application ofthe prestress Desiga procedures co BS M00 ‘Service limit state sisess check 38 40 B a 6 46 r 48 50 St 53 54 34 55 56 Py 38 58 a oo ot 6 7 o 70 ” 8 8 Eo 83 84 = 88 88 9Ultimate moment resistance Ultimate shear resistance Ulimae torsion Longitudinal shear Partial presteessing Design procedures to AASHTO standard specifications Allowable stress design check Plesural strength ‘Shear capacity Torsion Horizontal shear References Design of details Introduction Anchorages Pre tensioned strand Post-tensioned tendons Cast-in dead-end anchors for post-tensioned tendons Anchor blisters of blocks Anchor pockets, Couplers Duets Diaphragms Deviators Refer Concept design of prestressed concrete bridges Introduction Deek types Selecting the deck arrangement Acticulation and span arrangements Post-tensioning, with internal or external tendons Bridge costs Material quantities References Analysis of prestressed concrete bridges Introduction Traditional approach to deriving forces, moments and shears Dead load and applied loading analysis Deriving the prestress forces and moments Stage-by-stage and creep effects Combining effects 89 90 9 92 92 3 %3 95 95 %6 96 98 98 98 98 99 103 los 106 or 108 no us 19 120 120 121 126 128 129 130 132 133 134 1B 134 135 Br 140 MI Specialist software for the analysis of prestzessed concrete bridges 141 Gi eral description 110. 11 12, Input data Analysis of the structure Ourpet Summary Relerences Slab bridges introduction Solid-slab bridges Voidled-slab bridges Design of slab bridges Rete Beam-und-slab bridges inrroduerion General arrangement Construction of fr sity beany and-slab decks Casciny: and transportation af precast beams Hreetion of precast beams Cast Desi of deck slab of heam-and-slals decks General design Stress distribarion through section Precast beams in continuous and inteyen! decks Prestress and reinforcement References In situ multi-cell box girder decks Introduetion « Construction of st multi-cell box girders sneral arrangement Design of first nyalti-cell box girders References In situ single- Il box girder bridges Introduerion General asrangement Construction, span-by-span Construction by balanced cantilever Design of i sta single-cell box gitders Bos behaviour Prestress layout Transverse prestressing of top slab Deck articulation Deck consteuction 143 146 150 150 150 151 151 152 152 154 155 179 180 181 186 189 190 190 191 194 197 201 202 202 202 aos 205 20514. 16. Precast segmental box girders Introduction General arrangement Casting of segments Stonige and transportation of segments Se general Sczment erection by the balanced cantilever methoxt jgment erection by the span-by-span method Scament erection by the pr Desi exsive phicement method n aspects assaciated with precast segmental decks Prestress tendon fayeat Shear Keys ae joint Design with epnsy or concrete joints Des Typical sezment details Deck erection References: swith dey joins Precast full-length box girders Introduction General arrangement Gassing and storage of the units “Transportation of the units Freetion of the units Des n of full-length precast box girder decks Incrementally launched box girder bridges Inteoxtvetion General arrangement Casting the deck aching the deck Design aspects associated with launched box girder decks Longitudinal desiga during launch ‘Transverse and local design dari Construction tolerances Consteuetion load Lasals on supports during laenching References nine Cable-stayed bridges Intrnduetion Cable-stayed b ide arrangements Construction of conerete cahle-stayed bridges Box girder decks Reamand:slab decks Design aspects associated with ermerete cable-stayed brielyes ContentsContents Analysis of eable-stayed! bridges Deck design and behav Deci dynamic behaviour Stays Temporary hnading, References 17, Other prestressed concrete bridge types Introduction Extra-dosed bridges Fin-back bridges Truss bridges Arch borides Foothridyes References 18. Problems and failures Introduction Prestressing components Wire, strand and tendon failures Tendon extensions Grouting and duces Corrosion Conerete and reinforcement Concrete eracks Honeyeombin Conerete cover lems during construction Failures due to desigan Conseruetion procedures Structural hehavioue problems Problems after opening. Durability Rehabilitation and modifications References Appendix A: Definitions Appendix B: Symbols and notations used Appendix C: Purther reading and useful references, Introduction Books Design gitides and technical reports Anticles Standards, codes of practice and specifications Websites 328 332 332 32 333 3M BS 3Appendix D: Proprietary systems Introduction Malti-strand systems Esteraal tendon systems Plat-slaly sestems Bar systems Wire prestressing systems Auxiliary equipment Company and person index Project index Subject index 339 339. 30. 346 348 350 354 357 361 362 ContentsFF] Preface This book is an expansion of the ehapter on presivessed concrete bridges ia the Manual of Bridge f the practical aspects involved! in the desig el construction of prestressed concrete bridge decks. Concrete remains the mest common material for bridge construction around the world, sal prestressed concrete is Frequently the material of chnice for bridge «leeks witls spans zreater than as the more common highway and rail rid nt As well heen successfully used on some of the Inrger cable-stayed structees, major fiver crossings and urban wiaduers ‘Much has been learnt about presteessed eonerete aver the sis decades since ie was first used on bridgeworks and the current techniques employed in both their design and their construction have evolved greatly fron those used by the extly pioneers such as Prevssiner and Magnel, Hier steengh concrete steels coupled with sophisticated and improvements in the prestressin desiga tools have given prestressed concrete a greater versatility ‘here are many different ways rH slesign and build prestressed conerete bridges and it is true to say every bride is different in one ther. All bridge designers have their own way of doing things and their awn preter ences in the design approach and the details ro adopt, while individual contractors come up wi ifferent solution tor the sime problem. No single publication can cover all the possible ways to design or build prestressed concrete bridges; however, this hank presents rhe authar's expe ences, collected over 25 years in the industry Although there are several good publications covering general prestress cconerete design, and many short articles and uidanee nores on the diferent practical aspeers of designing andl eonsteuering prestressed concrete bridges, there is litle available bringing combine all the aspects of prestressed concrete bridge decks into one volume. ‘Chapters Land 2 cover the general aspects of prestressin, iss principles and the components that make up the prestressing. systems. Chapters 3 and 4 consider durability isues, while Chaprers 3 to 8 gover a range oF general design issues. Chapters 9 to 17 diseuss the design and construesion of itlrent deck finems andl construction rechaiggues. (1 the problems that have occured in the pas. While reviewing the design and constuction of the diferent types of this toetaer, Ie the aimy of this book to peer 18 looks brietly at some of prestressed comerete bridge decks and the prestressing systems used, thishook assumes that the reader has a basic understanding of prestressed and reinforced concrete design, which n be applied to the specific application of bridges ‘The author would welcome comments and dialogue on any of the subjects contained withia this hook, and be exn be eontaeted by e-mail ar nel typ.co.uk PrefaceDisclaimer "The information contained in chis book is basee! on the experience of the vuthor and bis interpretation of current praeticc. AI information and data contained shuuld be checked and verified far use on any particular project.Acknowledgements Where do you seart when there have been so many friends and colleagues who ave assisted me aver the yeats, both in gaining the knowledge to write this ‘ook andl in actively contributing to its contents? Perhaps I should start by shanking Graham Davenport, Keith Simny and [Dick Thomas who wave me she initial encouragement and opportunity to become a bridue engineer, while all the people I have worked with have had some influence on this nok's contents, Many thanks to Tony Gee and Parcners and Hyder Consulting Ltd without cchom this book would not have been completed and tor the many Ayures ane photographs they provided Most of the drawings have been provided by Hyder Consultiny noted otherwise, with help from Ray Purvis and his seam, 4 special thanks also to Louise Smith for help with Chapters 3 and 4 on. durability issues and grouting of tendons; 0 VSL, Freyssinet, DYWIDAG, BBR and McCall's tor the information on their systems permission to publish extracts from their brochures and £0 Zor help with some of the diagrams, ‘The author wishes to acknowledge and thank the following for the figures and drawings provided: Andrew Barbour, Louise Smith, Alan Major, Francis Kung, Peter Fox, Martin Morris, Bill Hard, Tom Williams, Roger Knight, Jonathan Hiscock and all the others from Hyder who have provided photographs over many Stephen Cardwell at VSL. Berard Fortier at Campenon Bernard (aow Vinci) Flemming Pedersen and Robert Uthwatt at Cowi Gordon Clark at Giffords Paul Bottomley at Freyssinet Dr Brenni at BBR Bob Spackman and Stuart Beunton at TGP Joe O'Donovan and ‘Tony Dempsey at Roughaa & O'Donovan Bijan Aalami at ADAPT Ronald Yee at Yee and Associates Jean-Philippe Mathiew at Bouy ruesReknowiedgements Finally, a thank you to Brian Pope and Andy Hexlghinsun fer reading i all through to make sure it made sense. Lapologize should | have missed anyone whe has helped or eantsibuted to. this book; itis nor intentional but more a retleetion on te time taken tw bring it all together.List of figures Chapter | Figure £1 Figure 12 Figare 13 Byker Viaduer, England Ceirig Vineluet, Wales River Dee crossing, Wales Killaeney Overbridge, Ireland Vinduct constructed with preeas: beams Prestressing building blocks Change to stresses in beam Figure 18 Precasting yard for che Bospocus crossing proieet, Turkey Figure 1.9 Internal ducts and anchors prior to concreting Figure 1.10 xternal tendons inside bo girder