MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (MEP 211) Part (I): Heat Transfer Ahmed Mohamed Taher Assistant Professor Mechanical Power Engineering Ahmed Taher mnamta@leeds.ac.uk bakeerpower@yahoo.com Learning Resources Lecture Notes Tutorial Problem sheet Textbooks: Incropera, FP, and DeWitt, D.P.,, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Sth Ed., (2002), John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New YorkBASICS OF HEAT TRANSFER Heat Transfer is concerned with only two things: 1) the temperature (temperature variation). 2) the flow of heat (rate of heat transfer). - Heat is produced from a heat source such as a combustion flame, a hot surface, and a hot filamentor wire. - Heat Transfer is defined as the transportation of a thermal energy over a time interval (4¢ > 0) from place to place due to a temperature difference(AT > 0) between mediums in order to achieve thermodynamic equilibrium. - Thermal Energy is the kinetic energy of molecules (i.e. motion of atoms and molecules in the medium(s); like translation, rotation, vibration,...etc,). - Itis natural for regions containing greater molecular kinetic energy to pass this energy to regions with less kinetic energy. Step | Met [Atom | Mibraton's spread 3 through te materialBasics of Heat Transfer - Temperature represents the amount of thermal energy available, - Heat flow represents the movement of thermal energy. - Thermodynamic equilibrium occurs when each atom of a mediurm(s) reaches the same temperature, hence Heat transfer stops. (AT = 0) - Mediums: gas, liquid, solid, liquid-gas, solid-gas, solid-liquid, solid-solid,...etc. - Several material properties control the heat transfer process between two regions at differing temperatures (i.e. thermal conductivity, specific heat, material density, fluid velocity, fluid viscosity, surface emissivity ,...etc.) (k,.Cp, p.V 18...) Oana —P> SO odject #2 In the process of reaching thermodynamic equilibrium, heat is transfered from the warmer object to the cooler object. 2S teerecdinic: emdilinkens teat camber tx 200,Heat Transfer Mechanisms (modes) Heat transfers in three ways: Conduction through a solid or a stationary fluid Convection from a surface to a moving fluid Net radiation heat exchange between two surfaces T.>T, Moving fluid, 7., Surface, Ty \s Surface, T>|. Conduction Conduction heat transfer occurs when there is a temperature gradient “within a body, or heat energy will transfer from the more energetic region (high temperature) to the less energetic region (low temperature). (Heat Diffusion) Gas + Molecular collisions * Molecular diffusion Liquid + Molecular conduction collisions * Molecular diffusion - In gases & liquids, conductionis due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their random motion. ectons Solid + Lattice vibrations. + Flow of free electrons, - In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the moleculesand the energy transport by free electrons.|. Conduction afc / Lo see Fourier's Law of heat conduction _ Las (named after the French physicist Joseph Fourier) I — 1 [ead fame Bond Pins (Area)(Temperature difference) The components of a chip carter. Rate of heat conduction * - The rate of heat conduction @ througha plane wall (i.e. 1D) is proportionalto the temperature difference AT across the layer and the heat transfer area A, butis inversely proportional to the wall thickness Ax. Ooo = KAZE = ya 4T = (W) dx Ax =2 4 - heat flux = A =9.= - Temperature gradient dT/dx; The slope of the temperature curve ona T-x diagram. -The negative sign ensures that heat flows down the temperature gradient (i.e. in the positive x direction).