Solar Power Charge Controller

Thesis

An Honours Report Submitted for the Degree of:

BEng in Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Supervisor: ----

Synopsis

Solar energy technology is a kind of alternative forms of energy which has increasing
popularity in the current times. With high prices on petroleum depending sources, solar
technology seems to be one of the most promising source of alternative energy in the
coming future, moving us towards cheep, green and coast effective source of energy.
Solar energy can be produced any time when the sun is available, but in an event when
sun is not available, there is no power produced, to over come this problem the energy is
stored in a battery or any other alternate storage device and can be used when the sun is
not available.
For a system like this when a battery is directly powered via solar panel the efficiency of
the battery may came down after some period of time because of the continues over
charging of the battery or a battery might also loose its efficiency because of the
extensive deep discharge over a period of time. Similarly, if there is some extensive load
connected to the battery, then there is a chance that an overload situation may take place,
which may result in hated wires or short circuits. So therefore to over come all these
problems a system should be incorporated with the solar panel and the battery so that the
overall system works in a safe environment.
Hence this project aims to come up with a power charge control system which will help
the overall system to work in an efficient way. This system will ensure that the charge
created from the solar panel is managed in such a way that battery doesnt get over
2

charged or deep discharged and will also make sure that if an overload takes place it cuts
the power supply to the load, hence the battery and the load will operate in a safe and a
steady way.

Nomenclature

STD

=Standard Test Conditions

BJT

= Bipolar Junction Transistor

= Capacitance (F)

FET

= Field Effect Transistor

= current (A)
I O =

Output current (A)

I ph=

Solar cell current (A)

I d=

Diode current (A)

I p =

Shunt or leakage current (A)

I mp

= Current at

Pmax

(A)

I sat =

Diode reverse saturation current (A)

= Input Current (A)

If

= Feedback Current (A)

IC

= Collector Current (A)

IE

= Emitter Current (A)

4

Id

= Drain Current (A)

IB

= Base Current (A)

I SC

= Short Circuit Current (A)

JFET

= Junction Field Effect Transistor

k =

19

Boltzmanns constant (1.38 10

J/K).

MOSFET = Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor.

MPP

= Maximum power point.

= Power (W)
Pmax =Maximum Power

PV
q=

(W)

=Photovoltaic
Electron charge
= Resistance ( R )

Rs =

Series resistance (R)

R p=

Parallel resistance ( R )

= Input Resistance (R)

Rf

= Feedback Resistance (R)

Ro

= Output Resistance (R)

T =

Solar cell temperature

= Voltage (V)

V o= Output voltage (V)

V OC

= Open Circuit Voltage (V)

V ref

= Reference Voltage (V)

V mp

= Maximum Voltage at

Pmax

(V)

= Work / Energy (J)

Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction.................................................................................18
1.1

Aim................................................................................................... 18

1.2

Project Description........................................................................... 18

1.3

Summary of chapters.......................................................................19

1.4

Uses and applications.......................................................................19

Chapter 2: Background Theory.....................................................................21

2.1- Sustainable energy...........................................................................21
2.2- Solar Energy..................................................................................... 22
2.2.1- Application of solar energy.........................................................22
2.2.2- History of photovoltaic technology.............................................22
2.2.3- Advantages.................................................................................24
6

2.2.4- Solar cell, module and panel......................................................25

2.2.5- Solar cell modelling....................................................................28
2.2.6-

I - V Characteristic of a solar cell..............................................30

2.2.7-

Types of solar cells....................................................................32

2.2.8-

Effect of Temperature................................................................34

2.2.9-

Effect of Irradiation....................................................................34

2.3-

Backup Battery................................................................................ 34

2.3.2 - Nickel Metal Hydride Battery (Ni-IMh)........................................35

2.3.3 - Lithium Ion Battery (Li - Ion)......................................................35
2.3.4- Lead-Acid Batteries.....................................................................37
2.4-

Operational Amplifiers (Op Amp).....................................................41

2.4.1 Basic Op amp circuits..................................................................42

2.5-

Transistors....................................................................................... 46

2.5.1-

Bopolar Junction Transister (BJT)................................................46

2.5.2-

Field effect transistor.................................................................48

2.5.3-

Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET).....48

Chapter 3 : Project Work............................................................................... 50

3.1-

Circuit Diagram................................................................................51

3.2

Circuit diagram explanation..............................................................52

3.2.1

Connections................................................................................ 52

3.2.2-

Working of the circuit diagram..................................................52

3.3- Block Diagram..................................................................................53

3.4-

Components used............................................................................54

3.4.1-

Solar Panel................................................................................. 55

3.4.2-

Battery....................................................................................... 56

3.4.3-

LM 324....................................................................................... 57

3.4.4- MOSFET...................................................................................... 59
Chapter 4 : Built Prototype Of The Project....................................................60
4.1-

Layout Diagram............................................................................... 60

4.2-

Printed circuit board........................................................................61

4.3-

Final built circuit.............................................................................. 62

7

4.4-

Final Built Prototype.........................................................................63

4.5

Similar charge controller devices in the market................................64

4.5.1 Comparison of such similar solar power charge controller devices

in market................................................................................................ 66
Chapter 5: Conclusion................................................................................... 67
Chapter 6: References..................................................................................68

List of Figures
Figure 1: Process of power production through solar cell
Figure 2: Relationship of solar cell, module, panel and array
Figure 3: Equivalent circuit of a solar cell
Figure 4: I-V Characteristic of a solar cell
Figure 5: Characteristic of a solar cell with maximum power point
Figure 6: Monocrystalline Silicon solar cell
Figure 7: Polycrystalline Silicon solar cell
Figure 8: Amorphous / Thin film solar cell
8

Figure 9: Lithium ion life cycle characteristics

Figure 10: Lithium ion charge characteristics
Figure 11: Operational Amplifier (Op amp)
Figure 12: Inverting amplifier
Figure 13: Non inverting amplifier
Figure 14: Summing Amplifier
Figure 15: differential amplifier
Figure 17: Comparator
Figure 18: A N-P-N transistor
Figure 19: A P-N-P transistor
Figure 20: Operation of an NPN Transistor
Figure 21: D-Type MOSFET Construction and Symbols
Figure 22: D-Type MOSFET Construction and Symbols
Figure 23: Solar Panel (SLV 0603)
Figure 24: Lead-acid Battery
Figure 25: IC (LM 324)
Figure 26: Pin Connections
Figure 27: Schematic Diagram
Figure 28: Internal Schematic Diagram
Figure 29: MOSFET (IR630)

