Fluid

LECTURE NOTES ON FLUID MECHANICS
Version 1.1
Ming-Jyh Chern, D.Phil. Oxon
Department of Mechanical Engineering

National Taiwan University of Science and Technology
43 Sec. 4 Keelung Road
Taipei 10607 Taiwan
PREFACE
Fluid mechanics is one of important subjects in engineering science. Although it has been developing for
more than one hundred years, the area which fluid mechanics covers is getting wider, e.g. biomechanics
and nanofluids. I started to write up this manuscript when I was assigned to give lectures on fluid
mechanics for senior undergraduate students. The main purpose of this lecture is to bring physics of
fluid motion to students during a semester. Mathematics was not addressed in the lecture. However,
students were also required to learn use mathematics to describe phenomena of fluid dynamics when
they were familiar with physics in this subject. As I finished this book, I do hope that readers can get
something from this book. Meanwhile, I wold like to express my graditude to those who helped me finish
this book.
Ming-Jyh Chern
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Taiwan University of Science and Technology
mjchern@mail.ntust.edu.tw
May 29, 2007
II
Contents
PREFACE
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1
Why study FLUID MECHANICS? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
What is a fluid? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
Approaches to study Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1
Analytical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2
Expenmental Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3
Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4
History of Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5
Fluid as a continuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6
Macroscopic physical properties of fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.1
density, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.2
specific gravity, SG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.3
specific volume, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.4
specific weight, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.5
Compressibility of fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7
Ideal gas law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8
Pascals law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9
Speed of sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9.1
Viscosity, &
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10 Hookes law and Newtons viscosity law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.11 Categories of Fluid Dynamics
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2 FLUID STATICS
15
2.1
Review of Taylor Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3
The Hydrostatic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4
Pressure variation in incompressible fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

III
2.5
Pressure variation in compressible fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.6
Standard Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.7
2.6.1
Absolute pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.6.2
Gauge pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Facilities for pressure measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.7.1
Manometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.7.2
Barometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.8
Inclined-tube Manometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.9
Hydrostatic force on vertical walls of constant width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.10 Hydrostatic force on an inclined surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.11 Hydrostatic force on a curved surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.12 Buoyance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3 INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MOTION I
33
3.1
Lagrangian and Eulerian Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2
Control Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3
Steady and Unsteady flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3.3.1
Streamlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.3.2
Pathlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3.3
Streaklines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3.4
Streamtubes
3.3.5
Definition of 1-D flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4
Variation of physical properties in a control volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.5
Mass conservation of 1-D flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.6
Momemtum conservation for 1-D flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4 INTRODUCATION TO FLUID MOTION II
41
4.1
The Bernoulli equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.2
Derive the Bernoulli equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.3
Stagnation Pressure and Dynamic Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.4
Mass conservation in channel flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.5
Relationship between cross area, velocity ana pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.6
Applications of Bernoulli equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
IV
4.6.1
Pitot tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.6.2
Siphon() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.6.3
Torricellis Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.6.4
vena contracta effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.6.5
Free jets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.6.6
Venturi tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.6.7
Flowrate pass through a sluice gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5 EQUATIONS OF MOTION IN INTEGRAL FORM
59
5.1
Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.2
Reynolds Transport Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.3
Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.4
Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.5
Moment-of-Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF MOTIONS
65
6.1
Lagrangian and Eulerian systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.2
Rate of Change Following a Fluid Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.3
Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.4
Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.5
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
71
7.1
Why dimension analysis? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.2
Fundamental dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.3
How to carry out a dimensional analysis? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.4
Common nondimensional parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.5
Nondimensional Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.6
Scale model tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8 Viscous Internal Flow
83
8.1
Fully developed flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8.2
Laminar, transition and turbulent flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
8.3
2-D Poiseuille flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.4
Hagen-Poiseuille flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
8.5
Transition and turbulent pipe flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
8.6
Darcy equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8.7
Hydraulic diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
8.8
Brief Introduction to Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
9 Viscous External Flows
101
9.1
Boundary Layer Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
9.2
Uniform flow past a flat plat
9.3
Boundary Layer Thickness, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
9.4
Displacement Boundary Layer Thickness, d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
9.5
Momentum Boundary Layer Thickness, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
9.6
Boundary Layer Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.7
Friction coefficient, Cf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.8
Drag coefficient, CD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.9
Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.10 Lift force and attack angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

9.11 Streamline body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.12 Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
9.13 Separation and Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
VI
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Why study FLUID MECHANICS?
Fluid mechanics is highly relevant to our daily life. We live in the world
full of fluids!
Fluid mechanics covers many areas such as meteorology, oceanography,
aerodynamics, biomechanics, hydraulics, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, naval architecture engineering, and etc.
It does not only explain scientific phenomena but also leads industrial
applications.
1.2
What is a fluid?
The main difference between fluid and solid is their behaviour when shear
forces acting on them. A certain amount of displacement is found when
a shear force is applied to a solid element. The displacement disappears
as the shear force is released from the solid element. A fluid deforms
continuously under the application of a shear force. Liquids and gases are
both regarded as fluids.
1
1.3
Approaches to study Fluid Mechanics
Analytical Methods
Experiments
Computations
1.3.1
Analytical Methods
Using advanced mathematics, we can solve governing equations of fluid

motions and obtain specific solutions for various flow problems. For example: pipe flows.
1.3.2
Expenmental Fluid Mechanics
This approach utilities facilities to measure considered flow fields or uses

various visualization methods to visualize flow pattern. For example: LDA
(Laser Doppler Anemometer), hot wire, wind-tunnel test.
1.3.3
Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
For most of flow problems, we cannnot obtain an analytical solution.

Hence, we can adopt numerical methods to solve governing equations.
The results are so-called numerical solutions. On the other hands, costs
of experiments become very expensive. Numerical solutions proides an alternative approach to observe flow fields without built-up a real flow field.
For example: finite volume method, finite element method.
1.4
History of Fluid Mechanics
Archmides (207-212 B.C.): buoyance theory.

2
INTRODUCTION
Leodnado da Vinci (1452-1519): He described wave motions, hydraulic

jump, jet and vortex motion.
Torricelli (1608-1647): He is well known for measuring atmospheric
pressure.
Newton (1643-1727): He explained his famous second law in Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica. This is one of main laws governing
fluid motions. He also provided the idea of linear viscosity describing
the relationship between fluid deformation and shearing forces.
Bernoulli (1700-1782): Bernoulli equation.
Euler (1707-1783): Euler equation.
Reynolds (1842-1919): Pipe flows, Reynolds stress, turbulence theory.
Prandtl (1875-1953), Boundary layer theory.
Y
Volume V
of mass m
Volume V
of mass, m
Y0
C
X0
Z0
Z
Figure 1.1: Concept of a continuum.
1.4 History of Fluid Mechanics
m
V
m
=lim
V V V
Figure 1.2: Variation of a physical property with respect to the size of a continuum. Density is used as
an example.
1.5
Fluid as a continuum
The concept of a continuum is the basis of classic fluid mechanics. The

continuum assumption is valid in treating the behaviour of fluids under
normal conditions. However, it breaks down whenever the mean free path
of the magnitude as the smallest characteristic dimension of the problem.
In a problem such as rare fied gas flow (e.g. as encountered in flights into
the upper reaches of the atmosphere), we must abandon the concept of a
continuum in favor of the microscopic and statistical points of view.
As a consequence of the continuum, each fluid property is assumed to
have a definite value at every point in space. Thus fluid properties such as
density, temperature, velocity, and so on, are considered to be continuous
functions of position and time.
There exists a nondimensional number which is utilizd to judge whether
4
INTRODUCTION
DISCRETE
PARTICLE OR
MOLECULAR
MODEL
COLLISIONLESS
BOLTZMANN
EQUATION
BOLTZMANN EQUATION
CONTINUUM EUL.ER NAVER-STOKES

MODEL
EQUATIONS
EQS.
0
INVISCID
LIMIT
0.01
0.1
CONSERVATION EQUATIONS
DO NOT FROM A
CLOSED SET
10
LOCAL KNUDSEN NUMBER
100
00
FREE-MOLECULE
LIMIT
Figure 1.3: Knusden number and continuum.
fluids are continuous or not. Its definition is

Kn =
,
L
(1.1)
where is the free mean path of a fluid molecule and L is the smallest
characteristic length of a flow field. Kn is the so-called Knusen number.
1.5 Fluid as a continuum
1.6
1.6.1
Macroscopic physical properties of fluids

density,
kg m3
Air
1.204
Water
998.2
Sea Water
1025
Mercury
1.6.2
13550
specific gravity, SG
SG =
density of substance
density of water
(1.2)
Air 0.001206
1.6.3
Oil
0.79
Ice
0.917
specific volume,
(1.3)
= g
(1.4)
=
1.6.4
1.6.5
specific weight,
Compressibility of fluids
When fluids are pressurized, the total volume V is changed. The amount
of volume change is the compressibility of fluids. In fluid mechanics, we
use bulk modulus which is denoted as
Ev = V
6
INTRODUCTION
dP
dP
=
,
dV
d
(1.5)
A high bulk modulus means that fluids are not easy to be compressed.
Hence, fluids with a high bulk modulus are incompressible. Units and
dimensions of bulk modulus are as same as pressure.
For most of liquids, they have very large bulk moduluses (109 in S.I.).
It means liquids are incompressible. For most of gases, they are regarded
as compressible fluids due to their small bulk moduluses.
1.7
Ideal gas law
The ideal gas law describes the relationship among pressure, density, and
temperature for an ideal gas. It can be shown that P = RT where R is
the gas constant. For air
R = 287.03 m2s2 K1 = 1716.4 ft2 s2R2
1.8
(1.6)
Pascals law
The Pascals law indicates that pressure transmission does not decrease
within a closed container filled with fluids. As shown in Fig. 1.4, pressure
at point A and point B are equal in terms of Pascal law. Therefore, if we
apply a force to the area A, it will produce a force on B and the force is
larger than the force on A.
1.9
Speed of sound
When disturbances are intorduced into fluid, they are propagated at a

finite velocity. The velocity depends on the compressibility of considered
fluids. It is called the acoustic velocity or the speed of sound, C. It is
defind as
1.7 Ideal gas law
Figure 1.4: Concept of Pascals law.
C=
dP
=
d
Ev
For ideal gases,

C=
d(RT )
= RT
d
Example: Determine acoustic velocities of air and water where the temperature is 20o C.
Cwater =
Ev
=
2.19 109 N m2
= 1480 m s1
3
998.2 kg m
(1.7)
RT = 290 m s1
(1.8)
Consider air as an ideal gas

Cair =
It implies that sound in incompressible fluids propagates faster than in

compressible fluids.
8
INTRODUCTION
u t
y
x
Figure 1.5: Deformation of a fluid experiencing shear stress.
1.9.1
Viscosity, &
Newtonian fluids
Consider fluids are full of two parallel walls. A shear stress, , is applied
to the upper wall. Fluids are deformed continuously because fluids cannot support shear stresses. The deformation rate, however, is constant.
Furthermore, if the deformation rate or the so-called rate of strain is proportional to the shear stress, then the fluid will be classified as a Newtonian
fluid, i.e.
d
,
dt
(1.9)
d
.
dt
(1.10)
d
du
=
.
dt
dy
(1.11)
du
.
dy
(1.12)
where is shear angle or
=
In addition,
Hence,
=
Again, the relationship between shear stress acting on a Newtonian fluid

and rate of strain (or velocity gradient) is linear. If it is not linear, then
1.9 Speed of sound
the fluid will be called a non-Newtonian fluid. is the so-called dynamic

s or Poise (cP). In addition, lb s or Ryne
viscosity. Its units are dyne cm
2
in2
in B.G. 1 microRyne = 0.145 (cP)
Another definition of viscosity is the kinematic viscosity which is =
2
in2 or Newt in B.G. 1
or
Stoke(cS)
in
S.I.
In
addition,
Its units are cm
s
s
Newt = 0.00155 (cS).
Example: Determine the shear stress exerted on the bottom.
Solution:
U = 10 cm/s
oil (
= 0.036 Ns/m2)
y
u(y)
d =5.0 mm
According to Newtons viscosity law, we have

du
.
b =
dy y=0
(1.13)
The velocity profile is available by a non-slip boundary condition, i.e.
U
y
d
0.1 m s1
y
=
0.005 m
= 20y .
u =
(1.14)
In addition, the velocity gradient on the bottom can be obtained by

10
INTRODUCTION

U
du
=
= 20 .
dy y=0
d
(1.15)
Therefore, the shear stress is
b = 0.036 20 = 0.72 N m2.
(1.16)
Saybolt viscometer
When we try to measure the viscosity for a fluid, we do not measure the
shear stress, and the volocity gradient but another variable, time.
Saybolt viscometer is designed to measure the viscosity of a fluid in
constant temperature. The principle of a fluids drain from a container in
constant temperature and we measure the total time till it takes for 60 ml
of fluids. Then we use empirical formulae to evaluate kinematic viscosity,
. The time, measured in second, is the viscosity of the oil in offficial units
called Saybolt Universal Seconds (SOS).
195
, t 100 SOS
t
135
(cS) = 0.22t
, t 100 SOS
t
(cS) = 0.226t
(1.17)
(1.18)
(temperature= 1500 F )
1.10
Hookes law and Newtons viscosity law
Hookes law for a solid element
= E = E
,
L
(1.19)
where is stress, is strain and E is the so-called Youngs modulus.