|. Conduction - Thermal conductivity k : A material property that describes the rate at which heat flows within a body for a given temperature difference, Its units are W/m.k. - Asimple experimental setup to determine the thermal conductivity of a material Electric ‘cn heater wine = 4010 wim? Sample —_———- J material it (a) Copper (k= 401 Wim-*C) 30° Pe . = 1480 Win? . ©) Silicon (= 148 Whm:*C) - . - Ahigh value for thermal conductivity indicates that the material is a good heat conductor, and alow value indicates that the material is a poor heat conductor or insulator.ll. Convection Convection heat transfer occurs when there isa temperature deference between a solid surface and an adjacent moving fluid (bulk motion), heat energy will transfer from the medium of higher temperature to the medium of lower temperature. Newton’s law of cooling ft, — - rate of heat transfer by convection is — proportional to the surface area A of the object : through which convection heat transfer takes place and the temperature difference AT between the[ 4, _ - suiface (ot wall) temperature Te and the fuid |2 = 94 = RAC 7.) = RAAT free-stream temperature Tyg hr = average heat transfer coefficient (W/m?-K) - The proportionality constantis called the convection heat transfer coefficient h (W/m2.K). - Itis an experimentally determined parameter whose value depends on all the variables influencing convection such : SRS PEO tive heat transfer coefficients __h, W/mek - the properties of the fluid Natural convection in gases 2 - 25 - the bulk fluid velocity Natural convection in tiquids 10 — 1000 Forced convection of gases. = = 25 - 250 - the nature of fluid motion (free/forced) Forced convection of liquids 50 - 20,000 - the surface geometry Boiling and Condensation Beno tno Ue - In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluids by pure conduction.Ill. Radiation Knowing that there are no particles (i.e. medium) between the Sun and the Earth, how does heat energy get from the Sun to the Earth? Diregtion of Trogation te Wavelength 1 Thermal energy is transported from surfaces of a body of higher surace, 1 temperature to surfaces of bodies of lower temperatures whether Zz Setese Th there is a medium among these bodies or not. This Thermal energy W\s Surface, T> transportation is in the form of electromagnetic waves (or photons ai WI which travel at the speed of light) with a wavelength in the range of " 0.1 to 100 microns. {ambient or surrounding)Ill. Radiation Stefan-Boltzmann law emi, max = FATS (W) o= 5.670 » 10-° W/m?-K* Stefan-Boltzmann constant Blackbody: has a perfect surface that emits the maximum rate of radiationata specified temperature. T, = 400K \ « Blackbody = 1452 W/nr Real(or Gray) body: will emit less radiation than a black body. Emissin ity €: A measure of how closely a surface approximatesa blackbody for which e= 1 of the surface. Os e< 1. Qemi = ECA TH (W) Emissivities of some materials at 300 K Material Aluminum foil Anodized aluminum Polished copper Polished gold Polished silver Polished stainless steel Black paint White paint White paper Asphalt pavement Red brick Human skin Wood Soil Water Vegetation Emissivity 0.07 0.82 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.17 0.98 0.90 0.92-0.97 0.85-0.93 0.93-0.96 0.95 0.82-0.92 0.93-0.96 0.96 0.92-0.96 apa Ill. Radiation - Incoming radiation can be either reflected, and/or absorbed, and/or transmitted. q (Win?) ncident energy flux) | transmittane: ag (absorbed) *f]% translucent slab reflectance 74 - Radiation heat transfer is concerned with the net exchange of thermal radiation energy between two or more bodies i.e. for both incoming and outgoing thermal radiation). The heat transferred into or out of an object by thermal radiationis a function of its: - surface reflectivity, - surface emissivity, - surface area, - temperature, and -geometric orientation with respect to other thermally participating objects. - Surface