deck Figure 11 Srressing of post-tensioned tendon LIZ Annet Bridge, France ©1138 Linn Cove Viaduet, USA 1.14 St James's Park Footbridge, England 115 M3 Medway Bridge, England Figure 16 Dornoch Firth crossing, Scotland Figure 117 Brotonae Bridge, France Figore 1:18 Hung Hom Bypass, Hong Kong Figure 1.19 Vase da Gama Bridge, Portugal Figure 1.20 Sunniberg Bridge, Switgerland Figure 1.21 Longest prestressed conérete bridge span length + year Figure 1.22 Sherbrooke Footbridge, Canada Figure 1.23 Peace Footbridge, Korea Chapter 2 Figure 2.1 Multistrand tendon Figure 2.2 Prestressing bar and anchor Figure 2.3. Multistrand tendon live end anchor Figure 24 Strand deacl-end anchorage Figure 2.5. Multisteand rendon coupler Figure 2.6 Prestress bar coupler Figure 2.7 Stee! ducts inside reinforcement cage Figure 2.8 Figure 2.9 Corrugated plastic duet and coupler HDPE: duetList of figures Figure 2.10 Figure 211 Figure 212 Figure 2.13 re 214 Figure 2.15 Posh-through placing of strand Pull-through placing of strand Juck for stressing single strand Jack for multi-strand tendon Jack tor prestressing bar Placing of large prestressing jack ont tendon Chapter 3 Piguere 3.1 Figure 32 Multi-sisand tendon proteetion systems Sout drainage hole Deck desinage ridge inspection unit iit aceess hole Abutment inspection gallery Access through box girder diaphragms Chapter 4 Pigure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5 Figure 4.6 Flaw-cone test Inclined duct test Grout mixing, equipment Anchor cap with grout inlet Concrete capping to anchorage Grout vents Chapter 5 Figure 5.1 Figure 52, Figare 5 Figure Figure 53 Figure 5.6 Figure 5.7 Figure Figure 5.9 Figure 5.40 “igure 3.11 Figure 5.12 igure 5.13 Figure 5.14 Figure 5.15 Figure 5.16 igre 5.7 Precast beam prestressing Prestressing bars used for segment erection ‘Typical post-tensioning layout External tendons inside box gitder Prestress in continuous decks Secondary effects due to built-in supports Prestress stresses on section “Tendon-force profile Relaxation losses in strands 1 initial stress tress distribution due to shear lag affective flange width Ulimate moment of esistance Contribution of haunched slab to shear resistance Longitudinal shear Creep redistribution of moments Stresses generated from temperature gradient Cube r cylinder strengthsChapter 6 Figure 6.1 Figure 62 Figure 64 Figure 6.5 Figure 6.6 Figure 6.7 Figure 6.8 Figure 6.10 Figure 6.11 Figure 6.12 Figure 6.13 Figure 6.14 Figure 6.15 Figure 6.16 Figure 6.17 Figure 6.18 Figure 6.19 Figure 6.20 Figure 6.21 Pro-tensioned steand ar the end of a precast beam End block design End block reinforcement with internal ducts Spread! of stress into flanges Deucd-end anchorage reinforcement Blister and anchor block design Blister reinforcement "Three-dimetisional modelling of anchor blister Restraining curved duets Tendons in curved bottom slab Duets for external tendons Diaphragm arrangements Diaplneayn hanging reinforcement Vertical prestress in diaphragm *U" beam diaphragm ‘Typical box girder intermediate diaphragm Deviator arrangements Concrete beam deviator Concrete block deviator Steel deviator ‘Three-dimensional finite element analysis of deviator Chapter 7 Figure 7.1 Span ranges for differen: deck types Figure 7.2 Precast beams Figure 7.3. In sim box girder Figure 74 Precast segmental box girder Figure 75 Incrementally launched box giedee Figure 7.6 Cable staved bridge Figure 77 Choice for single span decks Figure 78 Choice for multi-span viaducts Figure 7.9. Optimizing bridge costs Figure 7.10 Typical quantities in prestressed concrete decks Chapter 8 Figure 8.1 Grillage model for analysis Figure 82. Longitudinal dead load moment from frame analysis Figure 8.3 Frame model for transverse moment analysis Figure 8.4 Fall length chree-dimensional finite element model Figure 85 Tendon Frietion-loss spreadsheet Figure 8.6 Prestress moments from influence coefficients Figure 87 ADAPT menu window Figure 88 ADAPT traveller defnition Figure 89 Graphical representation of che ADAPT modelList of figures Figure 8.10 Stage-by-stage construction by -1D/IPT Figure 8.11 Stage-by-stage construction with a traveller B12 ADAPT output Chapter 9 Figure 91 Balbriggan Bridge, Ireland M4 Overbride, Ireland jure 9.3 Vidled-slab deck section jure 94 Void formers Figure 95 Weights holding void formers down Chapter 10 Figure 10.1 Artis impression of de Bangi SES vialue Figure 10.2 Analee Bridge, Ireland Figure 10.3 Ghantoot Interchange Overbride, United Araby Emirates » recast beam bridge under construction aver river Precast beam bridge over railway “Typical precast beam arrangements Typical precast heam deck section ‘igure 10.8 Precast beam span range Figure 10.9 Insite ladder beam arrangement Fi 10 Beam continuity at pier Figure 10.11 Precast beams on crosshead prior to easting diaph: deck slab sure 10,12 Falsework for fr sity beams and deck slab Figure 10.13 Overhead gantry for ar sin beam and slab deck ‘igure 10.14 Casting bed for pre-tensioned beams Figure 10.15, Jacking frame at end of casting bed with inset of strand jack Figure 10.16 Shutter with strands anchored at ends Figure 10.17 Shutter for post-tensioned precast beam Figure 10.18 Stressing post-tensioned beam Figure 10.19 Beam transporter Figure 1.20 Beam placed by erane Figure 10.21 Gantry for placing, beams Figure 10.22 Formwork and reinforcement being placed Figure 10.23 Deck slab being exst Figure 10.24 Stresses in precast beam deck Figure 10.25. Typieal eeinforcement and prestress arrangement Figure 10.26 Typical deck slaly reinforcement Chapter 11 Figure 11.1 Kwan Tong Bypass, Hong Kong Figure 11.2 ‘Typical box cross-section Figure 11.3 Multi-cell box girder bridye igure 1144 Fullheighe seafoldingFigure 115 Figure 11.6 Figure 11.7 Fegure 11.8 Figure 11.9 Fegure 11.10 Figure 11.11 Figure 11.12 Figure 11.13 Figure 12.15, Froure 12.16 Figure 12.17 Chapter Figure 13.1 Fizure 132 Feure 133, Figure 13.4 Figure 13.5, Figure 13.6 Figure 13.7 Figure 13.8 Figure 13.9 Figure $3.10 sgure 13.11 Figure 13.12 re 13.13 gure 13.14 igure 13.15 Formwork being installed Reinforcement and tendon ducts Botreny slab, webs and diaphragm east Stage-by-staye construction Deck nishing muehine Balanced cantilever construction of multi-cell bus: ‘Theee-imensional finite elernent model of deck Longitudinal tendon profile Typical reinforcement arrangement List of figures 12 MTR Island Line, Hong Kong, Malaysia Singapyre Seciond Crossing, Typical single-cell bos ereseseetion Twin-box arrangement ingle-cell hos with struts supporting, side cantilevers Pall-beight scaffolding from the ground Gantry support for Formwork Reinforcement, ducts and web shutters being placed Shutter for top slab herween webs Balanced cantilever construction Balanced cantilever construction of deck Pierhead and setting up of the traveller ‘Travelling form arrangement Travelling form on deck Balanced cantilever construction with bearings “Tendon layout for balanced cantilever construction ransverse tendons profile and anchorage 13 Byker Viaduct, England Belfast Cross Harbour Links, Northern Ireland Bangkok Second Expressway System, Thailand Hung Hom Bypass and Princess Margaret Road Links, Hong Kong Jahen-Ghavali Viaduct, Kuwait General view inside easting yard Casting cell schematic layour Shoreline casting bed Inner shutter ready’ to slide inte position Counter-cast segment positioned Segments on loa line casting bed Long: line formwork Reinforcement assembly jig Reinforcement cage stored ready to be moved to casting cell Inflated tubes in duets during segment casting i=lList of figures vv Figure 13.16 iguee 13.17 “igure 13.18 Figure 13.19 Figure 13.23 Figure 13.24 Figure 13.25 Figure 13.26 Figure 13.27 Figure 13.28 Phyure 13.30 Bigure (3.31 Figure 13.32 Figure 13.33 Figure 13.34 Figure 13.35 Figure 13.36 : aoe: Figure 13.39 Figure 13.40 Figare 13.41 Figure Figure 13. Figure 13.44 Figure 13.43 Pigure 13.46 Figure 13.47 Figure 13.48 Figure 13.49 Figure 13.50 Figure 13.51 Figure 13.52 Figure 13. Chapter igure (4.1 Figure 142 Figure 14.3 Figure 14.4 gore 14.5 Figure 14.6 Seymene setting Survey pins -RMents in stone yard ‘egment on special carrier Seuments lifted by erane at storage yard Cascin ling, books Sexymene prsitioned on rail: mounted bogey Seyment transported by barge Precast segmental deek erection techniques Epoxy being spread over joint °O" rings around ducts at segment joints ements View inside box girder as segment is being positioned Close-up of juint after segment erected Dey jointed segmental deck Deals of seal along top of dey joint Spalling of concrete edges at joint between segments Balanced cantilever ereetion using a yancey szment being positioned Precast segments erceted by crane Precast seyuments erected by ground-level gantry Precast sexments erected br lifting frame Prop and tie to stabilize cantilever Stabilizing bracket around pier Shutter for ie stn stitch at midspan Frame 1o align eantilevers Overivead gantry for span-by-span erection Segments hanging from gantry Underslung truss for span-by-span erection Litting arm on underslang gantry Progressive placing of segments with props Preseress layout for balanced cantilever deck Prestress layout for simply supported deck Shear key arrangements Reinforcement for large shear keys imate behaviour of beam with dry joints and external tendons ‘Typical segment arrangement Web and hottom sb transition detail ‘Temporary prestress for s 14 Saudi Arabis-Bahrain Causeway Vasco da Gama crossing, Portugal Singapore MRT Confederation Bridge, Canada Casting cell shurters Pre-assembled reinforcemen’Unit being concreted List of figures Completed precast unit stored Beam with lifting. gantry Beam transporter Beam being moved on to deck Beam being transported by barge Placing, beams by gantry Cantilevered deck being lifted into place 5. Deck on bearings Stitch for deck continuity 15 Dorock Finh viaduet, Seatland Hiasdel Viaduct. Turkey Deck daring launel over pices ‘Typical launched deek section “Tendon anchorage details Casting area behind abutment ‘Typical easting and launching sequence for deck Formwork arrangement Onter formwork assembled Casting cell looking towards deck Conereting the deck slab ‘emporary bearings for launch Combined permanent and launch bearings Pash launching jack 5 Pulling arrangement Guides fixed to