1.10 Hookes law and Newtons viscosity law
11
Sample
temperature
is constant
60ml
Figure 1.6: Saybolt viscosmeter
Newtons viscosity law
= =
du
dy
(1.20)
solid E
fluid
In solid mechains, we utilize displacement to describe solid motions or

respons. Velocity, however, is employed in fluid motions instead of displacement. It is because fluid deformation under shear stress is continuous, so it is hard to find a displacement to indicate the magnitude of a
fluid motion.
1.11
Categories of Fluid Dynamics
Hydrodynamics & Hydraulics

12
INTRODUCTION
Inviscid Fluid Flows(Potential Flows) & Viscous Fluid Flows

Laminar Flows & Turbulent Flows
Internal Flows & External Flows
1.11 Categories of Fluid Dynamics
13
14
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2
FLUID STATICS
In fluid statics, fluids at rest are considered. No relative motion between
adjacent fluid particles. Since there is no relative motion between fluids,
viscous stress shoud not exist. Otherwise, fluids would not be at rest.
Weight of fluids is the only force in fluid statics. To keep static equilibrium,
resultant forces must be zero. Therefore pressure should be included to
keep equilibrium.
2.1
Review of Taylor Expansion
For a continuous function, f (x), it can be expanded in a power series in

the neighborhood of x = . This is the so-called Taylor Expansion given
by
f ()
f n ()
f ()
2
(x)+
(x) +. . .+
(x)n +. . . (2.1)
f (x) = f ()+
1!
2!
n!
2.2
Pressure
Pressure is continuous throughout a flow field in terms of continuum concept. Pressure is isotropic. In other words, pressure is independent of
15
direction. Positive pressure means compression. On the other hand, negative pressure means tension. It is opposite to a normal stress. Pressure
can be regarded as a scalar.
z
P1dA
dz
ds
P2dydz
gdxdydz/2
x
P3dxdy
x
dA = ds dy =dy dz/sin
Figure 2.1: Fluid element in a static fluid domain.
F=0
Fx = P2 dydz P1 dA sin = 0
P2 dydz = P1 dy
dz
sin
sin
P2 = P1
1
dx
Fz = P3 dydx = gdxdydz + P1 dy
cos
2
cos
1
P3 = P1 + gdz
2
(2.2)
(2.3)
(2.4)
(2.5)
(2.6)
(2.7)
dz 0, P3 = P1
(2.8)
P1 = P2 = P3
(2.9)
1 N m2 = 1 Pascal(Pa) = 0.01 mbar(mb)
(2.10)
units of pressure
S.I.
16
FLUID STATICS
B.G.
1 lb in2 = 1 psi = 144 psf(lbf ft2)
2.3
(2.11)
The Hydrostatic Equation
Consider a fluid particle at rest shown in Figure 2.2. The centroid of the
z
x
y
x
Figure 2.2: Concept of a fluid element.
fluid element is at the original point O. The fluid element has a small
volume V = xyz . Furthermore, the fluid is at static equilibrium,
so resultant forces acting on the fluid element should be zero, i.e.
X
F=0 .
(2.12)
No shear stresses should exist owing to static equilibrium. Therefore, we

can just consider resultant forces in the z-direction, i.e.
X
Fz = 0 .
(2.13)
Resultant forces in the z-direction include the weight of the fluid and surface forces caused by pressure. The weight of the fluid particle can be
given by
W = gV = gxyz .
(2.14)
2.3 The Hydrostatic Equation
17
Subsequently, surface forces acting on the fluid element can be given by

Fs = (P2 P1 )xy ,
(2.15)
where P1 and P2 are pressures on the top and the bottom respectively. P1
and P2 can be expanded using Taylor Expansion, i.e.

2
z
P (0)
z
P (0)
+ ...
+
+
+
P1 = P (0) +
1!
2
2!
2
(2.16)

2
P (0)
z
P (0)
z
P2 = P (0) +
+ ...
1!
2
2!
2
(2.17)
#
3
z
z
+ . . . xy .
+ P (0)
Fs = 2 P (0)
2
2
(2.18)
and
Substituting formulae above into the surface force, the surface force becomes
"
Consider static equilibrium again, then we find

#
"
3
X
z
z
+ . . . xygxyz = 0
+ P (0)
Fz = Fs +W = 2 P (0)
2
2
(2.19)
"
#
3
z
z
2 P (0)
+ . . . = gz
(2.20)
+ P (0)
2
2
In terms of continuum concept, z should be very small (not zero), so we

can negelect high order terms in the formula, i.e.
P (0)z = gz
(2.21)
or

dP
= g .
(2.22)
dz z=0
We can use a notation directional gradient to show the equation again, i.e.
P = g .
This is called the hydrostatic equation.
18
FLUID STATICS
(2.23)
2.4
Pressure variation in incompressible fluids
Density is constant throughout an incompressible fluid domain. Hence, we

can evaluate the pressure difference between two points(z = z1 and z2 ),
i.e.
P |21
=
=
Z1 2
dP
dz
dz
gdz
Z 2
= g
dz
1
= g (z2 z1 ) .
P
g
2.5
(2.24)
is called a pressure head and equal to z .

Pressure variation in compressible fluids
Density is not constant throughout a compressible fluid domain. In other

words, density may be affected by temperature and pressure. If we consider
a perfect gas, then the equation of state for a perfect gas can be used:
P = RT
(2.25)
Substituting the perfect gas law to the hydrostatic equation, we obtain

dP
Pg
dP
g
= g =
=
dz
dz
RT
P
RT
(2.26)
In addition, the pressure difference between two points (z = z1 and z2 )

can be evaluated by integrating the hydrostatic equation:
Z 2
Z 2
g
dP
=
dz
RT
1
1 P
(2.27)
g
=lnP|21=- RT
(z2 z1 )
2.4 Pressure variation in incompressible fluids
19
g
=ln PP12 =- RT
(z2 z1 )
g
(z2 z1 )]
P2 =P1 exp[- RT

g

P |21 =P2 -P1 =-P1 1 exp RT
(z2 z1 )
Example: Determine the pressure at the gasoline-water interface, and at

the bottom of the tank (see Fig. 2.3). Gasoline and water can be both
open
17ft
gasoline
S.G.=0.68
P1
water
3ft
P2
Figure 2.3: Problem of hydrostatic force on bottom of a tank.
regarded as incompressible fluids. Hence,

P1 = gasoline h + P0
(2.28)
P1 = 0.68 62.4 lb/ft3 17 = 721 psf
(2.29)
If we assume P0 =0, then
In addition, the pressure at the bottom is determined by

P2 = water 3 + P1
= 62.4 3 + 721
= 908 psf .
2.6
Standard Atmosphere
Sea level conditions of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere.

20
FLUID STATICS
(2.30)
50
z(km) 40
20
10
surface
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40
Temperature
T = T0- (z-zo)
40
80
Pressure
120
= 6.5Kkm-1
Figure 2.4: Variation of atmospheric pressure.
Table 2.1: sea level condition
S.I.
B.G.
Temperature 15o C
59oC
Pressure
101.33 kPa
2116.2 psf
Density
1.225 kg/m3 0.002377 slug/ft3
Homework: Derive the formula for the pressure variation within the convection layer. Remember pressure and temperature are both functions of
elevation.
Ans:

g/R
(z z0 )
P = P0 1
T0
= 6.5 Kkm1
(2.31)
(2.32)
R = 287 Jkg1K1
(2.33)
g = 9.8 ms2
(2.34)
2.6 Standard Atmosphere
21
2.6.1
Absolute pressure
Pressure measured relative to an absolute vacuum.(Pb)

2.6.2
Gauge pressure
Pressure measured relative to atmospheric pressure.(Pg )

Pa
d
h
.
z
Pressure caused by fluid

weight.
Pressure caused by
atmospheric.
Figure 2.5: Variation of static pressure.
Pb = Pg + Pa ,
(2.35)
(Pa : atmospheric pressure)

Consider fluids shown in Fig. 2.5. Its depth is h. If we evaluate pressure
at z = h d, pressure at z = h d should include two components,
atmospheric pressure and static pressure, i.e.
Pz = Pa + gd = Pa + g(h z) .
(2.36)
The resultant force acting on a small area dA at z can be given by

Z
Z
dF = Pz dA = Pa + g(h z)dA .
(2.37)
If we evaluate the resultant force on the bottom, then we obtain
Z
F = (Pa + gh)dA .
22
FLUID STATICS
(2.38)
2.7
2.7.1
Facilities for pressure measurement

Manometers
P1
P2
B
h
Z2
Z1
Figure 2.6: Schematic of a manometer.
Manometers are utilized to measure pressure difference between two

points,
P = P1 P2 = gh .
2.7.2
(2.39)
Barometers
Barometers are devices designed to measure absolute pressure,

h
Figure 2.7: Schematic of a barometer.
Pb = gh .
(2.40)
2.7 Facilities for pressure measurement
23
2.8
Inclined-tube Manometer
The main purpose of an inclined-tube manometer is to improve its resolution. Therefore, if a small pressure change is expected in an experiment,
then an inclined-tube manometer should be considered.
h2
h1
l2
Figure 2.8: Inclined manometer.
P1 = P2 + 2(l2 sin )
(2.41)
PA + 1h1 = PB + 3h2 + 2 (l2 sin )
(2.42)
PA PB = 3 h3 + 2(l2 sin ) 1 h1
(2.43)
If we ignore 1 and 3, then

PA PB = 2 l2 sin
(2.44)
and
PA PB
.
2 sin
If PA -PB and 2 are constant, l2 is quite large as is small.
l2 =
2.9
Hydrostatic force on vertical walls of constant width

dF = Pb wdz
24
(2.45)
FLUID STATICS
(2.46)
Pa
dF
dz
Figure 2.9: Hydrostatic force exerted on a vertical gate.
Pb = Pa + g(h z)
(2.47)
dF = [Pa + g(h z)]wdz
(2.48)
For the whole vertical wall, the resultant force is

Z
F =
dF
Z h
=
[Pa + g(h z)]wdz
0
Z h
Z h
=
Pa wdz +
g(h z)wdz
0
(2.49)
Pawh
gh2
w
2
If we just consider pressure caused by the weight of fluids, then the force
will be
2.9 Hydrostatic force on vertical walls of constant width
25
Fs =
gh2
w .
2
(2.50)
The force exerts a moment at point z = 0 and the moment is given by

dM0 = zdFs = z g(h z)wdz
(2.51)
and then
M0 =
=
dM0
h
g(h z)wzdz
h
2
z 3
hz
= gw
2
3 0
3

h
h3
= gw
2
3
gh3 w
=
.
6
0
(2.52)
We can evaluate the moment arm z, i.e.

