Yale University Department of Music

Balancing Composition and Improvisation in James P. Johnson's "Carolina Shout"

Author(s): Henry Martin
Source: Journal of Music Theory, Vol. 49, No. 2 (Fall, 2005), pp. 277-299
Published by: Duke University Press on behalf of the Yale University Department of Music
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27639401 .
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BALANCING COMPOSITION
AND IMPROVISATION IN
JAMES P. JOHNSON'S
"CAROLINA SHOUT"
Henry Martin

It is often thought that improvisation defines jazz. But improvisation

on chorus forms is less common in the jazz of the early 1920s, which
often

use

makes

of

the

sixteen-bar

strain

characteristic

of

the march.

The

work of James P. Johnson,1 who is often called the father of stride piano,
provides an important case study. Many of Johnson's finest stride works
are
not

not written

for
for

intended

chorus-by-chorus
literal
performance,

yet these
improvisation,
either.
To what
extent,

are

works
then,

does

improvisation influence stride piano performance?

Scott Brown, Johnson's biographer, is in agreement with most writers
on jazz in calling Johnson "an improvisationally oriented musician" ( 1986,
41). I argue in this article that the term "improvisation"
inadequately
describes
fact,

not

Johnson's
uncommon

approach
for the

to performance.
an analysis

1920s;

Johnson's
of his

rations thus yields important insights into early jazz.

Stride piano developed from a blend of three musical
Journal

of Music

Theory,

approach

performance

is,

in

elabo

genres: ragtime,

49:2

DOI 10.1215/00222909-009

? 2008 by Yale University

277

1. Stride

Table
What

Piano

Style

stride

takes from

ragtime

"March"

bass with

low octaves

16-bar
from

sections

called

two-bar

Occasional

interludes
(often

stride

Faster

tenths

ideas probably

(shorter

with

derived

less

from

syncopated

note

used

the ring-shout)

ragtime

or "change-steps"

of "backbeats"

and

tones)

strains

in the bass

"pivoting"

in the bass

the blues, and the ring shout. From the blues,

bent

new

introducing

at the "trio"

rhythm

and occasional

linear melodies

Introduction

often

tones

"crush"

"Shouts"

duply

techniques)

notes

Non-doubled

More

4 bars),

(usually

to the subdominant)

and harmonic

(flashy

Bluesier

usually

to a rag, built

to ragtime

adds
tempo

"Tricks"

"strains,"

chords

midrange

three or four

units

Modulation
What

with

alternating

stride took blue notes (or

to approximate

clusters

them.

From

solo

piano

ragtime,2 stride took formal structures and basic harmonic and textural
elements. From the ring shout, a dance of African origin (see Stuckey
stride

1987),
melodic

took

its exciting
and

patterns,

short
formulas,
call-and-response
and other
between
relationships

affect,
These

"groove."

ragtime and stride are summarized in Table l.3

The fusion of these three genres created a form characterized
Brown
these

as

consisting
short refrains

of

"short,

are

subject

refrains."
Brown
repeated
to "variations"
often
based

(1986, 21). His use of the words

as we

cant,

a stride

of

an extremely
into

eight-,

"patterns"

and

Block

a simple method

work.

Strains

regular phrase

four-,

compositional

by
that

see.

shall

I begin by proposing
strain,

on

notes

"variations" and "patterns" is signifi

The Thematie

or

also

two-bar

are

bars

structure characterized
units.

This

a formal section,

of evaluating

sixteen

symmetrical

long,

usually

having

by duple division
layout

suggests

strategy I call the "thematic block":

The thematic block for the strain of a stride work is the thematic unit
usually defined at the beginning of the strain. A thematic block con
tinues until the music begins to repeat. The thematic block can be
strong or weak. A strong thematic block is delimited by a repetition of

278

a weak

both rhythm and notes, while

repetition of rhythm only.

thematic block

is defined

by

The length of a thematic block provides a rough measure of musical

complexity. A strain with a two-bar block is generally less complex than
one with a four-bar block. A work that never repeats its initial thematic
block

is more

two-

or four-bar

to see

In order
let us

tion,

turn

more

hence

irregular,
units.
how

the

thematic

to Johnson's

1 reproduces

Example

best-known

in the original

operates
Shout."

composition

publication

appear

in

repeats

composi

Structure
score of "Carolina Shout," John

the published

stride

that

in a stride

block

"Carolina

Formal

son's

one

than

complex,

a prototype
of the genre.
as accidentals
in parentheses;
and

(Errors
the

also,

flat attached to the B5 inm. E-9 was erroneously attached to the G5

the original.) I examine first its basic form, with particular attention
use

Johnson's

of

thematic

blocks.

a four-bar introduction,

The piece begins with

tion's

mood,

idea.