piers and bearing plinths being prepared Launching nose on deck Bending moments in deck during launching Bending moment range in deck during launching Analysis of bottom slab and web during launch Forces on substructure during launching 16 Sunshine Skyway Bridge, USA Vasco da Gama Crossing, Portugal River Dee Crossing, Wales Conerete deck arrangements for cable-stayed bridges Multi-stay areangements Balanced cantilever construction Deck cast partly on falsework and partly with traveller Lifting deck segments into place ‘Vasco da Gama Crossing cable-stayed bridge layout 16.10. Yamuna cable-stayed bridge lavout re 16.11 Form traveller for casting deckList of figures Figure 16.12 Figure 16.13 Figure 16.14 Figure 16.15 Figure 16.16 Figure 16.17 Figure 16.18 Figure 16.19 Figure 16.20 Figure 16.21 Figure 16.22 Figure 16.23 Chapter Figure 17.1 Figure 172 Figare 173 Figure 17-4 Figure 17.3 Figure 176 Figure 17.7 Figure 17.8 Figure 17.9 Figure 17.10 Figure 17.11 Figure 17.12 Chapter Figure 18.1 Figure 18.2 Figure 183 Figure 18.4 Figure 18.5 Figure 18.6 Figure 18.7 Figure 18.8 Form travellers being lifted into position Beam-and-slab dleck under construction Prefabricated reinforcement cage Stays being installed Simplistic analysis medel ‘Threesdimensional analysis mode! Deflectedt shape of cable-stayed deck nement profile Axial farce in deck Bending moments durin deck eantilevering Deck detleetions during cantilevering Stay anchorage arrangement 7 Extradoved anc! fin-back bridge arrangements ‘Tsakuhara Bridge, Japan Sunnibery Bridge, Switzerland Barton Creek Bridge, USA Bubiyan Bridge, Kuwait Boulonnais Bridge, France Vecchio Bridge, Carsiex Ghadesville Bridge, Australia Barclang Bride Footbridge, Singapore Footbridge, Hong Kong, Kilmacanogue stressed-ribbon footbridge, Ireland Incomplete grouting Spalling at deviator Deviator failure Honeycombing around anchors Congested reinforcement Honeycombing and voids in concrete Precast beam dropped Segments toppling in storage yard Appendix D Figure D1 VSL. typical tendon and steel duct sizes Figure D2 VSI. PT-PLUS™ duet sizes Figure D3 VSL anchorage type EC Figure D4 VSI. dead-end anchorage type H Figure D5 VSL enuplers types K and V Figure D6 VSI jack details Figure D7 VSI- anchorage blocksout and jack clearancesDs py = DIO pit 212 care DIS core DIG care DIS. gure DI6 Picure DIT = Sure DIS VSI. texternal” stressing ancherage type Hid VSL ‘external’ stressing anchorage type Ldlan Ereyssiner slabstress tenons DYWIDAG prestressing, bars DYWIDAG bur post- tensioning details DYWIDAG bar anchor details DYWIDAG bar coupler DYWIDAG bar duct sizes DYWIDAG bar jack dara BBRY wite tendons BBRY standaed wire tendons BBRY w BBRY wire couplers BRV wire jack details DYWIDAG scrand pushing equipment DYWIDAG hydraulic pump dart DYWIDAG grouting equipment List of figures choresList of tables Chapter 2 Table 21 Wire, strand and her properties ‘Table 22 Multissteand tendon sine Chapter 5 Table 5.1 “Typical friction evetficients ‘Table 5.2 ‘Tendon arse inside ducePrestressed concrete in bridgeworks Introduction Jon; however, prestressing, ‘and compressive capa Figre 1.1. Brker | England. C)Prestressed concrete bridges jane 1.2. Griting Vala, Wake, Reprednid euartesy ab Tony Ge and Partucs Copsright nice overbridges and underbridges, including the Killarney Overbridge in Fig, 1.4, have also utilized prestressing with either iv sit ar precast concrete beams rete bridges has given the bridge engineer Of bridge form and in the construction prestressed conerete is frequently the Development of prestressed cor increased flesibility in his select techniques available, As a resel material of choice for bridges. Spans range trom les precast beams, as in Fig. 1.3, to more than 450m for cable-st ed bridges. Pigore 1.3. River Dee erasing, Wale, Repradned conrtery af Gifford, Copsright reeered. 2ced concrete bridges include a wide variety of different forms: from rom beams to bos givder {from simply s i functions range from the carrying of pede road or rail trafic and they make up a Sgnifieant p stock in existence today n of prestressed concrete bridges both eatly influences and is n the construction process envisaged. (The construction sequence cal considerations in positioning the tendons influe ich more than the desire to achieve a cone conerete shape is often dictated by the placement of the prest Prestressed concrete in bridgeworksPrestressed concrete bridges tendons and their anchorages, while the need for rapid construction of difficulties with access may dictate the type of steucture and construction methodology adopted. On the other hand, the assumptions made in the analysis and design may govern the construction method and sequence adopted. Solutions using precast segments (sce Chapter 13) are used over difficult ground or where rapid construction is necded. ‘The deck may be Taunched (sce Chapter 15) over a deep valley to reduce the need for falsework and to minimize the disruption and environmental impact on the landscape below. Precast beams (see Chapter 10) are used where access to the ground underneath is restricted, and stay cables (see Chapter 16) allow longer spans and reduce the number of piers. In all eases the design and the construction methodology must be developed together Durability and maintenance requirements feature prominently in any design produced today as lessons learnt from problems with existing, bridges are fed back into the industey. Aesthetics are another important consideration, as designers strive to improve the appearance of bridges 0 fit into the environment. ‘Today’s bridge designer bas to take into account all these factors in order to develop the optimum solution for any particular bridge project undertaken After deciding the type of bridge struccure to be used and the construction approach to be adopted, the design of the prestressed concrete deck is carried ut, This usually involves the use of specialist software, although hand caleu- Iations or spreadsheets are valid approaches that are still widely used by many designers. The analysis must accurately model the effect of the presteess and applied load on the structure, to ensure that all the strength and serviceability requirements are met. This often includes three-dimensional finite-element modelling, as well as stage-by-stage analysis with che creep and shrinkage behaviour included. ‘The many aspects that contribute 10 the design and construction of prestressed concrete bridge decks, including the materials and equipment used, the design requirements and procedures, and the consteuction tech- niques adopted, are covered in subsequent chapters. In this first chapter ‘only the basic principles of prestressing are discussed, and a brief history of prestressing and prestressed concrete bridges presented Principles of prestressing Force tsansfer between the prestress tendon and the concrete achieves prestressing of the concrete member. Tendons are pulled and stretched and then anchored against the concrete, with the tension in the tendon being balanced by compression inthe concrete. In this way an external compressive force is applied to the concrete and is used to counter the tensile stresses generated under the bending moments and sheat forces present. ‘The tendons are placed either within the conerete member as intemal tendons, or alongside the concrete as external tendons, and can be unbonded or bonded to the concrete. They can be pre-tensioned or post-tensioned and consist of wire, strands or bas; however, their effect on the concrete, and the busi principles of design, are the same inal eases(a) Winout pressing bose ogahar nig (0) Wn tacks pressd together Pry ly ve¥weY The effect of prestressing can be demonstrated by attempting to pick up a +: © of children’s building blocks, as depicted in Fig. 1.6. By pushing the ends «cher, and applying a ‘prestressing’ force to the blocks, i is possible ro pick " up; however, ifno force were applied to the ends then the row of bricks Id fall apart. The joints between the blocks ate unable to resist tension s-4. without the ‘prestressing’ force, they open up under their self-weight. » the ‘prestressing’ force applied the joints are kept in compression fully utilize the advantages inherent in prestressed concrete, thus allowing Inger and more economic spans to be builtPrestressed concrete bridges Figure 1.20, Sanit tide Switsertond. Roper Grushindy, Capita co 7} — | * Cable-stayed bridges 899 — 400 sao a —|- inst tence canttevers 200 f ‘Aue Bridge Ba Precast segmenial balanced yee cantieves 100}— 4 a 4 Ae treromertay launched of —__fresstboarg_*p 0 woo tte 952 t862re=—stse~~—«taa? ~~ BaoeYoar 1 Aue Bridge, Gomany 2 Luzaney Brigg, France 8 Esby Braga, France 4 Mangla Ths Bridge, Gemany 5 Olean Vict, France 8 Chiton Viaduct, Sutzerland 7 StCieus Bdge France 2 Baran Causeway, Saud Arabs Fie [] 1.24, Langer prestresied com 9 Pipaine Brie, 10 Heromo rdge, Japan 11 Necker Bree, Germany 12 Lock Brdge, Geemany 18 Lam Brage, Germany 14 Nibelungon rage, Germany 15 Meoway rage, England 16 Bendot Bridge, Germany rte bridge span le 17 Usato erage. Japan 18 Marana Bridge Japan 19 Koror-Babethaup Bridge. Pace tands 20 Rael Urdanota Sedge, Verezvela 21 Waa Kul. bya 22 Broiome Bige, Franco 23 Barios go Luna, Span 26 Skareundet Bridge, Norway“The fist designs for prestressed concrete bridyes were based on experience xained from experiments and application of the technique in buildings and other structures a8 no codified rules existed. In the early days, Preyssinet and other prominent engineers published articles and gave lectures, forming the main source of exchanging information. In 1949, Abeles published his book [4], one of the fist on the principles of prestressed concrete, followed by Magnel (1950) [5] and Guyun (1951) [6] a few years later. Design rules were published in France in 1953, followed in 1959 by the UK standard, CP115 published by the British Standards Institution {7}. Design codes evolved significantly as more knowledge was gained, especially in relation tothe creep, shrinkage and temperature effects until the eatly 1980s when the codes we use today were developed. “The first prestressed concrete bridges tended to use post-tensioned tendons placed externally to the concrete. Prestressed wires were either left bare and pen to the