Figure 30: Layout Diagram of the circuit

Figure 31: Printed Circuit Board
Figure 32: Circuit under construction
Figure 33: Final built circuit
Figure 34: Final Built Prototype

List of Tables

Table 1 : Electrical Characteristic of the solar panel

Table 2: Parameters of MOSFET (IRF 630)

10

Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1
Aim
The main aim of this project is to build and test a controlled charging system for a
charge stored in a battery which is powered by a polar panel. This charge control will
deal with a mechanism which will detect the over charge, deep discharge of a battery
and over loading condition with the help of a set of op-amps which will be working as a
comparator and provide a output of 6 volts.
1.2
Project Description
In this project a solar panel is used, which converts the sun light into electric energy, this
energy is then stored in a battery during the day time and then it is utilized later when
required. The charge control takes place with the help of an IC which consists of a set of
four op-amps working as comparators for continues monitor different parameters.
The first comparator is used to identify the status of the battery, if it is fully charge or
not. In case if the battery is fully charged a transistor is used to bypass the solar energy
11

to the ground, which avoids the over charging of the battery. The second comparator is
used for the indication of the status of the battery by a green LED if it is fully charged or
by a red LED if it is under charge. The third comparator is used to indicate if the battery
is under charged, in this case when the battery level drops to a certain point it cuts off
form the load and the battery starts recharging again. The forth comparator is used to
indicate if some overload takes place, in this situation again the load is cut off form the
battery and in indicated my a white LED. At the event of overload or low battery
voltage, a MOSFET as a power semiconductor switch is used to ensure that the battery
has been disconnected from the load.
A prototype of the system was to be built to show all the above parameters, in this
prototype a set of variable resisters have been used to vary the resistance level to
demonstrate the overload, low voltage battery level and overload condition manually.
1.3
Summary of chapters
Different tasks had been undergone to accomplish the above mentioned goals. In
Chapter 2 all the required background theory is written which was observed and
understood to clear the concepts of my project, this theory includes research into
different types of solar cells, there properties and characteristics ,beside that research
into different types of batteries , transistors, operational amplifiers and MOSFETs ware
done, to understand their properties and function.
Chapter 3 shows the discretion of the schematic diagram, block diagram and the details
of all the components used in the circuit Chapter 4 shows the work done in building the
circuit on a PCB and assembling the solar panel, battery and the load to the circuit.
Chapter 5 covers the conclusion, describing briefly the project details, problems that
arose in the project and same suggestions are given on how this project can be modified
in a batter way. Chapter 6, which is the last chapter consist of the references.

12

1.4
Uses and applications
Solar energy is widely being used now a day through out the world, and to store this
energy, a battery is a necessary need. A simple way to store the solar energy into the
battery is to directly connect the solar panel to the battery and then use the charged
battery by connecting the load to it. The advantages of such a system is that they are
simple and cheap but they wont work in an optimal way, so therefor installing a charge
control system as worked in this project can improve the system performance, as it
would help the battery to not get over charged or undercharge or prevent from an
overload situation. Hence using such system can be used to power any type of load
making it more reliable and safe.

Chapter 2: Background Theory

2.1- Sustainable energy
The rapidly growing environmental issues and global worming have attracted the
attention of researchers around the globe to overcome these issues in such a way that the
increasing demand of energy can not only be met but also be made environment friendly.
The current trend of energy generation is through fossil fuels, fossil fuel are hydrocarbon
deposits like coal, natural gas or oil which are formed in the depth of earth. These nonrenewable energy sources are burnt in order to extract energy, the burning of these
substances results in the emission of hazardous gasses which are the main cause of green
house effect and the main reason for rapidly growing environmental pollution and global
worming.
The best way of avoiding these issues is through renewable energy, this is the energy
which is produces by renewable sources like wind, solar, wave, biomass, tides,
geothermal heat etc. Use of such energy sources cant not only secure long term energy
supplies and enhance diversity in energy supply market ,but it also it massively helps
reducing the atmospheric emissions, making this world a clean and a batter place to live.
13

Therefor, promotion and development of a sustainable energy is the key solution

to future development

2.2- Solar Energy

Solar energy is the energy produced from the radiations of the sun. Solar energy also
known as solar power can be used to produce electricity, heat, hot water, and even
cooling. This process of converting sun light in to useful energy is call photovoltaic, or
PV in short.
The energy which is provided by the sun is so long lasting and enormous that it can
provide enough energy which can be consumed annually by the whole world in just a
period of half hour , the sun is the most renewable and clean energy source, which can
produce radiations of 3000 watts per square meter on the earths surface on a clear day,
depending on the location. -[1,2].
Solar energy has been emerging tremendously in the past few years, The total
generation of solar energy around the globe in 2011 was recorded to be about 1.5 GW
which was just 1.5GW in 2000. This massive growth continues to grow with an average
rate of 50% every year [3].
2.2.1- Application of solar energy
Today because of the declining cost and increasing efficiency of solar energy technology
,it is now being widely used in a number of application including grid and off grid
system and for powering homes, commercial use, telecommunication, remote traffic
signal, street lights, powering urban areas, powering small electronic devices etc. -[4].

2.2.2- History of photovoltaic technology

1839, Photovoltaic effect discovered
A French physicist A. E. Becquerel discovered that there is a voltage flow when two
electrodes placed in an electrolyte was exposed to light - [5].
14

1873, Photoconductivity in Selenium

An English engineer Willoughby Smith discovered photoconductivity properly in a
material known as selenium and published a paper on it. In 1876 his further research
discovered that this material can produce energy through solar light. He tried to build a
solar cell using this material, but all his attempts did not turn out to be very much
successful but his research and discovery provided a strong base for further development
in solar power.

1883, First working PV cell developed

Charles fritts, an American who was the first one to build and come up with a working
PV cell which had an efficiency of just 1% .His design was based on the semiconductor
selenium wafer which was coated with a very thin gold layer, to form a junction.

1905, Albert Einstein and the Photoelectric Effect

Albert Einstein, a German born theoretical physicist, did great work and research in PV
effect, he came up with the photon theory which described how can electrons be
liberated on a surface of a metal when light falls on it. He was also awarded with a noble
price in in physics in 1921 for his work- [6, 7].
1954, First PV cell made from doped silicon
Darly Chapin, G.Pearson and C.S. Fuller in 1954 created the very first practically
working PV cell at Bell laboratories, these are the persons who made the first proper
device which converted sunlight in to electricity power which reached up to an
efficiency of 6% by diffusing silicon pn junction. They were later able to achieve
efficiency up to 11% -[8].
1970, GaAs solar cells created
15

Zhores Alferov with hiss team in USSR made the highly heterostructure GaAs PV cell [9].