The

time

as

The

tempo,
notes

and
at

grace

in
to

key
the

the G-major
chords
with
A! strain begins

and

setting the composi

the A,

foreshadowing
are
beginning
normally
a
to create
cluster.
bluesy
a strong

four-bar

thematic

thematic

strain's
at

struck

block.4

same

the

ante

This

cedent block is answered by a consequent beginning inm. 5, which closes

on a half cadence. In addition to the establishment of a thematic block,
cadential points are normally articulated at the end of the eight- and six
teen-bar
rupted

groupings.
for a cadence

At

these
formula.

points,
The

the

thematic

remainder

block

of

the Aj

is usually
inter
strain
elaborates

the basic form of the strain's first half; in particular, mm. 9-12 of A]
introduce a variant of the original four-bar thematic block, while the last
four

bars

balances

an

introduce
the half

authentic

cadence

cadence

at m.

that

The A2 strain is a variant of A]. The melody

a "seesaw"

style

of a number

characteristic

of

four-bar

strain

and

that begins the strain is in

stride

thematerial begin to repeat in the fifth measure

strong

the

completes

8 of A,.

works.

we

Again,

see

of A2, indicating another

block.

The B strain is rare among the works of Johnson in that it is based on

a strong

one-bar

thematic

block.

The

immediate

repetition

allows

John

son to work with complexities of rhythm and harmony. The disruption of

the marchlike rhythm in the left hand, first heard in the strain's third bar
and

then

in the

sixth,

is called

a "backbeat"5

or

The

"change-step."

dis

ruption at the third bar of B brings about a clashing simultaneity of C and

G harmonies.6

the disruption

In mm.

5-8

of

is compounded

the

strain,

where

the

thematic

block

returns,

by the earlier entrance of the backbeat.

279

[AT]

4-bar block

Example 1. James P. Johnson, "Carolina Shout." ? 1926 James P.

Johnson, reprinted by kind permission of Barry Glover, Sr. and the
James P. Johnson Foundation (www.jamespjohnson.org).

280

[?2]

4-bar block

| %fr

i==fa=f?

?3

3~

Example

33

P?

? ** ? P

1 (continued)

281

Example

282

1 (continued)

Trio|
I

2-bar block; groove

\D\Light

Example

1 (continued)

283

of [O]
|F] variant

^?+ir+r?t^T^t

-Jt

?i=^
^

~J

IP

Example

284

'
'JEU*
?

' 'J
'
feil'
'iI ^
j

fel
3"^'

i~

1 (continued)

p~

Example

1 (continued)

285

The

has

strain

with

format,

call-and-response

the

two

distin

parts

guished registrally. Here, Johnson lays out a strong two-bar block con
taining both call and response. The three strains in G major (A, B, and
C), therefore, each have different block lengths (four, one, and two bars,
respectively). This is not material to be improvised on; Johnson's various
performances of the G-major strains of "Carolina Shout" are quite faith
score.

to the written

ful

The D strain begins the trio with an abrupt turn to the subdominant
key of C major. A strong two-bar block defines the D strain. The treat
ment of the two-bar block inD is what I call a "groove":
A groove is a thematic block presented
little change.

at least three times with fairly

Measures
7 and 8 provide a deviation from the groove through a
weak tonicization of G major. Upon repeat, the D strain continues the
two-bar groove, interrupting it only at the second ending with the cadence
formula.

Like the D strain, the remaining strains of the trio are all grooves. The
E strain functions primarily as a bridge between the D and F strains, hav
ing

a groove

with

two-bar

thematic

call-and-response

The

block.

strain is a variant of D, adhering to D's harmonic plan with a similar

grooving two-bar block. The sheet music for F presents what looks like
written-out improvisation?in
fact, a basic idea is presented in a thematic
block that repeats informally, with minor embellishments.
Finally, the
concluding G strain is also a variant of D; here, a strong two-bar block
treatment of the diminished-seventh
returns with an alternating-hands
harmony.