elements, or wrapped in some form of protectin, or encased in concrete after stressing. Most of these forms of protection resulted in the external tendons having corrosion problems, which for many years led t0 post-tensioned designs usually adopting tendons placed internally There was some experimenting with external tendons in the 1960s and 1970s, but in the UK. problems with durability occurred which effectively resulted in a UK-wide ban on the use of excernal tendons for several years. in France during the early 1970s external tendons were successfully used to strengthen several bridges, and prestressing strand was being used as stays oon cable-stayed bridges. These adopted a robust protection system developed using high-density polyethylene ducts filled with cement grout or grease, «which led to inereased confidence in external tendons. In the UK in 1985, a collapse of the Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge in Wales, duc to corroded tendons, initiated a series of inspections and investigations. In 1992 this led to a ban on internal tendons, and all UK designs, at that time, had to ‘use external tendons, This ban was partially lifted in 1996 when, with good detailing and construction practice, internal tendons were allowed, except for precast segmental construction where concerns over the water-tightness of the joints remained, For the future, prestressed conerete is likely to continue to dominate as the material of choice for bridge spans in the range of 30 m to 200m, while its use con longer span cable-stayed bridge decks should continue to grow. High- strength concretes are being developed and used in building works and are likely to become more common for bridgeworks which, when combined ‘with prestressing, will enable longer and lighter structures 10 be adopted. “Two recent bridges using high-strength concrete with prestressing are the Sherbrooke Footbridge in Canada and the Peace Footbridge in Korea. ‘The Sherbrooke Footbridge, completed in 1997, uses a special high- strength concrete product in its composition developed by the Bouygues’ Research Department. The Reactive Powder Concrete (RPC) is made using small particles to give a dense mixture, Concrete used on the Sherbrooke Footbridge achieved a compressive strength of 200N/mm? and tensile strengths of 7Njmm? and 40Njmm? under direct load and bending respectively, Showa in Fig. 1.22, che 35m deep truss deck spans 601m with Prestressed concrete in bridgeworksPrestressed concrete bridges RPC top slab and bottom beam. ‘Th filled with RPC concrete, ‘The top external prestressing tendons used lon, h concrete has alsty bee completed in 2001. ‘The fbte-reintorced high. wel cube diagonal members are also. both longicadinally and transversely for the up the 120 The specially developed concrete enabled thin sections to be used, reducing the total weight of the deck while the dense cunerete is expected le. Non-metallic prestressing have been developed anthey are currently much more expensive than steel tendons and have proved dlinlicult to anchor effectively. As this technology develops their use is likely to become more common. References 1. Sutherland, J., Humm, D, and Chimes, M. (eds) 2001) Hisore Canerete ~The Bark youd fo Appratal. London: Tomas Telford Publishing 2, Sriskandan, K. (1989) “Prestressed Concrete Road Bridges in Great Britain: \ Historical Surves’, Th Proceeding of the Lsitavion of Cnt Egicet, 86, Api, 269-303, Rawlinson, J and Stat, PP, (1962) "The Hammersmith Flyover, The Prading ofthe Iustituinn of Cit Egives, 23, December, 365-624 4. Abeles, PWC. (1949) The Priniples and Practice of Presrezed Concrete. Leno: Crosby Lackwond 5. Magael, G. (1951) Prettsted Comte, Laden: Cinenete Publiations 6 Guyun, ¥.(1951) Prastrss Comite, aris: Paitin Eyroles ~. PLS, (1989) The Strctral Use of Prestreed Casco in Bailing, London: Bitsh Sea ards Instation, Prestressed concrete in bridgeworks[a0 Prestressing components and equipment Introduction Prestressing systems are made up of 2 number of standard components, The basic prestressing clement is the wir, strand or bar, while with poxttensioning the anchors, couplers and ducts form the embedded items. Specials equipment for placing, stressing and grouting tne tendon are required and propretary systems have developed and become established worldwide. ‘This chapeer looks at the diferent components and equipment that make up the presiesiog system. More details on the proprietary systems from individual supplicts are siven in appendix D, while grouting equipment is incided in Chaprer Proprietary systems ‘The specialist nature of prestressing concrete has led to a number of pro- Prictary prestressing systems being widely used throughout the industry, with several of the principal prestressing companies mentioned below Most multi-strand prestressing systems utilize similar strand, either 13 or 15mm diameter, while BBR also provide a parallel wire system and there are several bar systems available, When designing prestressed concrete members, the choice of which type of prestressing to be used is usually made by the designer, while the contractor chooses which particular system to Adopt. However, the designer must ensure that the design and detailing, adequately cater for the actual equipment and components to be used The VSL post-tensioning systems have been used throughout the world since 1956 and are protected by patents, They are used in every branch of prestressed concrete construction and although uscd primarily for bridges and buildings, they are used for numerous other applications as well, including soil and rock anchors and for lifting and sliding heavy loads. VSL originated in Switzerland and rapidly expanded, with thee system being adopted internationally. In 1988, the group restructured underanew name, V'SL International Lid, o reflect their worldwide business, and today have subsidiaries or lcensees in most pacts ofthe ‘world, For bridgeworks, VSL provide both multi-strand and stressbar systems Eugene Freyssinet was one of the pioneers of prestressed coneretes developing the materials and equipment, as well as the design philosophy He took ou several patents and worked closely with contractors in Franceto establish the techniques. In 1943, Edme Campenon established a company, Société ‘Technique pour Utilisation de la Préconstrainte (STUP), to develop Freyssinet’s ideas. STUP were involved with many early prestressed concrete structures and became established worldwide in hoth the design and consteue- tion of prestressed concrete bridges, as well as for other uses af the technique, In 1976, STUP changed its name to Freyssinet International (STUP), in order to honour Eugéne Freyssinet and to develop the company on an international scale, Today, Preyssinet International provides mulei-steand stressing Founded in 1865, DYWIDAG is the abbreviation of its mother company, Dyckethotf and Widmann AG, which is one of rhe oldest construction companies in Germany. The first ever structure built with a prototype DYWIDAG Post-Tensioning System using bars was the arch-brid Alsleben (Germany) in 1927, followed by the three-span Aue Bridge (Germans) in 1936, where unbonded post-tensioned tendons were used. DYWIDAG began licensing their system in 1950 on a worldwide basis and in 1979 formed the DSI group to co-ordinate its international business. DYWIDAG provide both multi-strand and prestressiny bar svstems for bridgeworks. Bureau BBR Ltd, established in 1944, was originally a partnership formed by three Swiss civil engineers; M. Birkenmaier, A. Brandestini and M.R. Ro’. Today it is a limited company registered in Zurich, Switzerland, and specializes in prestressing technology and related construction work. BBR operates on an international seale with numerous licenses, consultants, contractors and suppliers. BBR provides muleistrand and mulei-wire prestressing systems for use in bridgeworks. Macalloy isa registered trademark of MeCalls Special Products Ltd, based Jn the UK, who produce high-tensile alloy-steel bars for prestressing concrete as well as range of other applications. Details of some of the above proprietary systems are given in appendix D; however, each proprietary system may have different details when used in different countries and the systems develop over time, s0 it is important to ccheck the specifications with local prestressing suppliers for anv particular project. Wires Individual wires are sometimes used in pre-tensioned beams but have become less common in favour of strand, which has becter bond characteristics. The wire is cold-drawn from hor-rolled rods of high-carbon steel and steess- relieved to give the required properties. Wire diameters are typically between Smm and 7mm, with a minimum tensile strength of between 1570 and 1860N/mm? carrying forces up to 45kN. Material properties for pre- stressing wire are specified in the British Standard 3896 (1980) [1]. Typical details for wires are given in Table 2.1 Galvanized wire is available, although ungalvanized wire is used for most standard prestressing applications. Stainless steel wire can also be obtained, but chis is not usually used for the prestressing oF concrete. Prestressing ‘components and equipment a]ore 861 968 Set oe 261 s ‘9685 Sit #49 9685 SH 09 awe sae 4 ‘96HE SA ze ws OR SL socivet wwe oF ORY St wy ze 8h SH oe cf vb SA sozioni ecg ee Wz vary Se sng ssanig os a ont BSL wz APH “SOY ID umeicy Sot me weet uss geet soi ZS 9685 Set 40 Y64-geT a el esi eve ost ost Lat 286 eat ‘Se oTV WL vse owe osat oo at ATI 9685 SA 49 “6x ET UHOUHIN, Pxpwes ‘og6t tor eo & STI 9686 $A 40 64. weET sod vee sol oat LOBEL SLO 7 GT 9686 $420 62 HET UOMO (454) wen gy opexe|oi-mo} puns satay, Gonerss GAKUIN) (NH) PO GuaK/N) (uw) Gu) aw) smoize 2p) Sibonsy 30 Suiyexq aims ffeil) wonsery SNORT wut —spsiaL Pua uON, peut supadond 109 pur puoars a, 1 ageStrands and tendons Prestressing The most eommon form of prestressng is -wire strand, which is made up of components and cividual cold-deawn wies with six outer wires twisted around an inner care ‘equipment Sire. An example of a multiestrand tendon and its anchorage partly eut away «shown in Fig 2.1. The steand is stress-relieved and is usually of a ‘elasation rave. Strands can be galvanized should yeeater protection be Suited, although this is