1991-1997 efficiency reached up to 30%

National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) developed a dual-terminal GaInp/GaAs
concentrated solar cell which had an efficiency of more than 30% - [10].

2006- 2012,
In 2006 the latest technology had reached up to an efficiency of 40%,which was a world
record at that time which was later clamed by University of Delaware to achieve a new
world record to reach up to an efficiency of 43.8% . Now days the efficiency has reached
up to 50% in laboratories - [11, 12].

2.2.3- Advantages
The use of solar energy is getting more and more acceptable as an alternative means of
power generation. Listed below are a few of the benefits of solar energy over other
renewable and non-renewable energies.

Non-polluting
Unlike other energy sources solar power is totally clean, non-polluting and
infinitely renewable which does not have any kind of carbon emission or

greenhouse gasses emissions, nor does it produce any kind of odours of fumes.
Widespread availability
Solar energy can be produced anywhere where sun is available and the best
advantage of solar energy is its abundance in quantity, the sun light is available
almost every ware on earths land which makes it a life time energy harvesting
source. And with the new technology the solar panels are so efficient that they
are able to perform well enough even in on days when sun is obscured. Hence

16

energy production is ideal even if its a cloudy day or the sun is not bright

enough [13].
Minimal maintenance
Solar equipment are durable and are extremely convenient in terms of
maintenance, as they do not have any kind of major or complicated mechanical
parts ,therefor its maintenance does not require high expenses or a lot of time.
The solar system once installed requires very little attention and can be kept

unseen for a long period of time.

Noise free / No noise pollution
Other sources of energy produces a lot of noise, but solar energy, because of no
moving mechanical parts, creates no noise or sound at all, making it the most

quietest form of energy.

Life Span
The initial purchasing and installation cost of solar equipment are somewhat
expensive which contributes in large initial investment but they all come with an
average life span of 20 25 years, which saves us a great amount of money in
the long term, hence solar energy can be used for a long period of time which

completely justifies the initial cost -[14].

Hybrid System
In day time when power demand is at its peak, solar power generating can be
made as a hybrid system by combining it with other power sources, which boosts

the energy requirement and increases the overall system reliability.

Easy Upgrading
Different types of solar cells modules or arrays are available in various sizes and
shapes and with the increase or decrees in demand of power the overall
generation can be very easily increased or decreased by upgraded by system by
installed or removes these solar blocks- [13].

2.2.4- Solar cell, module and panel

2.2.4.1- Solar cell
Solar cell is a solid state semiconductor device which is the basic building blocks of a
solar panel, it converts light into electricity by photovoltaic effect. They are mostly made
up of silicon, with traces of some other elements in it. Solar cell acts as a semiconductor,
17

as the silicon material is doped with a p- type and a n- type elements, separated by a
junction.
When light (photon) with a certain amount of energy hits the solar cell, it frees the
electron-hole pairs sending free electrons to n- side and holes to the p- side causing more
disruption to the electrical neutrality and if an external circuit is made, the electrons will
pass through that path to their original side (p- side) uniting with the holes electric field
sent there .With this passage of current and voltage caused by electric field of the cell
results in the formation of power. The figure below describes the whole process [15,
16].

Figure 2: Process of power production through solar cell

2.2.4.2- Solar module

When a number of solar cells are connected together they form a solar module. They can
be connected in series which will benefit in higher voltage or can be connected in
parallel which will result in greater current. Configurations can also be made where solar
cells can be connected together in series as well as in parallel to form a single module.
Usually about 35-72 solar cells are connected in series, forming a module, which rages a
peak power of 10W to 200W.
2.2.4.3- Solar panel & Solar array
18

A solar panel is single unit consisting of a number of solar modules assembled together,
where as a solar array is an combination of number of individual solar panels or solar
modules that is coupled together in series or in parallel working as a complete power
generating unit. -[18].
The relationship of solar cell, module, panel and array is shown as in the figure below,

Figure 2: Solar cell, module, panel and array

2.2.5- Solar cell modelling

An equivalent circuit model of a solar cell is used to understand its electrical behaviour.
An ideal solar cell as seem below can be modelled with a current source (
inverted diode (D) connected parallel to it, a series resistance (
resistance(

Rp

Rs

I ph

), an

) and a parallel

).

In real no solar cells are ideal there are always some losses, so these series and parallel
resistances are added to the model to represent these losses. Series resistance represents
the Ohmic losses or the connection losses and the parallel resistance represent the
19

I ph

leakage current.

is the current generated equal to the amount of light which falls

on the cell. When there is no load connected, all the current flows through the Diode
(D), whose forward voltage determines the solar cell open - circuit voltage(

V oc

).

When load is connected and as the load current increases, most of the current generated
is flown through the load diverting its path from the diode- [19, 20].

Figure 3:Equivalent circuit of a solar cell

From Kirchhoffs current low (KCL) the output current is given as,

I =I phI d I p
Where,

I d=I sat e

qVd
nkT

I p=

Vd
Rp

Hence,
20

I =I phI sat

(e

qVd
nkT

Vd
Rp

V d =V o + I . Rs

As,

Vd

Substituting

I =I phI sat e

in the equation above, we get

q (V o+ I . Rs )
nkT

V o+ I . Rs
Rp

Where,
I =

I ph=

Output current
Solar cell current

I d=

Diode current.

I p =

Shunt or leakage current.

I sat = Diode reverse saturation current

Rs =

Series resistance.

R p=

Parallel resistance.

V o=

Output voltage.

q=

Electron charge.

21

T =

Solar cell temperature.

k = Boltzmanns constant (1.38 1019 J/K ).

Normally, series resistance has a very low value (
very high (

Rp

= ).

Rp

Rs

=0), and parallel resistance is

does not reduce the output power of the solar cell if its

value is just of a few hundred ohms, but in real the its value exceeds much more than
that, due to which it can be neglected. However

Rs

can drastically bring down the

output power.

2.2.6- I - V Characteristic of a solar cell

The figure below shows the output characteristic of a solar cell. This I-V curve
illustrates the relationship between the current and the voltage under standard test
conditions (STD),i.e. 1000 W

per square meter of radiation and 25 c

of

temperature. Where as in reality, the characteristics of the I - V curve depend on the solar
cell technology or on a number of environmental conditions like temperature, solar
radiations etc.