In general, the trio is where

rate

material.

thematic

Shout,"

should

then,

Finding
not come

the stride pianist

is most

two-bar

in the

grooves
as a surprise.
The

likely to elabo
trio of

"Carolina
is essential

itself

groove

to the genesis of stride, and it is this key feature that separates stride from
its more

sedate

predecessor,

ragtime.

Johnson

describes

for danc

playing

ing at the Jungles Casino inManhattan's Hell's Kitchen, where he wrote

"Carolina Shout" and the other early works of stride piano around the
period 1912-14. As Johnson recalled,
The
"Let's

dances
go

they did at the Jungles

. . . "Let's
back home!"

alley!"
Breakdown
the better.

music

They'd

was

dance,

the best
hollering

Casino
do

for such
and

were

a set!"

sets,

screaming

. . .

wild.
...

or

"Now

[T]hey'd
put us

the more

solid

until

they were

yell:
in the

and groovy
cooked.

(Davin 1959, 12)

Johnson describes
the African-American

286

the dancers responding to a groove. A backbone of

musical tradition since the ring shout, the groove

has been a major feature of black-influenced

popular music from the
nineteenth century through jazz and gospel, finally to rock, rhythm and
blues (R&B), and rap.
To

return

to "Carolina

Shout":

a seven-bar

coda

follows

the G

strain;

this coda confirms C major and ends the piece on the global subdomi
nant. Interestingly, the initial E\?l-A\?l harmonic move is the earliest jazz
instance I have seen of the VI and II tritone substitutions in a circle-of
fifths progression.
Backbeating
One of the hallmarks of Johnson's stride style was the backbeat, which
he used to great effect. This technique is illustrated in Example 2, which
shows

of mm.

graphs

and mm.

1-4

of

5-8

the A{

strain

from

the pub

lished version of "Carolina Shout." In Example 2a, the top line gives the
midrange chords, while the line below it gives the bass notes. The third
line, marked

for

"SP"

"stride

summarizes

pattern,"

the

two

top

lines

by

denoting 1 for bass note and 2 for chord. Note its marchlike regularity.
The lowest line, "HR," gives the resulting harmonic rhythm, in this case
a two-beat duration for each harmony, as shown by the 2s below the HR
line.

(a)Al, mm.

1-4
Em

chords
bass

stride pattern
harmonic

(b)Al,mm.

rhythm

G7

D7

Flt

Em

G7

2?

1
-

D7

[Gj?]
2

1
G

2?

5-8

bass

backbeat s
stride pattern
harmonic rhythm

F?f

F#

Gm
B\>

Dj}dim
1?-

D7

A
3

112
G

2?-

Example

Em

Dttdim

chords

12

12

Em

Gm

2-

112

Git

G#
3
1

12

12

A7

D7

2-

2?

2. Backbeats

in theA strain of the 1926 published

"Carolina

version of

Shout"

287

=
=
(a)QRS piano roll (May 1920). BBF 2; BBS 0.
(0:30)

1212/1212/1212/1212/
3
12/112

12 12/12

3
1/12

12/

1/

12 12/1212/1212/121

1 1 1 /12

1212/1

3
3
1 1/1 121//

1 212/

=
(b)Okeh 4495 (October 18, 1920). BBF 7; BBS = 5.
(0:30)

4
3
3
1212/1121/1121/1212/
3
3
112 1/12

3
3
12/1121/1211/

4
4
3
1121/1121/112

3
1/1211/

12 12/1111/1111/1111/

(c) MCA

sheet music

(1926).

BBF

(liquidation)

6; BBS

= 3.

3
3
12 12/1121/1212/111
3
3
3
112 1/1212/112

(rest) /
3
1/1212/

2
3
3
3
3
112 1/2112/1121/1212/

1111/1111/1111/1111/
Example

3. Backbeats

(liquidation)

in the A2 section of three versions of

"Carolina

Shout"

Example 2b shows mm. 5-8. Here, there is an additional line marked

BB for "backbeats" over the stride pattern line. This line shows occa
sional groups of three arising from the pattern, that is, two bass notes
followed by amidrange chord. To follow a notation developed by Brown
(1986, 122-33), I add a left-pointing arrow above the 3 on the backbeat
line to signify that the march rhythm is to be disrupted by the inclusion
of

three-group.

That

the bass

is,

notes

and

chords

that

follow

are mis

aligned relative to the strong and weak beats of the bar. At the next
appearance of a three-group, the right-pointing arrow signifies that the
stride pattern is returned to correct beat alignment. At m. 7 the stride is
again disrupted, as shown by the left-pointing arrow over the three-group,
then immediately corrected by another three-group with right-pointing
arrow.