unusual for normal prestressing applications. poxy-eonted strands are also available and have been ased for prestressing seidge decks, hut this is not a common practice For post 13mm or 15mm diameter, 7-ire strand is used, either common post-tensioned tendon sizes utilize 7, 12, 19 or 27 steands to suit the Figure 2.1. Mab strand nde, Repradvid corte of DYWIDAG- Systems International Gab) Copyright reered. Ne 2.2 Muti:strand tendo sige 13mm (0'5") strand 15mm {(+-6") strand ‘Typical duct sizes Typical duct sizes Minimum breaking, internaljesternal Minimum breaking irernal external rad (KN) diameter Toad (kS) diameter No. Buronorm 138-79 ASTM Steel Plastic -Euronorm 138-79 ASTM Steel Plastic bf or BS 3896 M#16-85, ducts duets or BS 5896: \M16-85, ducts ducts 1980, Super Grade 270 (mmm) (mm) Grade 270 (em) (am) 184 261 25.30 367 21 1045, 551 Te 40s 735 1s 50135 6 1102 bo wie 7 1286 1825 GT 5973 2 2204 59/73 m87 7691 8 3307 95 102 19 3490 76591 95,102 1001 2 aoa ney 10011 3 5695 100/107 100/116 8215 Bist BOL v 197120127 13046 9805 140150 1d 43 7899 130/137, 11395 12i0 150/160 55 forer 1407150 13a 143391701 2Prestressed concrete bridges Figure 22. Prestessing bar ‘and anchor. Re predveed exter &f MeCalle Special Products Lid Copsright reserved, [a] al standaed anchor blocks availa He, although systems are available For tendons fines ae et 58 strands when necessary. Stressing 73 per cum Ute flames at itching forces of HOKN or 199KN for the [nim or leany ammeter strands respectively. The larger multisttand tendees con carry forees up to IUUMIKN, Merial properties for prestesing sero are specified in the British Standard 5896 (1980) [1) and by ASTM AsIOA, 99 (1999) |4} Table 2.1 gives typical details of the strand used, while Fable 2.2 summarizes she most common tendon sizes and the associated minimers hn ing loads for “super strand! and ASTM grade 270 steel ‘the ends of tendons the strands are anchored either by splaving out the penn cneasing them in the concrete as a deadcend anchorage ng he Fee eee «inmash an anchor acrangement and fixing them’ in te 2 anchor block for a live-end anchorage Bars plcstressing bars, as shown in Fig. 2.2, ate available in different diameters They {2mm up to 78mm and ate used in posteemioned eommnnnee rey tspically have 2 minimum ubimate characteristic woclke sth of between 1000N/mm* and 108) Nimm’, although » highes sa gth steel BeEN eralable trom some manufacturers. Jacking forces me Re SKN to over 3000KN. Bars are formed in sta lengths by the hot Eine of steel cods and ate either smooth of deformed on the surface Galvanized bars are ate spocthed aera aPplications. Material properties for prestressing bore 98 (098 a ees Daitsh Standard 4486 (1980) [2) and ia’ ASTAT Ac22ar 8 (1998) [5]. Typical details for bar postcensioning ane given in Table 2.1 [The bars are generally placed into ducts cast neo the coneree here een two, anchor blocks located on the concrete surface. Bars ae svened he pulling from one end, using a stressing jack placed against the anchorage atzange ‘ment, and then held in place by a nut assembly Sailable, bur are not commonly used in standaed pose.Anchorages ach end of a rendon the force is transferted into the eonerete hy an anchorage system. For pre-tensioned strands the anchorage is br bond and fiction of the bare strand cast into the concrete, while for post-tensiemed tendons anchorage is achieved by using anchor blocks ur an encased «lead end anchor. In Fig, 2.2. typical anchor arrangement is shown for a post-tensiones har TThe bat is held in place by the threaded nut and the force from the bat i ferred through the threads and the nut and on to thi into the conerete. ‘The hole on the neat side of the anchor block assists witl the grouting of the duct and the anchorage arrangement after stressing, has been completed. Stressing gf multi-strand tendons is undertaken using jacks placed wver the anchorage and tendon. The jack grips each strand and pulls the ten 1 anchor block that is case the required force is generated, Wedges are then pushed inte place around the the jack the wedges geip the strand and transfer the force on co the anchor and into the concrete, Figure 2.3 shows a typical live-end anchorage for & -d back to the wedges, The strands and wedges are seated into holes formed in the inst the bearing plate and trumpet, case into the concrete, ‘The hole at the top of the anchor is for the grout to Huw through, ro ensure that the duct and anchor are fully filled during the grouting ‘operation. Strand tendons may also be anchored at the non-stressing end with « cast-in dead-end anchorage arrangement, as shown in Fig. 2.4, where the strands ate spread out after emerging from the duct. Ia installed before concreting, but is not stressed until after the concrete has attained the required eransfer strength. As of the ducting, a seal prevents the ingress of conerete into the duct and, where the strands spread out, a tension ring resists the splitting forces caused by the change in angle. At the end of the strands che wires are opened out to create a ‘bulb’ that, when encased within the concrete, ensures a good anchorage cl seated into she anchor block, so that on the release of the farce by multi-steand tendon after the strands have been stressed and trimn anchor block, which rests is arrangement, the tendon is Prestressing components and equipment Figur 2.3. Mali-stund Repradeed cones e Frese Taternotonal. Gopivigbs vesrrid csPrestressed concrete bridges Vigare 2, Strand deabend cunhervge. Repradncd cartes of USL Inteenationl. Coppright reserved, I] Grout we Frat ct Tension ng External, post-tensioned tendons should be removable and replace the detail of the anchorage is aranged to allow for this. Where eement grout is used, a lining is provided on the central hole of the anchor arrangement to ensure that the grout around the tendon does not bond to the anchor ur adja cent conerete, This facilitates the cutting and pulling out of the tendon, if necessary. Alternatively, where grease or wax filler is used, the tendon can be de-stressed or re-stressed using a jack. To provide for this the steands must protrude far enough behind the anchor block to allow the jack to Btip them. A special extended capping assembly is used to protect the strand, which is filled with the grease of wax to prevent corrosion, All post-rensioned rendon anchor blocks should be detailed to allow them co fully fil up with grout and prevent any air being trapped during. the grouting operation. This may be achieved by providing vents and holes through the anchor blocks, thus allowing the grout to flow freely Tendon couplers Tendons can be coupled to extend cheit length during stage by-sage construction. Figure 2.5 shows a coupler system for multestnnt eon A special anchor block and coupler arrangement is used to enatle tte tendon to be extended after it has been sttessd. The standacd bearee Plate, shown on the right side of the figure, is eat into thelist stage of concreting, with the tendon being placed and stressed the conan Progresses. During construction of che ext sage and before concraing the next length of tendon is positioned with the ends of the stems feed inc the coupling bead a shown inthe centre ofthe figure. After contresng the nese stage, the new length of tendon is stesed with the lance eine transferred through the coupler to the fist tendon. This arraneeneny oeGrout woe Bearing pate poet ore Courting ead K beet seve Stoevana Comeression tings @ Bars can also be joined together by using a simple threaded coupler, as shown in Fig. 2.6. The enupler is threaded on to the ends of the bars to transfer the load across the connection. Couplers enable long, lengths of bars to be assembled and allow previously stressed bars to be extended into subsequent concrete pours Where the couplers are located, the conerete section has to be thick enough quately surround the arrangement, with sufficient room for the scinforcement and the concrete cover. If the duct runs through a thin w for slab then a thickened section is often needed at the location of the coupler, The thickening required can be significant on large multi-steand tendons, where the size of the coupler is much greater than the tendon duct, Where couplers are used to extend cables or bars in stage-by-stage construction, the design must consider that although the ‘anchor’ side at the coupler may not carry much load in the final condition, it carries the full tendon load during the stage stressing. Therefore, the anchor part of the coupler and surrounding concrete must be designed to cater for this load in the temporary condition Prestressing ‘components and equipment Page 25. Mattiatrand edo conplor. Reprodnced conrtesy of USL Taternationl Copyright reared Figure 2.6. Prestress bar ‘coupler. Reprodnied courtesy of MeCalls Special Products Ltd Copyright veered [|Prestressed concrete Ducting bridges With internal postrensioning a duct is us. Placed. Traditionally, ducts aze made from corrugated steel, often from strips rol crimped together to form the duct. ‘The req covered by British Se 2.2, with details of some of the pro External tendons are (HDPE; lard 15N523 (1997) (6}, durability of presteessing tendons ha ducts, which are made watertight alon sed t0 form a void throu, led on site into a helix and Recent concerns over the a reinforcement cage, asic duct, Steel duets usually of 025mm, while corrugated plastic thick, Indicative duet sizes for difler ‘stems are given in ‘Table svstems given in Appendis D,Prestressing ‘components and T camp Higeue 28. Corrugated plasti ee tnt ad oupler. Reprodaced m the strand as it woes around any curves in the tendon alignment, and the sressure from the grouting, Asa result, the HDPE duct thickness is normally least 6 mim, Ducting is manufactured in convenient handling lengths, sormall stween 4m and 6m long and joined iv sta to make up the full length sired, Steel duets are joined with a short coupler that goes around the ign: 29. HDPE: di [>]Prestressed concrete outside of the ducis on both sides of «joint to provide continuity inthe bridges ducting system, The coupler is usually a slightly larger diameter duce, thar fits tightly over the corrugations and is “twisted” into position. Corrugated Plastic duets are made continuous and sealed with a coupler, which