M0
=
z =
F
2.10
gh3 w
6
gh2 w
2
h
.
3
(2.53)
Hydrostatic force on an inclined surface
Consider an inclined surface shown in Fig. 2.10, then

dF = ghdA, h = y sin
= gy sin dA, dA = wdy
26
FLUID STATICS
(2.54)
Y
h
dF
w
dA
Figure 2.10: Hydrostatic force exerted on an inclined gate.
and
F =
=
dF
gy sin dA
Z
= g sin ydA .
(2.55)
ydA is the first moment of the area with respect to the x-axis, so we can
say
Z
ydA = yc A,
(2.56)
where yc is the centroid of the area. Furthermore, the resultant force

becomes
F = g sin yc A
= ghc A
(2.57)
We consider the moment caused by the resultant force with respect to

2.10 Hydrostatic force on an inclined surface
27
the original point O. First of all,we know
dM = ydF
(2.58)
and then
M =
=
=
dM
ydF
gy 2 sin dA .
(2.59)
y 2 dA is called the second moment of the area with respect to the x-axis,
Ix. We know
M = F yR
(2.60)
R
g sin y 2 dA
M
Ix
yR =
=
=
,
F
g sin yc A
yc A
(2.61)
and
where yR is the acting point of the resultant force or so-called the centre
of pressure.
Example: Consider a dam of width 100 m and depth 6 m. Determine the
resultant hydrostatic force and the moment with respect to A.
28
FLUID STATICS
Figure 2.11: Problem of hydrostatic force exerted on a dam.
Sol:
F = hc A
h
= A
2
= 1000 9.8 0.5 6 (6 100)
= 17660 kN
M = F hf
1
= F h
3
= 35320 kN-m
2.11
(2.62)
Hydrostatic force on a curved surface
Consider a curved surface shown in Fig. 2.12. The resultant force acting
2.11 Hydrostatic force on a curved surface
29
h
Z
dF
Fx
Fz
dA
Figure 2.12: Hydrostatic force exerted on a curved surface.
on a small element of the curved surface is given by

dF = P n dA
= g(h z)n dA
(2.63)
The resultant force in the x-direction, Fx , can be denoted as

dFx = g(h z) sin dA,
(2.64)
where is the angle between the z-axis and the normal direction of the
small area. In addition,
Fx =
=
dFx
g(h z) sin dA
Z
= g (h z) sin dA
Z
= g (h z)dAv ,
30
FLUID STATICS
(2.65)
where dAv is the project area of dA on the z-axis. In terms of the formula,
the resultant force in the x-axisis equal to the force acting on a vertical
plane. On the other hand, the resulatant force in the z-axis is given by
dFz = g(h z) cos dA
(2.66)
In addition,
Fz =
=
dFz
g(h z) cos dA
Z
= g (h z)dAh ,
(2.67)
where dAh is the project area of dA on the x-axis. In terms of this formula,
Fz is equal to the weight of liquids above the curved surface. The resultant
force F can be given by
|F| =
2.12
p
Fx2 + Fz2 .
(2.68)
Buoyance
It is well-knoen that Archimede provided the buoyance principle to evaluate the buoyant force acting on a submerged solid body. In fact, we can
derive the buoyance principle from the hydrostatic equation. Let us consider a submerged body shown in Fig. 2.13. The resultant force caused by
pressure on the small wetted area is given by
dF = P2 dA P1 dA = (gz2 + gz1 )dA
(2.69)
and
F =
dF = g
(z1 z2 )dA = gV .
(2.70)
2.12 Buoyance
31
P1
dA
Z1
Z2
P2
Figure 2.13: Schematic of buoyance exerted on an immersed body.
Therefore, we know the resultant force caused by static pressure or called

the buoyant force is equal to the weight of liquids of volume equal to the
submerged body. In addition, the point where the buoyant force exerts is
called the centre of buoyance.
32
FLUID STATICS
Chapter 3
INTRODUCTION TO FLUID
MOTION I
The chapter demonstrates basic concepts of fluid kinematics and fundamental laws which fluids conserve.
3.1
Lagrangian and Eulerian Systems
When we describle physical quantities, such as density, pressure, and so

on, of adynamic problem, we usually chose either Lagrangine or Eulerian
system. In terms of Lagrangine system, we move with the considered
system or particles, so physical quantities, say , is only a function of
time, i.e.
= (t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t), t) .
(3.1)
Its coordinates are also functions of time. Lagrangian system is often

employed in solid dynamic. On the other hand, we fix a point in space and
observe the variation at this point in terms of Eulerian system. Therefore
physical quantities, , are not only functions of time but also functions of
33
space, i.e.
= (x, y, z, t) ,
(3.2)
where x, y, z, and t are independent. Eulerian system is commonly used in

fluid dynamics. It may be because lots of fluid particles are involved in a
considered flow. It contains different fluid particles at the observed point
as time goes in Eulerian system. Hence it is hard to describe a system or
its physical quantities in terms of a specified fluid particle. Therefore, we
utilize Eulerian system to describe a system.
3.2
Control Volume
In addition, we utilize a control volume concept to describe a fluid flow

problem. Coupled with Eulerian system, a control volume is a fixed region
with artifical boundaries in a fluid field. A control volume contains lots of
and various fluid particles as time goes. Fluid flows in and out through its
control surface and then physical quantities in a control volume change.
3.3
Steady and Unsteady flow
If physical quantities of a flow field are independent of time, then the flow
will be called steady. Otherwise, it is unsteady.
3.3.1
Streamlines
A steamline is defined as a line that is everywhere tangential to the instantaneous velocity direction, i.e.
v dy
v
dx
u
dy
= ,
= , and
=
.
dx u dz
w
dz
w
Streamlines cannot cross.
34
INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MOTION I
(3.3)
3.3.2
Pathlines
A pathline is defined as the path along which a specified fluid particle

flows. It is a Lagrangine concept. Hence, coordinates of a pathline are
functions of time.
3.3.3
Streaklines
A streakline is the line traced out by particles that pass through a particular point.
3.3.4
Streamtubes
A streamtube is formed by steamlines. Since streamlines cannot cross,

they are parallel in a streamtube.
3.3.5
Definition of 1-D flows
1
2
Figure 3.1: 1-D flow
1-D flows are idealizd flows (see Fig. 3.1). It means physical properties
of flows are only functions of a spatial variable. The spatial variable can
be coordinates of an axis, such as x, or along a streamline. For example,
3.3 Steady and Unsteady flow
35
density , for 1-D flows can be given:

= (x) .
(3.4)
In addition, 1-D flows can be steady or unsteady, so it may be

= (x, t) .
3.4
(3.5)
Variation of physical properties in a control volume
Consider a control volume in a flow field (see Fig. 3.2). The rate of
variation of a physical property in a control volume shall be equal to the
sum of the flux through its control surface and the surface of the physical
property.
source of
Figure 3.2: Control volume
d
dt
Z Z Z
dV =
Z Z
control surface
u dA +
dV
t
(3.6)
: physical property in a unit volume. For example, mass in a unit volume

is density. ( m
V = )
36
3.5
Mass conservation of 1-D flows
When fluids move, the mass conservation law should be satisfied throughout a flow field. In terms of a control volume, the change rate of mass in
a control volume should be zero, i.e.
m
=0 .
(3.7)
Consider a 1-D flow like the figure and fluids move along a streamline. If
we consider the control volume between point 1 and point 2 and the mass
conservation law should be satisfied in the control volume. If we donot
consider any mass source or sink in the control volume, then the rest will
be mass flux on the surface 1 and 2, i.e.
m c = m 1 + m 2 = 0 .
(3.8)
m 1 = m 2
(3.9)
m
= u A
(3.10)
1 u1 A1 = 2 u2A2 ,
(3.11)
In addition,
and then
where u1 and u2 are average velocities at points 1 and 2, respectively. If

density of fluids are the same at surface 1 and 2, i.e.
Q = u 1 A1 = u 2 A2 ,
(3.12)
where Q is the volumetric flow rate. In terms of the mass conservation

law, we find that average velocity on a small area is higher than one on a
large area.
3.5 Mass conservation of 1-D flows
37
3.6
Momemtum conservation for 1-D flows
According to Newtons second law, an object should retain the same velocity or be at rest if the resultant force exerted on it is zero. That means
the change rate of momentum in the object should be zero. We look into
the control volume concept again. If a control volume is not accelerated,
then the resultant force should be zero in the control volume. i.e.
X
F=0 ,
(3.13)
or
X d
(mu) = 0 .
dt
(3.14)
If we donot consider any force source in a control volume for a 1-D flow
like Fig. 3.2, then only momentum fluxes on surface 1, 2 are considered,
i.e.
F=
d
(m1u1 + m2 u2) = 0
dt
(3.15)
or
d
(1A1 u1 u1 + 2 A2u2 u2) = 0
dt
(3.16)
If the 1-D flow is steady, then we can remove the total derivative, i.e.
1 A1(u1 u1 ) + 2 A2 (u2 u2) = 0
(3.17)
1 A1 u21 = 2 A2u22 .
(3.18)
or
If we consider other forces acting on the control volume, then

X
d
F = 0 = F0 + (mu) = 0
dt
38
(3.19)
F0 +
d
(1A1u1 u1 + 2 A2u2 u2) = 0 .
dt
(3.20)
This is consistent with Newton third law. F can be divided into two parts:
1. body forces such as gravity forces, magnetic forces; 2. surface forces
such as pressure.
3.6 Momemtum conservation for 1-D flows
39
40
Chapter 4
INTRODUCATION TO FLUID
MOTION II
4.1
The Bernoulli equation
Consider a steady inviscid flow. If we apply Newtons second law along a

stream line, we will obtain the Bernoulli equation
1
1
P1 + u21 + gz1 = P2 + u22 + gz2 = const .
2
2
(4.1)
The detailed deviation of the Bernoulli equation will be given later. The
Bernoulli equation above is based on four assumptions:
1. along a same streamline
2. steady flow
3. same density
4. inviscid
41
4.2
Derive the Bernoulli equation
Consider a steady flow shown in Fig. 4.1. For a fluid particle in the
streamline A, the momentum should be conserved. Assume the volume of
the fluid is xns. The total force along the streamline should be
Z
g
( P+
P ds dndx
)
s 2
n
s
n
n
( P- P ds ) dndx
s 2
gxns
Y
Figure 4.1: Force balance for a fluid element in the tangential direction of a streamline.
Fs
42

P ds
P ds
=
P
P+
dndx gxns sin
s 2
s 2
P
dsdndx gxns sin .
(4.2)
=
s
INTRODUCATION TO FLUID MOTION II
The momentum change along the streamline should be

1
u
(mu) =
ds
(xns) (u) + (xns) u +
t
t
s

1
u
=
(xns) ds
t
s
u
= (xns) u
,
(4.3)
s
where u is the tangential velocity component. Let us consider Newtons
second law, i.e.
Fs =
(mu)
t
(4.4)
Substitution of Eq. (4.2) into (4.3) gives
P
u
z
g sin = u , sin =
s
s
s
(4.5)
z
u
P
g
= u
.
s
s
s
(4.6)
and then
This is the so-called Euler equation along a streamline in a steady flow. If

the Euler equation is multiplied by ds, it will become
dP gdz = udu
(4.7)
Futhermore, we integrate the whole equation and obtain the Bernoulli

equation, i.e.
1
P
+ u2 + gz = constant .
(4.8)
The Euler equation refers to force balance along a streamline, so the product of the Euler equation and ds can be regarded as work done by a fluid
along the streamline. The integral of the resultant equation is constant
along a streamline. It turns out that the Bernoulli equation refers to en4.2 Derive the Bernoulli equation
43
ergy conservation along a streamline.

energy and
u2
2,
+ gz can be regarded as potential
of course, is the kinetic energy.
Moreover, we consider force balance across a streamline. The resultant

force should be
( P+
P dn dsdx
)
n 2
( P-P dn ) dsdx
n 2
W
Figure 4.2: Force balance of a fluid element in the normal direction of a streamline.