As described above for the B strain, backbeats can have interesting

effects on harmonic rhythm. The HR line in Example 2b demonstrates
the harmonic ambiguity of mm. 5 and 7. Note that mm. 1-4 are regular,
their symmetry easily perceived. Upon repetition, in mm. 5-8, disrup
tions are introduced. Johnson is particularly adept at setting up a pattern
and then disrupting its symmetry in order to achieve a striking effect.
From

Example

2b, we

can

The backbeat frequency

bars

with

infer

two

new

analytical

(BBF) of a sixteen-bar

parameters:

strain is the number of

backbeats.

The backbeat strength (BBS) of a strain indicates the total number of

bars in which backbeat bars occur consecutively; when backbeating
is not immediately
the rhythmic disruption
is much
corrected,
stronger.

For a given sixteen-bar strain, both BBF and BBS will vary in the range
0-16. In the case of Ab both backbeats are immediately corrected, so the
BBS is 0.
Example 3 compares backbeating in three versions of the A2 strain.7
The QRS piano-roll version features relatively little backbeating: each of
the two disruptions (BBF = 2) is immediately corrected (BBS = 0). John
son's OKeh Records performance of 1921,8 his first sound recording of
the work,

is, in contrast,

especially

intense:

seven

total

bars

of backbeat

=
7), five of them occurring in consecutive groups (BBS = 5).
ing (BBF
The sheet music version falls between these two versions with regard to
both backbeat frequency (BBF = 6) and strength (BBS = 3).
Improvisation

in the Trio

I now turn to the issue of improvisation in the trio of "Carolina Shout."

With respect to the published sheet music of 1926, there is a question
whether we should consider the F and G strains to be improvisations on

289

in the usual sense of

D. Iwill argue that neither F nor G is improvisation

the word.

creates

Johnson

Instead,

block

thematic

pattern?a

grooving

specific for each strain.9 Could the variation-like versions of the D strain
be a function of the sheet music only?a
simplification for publication?
Riccardo

who

Scivales,
that

claims

mances,

has

numerous

transcribed

live

"[i]n

stride

or extended

performances

perfor

piano

the

recordings

Stride pianists would play several improvised variations on the C strain

1943 Blue Note record
[i.e., the trio]. For example, in his great December
a
of
variations on the C
total
nine
Johnson
of
Rag,
played
ing
Caprice
strain"

n.d.,

(Scivales

94).

on

vise

the

trio,

let us

compare

to impro

the tendency of stride pianists

In order to better understand

other

by

performances

Johnson

of "Caro

lina Shout," with particular focus on the D strain.

The D Strain in Johnson's Performances
Example 4 shows a number of versions of the D strain's thematic
block, depicting its evolution over the period 1918-44. The first block, in
Example 4a, is from the 1918 Artempo piano roll. It is less syncopated
chord. It is
than later versions and lacks the accented diminished-seventh
evident that Johnson was not fully satisfied with the piece and continued
to develop it.
Example 4b shows the QRS piano roll of 1921. Here the idea from
the 1918 roll is transformed into a figure with greater emphasis on a
diminished-seventh
harmony; many of the elements of the published
version are now in place. Still more syncopated is the version appearing
on Johnson's first sound recording, made in 1921 (Example 4c). Johnson
also recorded a band version of "Carolina Shout" in 1921l0; its D strain
cluster, rendered by a banjo
(Example 4d) retains the diminished-seventh
tremolo. For the 1926 sheet-music version of the D-strain block (Exam
chord with a high A5, the
ple 4e), Johnson voiced the diminished-seventh
time

only

a voicing

such

Johnson's

next

appears.

recording

appeared

some

seventeen

years

later,

on

the

occasion of a famous concert produced by John Hammond at Carnegie

Hall called "From Spirituals to Swing"?in
effect, a history inminiature
of African-American

music.

