The IIT Foundation Series CHEMISTRY STEVGTO UN D BRE D I TeIROUN L i a mat Wee Net Yoel ROOT Saat PEARSONT. I M E T.A.M.E. is the national leader in test prep segment and one of the biggest BBVE Bes, and the most successful classroom-based entrance examination training Triumphant in Manoel Educsten Ft Ls institute in India. For more details, visit www.timededucation.com ‘The aim of this publication is to supply information taken from sources believed to be valid and reliable, This is not an attempt to render any type of professional advice or analysis, nor is it to be treated as such. While much care has been taken to ensure the veracity and currency of the information presented within, neither the publisher nor its authors bear any responsibility for any damage arising fom inadvertent omissions, negligence or inaccuracies (typographical or Factual) that may have found their way into this book. 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New Delhi 110 017, IndiaDetailed Contents Preface to the Second Ex v Preface vi About the IIT Foundation Series vii Structure of the IIT Foundation Series ix CHAPTER 1 Atomic Structure 1 Dalton’ Atomic Theory 1 Thomson's Atomic Model 6 Rutherford'’s Atomic Model 7 Bohr’s Atornic Model 8 CHAPTER 2 Classification of Matter 21 Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter n Classification of Matter on The Basis of Chemical Composition 25 Classification of Elements 26 Mictures 29 Chromatography 35 CHAPTER 3 Language of Chemistry and Transformation of Substances 49 Derivation of Formulae of Compounds 56 Atomic Weight or Atomic Mass. 58 Molecular Weight 59 ‘Naming of Acids, Bases and Salts 61 ‘Chemical Equation 62 CHAPTER 4 Air and Oxygen 86 ‘Atmosphere 86 Components of Ai #0 Ovgen %0 Rusting of fon 99Uses of Oxygen Air Pollution CHAPTERS: Water, Solution, Solubility and Hydrogen vrater Hydrogen CHAPTER 6 Carbon and its Compounds Carbon Cycle Carbon, allotropy Compounds of Carbon Fire Extinaulshers Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen CHAPTER 7 Some Important Elements and their Compounds Nitrogen Phosphorus: Sulphur Chlorine ‘Compounds of Nitrogen Phosphorus: Hydrogen Sulphide Compounds of Chlorine Hydrogen Chloride Some industrially Important Compounds Detailed Conients 100 101 14 4 7 125 141 141 142 143 150 55 158 im 172 76 178 186 190 195 96 201 203Preface to the Second Edition Ic is with enthusiasm that we present the second edition of the ITT Foundation series of books. The success of our first edition indicates that there exists a large group of students who wish to delve into Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry, beyond the restrictions of their school syllabus, We take this opportunity to thank all those who have contributed to the success and to reaffirm our commitment to inculcating scientific temper among the student community. Over the last two years we have received feedback from many students and teachers who have used our books, and it has given us great satisfaction to know that they have benefitted immensely. The teachers have taught fiom these books and have appreciated the approach adopted in the presentation of concepts, Their feedback has encouraged us to extend the IT-Foundation series of books to include hooks for students of Class 7 as well. In most school curricula, the fundamentals of Mathematics and Science that students stady in Classes 8 to 10 are introduced in Class 7. While a proper understanding of these fundamentals is essential for good performance in higher classes, itis not possible for Class 7 students to develop indepth understanding of concepts unless these ate presented lucidly. With this edition, therefore, we present books for Class 7.We are confident that these will help students develop conceptual clarity at their early age, and that the student community will take full advantage of this new inclusion: As with all our publications, the objective of this series is to provide students with a comprehensive understanding of fundamental concepts, to teach them the application of these concepts, and to help hone their problem-solving skills. We trust all our young students will find these books relevant and enlightening.Preface As the old adage goes, “nothing succeeds like success." The truth in this maxim cannot be overstated in today’s competitive world. The present-day student is under immense pressure to thrive and emerge triumphantly in examinations, Students aspire to get into pre-eminent educational institutes to pursue the best courses-be it in engineering, medicine, arts or sciences~to enable them to prepare for careers at the global level, Their performance in entrance examinations are often the cornerstones that determine if they would be admitted into these hallowed halls of learning. With most of these exams being designed to challenge th te talent and ingenuity of students, it is only natural that they find these tests most demanding and that they find themselves competing with