22

Figure 4: I-V Characteristic of a solar cell

The I-V curve consists of three important operating points,

V oc

Open-circuit voltage.

I sc

Short-circuit current.

Pmax

Maximum power point.

2.2.6.1- Open-circuit voltage (

V oc

When there is no load connected to the output of the solar cell then the value of the voltage will
be at its maximum with no current being drown through it (i.e.

V oc =V ( at I =0 ) ).That is

the point where open circuit voltage occurs.

V oc can be calculated from the equivalent solar cell circuit as,

V oc =

I
nkT
(ln ph +1)
q
Io
23

I
2.2.6.2- Short-circuit current ( sc)

Short circuit current occurs when the voltage at the output is zero and the value of the
current is at its maximum

(i. e I sc =I ( at V =0 ))

I sc can be calculated from the equivalent solar cell circuit as,

qI R s

I sc=I phI o (e nkT 1)

2.2.6.3-

Maximum Power Point ( Pmax )

As power is the product of current and voltage so therefore looking at the I-V curve the
power operating at the

I sc

and

V oc

I sc

is zero. As at

max. value but has zero voltage similarly at

V oc

the output current is at

the voltage is max. but has zero

current, in both of these cases the output power is zero, So therefor the point where the
power will be at its maximum will lie some ware between these two extreme point and
that point is known as maximum power point ( MPP ) or

Pmax

.This is the point

which is desired for most of the application which work on solar cell. Voltage and
Current at this point are denoted as

V mp

and

24

I mp

- [21].

Figure 5: Characteristic of a solar cell with maximum power point

2.2.7- Types of solar cells

There are three main types of solar cells, listed as below.
2.2.7.1- Monocrystalline Silicon solar cell
Monocrystalline or also known as

single crystalline

silicon, are made from a thin slice

cut from a large crystal

of silicon. They appear black in

colour and has the

highest efficiency as they are made

from the best quality

silicon. They have an efficiency of

about 15 20%. They

are space efficient and require less

space, as the other

types of solar cell with the same

power output would

require more space. They are very

long lasting and

mostly come with a warranty of

about 25 years from the manufactures .At low light conditions
they performance is batten than polycrystalline solar cell - [22].
2.2.7.2-

Polycrystalline Silicon solar cell

25

Figure 6: Monocrystalline
Silicon solar cell

Polycrystalline (or multi-crystalline) are made simply by melting

raw silicon and then pouring in a square shaped mold, Which later
is cooled down and cut into small square pieces. They are blue in
colour and have an efficiency of about 13- 16% .the process of
making this type of solar cell is simpler, has a less amount of
silicon wasted and costs less.
They have moderately less heat tolerance and therefor perform
slightly less than monocrystalline solar cell under extreme
temperature. Because of the square shape cut of the cells, thy pick
up the lights from many different angles and therefor work well

Figure 7: Polycrystalline
Silicon solar cell

enough even if they are not properly angled towards the sun - [22].

2.2.7.3- Amorphous / Thin film solar cell

Amorphous / Thin film solar cell are made by depositing many thin
layers of amorphous silicon(a-Si) or other type of material like
Cadmium telluride ( CdTe ) or Copper indium gallium selenide
( CIS / CIGS ) directly into a substrate like glass or a steel sheet.
This technique has an efficiency of about 5 - 9 % only and requires
a lot of space but they are very cheep and easy to manufacture. They
are very flexible and have comparatively batter performance in
shaded or hot condition than other type of crystalline cells - [22].

Figure 8: Amorphous
/ Thin film solar cell

2.2.8- Effect of Temperature

A solar modules temperature has a significant role on its performance. The open circuit
voltage is inversely proportional to the temperature of the solar panel, it increases with
the decreasing temperature. It would decrease the voltage by 0.04v to 0.1v for a rise of
very one degree Celsius in temperature. This is mainly because of the electron hole
26

mobility in a semiconductor device. As there is a rise in the temperature the electronhole mobility in the device decreases significantly. The short circuit current how ever
remain the same.
Increasing temperature also has an effect on the band gap energy of the semiconductor
material. The band gap energy will increase with the increase of the temperature and
then because of this increased band gap energy It will become further hard for the
electrons in the valance band to move towards the conduction band, as they will require
even more energy to do so. Therefor a very few electrons will be able to make it to the
conduction band, as many of the photons will not be having enough energy to be
absorbed by the electrons in valance-band - [23, 24].

2.2.9- Effect of Irradiation

Irradiation is described as the amount of solar radiations which fall on the surface of the
2
solar panel. It is expressed in Watts Per square meter ( W / m ).Under ideal test

2
condition, it should get irradiation of 100 mW /cm . But in real life conditions it is

affected by a number of environmental factors.

The irradiation level is directly proportional to the short circuit current, therefor a small
irradiation or light intensity will result in low power output. However open circuit
voltage does not change, it stays the same - [23, 24].

2.3- Backup Battery

It is always recommended to use some kind of storage device in a system that utilizes a
solar energy, it can store any excess amount of power generated by the solar panel
during the day time, which later on can be used at times when its dark or when the sun is
not available due to cloudy climate, thus having a storage device making the system
more practical and reliable at the time when the primary source of energy not available.
27

The most commonly used source of storing device is a backup rechargeable battery.
There are several different types of backup batteries available now a days, which comes
different chemical properties, some of them are discussed billow.
2.3.1 - Nickel - Cadmium Battery ( Ni - Cad )
This type of battery hold the charge for a long period of time, they have an efficiency of
about 70% - 85% and are able to work under extreme conditions. They have a very good
life span and can be kept to store energy for up to five years in come cases. However it
has a low energy-weight ratio and after a certain period of usage it can suffer from
memory effect. Memory effect is a phenomenon which occurs when a battery is
continuously being recharged without being completely discharged, this effects the
efficiency of the battery and looses its originality which therefor brings down the
performance of the battery - [26, 27].
2.3.2 - Nickel Metal Hydride Battery (Ni-IMh)
Nickel metal hydride battery is lighter and have a capacity of two to three times than that
that of Nickel cadmium battery and doesnt have much issues with memory effect also.
These kinds of battery are commonly used for high discharge devices like laptops,
digital cameras or power tools. These type of batteries are easy to recycle but are
expensive and have a short life span and high discharge rate ,due to which that are not
very efficient - [25, 26].
2.3.3 - Lithium Ion Battery (Li - Ion)
Lithium ion is one of the best rechargeable batteries which is commonly used now a
days. It performance and efficiency is much batter than those describes previously. It has
an efficiency level of about 99% with the comparatively small size and weight than that
of nickel cadmium or nickel metal hydride batteries. They are long lasting and do not
discharge fast.
They are very easy to be recycled and have no memory effect issues, therefor they can
be recharged again and again without being completely discharged.