In Example

4f we

see

that

Johnson's

Carn

egie Hall version of D is very close to the published sheet music.11 The
1944 Decca recording (Example 4g) duplicates the 1938 Carnegie Hall
performance quite exactly, although the recording was made some five
years

later.12

We have seen that the D strains are very much alike. What about the
variant of D called F? On the 1944 recording, Johnson plays an F strain.
in
The 1926 sheet music and 1944 Decca recording are juxtaposed
Example 5. Here again, we see that the elaborations between 1926 and

290

a. Artempo Roll (1918)

G7/D
G7

C#dim7
-?m

"^>
m

f^^ClLi
b. Q. R. S. Roll (1921)

c.OKeh 4495 (1921)

d. Arto 9906 (c. 1921)

(trumpet)

C??dim7
(banjo)

m
?iJ'J JU^-Jlp
e. Sheet Music

(MCA, 1926)

f. Carnegie Hall (December 23, 1938)

^?^-fl~^

^JTJXk^

,?
U,:j

^T?

.Decca DL 5190 (1944) (trans. Servales*)

^^1^=^

*9-7i

*
Transcription of 7g. by Riccardo Scivales, Harlem Stride Piano Solos (Bedford Hills, New York:
Ekay Music, no date), 37.

Example

4. "Carolina Shout," D section blocks

1944 are extraordinarily close. Thus, by 1926 the D-strain variant called
F was set; Johnson was still playing it eighteen years later!13
Hence,

we

can

ful to the different

their

see

Johnson's

focus:

compositional

not

only

is he

faith

strains of "Carolina Shout," but he is also faithful to

variations.

The D Strain in Other Performances

Since the principal trio strain is where
to elaborate

the music

material,

let us

stride soloists are most

consider

sample

strain

likely
from

291

a. SheetMusic (1926)
G7
G7/D

C?dim7

G7/D

CG7 C?dim7

b. 1944Decca

(Decca: trans.Scivales)

Example

5. "Carolina Shout," F sections

C G7

Example

another

Cttdim7

6. "Carolina Shout," Fats Waller's

well-known

version

of

"Carolina

(D variants)

Shout."

D section (1941)

Example

shows

the

D strain's two-bar block from Fats Waller's recording of May 13, 1941
(take 2).14 The strong thematic block is an elaboration of the original but
retains its essence. Example 7 shows how Waller elaborates Johnson's
D-strain idea. The graph in Example 7a shows Johnson's separation of
the voices in the 1938 and 1944 versions. The A4 is a neighbor of the
lower G4; the diminished cluster above the A4 is probably best heard as
an incomplete neighbor.
In Example 7b, theWaller variant is shown. Waller avoids C5 in the
line itself, instead focusing itsmelodic essence around the upper and lower
Gs. The diminished cluster is transformed into a nested set of neighbors:
thus elaborates
the Bb neighbors A, which itself neighbors G. Waller
Johnson's D-strain idea but deletes its incomplete neighbor, the dimin
ished cluster. This shows an important facet of his pianism: though a
brilliant player with a tremendous sense of swing, Waller was a smoother
sur
stylist than Johnson, often more predictable, with fewer rhythmic
and
rarely any backbeating.
prises
Example 8a shows a D-strain variant I composed and that I now
include when I perform "Carolina Shout." In devising this variant, I have
taken the idea of the Bb and A as neighbors to G and then extended the A
so as to be prominent throughout the two-bar block.
A case could be made that I have transformed the thematic block to

292

G7

G7

Q$dim7
N?

a. a

^=^
r--~r
Johnson(1938,1944)

f
G7

G7

C#dim7
N

^
Waller

7.

Example

"Carolina

Shout,"

of

comparison

Johnson's

(1941)

and Waller's

D sections

G7

G7/D

j-R-n

Ijtttj
G7

Cttdim7

iJ>J
^j
C C|dim7
N?

N
N

(N?)

- b- J

fel
*E
Example

8. "Carolina Shout," D section block

293

prolong A rather than G, as in the original. In the top line of Example 8b,
I show theA as prolonged by G and Bt as upper and lower neighbors. The
graph in the middle staff of Example 8b shows an interpretation with G
as the prolonged note and the nested neighbor intact. With either inter
pretation, the G is rhythmically very weak.
"Carolina

Beyond
Johnson's
other

thematic-block
For

recordings.

to improvisation

approach
Johnson's

example,

Shout"

"You've

song

is evident

in his

to be Mod

Got

ernistic" was originally written for a Broadway-style

show in the late
a
1920s.15 Itwas recorded16 on November
18,1929, by jazz ensemble and
a trio of singers who may have been featured in the original production.17
This version for band and singers features improvised solos over a two
bar groove on the C strain intended to build excitement to the end of the
recording.
Johnson's
trast

is in fact more
piece
to the band version,
Johnson's

as a stride

effective
solo

recording18

solo.
In con
piano
two months
later (Jan

uary 21, 1930) is in stride style, with six variations on the C theme that
replace the improvised solos heard earlier. The greater impact of the stride
recording (compared to the band version) comes from Johnson's introduc
tion of thematic blocks that precisely define each variation and build
virtuosity.
Johnson's

many

other

solo

stride

recordings

show

a similar

approach.