reflectivity and emissivity is a function of its surface conditions (roughness, finish, etc.) and composition.Thermal Resistance Concept Analogy between thermal and electrical resistance concepts. wey , 7 —-w\ vie WIV ——* V3 R, (a) Heat flow (0) Electric current flow rateofheattransfer (Q’) > (i) electric current thermal resistance (R,,) —> (R) electrical resistance temperature difference (AT) (AV) potential difference 4, 1, Solid h T. | e I @ Te WW TF | +. i” ee 2 7, WW Fe ow = jafhea . oa” Fi, Conduction thermal resistance of plan wall Convection thermal resistance ©.-T2)_ Gata) @-Z)_@-1) eee ee Pe ART. —T, = <2 2% Xs Ot Lo Ree ee eT Rss A ahThermal Resistance Concept The thermal resistance for heat transfer through a wall subjected to convection on both sides. Rate of Rate of Rate of At steady state | tearcomection ) = { eat conduction } = | heat convection through the wall into the wall from the wall oR 1, R T, Fag A _ 2 a Ta = 1 _Ti-Th_ th Tey _ Tor —T, _ T1- Th = Taz _ To — Tx =A LIRA MinpA Ret Ran Reoma Roun Overall Heat transfer Coefficient [ U J: Conductance (W/K) Q=UAAT (Ww) [ ; -t,L,1 com? AT KAT TA R, ‘otal = Reogy,1 + Ryan +R (KW) CCIW) ‘con, |Thermal Resistance Concept Thermal resistance in case of parallel layers: Insulation Insulation 7 Ay A Ok ei © & or re a ) a ky AT. Ay} Lb L =o |° saa sae Ry Reegy l= Ry + Ry + Roca =a5 The heat transfer problems Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms Heat transfer is only by conduction in opaque solids (e.g. metal), butby 7, OPAQUE |7; conduction and radiation in semitransparent solids (e.g. glass). SOLID —= | mode A % os Conducti Asolid may involve convection and/or radiation on its surfaces exposed aia toa fluid or other surfaces 7| S0):, Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly by radiation ina still fluid (no | Radiation bulk fluid motion) and by convection and radiation in a flowing fluid. 2 modes Conduction or conveetion Heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation. 7,| VACUUM |; Most gases between two solid surfaces do not interfere with radiation. ' 2 While, liquids are usually strong absorbers of radiation. aa + modeThe heat transfer problems Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 16 - Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer through a system boundary when that system undergoes a process from one equilibriumstate to another. dE =O, —W oy dE : : == -W = On ~T eu Environment Work on Work by system system w<0 System w>o Energy in | E,-w+o Energy out o>0 e<0 Heat to SBA Heat from system system - Heat Transfer deals with the determination of the rates of such heat energy transfers as well as variation of temperature. 4 _@ amount ar Gd) “rates - Heat flux q’; The rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to the direction of heat transfer. __@ aA (Win?)The heat transfer problems The heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be considered in two groups: (1) rating and (2) sizing problems. (1) The rating problems deal with the determination of the heat transfer rate for an existing system at a specified temperature difference (2) The sizing problems deal with the determination of the size of a system in order to transfer heat at a specified rate for a specified temperature difference. - In heat transfer problems, it is convenient to write a heat balance and to treat the conversion of nuclear, chemical, mechanical, and electrical energies into thermal energy as heat generation. Qin ~ Qoar + Egen = AE tmermat, system () Heat Change in thermal generation energy of the system aThe heat transfer problems Surface Energy Balance - A surface contains no volume or mass, and thus no energy. Therefore, a surface can be viewed as a tiny system whose energy content remains constant during a process. Surface