28

A typical lithium ion life cycle characteristics and charging profile are shown in the
figures below,

Figure 9: Lithium ion life cycle characteristics

Figure 10: Lithium ion charge characteristics

Till about 1C (capacitance) ,the battery is charged under a steady current with a slow
voltage rise. Once the voltage is reached to about 4.2V ,the voltage becomes very stable
and then under that constant voltage charge the current begging to come down , till the
charge is terminated - [27, 28].

29

2.3.4- Lead-Acid Batteries

Lead aced batteries are one of the oldest type of rechargeable batteries .This storage
device uses a reversible chemical reaction to store energy. It uses a combination of lead
plates or grids and an electrolyte consisting of a diluted sulphuric acid to convert
electrical energy into potential chemical energy and back again [25].

2.3.4.1- Background
Before an initial charge, the lead electrodes of lead-acid batteries are both the same and
the electrolyte is sulphuric acid. When they are initially charged, the cathode is oxidized
into lead (II) oxide, while the anode remains unchanged.
Subsequent discharging changes both electrodes to lead sulfate and the sulfuric acid is
diluted. Recharging simply restores the previous state (the electrodes return to lead and
lead oxides).
When the batteries are overcharged (charged even after most of the sulfate has been
converted), the excess energy is used to split the water in the electrolyte into hydrogen
and oxygen gases.
A battery capacity, C, refers to the number of ampere-hours that a charged battery is
rated to supply at a given discharge rate. A batterys rated capacity is generally used as
the unit for expressing charge and discharge current rates, i.e., a 2.5 amp-hour battery
charging at 500mA is said to be charging at a C/5 rate [25].

2.3.4.2- Types
Lead-acid batteries can be divided according two basic criteria, purpose and
construction. According to purpose they are divided into.

30

Starter batteries, their purpose is to start the engines in cars, so they are made so that
they can supply very high currents. However, they are not suitable to be deeply
discharged, as they have thinner electrodes that are more susceptible to mechanical
stress arising from cycling.
Deep cycle batteries, these batteries tolerate the deep discharges much better thanks to
thicker plates.
According to construction, the batteries are divided into:
Flooded, the type, where the gases and vapors are allowed to escape from the container.
In some of them the lost water can be replenished.
Valve regulated lead-acid (VRLA), VRLA batteries remain under constant pressure of
1-4 psi. This pressure helps the recombination process under which 99+% of the
Hydrogen and Oxygen generated during charging are turned back into water. The two
most common VRLA batteries used today are the Gel and Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM)
variety [25].

2.3.4.3- Issues
The lead-acid batteries experience several phenomenon, that affect their performance.
Self-discharge this is common to all battery types, not only lead-acid.
Gassing happens when batteries are overcharged and it is caused by hydrolysis of
water from the electrolyte into hydrogen and oxygen.
Sulfation refers to crystallization of lead sulfate that is released on the plates when the
battery is discharged. When in crystalline form, it cannot take part in the chemical
reaction and effectively blocks the access of electrolyte to electrodes. It causes the
31

battery capacity to drop over time and it is accelerated by leaving the battery in an
uncharged state. According to sources, it is possible to prevent or hinder this process by
a desulfation technique called pulse conditioning, in which short but powerful current
surges are repeatedly sent through the damaged battery. Over time, this procedure tends
to break down and dissolve the sulfate crystals, restoring some capacity [25].
Stratification this term refers to division of electrolyte into layers with different
concentrations of the electrolyte due to different density of water and sulfuric acid. This
can lead to greater corrosion of the bottom half of the plates. It is prevented when the
battery is frequently in motion (such as in car) or by gassing, where the gas bubbles stir
the electrolyte when moving through it.
Freezing the electrolyte can freeze, especially when the battery is discharged when it
contains more water (added by the chemical reaction during discharging).
The freezing point therefore depends on a state of charge of battery. Freezing can
mechanically damage the battery[25].
Dehydration happens when the flooded battery loses water due to overcharging.
The water has to be replenished, so that the electrodes do not dry up. Therefore
it is not desirable to overcharge flooded batteries significantly.

2.3.4.4- Charging
The issues listed in the previous chapter can be avoided when adhering to very simple
basic rules for charging the lead-acid batteries [25].

Disconnect the load when the battery voltage decreases below a typically voltage
when loaded.

It is possible to charge the battery indefinitely (float charging or also called

preservation charging), if its voltage is kept below certain threshold.
32

When cycled (going through charging and discharging phases consecutively), the
battery termination voltages are higher than when charging indefinitely.

It is not good to charge battery beyond the gassing voltage for longer periods of
time.

It is good to change the voltage levels according to battery temperature, as the

voltage values have a significant temperature characteristic.

However, the ideal charging of lead-acid batteries consists of three stages: constantcurrent charge, topping charge and float charge. Battery voltage and current levels
during these stages are illustrated in Figure below.
Most of the energy is transferred to the battery during the first stage. The second stage
overcharges the battery a little while the current decreases. This is important to recharge
battery to 100% of its previous capacity. The losses due to self-discharge are
compensated during the last stage [25].
From the basic guidelines it is clear, that the minimum functionality that the hardware
of the controller has to implement is voltage measurement and switching off the load and
input from solar panel.

33

Figure 11: charging stages of lead-acid battery

2.4- Operational Amplifiers (Op Amp)

Op amp are important and basic building blocks used in a number of different electronic
circuits, used in building filters, amplifiers or even analog computers. These small
building blocks are basically composed of many transistors and resisters in such a way
that the resulting circuit follows a certain set of rules. A schematic representation of an
operational amplifier is shown in thee fig below- [29].

34

Figure 11: Operational Amplifier (Op amp)

An Op-amp has 5 terminals, two inputs terminals, +Ve (non inverting) input and a Ve
(inverting) input, an output terminal and two power terminals.
Op amp is basically a differential amplifier which amplified the difference between the
inverting terminal and the non inverting terminal. One input has a negative effect and the
other input has a positive effect on the output.
An ideal Op amp has the following characteristics,

Voltage gain is infinite.