P dn
P dn
Fn =
P
dsdx P +
dsdx gxsn cos .
n 2
n 2
(4.9)
Its momentum change across a streamline should be
u2
mun = xsn ,
t
R
(4.10)
where un is the velocity component normal to a streamline and R is the

44
curvature radius. Let us consider Newtons second law again.

Fn =
mun
t
(4.11)
Substitution of Eq. (4.9) into (4.10) gives
u2
P
dndsdx gxsn cos = xsn
n
R
cos =
z
n
(4.12)
(4.13)
and then
z
u2
P
+ g
=
.
n
n
R
(4.14)
This is the Euler equation across a streamline. If the Euler equation is

multiplied by dn and integrated along the normal direction, it will become
Z
Z
Z
u2
(4.15)
dP gdz = dn .
R
It is the Bernoulli equation along the normal direction of a stream.
Example: Determine the pressure variation along the streamline from
3
u=u0(1+a3 )
x
Figure 4.3: 2-D flow past a circle.
point A to point B.
4.2 Derive the Bernoulli equation
45
Solution:
From the Bernoulli equation along a streamline,
dP gdz = udu
(4.16)
Since point A and B are at the horizontal streamline, dz = 0 Hence

dP = udu .
(4.17)
In additions,
Z
We know that
dP =
A
udu .
du = u0a3 (3)x4dx
a3
= 3u0 4 dx .
x
(4.18)
As a result,
PO PA =
=
=
=

a3
a3
3u0 4 dx
u0 1 + 3
x
x
A

3
Z O
a6
a
+
dx
3u20
x4 x7
A
3
O
a6
a
2
+
u0
x3 2x6 A

O
2

1
u
a3 03 1 + 3 .
x
2x
A
Z
The x-coordinate of point B is -a, so

2
u
1
1
0
.
PB PA = u20 1 3 a3 3 1 + 3
2a
xA
2xA
4.3
(4.19)
(4.20)
Stagnation Pressure and Dynamic Pressure
Consider fluids flow toward a horizontal plate far upstream. Fluids moves
at u and pressure is P upstream. Because fluids cannot pass through a
46
P
u
P0
stagnation point
stagnation streamline
Figure 4.4: Stagnation point
plate, fluids must flow along the plate. Subsequently we can find a point
where fluids are at rest. This is the so-called stagnation point. Furthermore, we can find a stagnation steamline which leads to the stagnation
point. Owing to no variation of altitude in the whole flow, pressure and
velocity are considered in the Bernoulli equation. If we apply the Bernoulli
equation along the stagnation line, we will find
P0
P u2
+
=
,
(4.21)
where P0 is called the stagnation pressure or total pressure, P is called

the static pressure, and
u2
2
is called dynamic pressure which is distincted
from the pressure due to hydrostatic pressure, P .

4.3 Stagnation Pressure and Dynamic Pressure
47
Pressure coefficient is defined as

Cp =
P P
u 2
) .
=
1
(
1
2
u
u
(4.22)
Its means the ratio of pressure difference to inertia force. At a stagnation

point, Cp = 1, that means all of kinetic energy is transfered to pressure
energy. Cp is zero far upstream. It means no kinetic energy is transfered
to pressure energy.
4.4
Mass conservation in channel flows
Consider fluid flow in a channel with various cross section areas show in
Fig. 4.5. Fluids connot accumulate at any cross sections. In other words,
Figure 4.5: Mass conservation in 1-D flow.
mass must be conserved at any cross section. Hence mass flowrates, the
amount of mass passing a cross section per unit time, must be equal at
every cross section, i.e.
m
= m 1 = m 2 ,
48
(4.23)
where m
is the mass flow rate in the channel. In addition,
m
= Q ,
(4.24)
where is fluid density and Q is volumeric flowrate. Then,

1 Q1 = 2 Q2
(4.25)
1 u1 A1 = 2 u2A2 ,
(4.26)
or
where u1 and u2 are average velocity at cross sections 1 and 2, A1 and

A2 are cross sectional areas. For incompressible fluids, 1 = 2 and consequently u1 A1 = u2A2.
4.5
Relationship between cross area, velocity ana pressure
Consider a steady flow in a channel with varied cross sectional areas. In

terms of the continuity equation, velocity decreases as its cross sectional
area diverages for incompressible fluids. In addition, pressure increases
as velocity decreases in terms of the Bernoulli equation. For a converged
channel, cross sectional area decreases so velocity increases. Subsequently,
pressure decreases owing to increasing velocity.
4.6
4.6.1
Applications of Bernoulli equation

Pitot tube
1
1
P + a u2 + a gz = PO + a u2O + a gzO
2
2
(4.27)
z = zO , uO = 0
(4.28)
1
P + a u2 = PO
2
(4.29)
4.5 Relationship between cross area, velocity ana pressure
49
Figure 4.6: Variations of velocity and pressure in converged and diverged channels.
1
(PO P ) = a u2
2
(4.30)
PO P = gh
(4.31)
1
gh = a u2
2
u2 = 2 gh
a
4.6.2
(4.32)
(4.33)
Siphon()
A siphon is a device transfering fluids from a lower level to a higher level.

Consider a siphon shown in Fig. 4.8. The free surface in the tank is
assumed to be still owing to the flow rate to the siphon is very slow.
Hence the velocity is zero at the free surface. Furthermore, the Bernoulli
equation is applied to analyze the flow in a siphon. Consider conditions
at points 1 and 3 and
Pa u23
Pa
+ 0 + gz1 =
+
+ gz3 ,
2
50
(4.34)
P
u
z0
h
l
Figure 4.7: Schematic of Pitot tube.
where z1 = 0, z3 = h3 . Velocity at point 3 is obtained from the equation

i.e.
u3 =
2gh3 .
(4.35)
Another interesting location is at point 2. In terms of Bernoulli equation,

we find
Pa
P2 u22
+ 0 + gz1 =
+
+ gz2 ,
(4.36)
where z1 = 0, z2 = h2 . Then we find pressure at point 2 is

P2
Pa u22
=
gh2 ,
2
where
u22
2
(4.37)
and gh2 must be positive. It turns out that P2 should be less
than the atmospheric pressure. If point 2 is high enough to let pressure at

point 2 less than vapor presure, then gas in fluids will form bubbles. These
bubbles will move with fluids. If pressure around bubbles increases and is
higher than vapor pressure, then bubbles will burst. The phenomenon is
4.6 Applications of Bernoulli equation
51
2
h2
z
1
h3
3
Figure 4.8: Schematic of siphon tube.
called cavitation. Cavitation is often found in flow fields around a inside

propeller or fluid machinery.
4.6.3
Torricellis Theorem
1 Pa
H
Pa
Figure 4.9: Torricellis theorem.
Consider a liquid tank of high H. There is a hole, shown in Fig. 4.9, near
the ground. Liquids drain from the hole. It is assumed that the tank is
quite large, so the location of the free surface is almost still. Hence, u1 = 0.
Moreover, pressure at the hole is assumed to be equal to the atmospheric
52
pressure. Now we can apply Bernoulli equation to point 1 and 2, i.e.

P1 u21
P2 u22
+
+ gz1 =
+
+ gz2 ,
(4.38)
where P1 = P2 = Pa , u1 = 0, and (z1 z2 ) = H. It then becomes

Pa u22
Pa
+ gH =
+
.
(4.39)
It turns out that

u2 =
This is the Torricellis Theorem.
4.6.4
2gH .
(4.40)
vena contracta effect
dj
dh
Figure 4.10: Vena contracta effect
contraction coefficient
Aj
(dj )2
Cc =
=
Ah
(dh)2
(4.41)
53
h
l
Figure 4.11: Free jet
4.6.5
Free jets
Consider fluids in a tank. A nozzle is arranged at the bottom of the

tank. Fluids flow through the nozzle due to the gravitational force and
consequently a jet is observed. Suppose no energy loss in the nozzle.
Bernoulli equation can be utilized to determine the jet condition at the
exit of the nozzle. The free surface of the tank is assumed to be still if
the tank is large enough. Therefore, u1 = 0. According to the Bernoulli
equation, the total energy along a streamline from the free surface to the
exit should be the same, i.e.
P2 u22
P1 u21
+
+ gz1 =
+
+ gz2 = constant .
(4.42)
We know u1 = 0, P1 = P2 = Pa and (z1 z2 ) = h + l. The equation

becomes
u22
= g(h + l)
2
54
(4.43)
or
u2 =
2g(h + l) .
(4.44)
The result is as same as Torricellis Theorem.

However, if the nozzle is not designed well, then there will be energy
loss at the nozzle. As a result, Bernoulli equation has to be modified.
4.6.6
Venturi tube
Figure 4.12: Venturi tube.
55
u A AA = u B AB
AA
uB = uA
AB
AA > AB
uA < uB
PA u2A
PB u2B
+
=
+
2
2
uB u2A
PA PB
=
2
AA
u2A ( A
) u2A
B
=
#
"2
2
2
u
AA
= a
1
2
AB
(4.45)
A Venturi tube is a device made up of a contraction followed by a diverging

section. Fluids moving toward the contraction are speeded up according
to the continuity equation. In addition, pressure decreases as velocity
increases in terms of the Bernoulli equation. A famous application of a
Ventui tube is a carburetor. A carburetor is shown in Fig. 4.13. Fuel is
sucked into the throat due to the low pressure at the throat. Subsequently,
fuel is mixed with air at the throat. Venturi tube is a facility to measure
the flow rate in a pipe. Fluids flow a contraction part and then a expansion
part in a Venturi tube.
56
Q(Air)
Butterfly
Valve
Throat of
Venturi
FUEL
Air-Fuel
Mixture
Q
Figure 4.13: Schematic of caburetor.
4.6.7
Flowrate pass through a sluice gate
Form the Bernoulli equation,

P1 u21
P2 u22
+
+ z1 =
+
+ z2
r
2g
r
2g
P1 = P2 = Pa
u2
u21
+ z1 = 2 + z2
2g
2g
(4.46)
Form mass conservation

u1z1 = u2 z2
z2
u2 .
u1 =
z1
(4.47)
57
Substituting into Bernoulli equation

2
u22 z2
u22
+ z1 =
+ z2
2g z1
2g
#
"
2
z2
u22
1 = z2 z1
2g
z1
s
z2 z1
u2 =
.
2g z2 2
( z1 ) 1
(4.48)
The flowrate pass through the sluice gate must be