energy balance: - This relation is valid for both steady and transient conditions, and the surface energy balance does not involve heat generation since a surface does not have a volume. G1 + Os = O. ‘When the dir can be assumed to be towards the surface, and the su 7 2. convection 7 if Control ‘Wall 1 surface i}! x ill radiation Wh ' conduction ||| pom Os — || Q { ' ' ' ' Energy interactions at the outer wall surface of a house. ions of interactions are not known, all energy int ¢ energy balance can iclions be expressed as. 20 = 0 . Note that the interactions in opposite direction will end up having negative values, nc! balance this equation 1819 Thermal Contact Resistance In practice, when two real surfaces are in contact, they don’t transfer heat perfectly. The contact resistance depends on: ma: surface roughness, - material properties, - pressure at the interface, - fluid trapped at the interface Layer 2 disp Tae ‘Temperature @ @ terface drop ; 5 ‘ 2 = Qeonacr + Qpap temperature total thermal resistance / drop Temperature R distribution (a) Ideal (perfect) thermal contact (D) Actual (imperfect) thermal contact Thermal contact resistance is significant in case of good heat conductors such as metals, while it can be ignored in case of insulations.Thermal Contact Resistance ‘ Thermal contact conductance of some metal surfaces in air (from various sources) Surface Pressure, hee Material condition Roughness, wm MPa Wime.K Tentical Metal F 16 Stamnless steel Ground Gao 0. 1765) 104 Stainless steel round 4 a 190 Matesalelicct ‘Aluminum Ground Gs 1265) ‘Copper Ground T27 12-20 143,000 Copper Milled 3.81 16 55,500 Copper (vacuum) Milled 0.25 0.17-7 11,400 Stainless steel To 2300) Pressure effect Aluminum 20-30 [20 3600} Stainless steel 10 16,400 Roughness effect ean Steal Ct-30- Aluminum: Aluminum-Copper Ground Lays 15 56,000 10 12,000 ‘Aluminum-Copper Milled 44-45 20-36 22,000 The thermal contact resistance can be minimized by applying: ~a thermal grease such as silicon oil -a better conducting gas such as helium or hydrogen ~a soft metallic foil such as tin, silver, copper, nickel, or aluminum.a HEAT DIFFUSION EQUATION - The conduction analysis aimed at deducing the temperature profile as a function of position, by which the temperature gradient is determined, hence the heat flow is determined as well Applying Fourier’s Law for conduction heat transfer in a general case: pelying fe Tor In a general B88 ns ready fet = 01 - Three diménsional [3-D], - Plus heat generation [q] 4g’ power generated per unit volume [W/m] Specific heat [C]: A material property that indicates the amount of energy a body stores for each degree increase in temperature, on a per unit mass basis, and its units are J/kg.K. Whereas, [p C] is the Heat capacity per unit volume and its units are J/m?.K. Thermal diffusivity {a : Represents how fast heat diffuses through a material. A material that has a low thermal conductivity or a high heat capacity has a low thermal diffusivity, which means slow propagation of heat into the medium and the heat is mostly absorbed by the material Material me cle , Copper 113 x 10-6 gq = Heatconduction __k (mts) en gan iba Heat storage pc, hWster th 0.14 x 10-6 Wood (oak) 0.13 x 10-€i. Cartesian Coordinates 4 ii Cylindrical Coordinates, OT OT CT G _pC or _1e L@T @T g ler oe @ik ka aa oe wk ad Wo iii. Spherical Coordinates 1 0/. er) =| sine}. Fano aal’™ 20) k23 1-D Steady Conduction Plane Wall Cylindrical Watt® cal equatio # 14(,a) - £2 (nal) Heat equation ano L4(,l) 0 44( t)=0 In(ir,) 1= (nl aa att 7 sani rar] =] _ distribution Ty ATy eS Wer) ‘ T= /r) Toy ‘Wall q % i ‘, ar KAT Heat flux (q") ad abn L Pldin) - diy at rate ar nk ST Heat mie (a) My In(ryiry) Cr) - Ur) ‘Thermal L InGalry (ir) = (rn) resistance (Reco) KA alk Fak1-D Steady