Input impedance is infinite.
Zero output impedance
Infinite bandwidth

2.4.1 Basic Op amp circuits.

Some of the basic op amp circuits are shown as following,
2.4.1.1- Inverting amplifier
The circuit of an inverting amplifier is given in the figure below, as the name inverting
amplifier represents, that the voltage gain is negative. This means that it the input
voltage is decreasing or going negative the output voltage will increase and will be
positive, and vice versa. - [30].
35

Figure 12: Inverting amplifier

The voltage gain can be calculated from the expression as following,

V o R F
=
VI
R1
2.4.1.2- Non-Inverting amplifier
Circuit diagram of a non inverting amplifier is shown in the figure below. It is called non
inverting because its voltage gain is positive. which means that if the input voltage is
positive and is increasing then the voltage at the output will also show an increase in
voltage and will be positive. - [30].

Figure 13: Non inverting amplifier

The output gain can be calculates as,

36

Vo
R
=1+ F
VI
R1

2.4.1.3- Summing Amplifier

A summing amplifier is a type of OP amp circuit which can be used to sum at least two
or more input signal voltages which is amplified by a certain factor and given at the
output. - [30].
A summing amplifier with a four input signal is shown below.

Figure 14: Summing Amplifier

The total output voltage is given as,

V O=

RF
R
R
R
V I 1 F V I 2 F V I 3 F V I 4
R1
R2
R3
R4

2.4.1.4- Differential Amplifier

A differential amplifier works as an inverting amplifier as well as a non inverting
amplifier. It has got two inputs and a single output, it works as a non inverting amplifier
when a signal is fed to one input and acts as a inverting amplifier when a signal is fed to
the other input - [30].
37

Figure 15: differential amplifier

The output equation is given as,

V O=

R2
(V V 1 )
R1 2

2.4.1.5- Voltage buffer or voltage follower

In a Voltage follower,( also known as voltage buffer) the output is connected back to the
inverting input. Therefor This type of Op-amp dose not amplify the voltage, but is
however used to isolate the voltage, As output voltage follows the input voltage - [31].

Figure 16: Voltage Buffer

38

2.4.1.6- Comparator
A comparator is a type of operational amplifier that compares the voltage applied at the
inverting input and the non inverting input of a Op-amp. i.e. when the non-inverting
input has a higher value than that of the inverting input, the resulting output will be
high, and similarly when the inverting input of the Op-amp is higher than the non
inverting input the output will be low - [32].

Figure 17: Comparator

2.5- Transistors
Transisters are samiconductor devices which are used in electrical devices as Amplifiers
or switches.There are mainly two types of transistors, a bipolar junction transister (BJT)
and a field effect transister (FET).
2.5.1- Bopolar Junction Transister (BJT)
The Bipolar junction transistor consist of two P-N junctions and are classified as a N-PN Transistor which consist of a thin p- type semiconductor sandwiched between two n
-type material, and a PNP Transistor which is formed by a n- type semiconductor
material sandwiched between a two P-type materials. A n-p-n transistor is more widely
used.
A Bipolar junction transistor consists of three terminal, am emitter, a base and a
collector, with emitter being heavily doped and base, collector lightly doped.

39

Figure 19: A p n -p transistor

Figure 18: A n- p -n transistor

2.5.1.1- Operating of a n-p-n transistor

In normal operation base- emitter junction is forward biased and collector- emitter
junction is reverse biased.

Figure 20: Operation of an n-p-n Transistor

Forward biasing of a base -emitter junction causes heavy flow of majority electron
carriers in emitter region to the base region. The base region is thin, so most of the base
electrons from the emitter region will pass straight through the base ( attracted by the
positive potential of the collector region). Therefor forward biased BE junction will
conduct. Despite reverse biasing of base- collector junction and increased width region,
combination of heavy doping of emitter region and narrow base region will lead to
conduction across BC junction.

40

IE

If

is the current denoted by the large electron flow from emitter to base,

current denoted by the electrons flowing into the collector and

IB

Ic

is the

is the current

consisting of the electrons recombining with holes in the base ,then by applying KCL we
get,
I E =I B+ I c
As most of the electrons pass straight through the base ,and just a small amount of
electrons recombine in the base region(about 2%) ,

I C = I E

( = 98%)

I B=I E I c
I
( E)
I B=I E

I B=I E (1)
Therefor, it can be said that that a small change in the base voltage can modify the flow
of electron in it and hence it can control the current flowing out of the collector - [33].

2.5.2- Field effect transistor

A field effect transistor consist of two layers of semiconductor materials, there is a flow
of electrons in one of the layer which is known as the channel and a voltage is applied
on the other layer, known as the gate. FETs are voltage control devices, voltage applied
at the gate controls the electron flow in the channel.

41

There are two basic types of FETs , known as the Junction field effect transistor
(JFET) and Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) .MOSFETs
are more widely used now a days.
2.5.3- Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET)
MOSFET is a three terminal device, consisting of a source, drain and a gate. It works by
varying the width of a channel where the charge carriers (i.e. holes or electrons) flow.
The more wide the channel get, the batter the device conduct. The charge carriers will
enter through the source region, pass through the channel and then exit through the
drain. The voltage is responsible for controlling the width of the channel which is
applied at an electrode known as gate, which is present between the source and the drain.
It is insulated from the channel by an external layer of metal-oxide.
A MOSFET can function in two different ways, one known as the depletion mode and
the other as enhancement mode. In depletion mode, when there is no voltage applied at
gate, there is a maximum conduction in the channel, but as the voltage is applied (either
+ve or ve, depending on the p type or n type channel), the conduction through the
channel decreases. In a enhancement mode when no voltage is applied at the gate, there
is no conduction through the channel, conduction only takes place when the channel is
enhanced by applying a voltage to the gate. Greater the voltage, batter the conduction [34].