the country’s best minds for those few coveted seats. Only those students with a thorough understanding of the fundamental concepts and exceptional problem-solving skills pass out with flying colours in these tests. The “IIT Foundation Series” books are designed to provide students with a comprehensive understanding of the fundamental concepts, to teach them the application of these concepts and to hone their problem-solving skill The objective of the IIT Foundation Series books isto ensure that students are able to delve beyond the restrictions of their regular school syllibus and get a fandimental understanding of Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry. The books are designed to kindle student interest in these subjects and to encourage them to ask questions that lead to a firm grip on the principles governing each concept. Irrespective of the field of study that the student may choose to take up hater, itis imperative that he or she develops a sound understanding of Mathematics and Science, since it forms the basis for most modern-day activities Lack of a firm background in these subjects may not only limit the capacity of the student to solve complex problems but also lessen his or h that provide quality education. chances to make it into top-notch institutes This book is intended to serve as the backbone of the student’ preparation for a range of competitive exams, going beyond the realms of the usual school curriculum to provide that extra edge so eseential in tackling a typical question paper. A distinctive feature of this book is that it has been written by a team of well-qualified teachers experienced in imparting the fundamentals of Mathematics and Science, and their applications to active learners at T.LM.E. (Triumphant Institute of Management Education Pvt, Ltd). They have also been instrumental in developing high-quality study material for ITT Foundation courses for Classes 7 to 10. We are sure that you will find this book, prepared by such stalwarts, to be very useful in your preparation for entrance examinationsAbout the IIT Foundation Series This book is a perfect companion not only for the students of 8th Grade, but also for higher grades. It will help them achieve the much-needed conceptual clarity in the topics which form the basis for their higher study. Some of the important features of the book are listed below + Builds skills that will help students succeed in school and various competitive examinations. + The methodology is aimed at helping seudents thoroughly understand the concepts in Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry. + Helps develop a logical approach to Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry, thereby enabling more effective learning, * Lays stress on questions asked by board/school examinations as well as application of concepts + The concepts are explained in 4 well structured and lucid manner, using simple language. This aids learning. * A large number of examples have been included to help reinforce the concepts involved. * Different levels of practice exercises have been provided which help students develop the necessry application and problem-solving skills, + The exercises have been designed keeping in mind the various board/school examinations and competitive examinations, such as the NTSE, NLSTSE, Science Olympiad and Cyber Olympiad. + The book will not only help the students in better understanding of what is taught in regular school classes (and hence enable them to do well in board examinations) but will aso help in developing che acumen, resulting in a distinctive edge over their peers. * Given below are. nples that demonstea e how the course will help students in understanding the fundamentals How does « kingfisher catch fish? The kingfisher flies vertically over the position of the fish, then plunges into the water at 2 90 angle. The concept here is that the normally incident rays do not undergo refraction, hence the fish lies exactly Where it appears to be.At any other angle, the apparent location of the fish would be different from its real location, Why do we normally swing our arms while walking, and why not when we carry a load in our hands? The center of gravity of a body depends on the distribution of mass in the body. As we walk, che movement of the legs tends to cause a shiftin the centre of gravity‘To compensate for this shift we swing our arms. When we are carrying a load in the hands, however, the effective C.G is lower, making it easier to maintain balance.About the HT Foundation Series Why does salt become damp when kept exposed during the rainy season and not when kept exposed during summer? In the rainy season humidity in the atmosphere is very high, ie., there is a lot of moisture in the atmosphere, Thus, calcium chloride, which is the impurity present in common silt, absorbs this 2 and makes the salt damp. In summer, however, as the temperature is high, calcium chloride tends to loose moisture through