Conduction No heat generation Governing Equation: Solution: — Toa Integrate twice with respect to x. T|,=C,x+C, To calculate C, and C; apply Boundary Conditions: oii _ - Teh Wo=Ea Nahe aha Temperature profile (distribution) as a function of position. Heat Flow:1-D Steady Conduction: Cylinder Wall * a Tou (ald 4 1o(,or ror &x }+ Boundary Conditions: Tha=Ear Tho= aT aT ar ae g "dr 2 arse 2aLk Q Inj +C> (1 lk a o Tk subtract (2) from (l) lan+C>@Q) sfytmr-tan) Heat flow Q'=i D Steady Conduction Spherical Shell Solution: * 12; “Ra ft of a! Heat transfers only in the radial r-direction Ap )eg of eT ar, a a&) : Boundary Conditions: 1 1 hoot1-D Steady Conduction with Heat Generation Governing Equation for a plane wall Je Center plane Je inerace plane Solution: Integrate twice with respect to x. aximum temper The maximum temp solid with uniform | one insulated boundary with ration oveurs at its center | generation occurs al its interface plane 4g’ power generated per unit volume [W/m] e.g, heat generation within nuclear fuel rods - Power generated within the symmetrical plate transfers from the two sides by convection: =q'A2L =2AU(T, -T.) - Power generated within a plate of one insulated boundary transfers only from one side by convection: g@AL=ANT,-T,) treet wh +L hh 2 271-D Steady Conduction with Heat Generation Governing Equation for a plane wall: 22h or a of gia rar é& ok aft 0 QO f Solution: aseime © a 2 -o--£ OR dU + dr =F rar ie. aru) =~ rar Center Line — The maximum temperature in a solid rod with uniform heat generation occurs at its center lq? : power generated per unit volume [Wwin'] e.g. heat generation within wires. Boundary Conditions: aT| Bio =0, 7,29 The heat transfer problems Energy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems Alarge number of engineering devices such as water heatersand car radiatorsinvolve mass flow in and out of a system, and are modeled as control volumes. Aca nD fora circular pipe in=pVAc Most control volumes are analyzed under steady operating conditions, which means no change with respect rotime #0.__ya specified location. dt Mass flow rate: The amount of mass flowing through a cross section of a device per unittime. P iz linus > tables rit = pVA, (kg/s) a eae Volume flow rate: The volume ofa fluid flowing through a pipe or duct per unit time (m/s) Under steady conditions, the net rate of energy transfer to a fluid ina control volume is equal to the rate of increase in the energy of fluid stream flowing through the control volume and vise versa. — Q = ni Mh = the,AT (kI/s) Please, do not mix it up between Armen and h = enthalpy /Comirl volumeCONVECTION . > Thermal energy transfers by Convection heat transfer when there is a temperature deference between a solid surface and an adjacent moving fluid (bulk motion). The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer. Visualization of free convection around a hot cup using Schlieren technique Convection heat transfer is classified into natural or (free) convection and forced convection. Natural convection Forced convection - Natural (or free) convection occurs when heat transfers to an initially stagnant fluid, which leads to a local volumetric expansion, hence density gradients. As a result, the expanded fluid particles become buoyant and move causing flow circulation, thus transporting heat by fluid motion (i.e. convection). - Forced convection occurs when the fluid is forced to flow over the surface by external devices such as a blower or, pump ~The heat transfer process is considered by convection if the fluid motion is induced as a result of a change in phase such that there is a rise of the vapor bubbles during boiling or a fall of the liquid droplets during candensation.Convection Px e Forced convection ‘Natur: convection ® In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction. > Convection heat transfer is calculated by Newton’s law of cooling O'=q'A= ANT, -T,)= _(Z,-T,) 1 ah (,-7.) R > Where “hh” is the average convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.K).Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient ® It is an experimentally determined parameter depends on: Geometry: shape, size, and orientation. (i@ { ) Type of fluid: Liquid; viscous oil, water, liquid metals, or gas; air. il ¢ = constant Boundary condition: ress (i) isoflux wall (q’ yo = constant) 7, ge ‘ (ii) isothermal wall (Ty, = constant) - % TET PTET Tt = Type of flow: | oundary lye (i) Forced or natural convection. (ii) developing or fully developed flow. -— a onan engi (iii) internal or external flow. liv) single or two-phase flow. wa =p a (v) steady or transient flow. 0» ia (vi) lominar, turbulent or transitional flows. -laminar (smooth, orderly, and streamlined) tow - turbulent (intense eddy currents and random motion of chunks of fluid)Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient ~ mass density : p = (kg /m*) Ispecific heat capacity :C, = (I /kg K) Fluid properties: All properties are temperature dependent and are determined at: dynamic viscosity : 4 =(N s/m*) Ikinematic viscosity :v =(m?/s) thermal conductivity (i) the bulk temperature. For boiling /condensation, Ty. is the saturation temperature. (ii) the film temperature. Tart Toa . Taar* Ton Plena Paverage \ Tn Tone wh=f (L, p.6k,C,, BU OR bouyancy. force) Considering the difficulties in estimating the heat transfer coefficient from basic principles, it is determined by experimental methods based on the theory of similarities. Experiments are conducted on small-scale models in which heat transfer takes place in a manner similar to the large-scale one. In such cases, the Dimensional Analysis “Buckingham-2-theory” or “Nusselt's method” is applied to simplify the problem by converting the functional variables into groups of parameters without any dimensions. Theses dimensionless groups consist of relevant thermo-physical properties, geometry, boundary and flow conditions. This technique depends on consistency of the dimensions of any possible governing equation. It is independent of any unit system; English, SI,..ete, however, in any comparison, the units of the items being compared must be the same.34 Dimensionless Groups General Convection (Forced and Free) his expressed in a dimensionless group: _ i L,| heat covected fiom a surface K rue | heat conducted by fluid Nusselt Number: velocity boundarylayer thickness __ Momentum diffusivity temperature boundarylayer thickness Thermal diffusivity O01; Pr gases "OT; Ph Prandtl Number: =6 Free Convection Only GrashotNumber: |p = £4 Guar —Tom )Eex] Buoyancy forces v Viscous forces RayleighNumber: [Ra=GrPr Forced Convection Only Viscous force (stress) Reynolds Number: |e v__| Inertial force (stress) U: free-stream velocity for external flow and average velocity for internal flow. [7 pu Ly: characteristic length of the geometry over which the 4 4c5 _ 4 Cross Sectional Area fluid flows in case of external flow, and the equivalent |": = ——p “= ——enea perimerer (or hydraulic) diameter in case of internal flow: 300 for internal flow x10% for flow over a flat plate = 2x10° for flow over a cylinder or sphere Re otc: Re, Re ai Re < Regrtia for Laminar flow i Re > RE ric: for turbulent flow.Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient Nu, Pr, Re, OR Gr.....Ra Relationships between these dimensionless numbers are constructed to fit the data obtained from model experiments based on the similarity principle. General equations ForFreeConvection =, ~¢ Gp Pr? on Nu =c Ra® For Forced Convection ee Na =e Re” Pr™ Note that: Thus, in natural convection GF or RQ are used like RE in forced convection to characterize the flow in the regions where it is laminar and it becomes turbulent.Empirical Relations for Free Convections ~ Horizontal Plates Cooled Plate Facing Downward or Heated Plate Facing Upward: Nuz =0.54Ra}'* (104 0" 7 co9[.