Figure 21: D-Type MOSFET Construction and Symbols

42

Figure 22: D-Type MOSFET Construction and Symbols

43

44

Chapter 3 : Project Work

3.1 - Schematic diagram

3.2
Circuit diagram explanation
3.2.1 Connections
In this circuit a solar panel is used as a source of power. parallel to it a transistor (SL100)
is used whose collector is connected to the positive terminal of the solar panel through a
diode D11, emitter is connecter to the ground, and the base is connecter to another
transistor (BC547) whose collector is connected to the positive terminal of the battery
through R1 (18k), emitter connected to the ground through R2 (82k) and the base is
connected to the output of the first Op-amp U1:A through resister R3 (100k). Pin 11 is
connected to the ground and pin 4 is connected to the Vcc for both Op-amps, U1: A and
U!: B. Pin 2 of U1: A is connected to the pin1 of the Op-amp through to series
45

resisters of 330k each. Pin 3 and 5 are shorted connected to a POT of 5K. Pin 6 is
connected to the ground through R10 (120k) and output pin 7 is connected to the red
LED through R15 (2k) to the ground and a green led is connected through R7 (1k). Pin 9
of U1: C is grounded through R16 (22k) and pin 10 is connected to POT of 5k, whose
one terminal is connected to the pin 2 of U1: A through R11 and the other terminal is
grounded. 4th and 11th pins are Vcc and ground respectively, where as pin 8 is the output
pin which is connected to the gate of the MOSFET (IRF630) through diode D4. The
drain of the MOSFET is connected to pin 9 and the gate is connected to POT RV1 of 5k
whose one terminal is connected to the output of U1: D at pin 14. Pin12 of this Op-amp
is connected to POT RV5 of 22k and pin 13 is connected to four series connected diodes,
D8, D5, D6 and D7 , which go to ground.
3.2.2- Working of the circuit diagram
The battery B1 is charged by the power generated by the solar panel through D10 and
the fuse. When the battery gets fully charged transistor conducts from the output of the
comparator, this results the other transistor Q2 to conduct and divert the solar power
through D11 to the ground. This way the battery doesnt charge any further, which
prevents it from getting over charged.
This project uses an IC LM324 which has four op-amps used as a comparator, named as
U1:A , U1:B, U1:C and U1:D. U1:A is used for sensing the over charging of the battery
which is indicated by U1:B ,which feds D1(red LED) if the battery is under charged or
D12(green LED) if the battery is full. Diodes D8, D5, D6, and D7 all connected in series
are forword biased through R14 and D3, this provides a fixed reference voltage of 2.6v
at the anode point of D8 which is fed to pin2, pin 6, pin 10, and pin 13 of all the
comparators.
When the battery is fully charged the voltage at the cathode point of D10 goes up, this
results in the set point voltage at pin 3 of U1:A to go up above the reference voltage
because of the potential divider formed out of R12, 5k variable resister and R13 goes up,
This results in pin no 1 of U1:A to go high to switch ON the transistor Q1 that places
drive voltage to the other transistor Q2, such that the current from solar panel is
46

bypassed via D11 and the Mosfet drain and source. Simultaneously pin 7 of U1:B also
goes high to drive a led D1 indicating battery is being fully charged.
The load is connected to MOSFET, which acts as a switch,. In the event of over load,
voltage across drain and source goes up those results in pin no 9 going above the
reference voltage at pin 10 of U1: C which results in pin 8 going down to remove the
drive to the gate through D4, hence the MOSFET disconnects the load.
In the event of battery voltage falling below minimum voltage duly sensed by D3, R6,
RV5 and R16 combination at pin 12 results in pin no 14 going zero to remove the drive
to Q2 gate via R20 and RV1. The correct operation of the load in normal condition is
indicated by D9 while the mosfet Q2 conducts.

3.3- Block Diagram

SETTINGS
(VARIABLE
RISISTER)

SOLAR
PANEL

BATTERY

COMARAT
OR

t
47

MOSFET

LOAD

TRANSIST

LED
INDECATO
R

OR

3.4-

Components used

The components/devices used in project are listed as following.

3.4.1-

Resisters
Capacitors
Diodes
MOSFET
Switch
IC 324
LEDs
Transistors
12v dc fan
Solar Panel
Lead acid battery

Solar Panel

The solar panel used in this project is a 3W polycrystalline solar panel, the Electrical
Characteristic of the solar panel as obtained from the data sheet at standard test conditions (STD)
are given as following.

Model
Type of cell
Number od cells

SVL 0603
Polycrystalline
29 cells
48

Maximum Power rated (Watts)

Maximum rated voltage (Vmp)
Maximum rated current (Imp)
Open circuit voltage (Voc)
Short circuit Current (Isc)

3W
8.5v
0.45A
10.5V
0.41A
5%

Tolerance
Weight

0.6kg

Dimension

15020018mm

Table 2 : Electrical Characteristic of the solar panel

Figure 23: Solar Panel (SLV 0603)

3.4.2-

Battery

The battery used in this project is a lead-acid, and to determine the capacity of the battery two
things were kept into consideration, i.e. the maximum output current of the solar panel and the
maximum number of hours sun light is available in a day.
According to the data sheet obtained for the solar panel the maximum rated current of the solar
panel was 0.45A, therefor this will be the average amount of current being supplied by the solar
panel. The maximum number sun light available in GCC countries is about 8 hours on an
49

average. Hence the battery capacity can be calculated as the product of the current and the
number of hours.
0.45A 8Hrs = 3.6AH
Hence, a 4AH battery was more than enough to store the excess amount of energy produced.

Figure 24: Lead-acid Battery

3.4.3-

LM 324

LM 324 is the IC used in this project, it consist of four independent, high gain , internally
frequency compensated Op-amps. Which were designed specifically to operate from a single
power supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also possible
and the low power supply current drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply
voltage.
Application areas include transducer amplifiers, DC gain blocks and all the conventional op amp
circuits which now can be more easily implemented in single power supply systems. For
example, the LM324 series can be directly operated off of the standard + 5V power supply
voltage which is used in digital systems and will easily provide the required interface electronics
without requiring the additional 15V power supplies - [35].

50

Figure 25: IC (LM 324)

Features

Internally frequency compensated for unity gain.

Large DC voltage gain, 100dB.
Low input offset voltage 2 mV and offset current, 5nA.
Wide bandwidth (unity gain) 1 MHz (temperature compensated).
Wide power supply range: Single supply 3V to 32V or dual supplies 1.5V to 16V.
Low input biasing current 45 nA (temperature compensated).
Input common- mode voltage range includes ground.
Very low supply current drain (700 A) - essentially independent of supply voltage.
Differential input voltage range equal to the power supply voltage.
Large output voltage swing 0V to V+ - 1.5V - [35].

The figures below show the pin connections and the schematic diagram of LM 324.

Figure 26: Pin Connections

51

Figure 27: Schematic Diagram

3.4.4- MOSFET
A N-channel MOSFET used in this Project as a switching devices. The Schematic diagram and
the parameters of this MOSFET (IRF630) are given as below.

Figure 28: Internal Schematic Diagram

Figure 29: MOSFET (IR630)

52

Parameters

Symbol

Value

Drain source Resistance

R DS(on)

<0.040

Drain-source Voltage (VGS = 0)

VDS

200V

Drain- gate Voltage (RGS = 20 kW)

VDGR

200V

Gate-source Voltage

VGS

+-20V

Drain Current (continuous) at Tc = 25 oC

ID

9A

Drain Current (pulsed)

IDM

36A

Total Dissipation at Tc = 25 oC

Ptot

75W

Table 2: Parameters of MOSFET (IRF 630)

Chapter 4 : Built Prototype Of The Project

4.1-

Layout Diagram

The figure below shows the layout diagram of the circuit.