the process of evaporation, and the salt is left free-Howing,Structure of the IIT Foundation Series ‘The IT Foundation Series is available in Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry. Each chapter in the book is divided into three parts, namely, cheory, test your concepts and concept application. > Theory: The theory part deals with the various concepts in Physics/Chemistry/Mathematics, which is a part of the syllabus prescribed by major boards for Class X. The concepts are explained in a lucid manner, and diagrams have been provided, wherever necessary, to illustrate these concepts, > Test your Concepts: This exercise is provided at the end of the theory section of each chapter. These exercises are a collection of very short answer, short answer and essay type of descriptive questions. It is intended to provide students with model questions that they may face in the board examination, Students are expected to prepare for these questions before they attempt any examination based on that particular chapter. Towards the end of the book, the students will find key points for selected questions of the exercise, These key points provide students with an idea of the points that should be a part of an answer for such a question. > Concept Application: This is a collection of exercises in four different classes: Chass 7, Class 8, Class 9 and Class 10. Chass 8 consists of basic objective questions. These questions test the basic knowledge of students and enable them to gauge their understanding of concepts when they start solving this exercise. The key for this exercise is provided at the end of the respective chapter Classes 9 and 10 consist of descriptive questions of a higher level of difficulty. These questions help students to apply the conepts that they have learnt. Key points for selected questions of these exercises have been provided at the end of each chapter in order to help students solve these questions. ‘These books are available for 7th, 8th, 9th and 10th classes separately for Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry.Series Content List Class 7 Class 8 CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER1 Classification of Matter CHAPTER 2 Atomic Structure and Transformation of Matter CHAPTER 3 Acids, Bases and Salts CHAPTER 4 Air and Oxygen CHAPTER 5 Water CHAPTER 6 Chemistry in Dai Atomic Structure CHAPTER2 Classification of Matter CHAPTER3 Language of Chemistry and Transformation of Substances CHAPTERS Airand Oxygen CHAPTERS Water, Solution, Solubility and Hydrogen CHAPTER6 Carbon and its Compounds CHAPTER7 Some Important Elements and their CompoundsCass 9 CHAPTER 1 Nature of Matter CHAPTER 2 Atomic Structure CHAPTER 3 Periodic Table CHAPTER 4 Chemical Bonding CHAPTER 5 Mole Concept, Stoichiometry and Behaviour of Gases CHAPTER 6 Chemical Kineticsand Chemical Equilibrium CHAPTER 7 Water, Solution, Solubility and Hydrogen CHAPTER 8 Metals and Non-Metals CHAPTER 9 Organic Chemistry Cass 10 CHAPTER 1 Mole Concept, Stoichiometry and Behaviour of Gases CHAPTER 2 Chemical Kinetics and Equilibrium CHAPTER 3 Atomic Structure CHAPTER 4 Periodic Table CHAPTER 5 Chemical Bonding CHAPTER 6 Acids, Bases and Salts CHAPTER 7 Electrochemistry CHAPTER 8 Metallurgy CHAPTER 9 Industrial Chemistry CHAPTER 10 Organic Chemistry-1 CHAPTER 11 Organic Chemistry-IIThis page is intentionally left blank.Atomic Structure INTRODUCTION The sun, the moon, the stars etc., are some of the constituents of the universe by convention, In reality, there is matter and space. The study of matter dates back to as early as 600 8c where both ancient Indians and Greeks were important pioneers in the study of matter, In ancient India, Maharshi Kannada propounded thit matter is made up of small indestructible particles called ‘paramanu’, Ancient Greek philosophers like Democritius, Epicurus and Leucippus theorized that matter is made up of small particles called ‘atoms’, The word atom is coined because these small particles of matter are assumed to be indestructible. In Greek language, atom means the “incapibility of being cut". These achievements about atom were merely based on speculation. Later, based on experimentation, John Dalton postulated the theory of atoms. In due course, the discovery of el tions, protons and neutrons proved atom to be divisible. The idea of the subatomic particles paved the way for further researches on the arrangement of these particles in the atom, which led to the development of various atomic models depicting the structure of the atom. Historical aspects In 1808, John Dalton proposed the atomic theory based on the various laws of chemical combination known at that time.The theory has been well accepted during the nineteenth century as it could help in explaining the laws of chemical combination. However, the basic conception of Dalton that an atom is indivisible has been proved to be wrong after the discovery of subatomic particles. Dalton’s Atomic Theory Dalton’ atomic theory is mainly