[ ts J} Jn Ost T= 595°C Law. ! Row ™ Moca, Pam = Meow, 1 aim\/P x O'=4,h(T,— (, (100-7. \* . 4 = 7=(0.03)] 142( SE] |(/61.66) 400-7.) = TI, = $06 °C \Natural Convection Applications - Electronic components such as Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) placed in enclosures such as a TV are cooled by free convection by providing a sufficient number of vents on the case to enable cool air to enter and heated air to leave the case freely. Natural convection cooling is very desirable, since it does not involve any fans that may break down. - Circuit boards that dissipate up to 5 W of power (having a power density of 0.02 W/cm) can be cooled effectively by natural convection. - Adistance of about 2 em between the PCBs provides adequate air flow for effective natural convection cooling. - It is considered a good design practice to limit the temperature rise of air (Tyy-Tiy) to 10°C and the maximum exit temperature of out air, Tu, to 70°C. This results in a maximum component surface temperature of under 100°C. Note that; natural convection currents occur only in gravitational fields.Forced Convection Applications When free convection cooling is not adequate, forced convection is used in order to: VT Mgyeeg 1®10-Iggg > OY Afan at a fixed speed (or fixed rpm) will deliver a fixed volume of air regardless of the altitude and pressure. But the mass flow rate of air will be less at high altitude as a result of the lower density of air. Q = me(Tou — Tu) 1DIMzy =const = altitude = p,,4=> nb Variable-speed fans that automatically increase speed when the air density decreases are available to avoid such problems. altitude T=> p,, T= rpm 4». T The radiation heat transfer during forced convection is ignored in most cases: i-forced convection heat transfer is much larger than that due to radiation. ii-the electric components are mounted so close to each other. Thus, their view factor Fyjc<<<< << OpEmpirical Relations for Forced Convection” i iL I 08 i) Internal flow (turbulent Re>2300) Nu = 0.023 Re®Spr°4 ii] Internal flow (laminar Re<2300). the properties at film temperature. No Wor ‘ovometry Constant axial Constant axial (or> 100) ‘wall heat fa wall temperatureEmpirical Relations for Forced Convection” iii) external flow (laminarand turbulent). The properties at film temperature. ‘Cross-section of the cylinder_| Fluid | Range of Re Nusselt number Gas or | 0.4-4 Nu = 0.989 Re®2™Pr'2 liquid | 4-40 Nu = 0.911 Re®Pr!2 40-4000 Nu = 0.683 Retespio 4000-40,000 | Nu = 0.193 Re**!#Pri2 40,000-400,000 | Nu = 0.027 Re®**Pri2 Gas | 5000-100,000 | Nu = 0.102 Re®#”>Pr'? Square 7 (titted 45% Gas 5000-100,000 | Nu = 0.246 Re®*##Pr' ~ = = = Gas or} 0-5 x 10° Nu = 0.664 RetPri2 = liquid — T 5x 10-107 Nu = (0.037 Re“® — 871)Pr'* Gas | 4000-15,000 | Nu = 0.228 Re®™*!Pr'9 Vertical plate S14Forced Convection Example QUESTION: TO 71 transistors with a height of 0.53 cm and a diameter of 0.44 cm is mounted on a circuit board. The transistor is cooled by air flowing over it at a velocity of 90 m/min. If the air temperature is 65°C and the transistor surface temperature is not to exceed 95°C, determine the amount of power this transistor can dissipate safely. REQUIRED ()',,.. =? SOLUTION The properties at film temperature. T,, = 3 TEHEEEE Aic flow 0°C E90 mia ec p= 0.9994kg/ mi, C,=1008S/kgK, k=0.0295317/mK, v=2.09710%m?