Johnson never abstracts a chord progression from a block for "blowing"

(improvising with extensive departure from themelody); instead, the strain
remains compositionally
focused on its original melodic material or on a
to
each
relates to it.That is, the original
variation?that
pattern?specific
melodic
idea, introduced in a block, always remains in force and can
usually be detected as underlying the patterns of the individual variations.
As we saw in the case of "Carolina Shout," it is likely that Johnson devel
oped variations in advance and then retained them for future performances
if they were

successful.

Of course, our only evidence for Johnson's practice is his recorded

legacy. Johnson may have played differently at informal, live perfor
mances, but it seems unlikely that he would have radically changed his
approach. For example, the longer Asch recordings from the 1940s allow
Johnson

more

variational

than

techniques

Dick Wellstood,
that
with

"the
them

stride
was

three minutes

per
for performance

record;

yet there,
elaborations.19

he maintains

an important latter-day stride pianist, claims bluntly

as a group,
not great
were,
players
improvisers.
an
to compose
or
make
original
piece
perhaps

ment of current show tunes, and then to wow

294

too,

the folks with

The

idea

an arrange

it, night after

this assessment may be exaggerated, Wellstood

night."20While
to the

close

may be

truth.

An interesting issue iswhy Johnson approached thematic elaboration

as he did. The thematic block structure of the stride composition by its
the freer improvisational practices associated
very nature discourages
with later jazz. A freely expressive right-hand line can sound formless or
inappropriate when juxtaposed against the architectural thematic blocks
that are designed to interact with the left hand. This imbalance occurs less
a

when

song

popular

the

provides

thematic

as

material,

in later

jazz.

the jazz piano world entered the 1930s, a younger generation of

pianists with looser ties to the ragtime world of the multistrain compo
and Art Tatum?
sition gained ascendency. Earl Hines, Teddy Wilson,
As

the newer

among

preeminent

to avoid

stylists?tended

sixteen-bar

strains,

even when using the striding left hand as a basis for solo playing, and
the right-hand figuration
instead focused on the popular song. Without
"pulling and tugging" against the stride left hand, these younger pianists
were

to cultivate

able

Because

nal material.

less

freer,
of

their

on

"variations"

block-oriented
of

avoidance

thematic-block

the origi

elaboration,

even calling their choruses "variations" (especially in the case of Hines

seems inappropriate. Their left-hand 1-2-1-2 patterns are
or Wilson)
to as a "swing bass" in order to distinguish its lighter tex
referred
better
ture from
Tatum,

of

the absence
given
the other hand, maintained

stride,

on

the necessary
figurations.
right-hand
a closer
to his stride roots
connection

despite a personal repertory based on popular standards; not surprisingly,

like

of his variations
were,
many
"orchestral"
The up-tempo,

worked

Johnson's,

nature

of

out

is another

stride

in advance.
important

factor

in discouraging freer improvisation. The stride performer supplies the

complete musical package of rhythm, bassline, harmony, and melody
within a framework of rapidly changing chords?often
every two beats.
The resulting plethora of musical information encourages the performer
tomaintain blocks in the right hand to help organize the material and to
prevent being overwhelmed by its intricacy. Once the left hand simplifies,
as in later jazz piano, the right hand follows with its greater sense of
form.
evolving
freer right-hand

slower

Not

surprisingly,
lines.21

stride

have

performances

much

Conclusions
We
poser

have
than

seen
an

thematic block
claiming,

"Any

that within

improviser.

his

is a backbone
harmony

stride

Johnson's

is only

Johnson

work,

of his musical
so many

was
with

preoccupation

more

thinking. He

chords

unless

of a com

the melody

you

melody" (Blesh and Janis 1971, 205).

Itmay not be stretching a point too far to call Johnson's

of

is quoted as
have

a real

strategies of

295

elaboration

devising
seemed
if they

as he usually

"nonimprovisation,"

each

approached

strain

a variational pattern, which he then treated compositionally.

to devise

were

these

successful.

in advance

variations
Hence,

rather

than

and
call

to use

continued
Johnson

an

by

He
them

"improvisa

tionally oriented musician," I suggest that he be called a "composition

ally oriented musician who elaborated his works at the piano in live per
formance." This in no way detracts from the importance and exceptionally
fine quality of his music, but rather shows that we must not thoughtlessly
attribute
jazz.