based on the law of conservation of ma and the law of multiple proportions which were formulated by Lavoisier the law of definite proportionsAtomic Structure ‘The main postulates of Dalton’ atomic theory are: 1. Matter is composed of tiny indivisible particles called atoms. They cannot be created or destroyed or transformed into atoms of another element. Atoms of a given element are identical in all respects. Atoms of different elements are different from each other. |. Atoms of different elements take part in the chemical reaction and combine in a simple integral ratio to form compounds. ‘When elements react, the atoms may combine in more than one simple whole number ratio. Dalton’s atomic theory has been contradicted with the advancement of science and modified on the basis of further research and discoveries as follows 1, With the discovery of subatomic particles, ie., the electron, proton and neutron, it was concluded that atoms can be further divided. 2. Discovery of isotopes proved that atoms of the same element may possess different atomic weights, ie.,atoms of same elements may not be identical in all respects In some cases, atoms of different elements are found to have sime mass number, For example, calcium and argon are found to have same mass number, Though Dalton’s atomic theory could not give convincing explanation to any of the above facts, it laid the foundation for the development of modern atomic theory. The basic postulate of Dalton’s atomic theory which says that “atoms are the tiniest particles of matter which take part in the chemical reaction” is however accepted in modern atomic theory with experimental evidence. The discovery of radioactivity led to the discovery of the fundamental particles in the atom. DISCOVERY OF FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES An experiment to investigate the phenomenon that takes place when a high voltage is applied through 3 tube containing gis at low pressure laid the foundation to the discovery of fundamental particles. In 1878, Sir William Crocke, while conducting an experimentusing a special glass tube called discharge tbe, found certain visble rays tavelling beeen two metal electrodes, These rays are known as Crooke’ rays or cathode rays. The discharge tube used i ment is now referred to as Crookes tube - or more popularly as Cathode Ray Tube bppe [cRT High-votage source cathove rays the experi- Exhaust pump Figure 1.1 Cathode Ray TubeAtomic Structure 3 DESCRIPTION fi) A discharge tube is a long glass tube sealed at the two ends. It consists of two metal plates A and B connected to high voltage (i) The two plates A and B act as electrodes. The electrode A which is connected to the negative terminal of the battery is called the cathode (negative electrode). (iii) The electrode B which is connected to the positive terminal is called the anode (positive electrode) (jv) There is a side tube which is connected to an exhaust pump. The exhaust pump is used for lowering the pressure inside the discharge tube. DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON Later, J. J. Thomson also found that when a high voltage of 10,000V was applied between the electrodes present in a partially evacuated cathode ray tube, a bright spot of light was formed on the screen coated with a fluorescent material, placed at the other end of the tube. Cathode Anode Gasat low pressure The fluorescent material coated on the screen started to glow Bright spat because it was struck by the rays which originated from the cathode. Since these rays were emitted by the cathode, he named these rays as Fluorescent material High voltage source cathode rays. Figure 1.2 J.J. Thomson’ Cathode ray tube J. J. Thomson and others studied the properties of these cathode rays by conducting the following experiment. @. Experiment | A small object is placed in between the mE cathode and anode. Metal object ‘Ge Observation A shadow which is of the same shape as the object is observed on the wall opposite to the cathode. Conclusion The cathode rays travel in straight ines Higt-voltage source Figure 1.34 Cy Experiment Il Atomic Structure 4 A light paddle wheel is placed between cathode and anode. Observation The wheel starts rotating. Cathode Conclusion Cathode cays are made up of small particles having mass and kinetic energy. ba Experiment lll ©, Cathode rays are passed through an electric field, Observation The mys move on a curved path towards the positive phte of the High-voltage source Light paddle wheel Figure 1.4 Path of eathodo ., fays in absence of ectrc fit electric field, Conclusion The charged particles. cathode rays are negatively ~ Experiment lV Bright spot _ Fluorescent “pe material (ZnS) Bright spot EL), Cathode rays are passed through a magnetic field. Catrode Anode Observation ath of eathedo rays JL. inthe atsence of | masnetic ters » Bright spot ‘The deflection of the rays is perpendicular to the applied |L magnetic field, Ay. Conclusion The cathode rays constitute negatively charged particle. ~ Experiment V Fluorescent ‘material (ZnS) + Bright epot| Figure 1.6 These experiments were repeated by taking different gases in the discharge tube.Atomic Structure 5 Observation The nature of the cathode rays does not depend either on the nature of the gas inside the tube or the cathode used. During his experiments in the presence of applied electric and magnetic fields, he found out charge to mass ratio called specific charge or ¢/m ratio of cathode rays. Properties of cathode rays 1, Cathode rays originate from cathode and travel towards anode, Cathode rays travel in straight lines. 