Q = u2 z2
s
2g(z2 z1 )
= z2
.
( zz12 )2 1
58
(4.49)
Chapter 5
EQUATIONS OF MOTION IN
INTEGRAL FORM
We consider one-dimensional flows in Chapter 3 and 4. Conservation laws
of mass, momentum and energy are obtained for one-dimensional flows.
Most of fluid flows, however, cannot be simplified as one-dimensional flows.
Therefore, we have to look into conservation laws again and derive governing equations for general fluid flows.
These equations for fluid flows can be either in integral form or in differential form. Equations in integral form are derived in terms of the control
volume concept. Equations in integral form do not give any information
throughout a flow field, but they can provide resultant forces acting on a
control volume. On the other hand, equations in differential form provide
details regarding variations in a flow field, so we can get values of physical
variables throughout a flow field.
In this chapter, we consider governing equation of fluid flows in integral
form first.
59
5.1
Flux
We mentioned the control volume concept in Chapter 3. A control volume

is bounded artificially in a flow field. Physical properties in a control
volume may vary in space or in time, because fluids with various physical
properties flow in and out a control volume and it causes variations of
physical properties in a control volume. The amount of a physical property
cross an unit surface per second is called flux.
A flux can be revealed as b(u A), where b is a physical property per
unit volume, u is the velocity over the area and A is the area vector. We
may use nA instead of A and n is the unit vector in the normal direction
of the area. Physical properties considered in this chapter can be mass,
momentum or energy, so we have different fluxes:
mass flux : (u n)A
momentum flux : u(u n)A
(5.1)
(5.2)
energy flux : e(u n)A
(5.3)
e :
(5.4)
energy contained in a unit volume,

i.e., specific energy
(5.5)
It should be noticed that n is positive in the outward direction of the

area but negative in the inward direction.
60
EQUATIONS OF MOTION IN INTEGRAL FORM
5.2
Reynolds Transport Theorem
2
1
III
II
I
Figure 5.1: Flow through a control volume.
We consider a control volume I+II in a flow field. Fluids contained in

the control volume at t = t will flow, so the control volume containing
same fluids at t = t+t will be II+III. The rate of change of a physical
D R R R dV where
property in the control volume can be shown in D
c.v.
t
is the amount of the physical property per unit mass. In terms of Fig. 5.1,
we know the rate of change in the control volume can be divided into two
parts. The first is the local chang at the region II, which can be shown
RRR
in t
II dV . The second is the net flux including the flux from the
region I to the region II and the flux from the region II to the region III,
RR
RR
so we have
(u
n)dA
and
c.s.1
c.s.2 (u n)dA. We can combine
5.2 Reynolds Transport Theorem
61
fluxes across two surfaces and get

have
D
Dt
Z Z Z
RR
c.s. (u
n)dA. As t 0, we will
Z Z
(u n)dA +
t
c.s.
dV =
c.v.
Z Z Z
dV
(5.6)
c.v.
At t = t0
Bsys = BI (t) + BII (t) .
(5.7)
Bsys = BII (t + t) + BIII (t + t)

DBsys
Bsys
=
lim
t0 t
Dt
(5.8)
At t = t0 + t
(5.9)
or
Bsys
BII (t + t) + BIII (t + t) BII (t) BI (t)
=
t
t
BII (t + t) BII (t) BII
lim
=
t0
t
t
BI (t)
t
(5.10)
(5.11)
is the flux flow through in C.S.1 and is denote as

Z Z
(u dA)
(5.12)
C.S.1
In addition,
BIII (t+t)
t
is the flux flow out C.S.2 and is denoted as

Z Z
(u dA)
(5.13)
C.S.2
Z Z
C.S.1
(u dA) +
Z Z
C.S.2
(u dA) =
Z Z
C.S.
(u dA) (5.14)
Besides,
lim (C.V.I +C.V.II ) = lim (C.V.III +C.V.II ) = C.V.II = C.V. =
t0
t0
Z Z Z
C.V.
(5.15)
62
dV
As a result
DBsys
D
=
Dt
Dt
Z Z Z
dV
(5.16)
Bc.v.II
=
t
t
Z Z Z
dV
(5.17)
c.v.
and
5.3
c.v.
Continuity Equation
If we consider mass variation in a control volume, then we will have = 1.

In terms of Reynolds transport theorem, the conservation of mass can be
revealed as
Z Z Z
Z Z
Z Z Z
D
dV =
(u n)dA +
dV = 0
Dt
t
c.v.
c.s.
c.v.
(5.18)
This is the continuity equation in integral form.

5.4
Momentum Equation
Subsequntly, we consider momentum in a control volume, then will be

u. The momentum equation in integral form then is denoted as
Z Z Z
Z Z
Z Z Z
D
udV =
u(u n)dA +
udV . (5.19)
Dt
t
c.v.
c.s.
c.v.
Moreover, the rate of momentum is equal to the resultant force acting on
the control volume, i.e.
Z Z Z
D
udV = F = Fbody + Fsurface + Fext .
Dt
c.v.
If we consider gravity in body force, then we will have
Z Z Z
Fbody =
gdV .
(5.20)
(5.21)
c.v.
5.3 Continuity Equation
63
The surface can be divided into pressure and shear stress, i.e.
Z Z
Fsurface =
(p + ij )ndA .
(5.22)
c.s.
Hence,
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
Z Z
D
udV =
gdV +
(p + ij )ndA + Fext .
Dt
c.v.
c.v.
c.s.
(5.23)
5.5
Moment-of-Momentum Equation
Now we consider moment-of-momentum, then will ru. Using Reynolds

transport theorem, we obtain
Z Z Z
Z Z
Z Z Z
D
rudV =
(ru)(un)dA+
(ru)dV
Dt
t
c.v.
c.s.
c.v.
(5.24)
or
(r F)c.v. =
Z Z
(r u)(u n)dA +
t
c.s.
Z Z Z
c.v.
(r u)dV = Tshaft ,
(5.25)
where Tshaft is the resultant torque applied to fluids in the control volume.
64
Chapter 6
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF
MOTIONS
We obtain governing equations of fluid flows in integral form in Chapter 5.
As mentioned before, governing equations in integral form cannot provide
details throughout a control volume. If we would like to know more about a
flow field, such as velocity, pressure and so on, then governing equations of
fluid flows in differential form are necessary. Solving differential governing
equation can get the whole information of a flow field.
6.1
Lagrangian and Eulerian systems
These systems are used very often in dynamics. An observer follows a

specified particle if Lagrangian system is employed. In other words, a
coordinate system is fixed at a particular fluid particle when Lagrangian
system is utilized to describe a flow field. In addition, physical variables
described by Lagrangian system are functions of time only. All of spatial
coordinates are functions of time too (x = ut). We can say = (t).
d
=
+u
+v
+w
dt
t
x
y
z
65
(6.1)
The term at the left hand side of the equation is called the total derivative
or material derivative. It means the rate of change of in a fluid particle,
d
i.e., Lagrangian point of view. It is often to use D
Dt instead of dt to
indicate a material derivative, i.e.
D
=
+u
+v
+w
.
Dt
t
x
y
z
(6.2)
The trems at the right hand side of the equation are, in fact, described
by Eulerian system. The first term is called a local derivative or unsteady
term. The rest are called convective terms because they are caused by flow
motions. This equation can shown in vector form, i.e.
D
=
+ (u ) .
Dt
t
(6.3)
It should be noted that u and cannot be communtive. In other words,

(u ) 6= ( u) .
(6.4)
Eulerian system is an alternative way to describe a flow field. An observer

is fixed at a selected point of space if Eulerian system is adopted. Hence,
the coordinate system does not move as fluids flow. In addition, spatial
coordinates are required to indicate the point which is observed. Hence,
physical variables described by Eulerian system are functions of time and
space, i.e.
= (x, t)
66
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF MOTIONS
(6.5)
6.2
Rate of Change Following a Fluid Particle
is a continuous function of space and time. Its infinite samll change can
be described using chain rule of differentiation, i.e.
d =
dt +
dx +
dy +
dz ,
t
x
y
z
(6.6)
where Cartesian coordinate system is used. Moreover, the equation is

divided by dt and we get
d dx dy dz
=
+
+
+
.
dt
t
x dt
y dt
z dt
(6.7)
In Chapter 5, the change rate of a physical variable in a control volume

can be shown in
Z Z Z
Z Z
Z Z Z
D
dV =
(u n)dA +
dV
Dt
t
c.v.
c.s.
c.v.
(6.8)
The flux across the control surface can be convered to a term in volume
intrgral using Gauss theorem, i.e.
Z Z
Z Z Z
(u n)dA =
c.s.
c.v.
(u)dV
(6.9)
Subsequently, we can rewrite the control volume formula and obtain

Z Z Z
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
D
dV =
(u)dV +
dV (6.10)
Dt
t
c.v.
c.v.
c.v.
If the volume does not change, then it will be

Z Z Z
Z Z Z
()
D
+ (u) dV
dV =
Dt
t
c.v.
c.v.
6.3
(6.11)
Continuity Equation
Mass conservation is obeyed as fluid particles move. Then it can shown as

Z Z Z
Dm
D
=
dV = 0 .
(6.12)
Dt
Dt
c.v.
6.2 Rate of Change Following a Fluid Particle
67
It means that mass of a fluid particle does not change with time. This
is the continuity equation in integral form. The Eulerian system can be
applied to describe the continuity equation, i.e.
D
Dt
Z Z Z
c.v.
dV =
Z Z Z
c.v.
+ (u) dV = 0
t
(6.13)
In addition,
(u) = ( u) + (u ) .
(6.14)
When dV does not change with time, the continuity equation becomes
D
+ ( u) + (u ) =
+ ( u) = 0 .
(6.15)
t
Dt
For an incompressible fluid, D

Dt = 0. The continuity equation becomes
u= 0 .
(6.16)
In a Cartesian coordinate system, it becomes

u v w
+
+
=0 .
x y
z
(6.17)
In a cylindrical coordinate system, it becomes

ur ur 1 u uz
+
+
+
=0 .
r
r
r
z
6.4
(6.18)
Momentum Equation
Consider momentum conservation in fluid particles. It can be shown as

Z Z Z
Z Z Z
D
D
(mu) =
udV = F =
f dV .
(6.19)
Dt
Dt
c.v.
c.v.
or
D
(u) = f ,
Dt
68
(6.20)
where f is the resultant force per unit volume acting on the fluid particle.
When dV does not change with time. The total derivative can be revealed
as
D
(u) = (u) + (u )u,

Dt
t
(6.21)
There are two kinds of forces, body force and surface force, so it becomes
f = fbody + fsurface
(6.22)
Body force is caused by gravity or electromagnetic forces. Surface forces

are caused by pressure and shear stress. If viscosity of fluids is ignored,
then shear stress can be removed from the equation.
Now, we have the momentum equation
D
(u) = (u) + (u )u = fbody + fsurface
Dt
t
(6.23)
This is the so-called Navier-Stokes equation. If only gravity appears in the

body force, then
fbody = g .
(6.24)
fsurface = p + 2 u .
(6.25)
Surface force can be shown in
Substituting these terms into the N-S equation, we obtain
D
(u) = (u) + (u )(u) = g p + 2 u .
Dt
t
(6.26)
If the viscosity of fluids is ignored, then it will become

D
(u) = g p
Dt
(6.27)
which is called the Euler equation.

6.4 Momentum Equation
69
6.5
Boundary Conditions
The continuity equation and the N-S equation constitute an initial-boundary

value problem. Hence approiate boundary and initial conditions are required to get a particular solution. Velocity and pressure are main variables
in the continuity euation and N-S equation. They have to be prescribed
before solving these equations. It is, however, not easy to obtain conditions for pressure. For velocity, non-slip boundary condition is imposed in
the solid boundary, i.e.
u=0.
(6.28)
If viscosity of fluids is ignored, then the non-slip condition cannot be used.

Therefore impereable condition is utilized, i.e.
un=0,
which means no fluids pass through a solid boundary.
70
(6.29)
Chapter 7
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
7.1
Why dimension analysis?
1. Some important dimensionless parameters are obtained as a dimensional analysis is conducted in a fluid mechanic problem. In terms of
those dimensionless parameters, we can understand features of a flow
problem.
2. Governing equations based on physical laws for flow problems are revealed in nondimensional form. This avoids effects of system unit in a
fluid flow problem.
7.2
Fundamental dimensions
1. MLT: As we consider physical variables, three fundamental dimensions

are often involved. They are mass(M), length(L), and time(T).
2. FLT: FLT is an alternative view to adopt fundamental dimensions.
They are force(F), Length(L), and time(T). In fact,
F = MLT 2 .
71
(7.1)
MLT is more often used than FLT, so it will be considered in the following
dimensional analysis.
Examples:
velocity: LT 1
acceleration: LT 2
force: MLT 2
density: ML3
volume: L3
pressure: ML1 T 2
power: ML2 T 3
work: ML2 T 2
dynamic viscosity: ML1T 1
kinematic viscosity: L2T 1
7.3
How to carry out a dimensional analysis?
1. Find out all of physical variables in a fluid flow problem as possible

as you can. It depends on your experiences and your fundamental
knowledge in fluid dynamics. Assume we have n variables in a fluid
flow problem. Find out their dimensions.
2. Check out how many fundamental dimensions are involved in these
variables. In most of time, three fundamental dimensions are all involved. Assume fundamental dimensions are involved.
3. The relationships between these physical variables are not obtained.
72
Pick up one of them as the dependent variable. For example:

A1 = f (A2, , An ) ,
(7.2)
where A1, , An are chosen independent variables and A1 is the dependent variable.
4. Now we utilize dimensional analysis to non-dimensionalized physical
variables. theory is used to reach the goal. For n physical variables
and fundamental dimensions, (n ) products will be obtained.
Those products are dimensionless.
5. To find out products, physical variables have to be chosen first.
The main principle to choose these physical variables depends on their
dimensions. Basically physical variables with less dimensions are chosen. The dependent variable cannot be chosen as one of them. For
example, we choose A2 , , A2+1.
6. Now the first 1 product will be
1 = A1 (Aa2 Ab3Ac4 )
(7.3)
if = 3. To make 1 dimensionless, check its dimensions in turn, i.e.