296

our

latter-day

understanding

of

improvisation

to early

forms

of

NOTES
1. James P. Johnson
and died

in New

was
York

born

in New

on November

stride piano, he was a fine popular

works. The best historical

concert

includes

New Jersey, on February

Brunswick,
1, 1894,
to his preeminence
in
17, 1955. In addition
song composer. He also wrote
account of his work is Brown

Hubert's

Robert

covering
discography
are enumerated
in chronological

studio

recordings
James
Records):

P. Johnson

1921-1928

(Classics
1938-1942

several

extended

also
1986, which
Johnson's
1917-50.

the period
order on Classics
658),

James

CDs

P. Johnson

(Classic
1928

James P. Johnson
(Classics 711), James P. John
1944 (Classics
(Classics
824), James P. Johnson
835), James P.
1944-1945
Johnson
1944, vol. 2 (Classics 856), James P. Johnson
1027),
(Classics
1945-1947
and James P. Johnson
(Classics
1059). His piano rolls can be heard on
1938

son

(Classics
1943-1944

671),

James P. Johnson:

105 DDD)
and James P. John
Carolina
Shout (Biograph BCD
Solos from Rare Piano Rolls (Biograph BCD
150 ADD).
John
are
in which
he functions
both as leader and as sideman,
live recordings,

son: Parlor
son's

collected
2. The

Piano

on various

CDs.

broken down into three categories:

rag is sometimes
(1) "classic
the work of Scott Joplin, James Scott, and Joseph Lamb;
ragtime,"
including
the work of Artie Matthews;
and (3) "novelty
(2) "advanced
ragtime,"
including
ragtime," whose most famous exponents were Roy Bargy and Zez Confrey. There
solo piano

and there are also works

that scarcely
are, of course, gray areas in this typology,
For more on this and other classifications
of ragtime,
fit any of these categories.
see Berlin
Jasen and Jones (2000, xxxix-xl)
1980, 5-20, 61-80.
argue for a more
that authentic
of works
restrictive
view, claiming
ragtime consists
specifically
for piano and that the other uses of the word are the result of attempts
composed
to profit from ragtime's popularity.
3. Both the composed
piano rag and the stride work begin with a four-bar
to eight?followed
extended
tion?sometimes
by a series of sixteen-bar
There may be a coda to round off the work. The introduction's
formal

introduc
"strains."
functions

the tempo and tonality and to suggest or set up the thematic mate
labeled A, B, C, etc. In a typical stride
rial of the first strain. Strains are typically
the first two or three strains are in the tonic key; the remaining
strains are
work,
in the subdominant
and are grouped
together as the "trio." There may be
usually
a four- or eight-bar modulation
to the trio. Within
the trio, four- or eight-bar
inter
are to establish

the strains. Stride piano performances

ludes may come between
include a
may
of one or more of the early strains (usually A or B). There
is seem
recapitulation
the
for
overall
of
the
it
is
little
the
whether
key
piece;
regard
arbitrary
ingly
pianist
or return to the tonic of the original A strain.
to end on the subdominant
decides
4. The A,
similar

strain of "Carolina

Shout"

has folk

roots and can be found

in a number

of

"Wild Cherries Rag," "Perfect Rag," "Buddy's Habits,"

including
pieces,
and "Little Rock Getaway"
1978, 244). In the score of "Car
(Jasen and Tichenor
that it is clearer to number the
olina Shout" shown in Example
1, we have decided

bars

in each

fewer bars
5. Backbeats

strain without
than the actual

regard
sixteen

to repeats; hence, strains with

that are to be played.

in stride piano should be distinguished

rary popular music. The latter term is often used
4/4 time, as in a rock drummer's
heavy accenting

repeats will

from backbeats
to denote

beats

show

in contempo
two and four in

of the backbeats.