provides a watertight joint. A typical plastic coupler fiting. is shown in Fig, 28 HDPE: duets are joined together by either hut welding or sleeving, Dui hot welding, the carefully prepared ends of the ducts are positioned ina fame and a hot knife or plate used to sofien the end faces of the HDPE, ‘The duct ends are then brought together and held until the material has hardened again and a seal formed. When using sleeves, a short length of tight-fitting pref rieated HDPE duct is slid over the joint and sealed into position. Grout inlets, ouclets, vents and drainage rubes are needed along the ducts 'y Water that may accumulate inside routing operation, For steel ducting, vents ate formed by eneating 4 hole in the duct and fixing a plastic sdidle, onta which a plastic tube is eonneeed leading to the concrete surface. Special adapters are u to remove nd t0 facilitate in the «l For corrugated! tbe is ‘welded! to. the duct around a suitably sized hole, Examples af the different vent arranse ments are given in Chapter 4 Plastic duets, while for HDPE duets the inlet ur vent 1 Equipment for placing tendons Bar tendons are usually placed by hand, by pushing the bars through the ducts. Hand placing can also be used for the shorter strand emdce se where 2 simple duct profile exists. For the larger and longer multheand tendons, special equipment is needed 0 position the seta Coils of Trice strand arsive on site usually weighing up to 3 tonnes. ‘The coils are placed in a frame, as seen in Fig. 2.10, to enable the stent ro be Pulled out and made into the tendon, In a mulistiand tendon the some Figie 2.10. Paaetronch plang af strand. Repradvced cates of VSL. Interational. Copriht rte L]are positioned by either pushing or pulling the strand into place. The most common method of placing the strand is by the push-through method, cither using a machine or by hand. The push-through method involves pushing individual strands into the duct one at a time until the fll number is in position as illustrated in Fig, 2.10. A pusb-through machine, also shown in Pig. 2.10, grips the strand as itis pulled out The pull-through method is illustrated in Fig, 2.11, Strands are first cut to length and bundled into a complete tendon at one end of the duct. A steel pulling ope is thread through the duct and connected to a wineh at one end, At the other end the rope is fixed 1 2 eable suck, usually made from a wire mesh, which is put over the Ieading end of the tendon. When pulled, the sock grips the strands and pulls them all through the duct together, stressing components and ‘equipment coil and feeds it inte the duet. tf mee” \ Fgre 21, Plate SZ pling of sr pred veoen tof VSL Irie Stressing jacks “Typical jacks for single-strand and mulistrind tendons are shown in igs 212 and 2-13 respectively. Pigute 2.14 shows a typical jack for bar tendons. These jacks are hydraulically operated, with oil pamped into the piston to appl load to the tendon. The larger jacks can generate a pulling force in excess of 1200 tonnes For destresting, special stools are used to move the jack back and ro 2, Jack for uresing single strand. Reprod fvartsy af VSL International Op Figure 2 ht retPrestressed concrete bridgescive access to the anchor wedge or nut allowing them to be loosened or moved dons, or smaller bars, weigh up t0 acks for single strands and small kg, and can be easily handled and mane get tendons special li ing frames ox eranes, ate required move the jacks, which ean w seurred into position. For the igh up to 2000 kg. Figure 2.15 shows typical ck-lifting equipment being used inside a box girder The design and detailing of ccount the access needed 1e bridge deck should always cake into et up and operate the jacks and associated -quipme References BS 5896 (1980) High Toile Sto Wire ond Strand for British Standards Instution BS 4486 (1980) Hat Role and Hot Rol Pretrestng of Conse. London: Beitish Standarde Institution, BS 4447 (1973) Specification forte Performance of Prestrensing Contraction, London: British Standards lasicution ASTM A4I6N-99 (199 sarstng Caniete, Bennssivania: ASTM lareenational ASTM AT22M-98 (1998) Standard Specification fo Concrete, Penasslvanin: ASTM Intesnat BS ENS23 (1997) Stel Sbathe for Tendour Terminale, Repu ‘ondont British Standarde Lnstiution retrttng of Court. Landon nd Prosssd High Tele Alloy Ste Bar for the larages for Pot-tnsoned Standard Spucatnn for Cnoated “ice Stet Strand for Br UCwawted Stel Bar for Prostrenng rcte, Quality Contr Prestressing components and ‘equipment| Durabilty and detailing Introduction Discovery of cortoded tendons in several bridges in the CK and inter nationally during the 1980s and carly 1990s resulted in concem over the Jong-term durability of prestressed concrete brides. Subsequent inspections and testing programmes have led co a better understanding of the factors {fur influence the good design and construction of these bridge decks. In the UK, a review of current practice and ‘state of the art’ research led ta 8 report issued by the Concrete Society (1996) [1] and (2002) [2} giving Buidance on some of the durability requirements for post-tensioned eoncrer bridges. (The prestressing elements ina bridge deck are primary structural eompo- nent and they need to be protected from tisk of damage or deterioratinn Good access ta inspect as much of the prestressing tendon and other elemenes of the deck as possible is required for long-term maintenance, while for external tendons, provisions for their re-stressing or replacement need to be incorporated. With well-designed details and good construction practices, prestressed sonerete bridge decks provide durable and low-maintenance structures [Ths fs clearly’ demonstrated by the large number of existing bridges that have performed well and are sill in a good condition after many seats in This chapter discusses some of the aspects concerning durability and asso ciated topics in more detail, The grouting of post-tensioned tendons ve covered in Chapter 4, Recent history of durability issues in the UK Durability issues became the subject of much discussion and extensive Fescarch and development following the collapse of the Ynver-Guse Bridge in December 1985, The key features of the Ynys-y-Gwas Bridge co Woodward and Williams (1998) [3], were lapse, as described by (2). The bridge collapsed without warning, (0) The bridge was a highway structure built in 1953 and subjected ta de icing salts.The ducts were predominantly unlined, except at segment joints where they passed through ineffeetive short lengths of eardboard or ste! eylin« ders, such that tendon protection was limited 4) The segment joints were 25mm wide and packed with mortar, resulting, jn permeable areas where water could easily find a path to a tendon. ©) The tendons were generally well grouted but, where grouting was inadequate, corrosion travelled along the length of the tendon instead Of remaining focused at the segment joints, as was the case elsewhere “The main lesson that has been learnt from this cullapse was that the integ- rity of a post-tensioned structure relies on preventing corrosion of the tendons. ‘This is best achieved by the application of multi-layer proteetion systems, allied to robust design details at construction joints, expansion ‘ints, vents, anchorages and other key areas Following this collapse and the identification of defects in other prestressed conerete bridges in the UK, as outlined in the report by the Highways Agency and “TRI. (1999) [4], a review of key design details, specifications and construction techniques commenced. A moratorium was introduced by the UKs Department of Transport in September 1992 on the new design of posttensioned bridges using internal tendons, to allow the issues to be fully researched. ‘The moratorium was partially lifted in 1996 after the publication of the Concrete Society’s report, TR47 [I], which specified improved detailing and grouting procedures. For preeast segmental struc- cares with match-cast joints, the ban was maintained due to concerns over the effectiveness of the protection to the tendons as they pass across the joints, where traditionally the ducts are not continuous. Subsequently the 1990s witnessed a revival in the use of external tendons. They had become unpopular after a moratorium was introduced in October 1977, following the discovery of corroded wires in the Braidley Road Bridge, built in 1970. The industry had become wary of external tendons due to corrosion and anchorage problems caused by poor detailing and inadequately protected strand. The use of grease and wax for filling external tendon ducts was unreliable at that time as in several cases it leaked out, leaving tendons vulnerable to corrosion. Of the seven externally post- tensioned bridges built in the UK during the first phase of external tendon construction in the 1970s at least two that had strands individually sheathed in PVC had suffered from wire corrosion of such severity that the tendons hhave now been replaced. The second phase of externally post-tensioned structures in the 1990s saw improved detailing and better protection systems, including the use of HDPE ducts with either cement grout or grease t0 protect the tendons. ‘The consequences of corroded tendons are so serious that the reaction of the industry has been very vigorous. The number of bridges affected over the last 50 years has only been a small percentage of the total bridge scock, but even this was considered unacceptable. The numerous specifications, technical guidance, learned papers and other publications that now exist on the topics of groating, tendon protection, ducting systems and best practice, bear testament to the importance of this subject. The multi-layer protection Durabilty and detailing 35Prestressed concrete rhilosophy, slong with the many refined desig details developed, should bridges 13mm 15mm ‘rr strand @ result in more durable post-tensioned concrete structures in the future, Fuidance on the requirements to achieve durable post-tensioned concrete ructures can be found in a number of publications, including the design ‘manual published by the Highways Agency (2001) [5,6] and the book by the Comité Evro-International Du Beton (1992) [7] Corrosion protection and ducting Wires, bars and strand ate generally used