A1 = M y1 L y2 T y3
(7.4)
A2 = M y4 L y5 T y6
(7.5)
A3 = M y7 L y8 T y9
(7.6)
A4 = M y10 Ly11 T y12
(7.7)
M : y1 + ay4 + by7 + cy10 = 0
(7.8)
7.3 How to carry out a dimensional analysis?
73
L : y2 + ay5 + by8 + cy11 = 0
(7.9)
T : y3 + ay6 + by9 + cy12 = 0 ,
(7.10)
where y1 , ..., y12 are known. a, b, and c are obtained by solving the
simultaneous equations.
7. Each product can be found in turn using the step 6 where the rest
of physical variables are used to replace A1 . At last, n products
are obtained and Eq. (7.2) becomes
1 = F (2 , , n) .
It is the result of a dimensional analysis.
Ex: Drag on a sphere
Figure 7.1: Flow past a sphere.
1. geometric variable: D(diameter of the sphere),

material variables: (density), (viscosity),
74
(7.11)
kinematic variable: u(velocity),

dynamic variable: FD (drag on the sphere)
2. D : L
: ML3
: ML1 T 1
u : LT 1
FD : MLT 2
Three fundamental dimensions are involved in physical variables.
3. Since the drag on the sphere is the main variable which we would like
to know, we choose FD as the dependent variable, i.e.
FD = f (D, , u, )
(7.12)
4. 5-3=2. It means that 2 nondimensional parameters should be found

in the analysis.
5. Choose D, u, and , to nondimensionalize other variables.
6. 1 = FD Da ubc
M :1+0+0+c= 0
L : 1 + a + b 3c = 0
T : 2 + 0 b + 0 = 0
a = 2
b = 2
c = 1
1 = FD D2u21 =
(7.13)
(7.14)
FD
D2 u2
(7.15)
75
7. 2 = Da ubc
M :1+0+0+c= 0
L : 1 + a + b 3c = 0
T : 1 + 0 b + 0 = 0
a = 1
b = 1
c = 1
2 = D1 u11 =
(7.16)
(7.17)
uD
(7.18)
8. As a result,
FD
=
F
(
)
u2D2
uD
CD =
FD
uD
=
F
(
)
u2 D2
(7.19)
(7.20)
2
FD
:
drag
coefficient,
A
=
D
1
2A
4
u
2
(7.21)
uD
: Reynolds number
(7.22)
Re =
Ex: Pipe flows
1. geometric variable: D(diameter of a pipe), L(length),(ruoghness)

material variables: (density),
kinematic variable: uavg (average velocity)
dynamic variable: P (pressure drop)
76
ua
Figure 7.2: Flow in a straight pipe.
2.
D:L
L:L
:L
: ML3
: ML1T 1
uavg : LT 1
P : ML1T 2
Three fundamental dimensions are involved in physical variables.
3. Choose P as the dependent variable and then
P = f (D, L, , , , uavg ) .
(7.23)
4. Choose D, , uavg to nondimensionalize other variables. There will be

77
7-3=4 products.
5. 1 = P Da b ucavg
M :1+0+b+0=0
L : 1 + a 3b + c = 0
T : 2 + 0 + 0 c = 0
a=0
b = 1
c = 2
1 = P 1 u2
avg =
(7.24)
(7.25)
P
u2avg
(7.26)
6. 2 = LDa b ucavg
M :0+0+b+c=0
L : 1 + a 3b c = 0
T :0+0+0c=0
a = 1
b=0
c=0
2 =
L
D
(7.27)
(7.28)
(7.29)
7. 3 = Da b ucavg
3 =
(7.30)
8. 4 = Da b ucavg
4 =
78
uavg D
(7.31)
9.
P
L uavg D
L
,
,
)
=
F
(
, ,
)
=
F
(
u2avg
D D uavg D
D D
7.4
Cp =
P
, (pressure coefficient)
1
2
u
avg
2
(7.33)
Re =
uavg D
, (Reynolds number)
(7.34)
Common nondimensional parameters

Names of Parameters Formula
Physical meanings
Mach number(Ma)
u
C
inertia force
viscous force
inertia force
gravitational force
pressure force
inertia force
inertia force
compressibility force
Strouhal number(St)
fL
u
1
2
2 u L
inertia force
surface tension force
Reynolds number(Re)
uL
Froude number(Fr)
u
gL
Euler number(Eu)
Weber number(We)
7.5
(7.32)
P
1
2
2 u
Nondimensional Equations
Ex:
1
P
+ u2 + gh = const
2
(7.35)
characteristic length: L
(7.36)
characteristic velocity: u0
(7.37)
1 u2 gh
P
+
= const
2+
u0 2 u20 u20
(7.38)
P
gh
u2
+
+
1
1 2 = const
2
2
u
u
0
0
2
2 u0
(7.39)
7.4 Common nondimensional parameters
79
Ex:
u v
+
=0
x y
L u
L v
+
u0 x u0 y
u v
+
=0
x y
u
v
x
y
u = , v = , x = , y =
u0
u0
L
L
7.6
(7.40)
(7.41)
(7.42)
(7.43)
Scale model tests
To establish similitude between a protype system and a model system,

geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarities have to be considered.
1. Geometric Similarity
Lm
= const ,
(7.44)
Lp
where subscripts m and p refer to model and protype, respectively.
2. Kinematic Similarity
u2m
u3m
u1m
=
=
= const
u1p
u2p
u3p
(7.45)
3. Dynamic Similarity - Dynamic parameters between a model and a

protype must be equal as possible. For example, it viscous force is important in the flow field, then Reynolds number will be the important
dynamic parameter and
Rem = Rep
(7.46)
and
up Lp
um Lm
=
m
p
L p m
um = up
.
L m p
80
(7.47)
Hence, the adjustment of characteristic velocity in the model flow relies

on the geometric similarity. If the model is tiny, then the characteristic
velocity in the model flow will become very fast. Sometimes, it is
impossible to generate very fast characteristic velocity in the model
flow. As a result, one has to enlarge the model size.
When geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarities are reached between a model and a protype, a scaled model can be conducted and
summarized using the result of a dimensional analysis. Consequently,
relationships among various products can be obtained. In addition,
the variation of the dependent valiable for the protype can be predicted. For example, in the previous example concerning a uniform
flow past a sphere, we have
CD = F (Re) .
(7.48)
When Rem is equal to Rep , the dynamic similarity is reached. Subsequently, the drag exerted on the sphere can be determined using the
drag coeficient, i.e.
1
p upAp CD
2
1
= p upAp F (Re)
2
p up Dp
1
) ,
= p upAp F (
2
p
(FD )p =
(7.49)
where F (Re) is obtained from the scale model test.

Distorted model: It is not always possible that all dynamic parameters
between a model and a protype are qual to others. For example, one cannot
promise dynamic similarities of Reynolds number and Frounde number at
7.6 Scale model tests
81
the same time, because

for Reynolds number
um = up
and for Froude number
um = up
L p m
L m p
Lm
.
Lp
(7.50)
(7.51)
One has to chose one of them to perform dynamic similarity and ignore the
other one. When not all dynamic parameters are equal between a model
and a protype, it is the so-called distorted model.
82
Chapter 8
Viscous Internal Flow

We have investigated governing equations in differential forms for fluid
flow problems in Chapter 6. In addition, specific fluid flow problems such
as pipe flows, flows past obstacles and etc. will be studied. First of all,
viscous internal flows are discussed in this chapter. Internal fluid flows
refer to flows which are bounded by solid walls. For example, a pipe flow
is a typical internal flow. It is bounded by pipe walls.
8.1
Fully developed flow
Consider fluids flow into a pipe from a tank shown in Fig. 8.1. The flow is
uniform (U0) at the entrance of the pipe. The uniform veloctiy profile does
not retain as soon as fluids enter the pipe. Owing to viscosity, fluid are
still on the pipenwall and then velocity of fluids increases along the radial
direction. The viscous effect gradually affects velocity of fluids as fluids
move downstream. In the region near the entrance, the viscous effect is
not full of the pipe but appears near the pipe wall. The velocity in the
affected region is slower than the unaffected region. The affected region is
called a boundary layer. Mathematically, u = 0.99U0 is the artificial edge
83
Boundary Layer
U0
entrance
u=0.99U0
fully developed
region
Figure 8.1: Schematic of development of pipe flow from the inlet.
of a boundary layer. The viscous effect disperses from the pipe wall to the
centre as fluids move downstream. Finally, the viscous effect is full of the
pipe and the flow in the region is called a fully developed flow.
8.2
Laminar, transition and turbulent flow
When fluid flows in a pipe, various patterns are found according to different
physical parameters, such as velocity, viscosity and pipe diameter. If we
dye a point in a pipe flow, then we will find that the streakline from the
point may be a straight line or a distorted line. If it is a straight line,
it means all fluid particles move along the same straight line as fluids
travel downstream. This is the so-called laminar flow. If it is a distorted
line, it means fluid particles do mot move along the same line as they
84
Figure 8.2: Experimental appratus of Reynolds pipe flow.

Source: http : //www.eng.man.ac.uk/historic/reynolds/oreynB.htm
travel downstream but are disturbed. This is the so-called turbulent flow.
In 1833 A.D., O. Reynolds explained physical phenomena in pipe flows
using pipes of various diameters and a control value (see Fig. 8.2 and
8.2). He controled the flow rate across a pipe using the vale and dyed the
flow to visualize the pipe flow. He had same conclusions as the presvious
description.
8.3
2-D Poiseuille flow
Consider a fully developed laminar flow between two infinite parallel plates.
To analyze the laminar flow, assumptions are made to simplify the whole
problems. They are
8.3 2-D Poiseuille flow
85
Figure 8.3: Flow patterns of laminar, transition, and turbulent pipe flows.
Source: http : //www.eng.man.ac.uk/historic/reynolds/oreynB.htm
1. 2-D
2. steady flow
3. incompressible
4. v = 0
5. ignore gravity
The analytical solution can be obtained by solving the continuity equation
and the Navier-Stokes equations which are revealed as
u v
+
=0 ,
x y
(8.1)
u
u
1 P
u
+u
+v
=
+
t
x
y
x
and
v
v
v
1 P
+u
+v
=
+
t
x
y
y
2u 2u
+
x2 y 2
2v 2v
+
x2 y 2
(8.2)
(8.3)
In additoin, he found that a very important nondimensional parameter,

uD
,
which is highly relevant to the flow patterns. It is the well-known
Reynolds number. Pipe flows are classified as three kinds of patterns

according to Reynolds unmber, i.e.,
86
y
D
CL
Figure 8.4: 2-D Poiseuille flow.
laminar flow: Re < 2,300

transition flow: 2,300 < Re < 4,000
turbulent flow: Re > 4,000.
In laminar flow regime, the pipe flow can be examined using analytical
methods. The laminar flow solution is called Poiseuille flow which is named
after J. L. M. Poiseuille. Transition and turbulent flows, however, cannot
be studied using analytical methods. Therefore, most of konwledge of
transition and turbulent flows come from experimental data.
First of all, we look into the continuity equation and get
u v
+
=0
x y
(8.4)
u = u(y) .
(8.5)
and
The continuity equation is satisified as u is a function of y. Subsequently,

87
the N-S equation in the y-direction is simplified as

2

v
v
v
1 P
v 2v
+
+u
+v
=
+
.
t
x
y
y
x2 y 2
Since we assume that the flow is in a steady state, so
v
t
(8.6)
(8.7)
= 0, v = 0 and
we get
P
=0
y
(8.8)
P = P (x) .
(8.9)
which leads to
Therefore, the N-S equation is satified as pressure is a function of x.