297

6. For more

on the C/G

clash

and related

see Wildman

of interest,

points

1979,

35

36.
7. The QRS piano roll is 100999
nated. It can be heard on James

dissemi
(New York, May
1921) and was widely
P. Johnson:
Carolina
Shout. There
is also an ear

lier piano roll, Artempo

12975 (Newark, NJ, February
is discussed
1918), which
below. The Artempo
roll can be heard on James P. Johnson:
Parlor Piano
Solos
can be considered
a work in progress,
as its
from Rare Piano Rolls. The Artempo
features

differ

from the subsequent

versions.
significantly
recorded October
18, 1921. It is available

8. OKeh

4495,
1921-1928.

on James

P. Johnson

of "Carolina Shout" was issued on the Artempo

piano roll
strain might be one of the earliest recordings
of a groove. This, of
on one's definition
I have defined
of a groove.
it quite narrowly
course, depends
for the purposes
of its application
to stride piano, but the basic idea of a two- or
four-bar vamp could be extended
in the
heard
easily. The formal
irregularities

9. Since

the first version

in 1918,

Artempo
ufacture.

the D

roll are probably

10. Available

on James

the result of inexpert

P. Johnson

editing

of the roll before

its man

1921-1928.

on From

to Swing: The Legendary

1938 & 1939 Carnegie
Spirituals
Hall Concerts
Produced
by John Hammond
169/71-2).
(Vanguard
on James P. Johnson
12. Available
1944, vol. 2.
13. Brown
1986 gives no indication whether
Johnson played a role in arranging
the
1926 version for publication.
I suspect he may have been involved, given that the
F-strain variant occurs neither in the piano rolls nor in the 1921
It is not
recording.
to fashion a completely
new
likely that an outside arranger would have bothered
less that it would have been subsequently
and
section, much
adapted
performed
11. Available

by Johnson.
14. "Carolina Shout"
on the Heat

(Victor

27563).

Available

on The Fats Waller

Piano

Solos:

Turn

(Bluebird

2482-2-RB).
15. Brown
was written
that "Modernistic"
for A Great Day
in
(1986,
198) suggests
New Orleans,
which opened
in Philadelphia
in November
1929. The show never
traveled to New York.
on James P Johnson
16. Originally
Victor V-38099,
available
1928-1938.
17. The singers are called "The Keep Shufflin' Trio." Johnson wrote a hit show called
'
in 1928, but "Modernistic"
is not listed among its numbers,
accord
Keep Shufflin
198).
(1986,
ing to Brown
18. Originally
Brunswick
1928-1938.
4762, available on James P. Johnson
career tapered off in the 1930s, he was among
19. While
Johnson's
the musicians
in the 1940s through the "Dixieland
"rediscovered"
revival." As a result, Moses
recorded
Asch, founder of Asch, Disc, and Folkways
Records,
ous sessions
and permitted
him great freedom
to play what
on The Original
are collected
James P. Johnson:
recordings
Solos (Smithsonian
CD SF-40812).
Folkways
20. See

the liner notes

Productions,
21. Consider,
(originally
Heat).

298

of Donald

Lambert:

Harlem

Stride Classics

in numer

Johnson
he wished.

These

1942-1945

Piano

(Miami:

Pumpkin

1977).
for example,
Fats Waller's
Victor V38508,
available

"Numb Fumblin',"
on The Fats Waller

recorded March
Piano

Solos:

1, 1929
Turn on the

WORKS CITED
Berlin,

Edward

Angeles:

A.

1980. Ragtime: A Musical

of California
Press.

University
and Harriet

Blesh, Rudi,
Publications.

Janis.

Scott E. 1986. James

Brown,
Scarecrow
Press.
Davin,

Tom.

1959.

and Cultural

1971. They All Played

P. Johnson:
with

"Conversations

A Case

of Mistaken

James P. Johnson."

Riccardo.
Scivales,
Music.
Sterling.
Stuckey,
Black America.
Joan M.
Wildman,
Piano." Journal

Jay Tichenor.
Press.

[n.d.]. Harlem

Stride

1978. Rags
Piano

Identity. Metuchen,
Jazz Review

Rag:

The Story

and Ragtime:

Solos.

and Los

Berkeley

4th ed. New York: Oak

Ragtime,

Jones. 2000. That American

Jasen, David A., and Gene
to Coast. New York: Schirmer Books.
from Coast
Jasen, David A., and Trebor
tory. New York: Seabury

History.

Bedford

2/6.
of Ragtime

A Musical

Hills,

NJ:

NY:

His

Ekay

Nationalist
Theory and the Foundations
of
Press.
University
of the Jazz
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1979. "The Function

1987. Slave
New

Culture:

York: Oxford

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5/2: 23-39.

299