uncoated; however, to protet the tendons during storage or to reduce Friction loses during src thes can be conted with soluble oil which is washed of below prostiey te duct, Galvanized and epoxy-coated bars and strand ae alee aval, although either has bee commen ap in mma bridge pressor works Pretensionedl strand and wire in precast elements is fully eneased in the conerete and is wel protected fromm corrosion, The ends of the necale ce tight seal and prevent che ingress af moisture. s long as the Goren uneracked and sound, there fs no direct path for ant monture te seah ee stand, although long-term deterioration of the concise can expene the stands to rsk of coreosion, and this equites monitoring For post-tensioned arrangements, the diferent protection systems used for both internal and external posctensioned tendons at illustated hig a Sand or bars Gatvarized stl or plastic uct Coment grxt (0 Inemal tendons High dost polyethylene ducts 1 Paste sheath | 130m o 15mm ‘sand Grease or wax ‘Comen grout “coment gout ‘roase or wax © © (0 Bxoma! tendons Bigure 3.1. Malt-strand tendon protection stems:Post-tensioned tendons are placed inside duets to allow them to be stressed after the concrete has hardened and to provide protection to the tendons. ‘The ducts for internal tendons are traditionally manufactured using galvanized mild-steel strips. In recent years, plastic ducting systems have been aclopted to provide a watertight barrier around the tendon as protection against corrosion, Details of the ducting used are given in Chapter “Ducting”. Plastic or PVC ducting can be air pressure tested before coneret to contirm its integrity and allow repairs if necessary. After stressing. internal post-tensioned tendons the duct is filled with cement grout that flows into the voids, expelling any water and air while providing a benign environment that discourages corrosion in the pre stressing steel. Achieving full grouting of a duct can be difficult and requires experienced personnel and the adoption of good site practice. This aspect is discussed in more detail in Chapter 4 HDPE duets ate used with external tendons. The HDPE ducts need to be strony enough to prevent deformation when pressurized during grouting and to resist the strand punching through at deviated positions during threading, and stressing, “There are several different protection systems used with external tendons, as illustrated in Fig. 3.1Gi). The simplest is with the bare strand placed inside the HDPE duce and a cement grout used as derailed in (a). Alternatively, grease or wax filer can be used instead of the cement grout co fill the void as in (b). A thied option (c) is for the individual strands to be placed inside a plastic tube with grease oF wax filler injected at che factory. ‘The strand and tubes are then placed inside the HDPE duets and surrounded with cement grout on site HDPE provides long-term protection to the tendon, while the advantage of using grease as a filler is that it allows the tendons to be more easily de: stressed and re-stressed or replaced. This is an important feature for external tendons. Where cement grout is used re-stressing of the tendon is not possible, and removal of the external tendon involves cutting it up into short lengths and pulling it out of the deviators and anchor blocks. This requires careful detailing of the duct arrangements. Concrete To provide adequate protection to the presteessing steel the surrounding concrete must be well-compacted and free from defects. There must also be sufficient cover to prevent any deterioration in the conerete from penetrating Co the level of the tendons during the design life of the structure. Durable concrete is largely achieved by good detailing and construction practices ‘The factors controlling the durability of conerete and the mechanisms of deterioration are well documented in the publication by the Comité Euro- International Du Beton {7}. Consideration should be given to the risk of eracks forming in the concrete next to the tendons, and the potential width and depths of possible cracks should be investigated. Where appropriate, additional reinforcement is provided to reduce the tisk of cracks forming, or the tendons moved away from potential problem areas. The risk of cracking perpendicular to the Durabilty and detailing 7rrestressed concrete bridges Prestress tendons can be reduced by applying some of the presttess to the Concrete at an early age, in advance of any significant shrinkage or thermal strains occurring, . When designing and detailing the prestress layout and reinforcement Arrangement there must always be provision for sulficient space. to be available for placing and compacting the concrete. In eonested nrcas te imay he necessary to use conerete with small aggreyate, aul tu derail the re inforcement with sufficient gaps for placing and vibsating the concrete, ‘The area around tendon anchorages can be highly congested, with the ‘einforcement and concrete subjected to high stresses making the need fo dlense and defect free concrete paramount. Special provisions, cach femporary access windows in the shutters, should be ineurporated tallow easy inspection of the conereting. The windows can also he used co insert pokers to vibrate the concrete asi ix placed, ensuring that a well compacted ‘material is achieved. Detailing Good detsiting is essential to achieving a durable presiessed conerete struc- ture: The quality, and hence eventual dual of consituetion is improved by the use of section shapes and sizes that permit east concreting, Covel detailing oF the reinforcement and prestress tendons to simpli Hriogs wile maintaining sulfcient concrete cover, contributes ta lonye term dnleinn A primary requirement in the dealing isthe provision of an adeceate drainage system for the efcient removal of any tainwater, The manne the risk of water geting below the waterproofing layers or under ee and causing detriortion ofthe conciete or reinforcement or pastesne steel, Potential water paths to the prestressing tendons should le henry and then detailed co reduce the risk of wate ingres. This may tacoine ve Provision of aeditional waterproofing or other protection wecime For box sections, drainage holes, as illusuated in Fig: 32, should be Provided through the bottom slab at all low pointe and none wt oe bstuctions within the box, such as diaphragms. and devine, Th inspected to ensure that they do not beeome blocked, Potential leakage points, such as manholes or other penetrations through the deck slab, should be avoided if possible. Where drainage gullce see seeded, the deuailing of the interface between the gully and conesete dick {leb should be such as tp make the arrangement as Watertight as possible Ty if preferable for the surface-water drainage system not to pencrente che deck slab, For shore. and medium-length bridge decks, side Chains ie the RerBes ca be used to carry the water directly off the ‘deck and eollececd pein the abutments. This isnot practical for long bridge deeke and ceainage fullcs ate placed along the deck edges, feeding into a carter pipe whieh c feeated ther under the deck cantilevers, as illustrated in Fig, 3.3, op Within the box section.Drainage auto! Durabilty and detailing wath gage cover outer pipe wih fexbe ‘saan ater dock eat and Tendon anchorages should be well protected and detailed te mtinimize th around them, Ir is preferable t anchor ten veneath the deck acher than in esp ould seep through The ends of a dec up surface of a seetion where ogress of water. This ps here, especially with post-tensioned arrangeme: 39 |Prestressed concrete bridges Figure 3:4. Brie duspection mit. Reprodacd conten of MOOG Ganbll. Coparight es should he provided under seepaye. If possible, the anch iv twers applied to protect them Small drip channels should he used along the edges ofall sottts purentially exposed tu rainwater, These prevent the water from running aerons the conf Protect the concrete and fixtures, ane prevent unsightly. staining oP the surface Adview on detail forall aspects of concrete bridges ean be found in the Society (2002) {2} and the CIRIA Bridge Detailing Gnide report by the Conese (2001) [84 Access MI bridges need won access for rexular inspections and avaintersanee andl this isn particular importance fr evtical items such ax bearings, expursiva ine nd any expised prestress tendons and anchurages difficul, | piding or working platforms. Where aceess frum the sruund ie ke inspection unirs as shown in Fig, 3.4 can od access pf the deck, Using this type of plant gives ready access to the outside of the webs and to the soflts of the deck slabs and box. althe, Box scleccr brides need access into the voids. This is usually achieved at the abutments via the bearing shelf inte the end of of the deck and along theTop tango tobe ot back 26 rn aT toaow fee movement of oor 17809 «27kgin? 178 «102 224g UB (209 89 « 209M") (203 190% 2545! UB) 200) 10 oe toms 0 0 20 10 yess te rowed coo — ee ‘ep anton wad eure Sooo nan : 4010250 a9 —) s_ocaen {Lee & I iar ate Tf ‘cia tase xp ied a it ‘each end for retaining pin Hi pH! = g I 3 HH {i }—+} —— & 7 aT $5.65 ph Locking ever cae = | anc et axcoze oer Figure 3.5. Sofft excess bole length of the deck via soffit access holes 2s illustrated in Fig. 3.5. The soffic access holes are usually located towards the ends of a span and at locations where there is easy access from the ground. They are typically: spaced beeween 150m to 200m apart, provided there is good access through 41iges i 3, [2] Prestressed concrete 4 intermedinte diaphragms. Lockable covers are sed wo ive a secure arrangement. At non-integral abutmens for box-type decks, inspection galleries ac Provided between the end of the deck and the abutment backwall we Jhustated in Fig, 3.6, Where expansion joints are located in the deck slaty she arrangement should allow easy access to all part of the joints At thee Ineations there are often postcensioned tendon anchorages which ch vat also be accessible, Entrance to the inspection yallery ie usually nae & Abumant bearings I § Fpemen ! 