Furthermore, the N-S equation in the x-direction is reconsidered as
2

u
u 2u
u
u
1 P
+
+u
+v
=
+
.
(8.10)
t
x
y
x
x2 y 2
Again, we assume that the flow is in a steady state, so
u
t
= 0 , u = u(y) ,
v = 0 and we get
1 dP
2u
=
.
y 2
dx
(8.11)
In addition,
and consequently

u
1 dP
dP
=
y + C1 ,
= const.
y
dx
dx
(8.12)
1 dP y 2
u=
+ C1 y + C2 .
dx 2
(8.13)
Appropriate boundary conditions are required to obtain arbitary constants, C1 and C2 , in the general solution. Since fluids are viscous, non-slip
boundary condition can be imposed on solid walls, i.e.

D
=0
u y=
2
88
(8.14)
and

D
u y=
2
=0 .
(8.15)
Using non-slip conditions, we find

D
1 dP D2 C1D
u y=
+
+ C2 = 0
=
2
dx 8
2
(8.16)
and

D
u y=
2
1 dP D2 C1D
+ C2 = 0 ,
=
dx 8
2
(8.17)
where C2 is found by adding these equations and we get

d dP D2
+ 2C2 = 0
dx 8
(8.18)
1 dP D2
.
C2 =
dx 8
(8.19)
Substitution of C2 into Eq. (8.13) gives

1 dP D2 C1 D 1 dP D2
+
=0
dx 8
2
dx 8
(8.20)
C1 = 0 .
(8.21)
which leads to
The solution for velocity in laminar flow between two infinite parallel plates
is shown as
u(y) =
=
=
=
1 dP y 2 1 dP D2
dx 2
dx 8

1 dP 1 2 D2
y
dx 2
4
#
"
2
2
dP D
2y
1
+1
( )
2 dx
4
D
"
2 #
D2 dP
2y
( ) 1
.
8
dx
D
(8.22)
89
It is obvious that velocity in a fully developed laminar flow between

two infinite parallel plates is parabolic. The maximum values of velocity
profile can be obtained by its first derivative, i.e.

du D2 dP
2
=
( ) 2 y = 0 .
dy
8
dx
D
It happens at y = 0 and the maximum value is

D2
dP
umax =
.
8
dx
(8.23)
(8.24)
Moreover, the flow rate per unit width in a cross area can be obtained by
integrating velocity, i.e.
Q = 2
D
2
udy
=
=
=
=
=

D
D2
dP
4 y 3 2
2
y 2
8
dx
D 3 0

D
4 1 D3
dP
D2
2
2
8
dx
2
D 3 8

2
D
dP
D D
4
dx
2
6

2
dP
D
D
4
dx
3

D3
dP
.
12
dx
(8.25)
The averaged velocity is then found by

Q
A

dP
1 D3
=
D 12
dx

D2
dP
=
.
12
dx
uavg =
(8.26)
We find
2
uavg = umax .
3
90
(8.27)
In addition,
u
uavg
"
3
1
2
2y
D
2 #
(8.28)
Viscous stress on the wall can be found by

du
w =
dy y= D
2

2

dP
4
D
2 2y
=
8
dx
D
y= D
2

2
dP
d
D
2 D
=
8
dx
D

D
dP
=
2
dx
6uavg
.
=
D
(8.29)
The friction coefficient Cf will be

D6 uavg
w
12
12
=
Cf = 1
=
=
.
1
2
2
Du
Re
(u
)
u
avg
avg
avg
2
2
(8.30)
The friction factor will be

dP D
f = 1 dx2
2 uavg
( dP )D
dx
=
D2
1
( dP )
avg
2
12
dx
24
.
=
Re
8.4
(8.31)
Hagen-Poiseuille flow
Poiseuille utilized analytical methods to get the solution of a laminar pipe

flow. He solved the continuity equation and N-S equations based on the
following assumptions:
8.4 Hagen-Poiseuille flow
91
1. steady
2. incompressible
3.
=0
4. ur , u =0
5. ignor the gravitational acceleration.
The governing equation for a pipe flow can be revealed as:
ur ur 1 u uz
+
+
+
=0
r
r
r
z
(8.32)
uz
= 0, uz = uz (r)
z
The 2-D N-S equations in cylindrical coordinate system are denoted as
r-direction
ur
ur
ur u2
u ur
+ ur
+
+ uz
t
r
r z r

2 u0
1
ur
1 2 ur 2 ur ur
1 P
+
2 2
r
+ 2 2 +
=
r
r r
r
r
z 2
r
r
(8.33)
= 0, ur = 0, u = 0
t
1 P
= 0
r
P = P (z)only
(8.34)
(8.35)
z-direction
uz u uz
uz
uz
+ ur
+
+ uz
t
r
r
z

1 P
1
uz
1 2 uz 2 uz
=
+
r
+ 2 2 +
(8.36)
z
r r
r
r
z 2
92

= 0, ur
t

uz
1
r
r r
r

uz
r
r
r
uz
r
r
uz
r
= 0, u = 0, uz = uz (r)
=
=
=
=
uz =
1 dP
dz
1 dP
r
dz
1 dP r2
+ C1
dz 2
1 dP r C1
+
dz 2
r
2
1 dP r
+ C1 ln r + C2
dz 4
(8.37)
(8.38)
(8.39)
(8.40)
(8.41)
(8.42)
B.C.
uz (r =
D
) = 0
2
0 =
D
1 dP D2
+ C1 ln + C2
dz 16
2
(8.43)
C1 must be 0, because r cannot be 0 in ln r. As a result,

1 dP D2
C2 =
.
dz 16
(8.44)
Substitution of C2 into uz gives

uz
2
1 dP r2 1 dP 1 D
+
=
dz 4
dz 4 2
2 !
1 dP 1
D
=
r2
dz 4
2
#
"
2 2
1 dP 1 D
2r
=
1
dz 4 4
D
#
"
2
2
2r
1 dP D
1
=
dz 16
D
#
"

2
1
dP D2
2r
=
1 .
dz 16
D
(8.45)
93
Shear stress on the pipe wall is determined by

uz
w =
r r= D

2 2
1
dP D
4
=
2r
dz 16 D2
dP D
=
.
dz 4
(8.46)
In addition,

1 dP D2 4 r
duz
= ( )
dr
dz 16 D2 2
(8.47)
The maximum velocity appears at

duz
=0
dr
r = 0 .
It can be determined by
(uz )max = uz (r = 0) =
1 dP D2
.
dz 16
The volumetric flow rate per unit width is given by

Z r
Q =
uz 2rdr
0

Z D
2 1
dP D2 4
( )
2r3 2r dr
=
2
dz 16 D
0

D
1 dP D2 8 r4
r2 2
= ( )
2
dz 16 D2 4
2 0

D2
1 dP D2 8 r4
= ( )
dz 16 D2 4 16
4
1 dP D2 h 2 2 i
D D
= ( )
dz 16 8
4
4
1 dP D
= ( )
.
dz 128
94
(8.48)
(8.49)
ua
Figure 8.5: Parabolic profile of velocity component in the z-direction.
The averaged velocity is

Q
A

1 dP D2 D2 D2
4
( )
=
D2 dz 16
8
4
2
1 dP D
.
= ( )
dz 32
(uz )avg =
(8.50)
Furthermore,
(uz )avg
=
(uz )max
1
32
1
16
2r
D
2
1
.
2
(8.51)
We consider uz and uavg and get

uz
1
=
(uz )avg
2
"
(8.52)
It is a parabolic profile for the velocity component in the z-direction. Meanwhile,

w =
u
4
u 8
=
r0
D
(8.53)
95
4w
1
(uavg )2
2
64
Re
w
16
Cf = 1
=
2
Re
2 (uavg )
f=
(8.54)
(8.55)
where f is the Darcy fricition factor.

8.5
Transition and turbulent pipe flows
Transition and turbulent pipe flows cannot be solved using analytical

methods due to extremely complicated physical phenomena. The only
approach to investigate transition and turbulent pipe flows is to conduct
experiments. L.F. Moody conducted pipe flow experiments and obtained
the well-known Moody diagram. The Moody diagram explains the relationship between Reynolds unmber, friction factor and relative roughness.
The Moody diagram can be used in the following steps:
Re
Figure 8.6: Schematic of Moody diagram.
1. Evaluate Reynolds number.

96
64
can be used for the laminar
2. If Re < 2,300, then the formula f = Re
pipee flow. If it is not, then evaluate relative roughness, D .
3. Find the resultant relative riughness
in the right-hand side of the
Moody diagram.
4. Follow the line starting from the resultant relative riughness. Find the
point in the line at the resultant Reynolds number. Starting from this
point, go to the left hand side and find out the friction factor, f.
64
is correct in a laminar pipe
The Moody diagram also proves that f = Re
flow. In addition, some dashed lines are found between Re=2,000-5,000. It
is because those lines are in transition pipe flow. The details in transition
pipe flow are still not very clear. In the region at high Reynolds number,
i.e. turbulent flows, it is observed that all lines are parallel to each others.
It seems that the friction factor is independent of Re in turbulent flow but
only depends on the relative roughness.
8.6
Darcy equation
The major loss comes from friction losses caused by pipe walls. Darcy
equation explains how to evaluate the major head loss, i.e.
L u2avg
hL = f
,
D 2g
(8.56)
64
where f must be found using the Moody diagram or the formula f = Re
for a laminar flow. The minor loss comes from fittings such as valves,
elbows, expansions and so on. The minor loss is evaluated by

u2avg
hL = K
,
2g
(8.57)
8.6 Darcy equation
97
where K is called the K-factor and depends on various fittings. The minor
loss can be combined with the major loss using the concept of equivalent
length. The equivalent length, le , is defined as
u2avg
le u2avg
= K
,
f
D 2g
2g
KD
le =
.
f
(8.58)
(8.59)
Then the sum of major and minor losses will be

(L + le) u2avg
hL = f
.
D
2g
(8.60)
Hence the Bernoulli equation can be modified as

P1 V12
P2 V22
+
+ z1 =
+
+ z2 + hL .
r
2g
r
2g
valve
2
Figure 8.7: Concept of equivalent length.
98
(8.61)
8.7
Hydraulic diameter
If the duct considered is not circular, then its hydraulic diameter can be
used. A hydraulic diameter is defined as
DH =
8.8
4 cross-sectional area
.
perimeter
(8.62)
Brief Introduction to Turbulence

u = < u > +u
Z
1 t+T
udt
< u > = lim
T T t
(8.63)
(8.64)
t
Figure 8.8: Fluctuations in turbulent flow.
8.7 Hydraulic diameter
99
laminar flow
turbulent flow
Figure 8.9: Difference between laminar and turbulent pipe flows.
100
Chapter 9
Viscous External Flows

External flow are not bounded by solid walls. In external flows, interaction
of fluids with solid structures is usually considered. In the past, viscosity of
a fluid was not considered in the potential flow theory. The drag predicted
by the potential flow theory for symmetrical bodies in a uniform flow is zero
but it is impossible. This is the so-called dAlemberts parabox. Hence, it
is obvious that viscosity plays a vital role in drag prediction.
9.1
Boundary Layer Theory
Prandtl, a German professor, provided the boundary layer concept. He

thought that viscosity affects fluid flows within a very thin region attached
the solid body. This region affected by viscosity is the well- known boundary layer. Furthermore, he provided the non-slip condition to describle
fluid kinematic condition on solid walls. The boundary layer concept is
shown in Fig. 9.1. The artificial boundary layer starts from the front
of the solid body. Its thickness (u = 0.99Ue at y = ) grows along the
downstream direction. In the begin, the flow in the boundary layer is
laminar. Traveling downstream, the boundary layer flow becomes transi101
ue
ue
wake
ue
y
transtion turbulent
sepration
laminar
du
boundary
=0
dy (inflection
point)
stagnation
point
u=0.99ue
ue
Figure 9.1: Schematic of boundary layer concept.
tion and then turbulent (can be characterized by local Reynolds unmber,