/s, Pr=0.7154 A, A, Q otndenaatarea = Acyincer power a DL = 7(0.0044)(0.0053. (I, -1,)=95 65 =30 K To select the correct relation form the previous Table for a flow over a cylinder of diameter D, Re must be estimated: _UD _ (0/60 0.44 x10 a aie ¥ 2.097 = 10 “Nu =0.683 Re pp? 1D Re Sh=598W mK O' ndrtcterea = 0-131 7 manent. cones: Figs pian T, Ta) 220 0044)? (7, -1,)=93—65 =30 K To select the correct relation form the previous Table for a flow, over a flat plate of L = D, Re must be estimated _u L _ (90/60 Xo.44 x10 7 2 ope 3x10 mn? Re v 2.097 x10 oie =0.664 Re! py? 2D pad Sh=707 W/mK O'sindotsane = 0-068 = 0.196 WFINS / EXTENDED SURFACE =H, tins) Volume element / Qease = Prin 1) Boundary condition at fin base: cont car Thy =D 2) Boundary condition at fin tip: ¥ Case (1): Infinitely Long Fin (Téa tis Case (2): Negligible Heat Loss from Fin Tip (Qn wp = 0) Case (3: Specified Temperature (Tix vp = To) Case (4 Convection from Fin Tip (Qed te = Deon tip)Extended Surface Analysis Infinitely Long Fin (Trin sip (M0) = T+ (i, ~ Tee tP A) > The steady rate of heat transfer from the entire fin: O p= kA Tp (L, -T.) ® Fin performance: 1) Fin effectiveness (Fin Heat Rate) (p= RD, A,= xD*4) A= 4, (@) Surface without fine ken should be as high as possible, e.g. Al, Cu, and Fe. ¥ p/A,, should be as high as possible, i.e. slender fins. ¥ Place fins on gas (air) side because it has low h. a, 1 with hd, kf, 45Extended Surface Analysis Infinitely Long Fin (Thy ip = Tos) (Mix) = Tn * (Ty Tove > The steady rate of heat transfer from the entire fin: Qin = VA (T, -T..) >» Fin performance: 2) Fin efficiency _ VATE, -T.) _ fk ELIE oo “ApMD,—T,.) Ah Lt Ay TO Om? > E-T.)T> My, + JrictionT > mass T= cost T 3) Fin resistance D sn = fn v-max = "vA lL ~ T) o,- G2) SW ad 1 1 te fi Rk, = —— Md ph \ - TM AaghTotal Fin Resistance of Heat Sinks ui ‘Combined natural convection and radiation thermal rasistance of various heat sinks used in the cooling of electronic devices between the heat sink and the surrcundings. Al fins are made of aluminum 6063.5, are black anodized, and are 76 mm (3 in) tong. > The performance of heat sinks is usually expressed in terms of their thermal resistances R,,, Rav SO-T)Y > 1,7 44 Hsco71 q Hs 6105, % ws.6115 % R= 0.9°0/W (vertical) R= L.2°CIW (horizontal) Dimensions: 76 mm x 105 mm x 44.mm Surface area: 677 cm? R=5CIW Dimensions: 76 mm x 38 mm x 24 mm Surface area: 387 cm? R= 1.6°0/W (vertical) = 1.8°C/W (horizonta Dimensions: 76 mm x 92 mm x 26 mm Surface area: 968 cm? R= 1.8°C1W (veticaly R= 2.1°C1W (horizontal) Dimensions: 76 mm x 127 mm x 91 mm ‘Surface area: 677 cm? R R L.2°CIW (vertical) 1.3°C/W (horizontal) Dimensions: 76 mm x 102 mm x 26 mm ‘Surface area: 929 cm?Cold (a) Parallel flow (©) Counter flow 48wwe ow IJY¥pes of Heat Exchangers outlet inlet les Frontend header Rearend header 49 = ‘anmited S © by re) Tube now (unmived) (@) Both Mids unmixed F te Shell shell Tube outlet inlet FIGURE 11-4 ‘The schematic of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger (one-shell pass and one-tube pass), G=UxAxIMTD = sir aT, = 25-42 O=HestTansfarRate uf AT, | cot TanaerCoaffictent aT, jurface Area = UnatD = Log eon Temperature Difference © Regenerator _@ Crossflow mixed) | (0) One Muid mixed, one fluid uomixed FIGURE 11-3 Different flow configurations in cross-flow heat exchan;The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient = Aheat exchanger typically involves two flowing fluids separated by a solid wall + Heatis first transferred from the hot fluid to the wall by convection, through the wall by Cold _ conduction, and from the wall to the cold fluid "4 again by convection. * Anyradiation effects are usually included in the bes convection heat transfer coefficients. ue Heat _ In (D,/D,) transfer wall DarkL Te! Cold 1 In (D,/D;) Bias R= Roa = Ri + Rea + Ro = Fa, + Taek Tr, A, = 7D,L and A, = 7D,L Tap wre T, Thermal resistance network Rapa Ben Romp associated with heat transfer ina double-pipe heat exchanger. salsa