11200 | 750 —_—— Ha ound cage chur! emacs ‘eaarape oer I r i a | heco j ! j somata pe RM ntact iaspecton gallery“Durabilty and detailing ecure door system built into the abutment side wall with a path provide access for transporting any equipment needed. ‘The ene aphragm in the deck is detailed with a large hole through ie to allow cess inte the bos, For cellular or box girder decks access holes are provided through the nternal diaphragms as seen in Fig. 3.7. Multi-cell boxes usually have access ‘oles through th maintenance carried out. ithe their impact on the design they should be made as large as possible to provide these holes are normally small to minimize Stray current protection For bridges supporting or near electrified cailway systems, power lines or other sources of electrical currents, prestress tendons and passive reinforcement should be earthed to protect them from the stray currents that can occur, which cause corrosion in the steel. DC-powered sailwa systems present the greatest corrosion risk, although it is also usual to Protect structures where AC power supplies occur All the prestressing tendons and reintortcement bi provide electrical continuity and to provide path for the stray curtent to travel id conductors of electricity in themselves and are normally connected to the rein- ie by a copper strip, o similar conducting marerial, that is xed chor block and the adjacent reinforcement. The reinforcement hould have additional mild steel bars incorporated that are welded te the cages at appropriate locations to ensure good continuity in the connection, should be connected to through the structure and down to the zround. Prestress tendons are Alternatively, @ special earthing cable can be provided along. the complete length of deck and the tendons and reinforcement connected eo it. At appropriate piers, or ar the abutment, che deck reinforcement is eonnected 1Prestressed concrete bridges the substructure reinforcement by a copper stip spanning across the bearing, gap. The stray current is then taken down to ground level and connected te carthing rods, formed fom copper bars installed into the ground to provide 8 good earthing system, External tendon replacement One of the advantages with external tendons is the ability to resteess or remove and replace them in the future if required. To enable this to be Possible the detailing of the tendon at the anchorages and deviators has to allow replacement to take place ‘The anchorage arrangement for posttensioned bats is readily suited to re- fixing the jack and detensioning where grease or wax filler has been esed instead of cement grour Fach end of a multi-senand external tendon is anchored using a standard aerangement, similar to that shown in Fig. 2.3, but with special provisions incorporated to allow the tendon to he de-stressed and replaced without damaging the anchor components. IF the duct is to be cement filed. this involves providing, a double-sleeve arrangement inside the teumpet to allow the tendon tobe pulled out, with typical arrangements ilostrated in Appendin D. The strands at the stressing end of a tendon with wascfilled ducts tee lefe ‘with sufficient length extending behind the anchor block to allow a jack to be fited to enable de-tensioning or re-stressing of the strand Sulficient space is required around the anchorages of external tendons, and along their length, o give access to remove the old tendon and to installa new fone. Access to the structure also needs to be adequate forthe stressing and Brouting equipment to be handled and posiioned. This involves using larger access holes and entrances compared with those needed for routine maintenance, Good access should be provided at each abutment, with full size doors into the abutmentaccess chamber and large openings through the deck diaphragms. Where soffit access holes are provided they should Provide a clear space of at least 1-0 m x 0-8. Removal ofthe tendons is requires them tobe de-sressed. Tendons in grease oF wax filed ducts are de-stessed using a stressing jack to release the force atthe anchor. The tendon is then pulled out ofthe duct andthe prease or wan collected ‘Tendons in cement-grou-filled ductshave to be cut ito sections toallow them to be removed. In ths case, the ducting and grout are removed local to expore the tendons in the area to be cut andthe strands severed by cutting or burning thus releasing the force, Another technique employed isto burn out the wedges atthe anchor blocks, which releases the strands. Special precautions ate needed to Prevent a sudden release of the lage forces that are in the tendons and to Protect the operatives in the vicinity. De-stressing of tendons should be carried ‘out by specialists with experience in this type of operation, References 1 Concrete Socity (1996) Techuial Repart No, 47, Durable Bouded Post-Teuomed Concrete rides. Slough: Conctete SocietyConcrete Society (2002) Tednial Report Ne. 47, Durable Banded Post-Temiond Concrete rides, 2ad edition. Slough: Concrete Society Woodward, R.J. and Williams, FW. (1998) "Collapse of Yays.Gwas Bridge, West Glarworgan’, Procedings of the letitaton of Civil Engrs, Bate 1,88, 638-69 Highways Ageney and TRI. (1999) Past-rasiourd Concrete Brides lagle-Freach Linton Report. London: Thomas Telos Publishing, Highways Agency (2001) (DRI) Departmearal Standard, BD 57101 Design for Durability, Norwich: HMSO, Highways Agency (2001) (MDRB) Advice Nav, BA 57101, Design for Durability Norwich: HMSO, Comité Euro-loresational du Beton (1992) Darehhe Concrete Stactare, 2nd edition. London: Thomas Telford Serviees Ltd ARIA (2001) Bridge Detailing Gide, Lolon: CIRIA Durabilty and detailing 4Slr] “J Grouting post-tensioned tendons Introduction The process of introducing grout into the duct ofa post-tensioned tendon isa simple and effective way to improve the overall durability of the asuerare The grout encases the strand or har and aets as a protective layer no Prevent corrosion, Cemeatbased grouts are the most common, although grease or wax filers are sometimes used with external unbonded rendone ‘The grouting process involves pumping the uid grout into the duct a an inlet, which fat the lowest point and ofien pat of an anchorage artangemene As the grout fows through the duct it comes out at intermediate ven the length of the tendon, until it finally emerges at the tendon, having filed the duct, Cement-based groute ate pumped ito the ducts on site after completion ofthe stressing operation, while reas ot wre fillers ate often injected into pre-assembled tendons at the factory, The complicating factors include such issues as inadequate design details, insufcintiy robust ducting systems, matcial variabilit, time constraints equipment problems, meaningful testing, duct blockages and segment faints This chapter reviews the problems encountered in tecent year aedh Primarily discusses the process of grouting with cement-based grout, The Procedures needed to achieve fully grouted ducts are described. Cee art ‘wax grouts are briefly covered towards the end of this chapter: Recent history of grouting Recent years in the UK have seen a refinement of the requirements for the grouting of tendons, including moze detailed and exacting specter Fe collapse of the Yays-s-Gwvas Bridge, in December 985, highighed historical deficiencies in the grouting process and teited' deme wad specication itsus. I also emphasized the importance of efectve frourng to prevent cortsion. Subsequent extensive research resulted in develogs ment of the specifications and procedures used for grouting, lading vp the Publication of the Concrete Sociew’s report ‘TRE? (1996 [1h Ie the Bast, the effectiveness of grouting varied from project So proice, the general guidelines available did not fully addew all the meree’ Cone quently, the quality achieved was largely » funetion of the seperenend expertise of the individual -design engineers, site supervisors and peratives. The extensive programme of inspections of prestressed conerete bridges in the UK demonsteated chat many early post-tensioned decks achieved well routed ducts; however, grouting defects and tendon corrosion were Found 11a significant number of cases. \ small percentage of these bridges had unacceptably severe tendon corrosion. Consequently, new standards were ced for all new projects in the UK. ‘These standards are currently not extensively outside the UK although this is likely to change as other countries work towards improving the effectiveness of grouting, The current UK standard is the Highways Agency's Mammal af Contract >aenments for Highway Works |2], which gives the specifications for the “csout material and procedures to be adopted. It can be adapted for individual jects to take into account specific requirements and latest developments in ne industry Research since 1996 has resulted in the publication of the 2nd edition of the onerete Society" report TR4T (2002) {3}. This introduces further tests for Grout that are intended to improve the assessment of how the grout will vetform in a duct under the particular conditions experienced in practice. Grout material Grout for filling post-tensioning ducts is traditionally a mix of water, cement fd admistures. Mises are developed to limit certain detrimental properties, cad designed to pass certain limiting tests such as speciied in the Highwars Sgency’s Manual of Conteact Dacnmens for Highnay Works (2). The ‘desiga’ or selection of such a mix on this basis could be inappropriate give equate nature of the commonly specified tests that do not always fully refleet the performance of the grout in practical situations. Grout-mix designs need to be developed to suit the individual project requirements ito give the required end product ofa fully grouted tendon. Uniformity in the quality and properties of the basic ingredient materials is critically important to the consistent production of a grout. Due to the ‘ariability of the performance of grout made from ordinary cements, the UK industry is moving towards the use of special grouts, made from pre- nagged materials with only the water measured and added on site. Te is also ‘roving away from the traditionally specified grout material tests, with new formance tests being introduced “The current European Standard for grout, BS EN 447 (1997) [4], covers the :aditional approach to grouting and testing and should be used in conjunction ‘vith more recent guidance such as that given in TR47 [3], Grout should always be made with Portland cement complying with BS12 5] Class 42.5N or cement