Rex =
ue x
)
due to disturbances from the surface of the body. If the ad-
verse pressure gradient happens in the boundary layer, then a separation

appears in the boundary layer. Subsequently, a wake is observed behind
the separation point.
9.2
Uniform flow past a flat plat
Consider a uniform flow past over a flat plate. The control volume concept
can be used to analyze the boundary layer flow. This idea was provided
by von Karman in 1921. For the mass conservation,
Uedy +
udy +
vdx = 0
0
0
Z
Z L
Ue +
udy +
vdx = 0 .
0
102
(9.1)
(9.2)
For the momentum conservation,
Ue Uedy +
Uevdx +
u2dy
0
0
Z L
Z L
Z0
= Ue2 +
Ue2 +
Uevdx +
u2dy
Fx =
Fx
(9.3)
(9.4)
From the mass conservation.
Ue
y
Figure 9.2: Schematic of boundary layer due to a uniform flow past a flat plate
vdx = Ue
udy
(9.5)
0
9.2 Uniform flow past a flat plat
103
Substitution of this equation into momentum equation gives

Z
Z
Fx
= Ue2 + Ue Ue
udy +
u2dy
Ue
0
0
Z 2
u
= Ue
u dy
Ue
0

Z
u
= Ue
u
1 dy
Ue
0

Z
u u
Fx
1 dy < 0
=
Ue2
0 Ue Ue
=
D
D = Fx
=
Ue2
(9.6)
(9.7)
(9.8)
(9.9)
(9.10)
The frictional force exerted by the boundary layer flow is obtained, but
it depends on the velocity profile within the boundary layer. The rest of
question is how to determine the velocity profile.
9.3
Boundary Layer Thickness,
The edge of the boundary layer is defined at the line of u = 0.99Ue.

u 0.99Ue, y =
9.4
Displacement Boundary Layer Thickness, d
Figure 9.3: Concept of displacement boundary layer thickness.
104
(9.11)
d Ue =
d =
Z0
(Ue u)dy
(1
u
)dy
Ue
(9.12)
(9.13)
It means that mass flux the within d is equal to the absence of mass flux
due to the presence of the boundary layer.
9.5
Momentum Boundary Layer Thickness,
Ue2
[(Ue u) u] dy

Z
u
u
=
1
dy
Ue
Ue
0
=
(9.14)
(9.15)
It means that the momentum flux within is equal to the absence of

momentum flux due to the presence of the boundary layer.
von Karman made a guess of the velocity profile according to the boundary conditions:
u(0) = 0,
(9.16)
u() = Ue
(9.17)
and

u
=0 .
y y=
(9.18)
He found that a second-order polynominal fits the conditions, i.e.

2y y 2
2
.
(9.19)
u Ue
9.5 Momentum Boundary Layer Thickness,
105
In terms of the velocity profile, the displacement thickness and the momentum thickness are
d
and
2
.
15
In addition, the wall shear stress can be obtained by

2U
u
.
w =
y y=0
(9.20)
(9.21)
Subsequently, the friction coefficient, Cf , can be found:

Cf =
w
4
2Ue
d
=
=
=
2
1
1
2
2
Ue
dx
2 Ue
2 Ue

d
4 d
4
2
= 2
=
Ue
dx 15
15 dx
15dx
d =
Ue
30x
2 =
Ue
5.5

x
Rex
1
1.83
=
x
3x
Rex
2
0.73
= Cf
=
x
15 x
Rex
2
CD =
L
1.46
2Cf (L) =
ReL
(9.22)
(9.23)
(9.24)
(9.25)
(9.26)
(9.27)
(9.28)
(9.29)
(9.30)
Althought the velocity proflie is guessed, the results are very close to another contributors, Blasuis.
Blasuiss solution will be discussed in the next section.
106
9.6
Boundary Layer Equation
Prandtl provided the boundary layer equation which comes from the N-S
equation and on the following assumptions:
1. 2-D
2. steady
3. incompressible
4.
P
y
=0
dP = U dU
dx
dx
Consequently, N-S equations can be simplified as:
B.C.
v
u
+
=0
x
y
u
u
dU
2u
u
+v
= U
+ 2
x
y
dx
y
u(x, 0) = v(x, 0) = 0,
u(x, ) = U (x)
(9.31)
(9.32)
Blasius, one of Pranstls students, tried to get the solution using the
similarity solution approach which is a common approach to transform a
P.D.E. to an O.D.E..
However, the transformed O.D.E. is nonlinear and impossible to obtain
an analytical solution. Hence a numerical method is reguired to obtain the
solution for the O.D.E. C. Toepfer (1912) used the Runge-Kutta method
to solve the O.D.E. and obtain the numerical solution.
In terms of the numerical solution for velocity, the boundary layer thickness, , is found according to its definition and revealed as
r
2x
(u = 0.99Ue)
3.5
Ue
9.6 Boundary Layer Equation
(9.33)
107
or
5.0
x
Rex
5.5
)
(Karmans answer
Rex
(9.34)
The displacement thickness, d , can be obtained as well and shown as

1.7208
d
=
x
Rex
5.5
(Ks answer
)
Rex
(9.35)
In addition, the momentum thickness, , is
0.604
=
x
Rex
(9.36)
The wall shear stress can be evaluated using the Newtons viscosity law,
i.e.

u
w =
y y=0
(9.37)
and the friction coefficient, Cf , will be
0.664
w
=
=
1
2
x
Rex
2 Ue
Cf (x) =
(9.38)
Finally, the drag coefficent, Cd , will be

Cd =
9.7
D
=
1
2L
U
e
2
RL
0 w dx
1
2
2 Ue L
1.328
=
ReL
1.46
(Ks answer:
)
ReL
(9.39)
Friction coefficient, Cf
Cf =
w
1
2
2 Ue
(9.40)
In boundary layer flow, the wall shear stress, Cf , is a function of its local
coordinates.
108
9.8
Drag coefficient, CD
D
1
2
2 Ue
Z L
D =
w (x)dx = Ue2
CD =
(9.41)
(9.42)
w (x) = Ue2
9.9
d
dx
2
=
L
d
dx
(9.43)
Cf = 2
(9.44)
CD
(9.45)
Drag
We mentioned drag calculation in a boundary layer flow. In fact, drag

calculation should consider friction drag caused by the boundary layer
and form drag caused by a wake. A low pressure region is generated owing
to a wake, so the pressure difference between the front part and the rear
part of an obstacle is formed. Hence a form drag is produced.
frictional drag boundary layer
form drag pressure difference wake
9.10
Lift force and attack angle
9.11
Streamline body
A streamline body can reduce the wake region. In other words, most of
fluids are attached on the surface of the body. The resultant wake is very
small. Hence drag is mainly from friction within its boundary layer. In
contrust, if a bodys drag comes mainly from form drag. That means its
9.8 Drag coefficient, CD
109
L
stall
Figure 9.4: Stall
separation happens very near the front part and its wake, therefore, is very
large. Such a body is bluff. Some designs to let turbulence happens earlier
are made for bluff bodies. For example, a golf ball is given more roughness
on its surface to trigger turbulence in its boundary layer.
9.12
Separation
The separation phenomenon happens in a boundary layer as flows past

an obstacle. Before the separation point, the pressure gradient is negative. Hence fluids before the separation point are accelerated. However,
momentum in the boundary layer is lost because of viscous energy dissipation. Therefore the pressure gradient gradually increases and finally
becomes positive. It is called an adverse pressure gradient. When an
110
dP
dx <0
favorable
dP >0
dx
adverse
dP
dx =0
separation
point
Figure 9.5: Separation due to an adverse pressure gradient.
adverse pressure gradient appears in the boundary layer, fluids are decelerated. Finally velocity in the boundary layer becomes negative, i.e. a
reverse flow appears. Then the separation happens.
9.13
Separation and Turbulence
As mentioned, separation is caused by an adverse pressure gradient due

to viscous energy dissipation. On the other hand, turbulence is able to
improve mixing in flows. The momentum mixing in a turbulent boundary
layer is better than in a laminar boundary layer. Therefore, momentum
near the wall within a turbulent boundary layer is higher than a laminar boundary layer. This means that the net momentum in turbulent
boundary layer is higher than a laminar boundary layer. Hence an ad9.13 Separation and Turbulence
111
verse pressure gradient does not easily happens and the separation in a
turbulent boundary layer. This will make a wake smaller than without
turbulence.
Figure 9.6: Karman vortex street.
Owing to the feature of a turbulent boundary layer, the form drag can
be reduced. This is useful for a bulff body because its drag is mainly
dominated by form drag. Therefore another reason of the separation is
because of a sharp corner. Hence a sudden expansion or contraction shape
generates separation.
When the separation happens, a wake is generated behind the separation. Eddies are produced in a wake and cause a low pressure region. It
was found by von Karman and name after him, Karman Vortex Street.
Eddy motion in a wake may be periodic, so a frequency may be found.
Strouhal number is the nondimensional unmber for the frequency.
St =
112
f D
,
u
(9.46)
where f is the main frequency, D is the characteristic length of the obstacle,

and u is the magnitude of characteristic velocity.
The eddy motion causes vibration of the obstacle. If the frequency of
the eddy motion is very close to or even equal to the natural frequency
of the obstacle, then the resonance will happen and cause a very serious
damage.
9.13 Separation and Turbulence
113

Fluid

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LECTURE NOTES ON FLUID MECHANICS

Ming-Jyh Chern, D.Phil. Oxon

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Why study FLUID MECHANICS? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Approaches to study Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Expenmental Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

History of Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Macroscopic physical properties of fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ideal gas law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.10 Hookes law and Newtons viscosity law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Review of Taylor Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

The Hydrostatic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Pressure variation in incompressible fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Pressure variation in compressible fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Facilities for pressure measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Hydrostatic force on vertical walls of constant width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.10 Hydrostatic force on an inclined surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Lagrangian and Eulerian Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Steady and Unsteady flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Definition of 1-D flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Variation of physical properties in a control volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Mass conservation of 1-D flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Momemtum conservation for 1-D flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

4 INTRODUCATION TO FLUID MOTION II

The Bernoulli equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Derive the Bernoulli equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Stagnation Pressure and Dynamic Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Mass conservation in channel flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Relationship between cross area, velocity ana pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Applications of Bernoulli equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

vena contracta effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Flowrate pass through a sluice gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

5 EQUATIONS OF MOTION IN INTEGRAL FORM

Reynolds Transport Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

6 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF MOTIONS

Lagrangian and Eulerian systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Rate of Change Following a Fluid Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Why dimension analysis? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

How to carry out a dimensional analysis? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Common nondimensional parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Scale model tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

8 Viscous Internal Flow

Fully developed flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Laminar, transition and turbulent flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

2-D Poiseuille flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Transition and turbulent pipe flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Brief Introduction to Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

9 Viscous External Flows

Boundary Layer Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Uniform flow past a flat plat

Boundary Layer Thickness, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Displacement Boundary Layer Thickness, d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Momentum Boundary Layer Thickness, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Boundary Layer Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Friction coefficient, Cf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Drag coefficient, CD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

9.10 Lift force and attack angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Why study FLUID MECHANICS?

Approaches to study Fluid Mechanics

Using advanced mathematics, we can solve governing equations of fluid

Expenmental Fluid Mechanics

This approach utilities facilities to measure considered flow fields or uses

Computation Fluid Dynamics (CFD)