53

Figure 30: Layout Diagram of the circuit

4.2-

Printed circuit board

A Printed circuit board was bought according to the specifications of the layout diagram. The pic
below shows the electrical conducting path of the PCB.

Figure 31: Printed Circuit Board

4.3-

Final built circuit

All the components were fixed and soldered on to the PCB and the final circuit was built in the
university laboratory.
The circuit under construction and the final built circuit is shown below.
54

Figure 32: Circuit under construction

Figure 33: Final built circuit

4.4-

Final Built Prototype

All other devices i.e. solar panel, battery, load (fan), were connected to the circuit and tested.

55

Figure 34: Final Built Prototype

4.5 Similar charge controller devices in the market

There are many such similar charge controller devices available in market which has
somehow the same functionality as those of the charge controller which has been
worked in this project. One such similar charge controller is as below.

56

Figure 34: Similar charge controller usually found in market

Figure 35: Schematic diagram

This charge controller is used for charging a 6v 4.5Ah rechargeable lead-acid battery
from energy harvested from a solar panel. This charged battery then can be used for any
kind of application.
This circuit has a current and a voltage regulator and over voltage cut-off function. The
circuit uses a 12v solar panel and a Ic Lm317 which is a Variable voltage regulator. A
DC of 12 is supplied from the solar panel, which charges the battery. The current passes
through the diode D1 to the IC LM317(voltage regulator). The output current and
output voltage is regulated by adjusting its adjust pin. A variable resister VR of 1k is
connected between the adjust pin and the ground which provides an output of 9v to the
battery.
57

A zener diode and a transistor act as a cut-off switch when the battery gets full. Under
normal conditions the when battery is not fully charged, the transistor is off but when the
terminal voltage of battery reaches 6.8v, the zener diode conducts providing a base
current to the transistor. Hence the output of the IC is diverted to the ground, which
stops further charging of the battery.
4.5.1 Comparison of such similar solar power charge controller devices in market
The main objective of the charge controller mentioned above and the charge controller
built in this project is the same i.e. to charge a 6v 4.5 Ah lead- acid battery with solar
energy.

The solar panel used in this charge controller is a 12v polycrystalline silicon
solar panel, where as in solar panel used in the project is half the size (6v

polycrystalline solar cell) charging the same 6v 4.5 lead-acid battery.

This charge controller does not have a low voltage battery cut off function, where

as the charge controller built in this project is has a low battery cut off function.
There is no overload cut off facility in this charge controller, which is there in the

one built in this project

There are no indications provided in this device to show the charging or noncharging condition of the battery. Where as there are different LED indications to

show the charging conditions of the battery in our device.

Both the devices have the control on over charging of the battery.
This device has a voltage and current regulator which is not in our model.

Even tough the solar charge controller mentioned above is very simple and is quite
easy to build as compared to the solar charge controller made in this project, but the
charge controller made in this project is much batter in sense of reliability and
practical usage.

58

Chapter 5: Conclusion
Project Conclusions
The aim of this project was to build and test a controlled charged mechanism form
power extracted from a solar energy. In order to accomplish this aim, their had been a lot
of research carried of in choosing the appropriate type of solar panel and the type of
battery which best suited the project, functions of transistors, MOSFETs, op-amps were
studied, and were implemented in the project as required and the final prototype was
built and tested.
At the initially stages, there were some difficulties in finding a appropriate circuit for the
project, but later on an appropriate circuit was found which matched the specifications
of my project, the circuit was studies properly and then was built accordingly. At first the
circuit was tried to be built on a plain zero board, but because of the complexity of the
circuit it was becoming difficult and confusing to solder and connect the wires at various
points, hence it was decided to get a printed circuit board and build the circuit on it, as it
would get easier and would look batter.
To improve the project further more and to make it more practical it was thought that a
maximum power tracking system could be collaborated with the existing circuit, a lot of
study and research had been done in MPPT system but later on, due to some problems it
was decided to drop this idea and to continue with our precious work. More over in
initial stages a mobile phone was thought to be used as a load, for charging propose,
which was later on, for convenient purpose it was decided to use a simple fan as a load.
The future work on improving this charge controller can concentrate on implementing a
maximum power point tracking system into the controller, or a charge controller can be
designed and implemented for charging multiple lead-acid batteries using solar power,
Such controller could enable an independent connection and charge control for each of
more batteries with possibly different age and parameters. This way, it will be possible
to use older batteries together with the new ones, instead of having to replace the old
batteries when their capacity falls below required level.
59

Chapter 6: References

References
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predictions/
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Peter Gevorkian (1-8-07). Sustainable energy system engineering, the complete

green building design resource. Mc.Graw Hill Professional. pp. 498(9-2-12)

8. K. A. Tsokos-Physics for the IB Diploma, 5th edition, Cambridge University
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Tracker, 2003, senior design project, final report, University of tufts.
17. http://www.window.state.tx.us/specialrpt/energy/renewable/solar.php
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19. http://www.assignmentpoint.com/science/eee/assignment-on-solar-cells.html
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23. Adedamola Omale, Analysis, modelling & simulation of optimal power tracking
of multiple modules of parallel solar cell system Thesis ,2006 the university of
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application, 2008 institute of Worcester polytechnic.
60

25. Peter Korenciak,Charge controller for solar panel based charging of lead acid
batteries, master thesis, 2011, Brno university of technology.
26. http://earth911.com/recycling/hazardous/rechargeable-batteries/types-ofrechargeable-batteries/
27. http://ohm.nuigalway.ie/0708/cconaghan/Thesis1.pdf
28. http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/charging_lithium_ion_batteries
29. http://www.physics.unlv.edu/~bill/PHYS483/op-amps.pdf
30. http://ece313web.groups.et.byu.net/notes/Op_Amp_configurations.pdf
31. http://www.learningaboutelectronics.com/Articles/Voltage-follower
32. http://physics.usask.ca/~angie/ep316/lab7/theory.htm
33. 3rd year class notes, Analogue electronics ,2012, Heriot watt university.
34. http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/MOSFET-metal-oxide-semiconductorfield-effect-transistor
35. http://www.datasheetcatalog.org/datasheet/BayLinear/mXtysuw.pdf

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