2, 3, Cathode rays consist of a stream of particles 4 The particles of the cathode rays are negatively charged. These negatively charged particles are called electrons. 5. Cathode rays deviate from their path in the presence of an electric field or a magnetic field 6. The particles of the cathode rays have mass and they possess kinetic energy. 7. The nature of cathode rays is independent of the nature of the gas, the material of the electrodes and the quality of the glass DISCOVERY OF PROTONS-PROPERTIES OF PROTONS The presence of protons in the atom has been predicted by Goldstein based on the conception that atom being electrically neutral in nature should necessarily possess positively charged particles to balance the negatively charged electrons. @.. Goldstein's Experiment. {, Goldstein repeated the cathode ray experiment by using a perforated cathode Conclusion Positive rays Cathode rays Positive In addition to cathode rays originating from from anode from cathode rays. cathode some rays travelled from the anode towards the cathode, These rays were called Anode rays or Canal rays. Perforated cathode Properties of anode rays 1, Anode rays travel in straight lines 2. Anode rays deflect towards the negative electrode of the electric field moving on a curved path. In the presence of magnetic field, perpendicular to the field moving on an arc of a circle, High-valtage sures ode rays deflect Figure 1.7Atomic Structure 3. The electric charge of these particles is always positive. The value of specific charge of the particles varies with the nature of the gus taken in the discharge tube. 4. The mass of the particles was sime as the atomic mass of the gas in the discharge tube. Goldstein assumed the rays (1e., positive ions) travelling from anode to cathode as protons. Later discoveries proved that the lightest positively charged particle is that of hydrogen and is named proton. ‘The study of the properties of the fundamental particles like electrons and protons ed to the conception, of various atomic models, Atomic model is the description of depicting the arrangement of various fundamental particles inside the atom Different atomic modek have been proposed by John Dalton,J. J. Thomson, Rutherford and Bohr. The systematic study of various basic atomic models gives an insight into the understanding of the primary structure of atom. Thomson's Atomic Model J. /Thomson proposed his atomic model in 1903 prior to the discovery of protons itself. Electrons According to J. J. Thomson, an atom contains negatively charged particles called electrons uniformly spread inside a sphere of thinly spread mass of positive charge. This model has been called by different names such as watermelon model, plam pudding medel or an apple pie model. The total positive charge of the sphere ‘equal to the total negative charge of electrons and for this reason atom remains electrically neutral Positively charged sphere Figure 1.8 Drawback of Thomson’s model ‘The model could not explain how the positively charged particles are shielded from the negatively charged particles without getting neutralised. After J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford carried out a series of experiments from 1905 to 191 1,to test the correctnes, of Thomson's atomic model RUTHERFORD'S o—PARTICLE SCATTERING EXPERIMENT DISCOVERY OF NUCLEUS Ernest Rutherford in 1911 gave the concept of nucleus based on the results of his experiment known as a-particle scattering experiment.Atomic Structure 7 Rutherford bombarded a thin gold foil Thin gold fot with ot-particles. The foil was surrounded by a spherical screen of zinc sulphide. The a-particles were condensed to a narrow beam by passing them through a pair of positively charged parallel plates. oka \ souces ot Bright epat container oparticles Observations () Most of the o.-particlespassed straight Sphereal screen through the gold foil without any Figure 1.9 deflection, (ii) A few a-particles were deflected through small angles and a few were deflected through large angles. (ii) Very few (1 in 20,000) at-particles completely rebounded. On the basis of these observations, Rutherford concluded that Thomson’s atomic model could not be correct because of the following reasons. 1. Most of the ot-particles passed straight through the gold foil. This proves that atoms must have large empty space. 2. Since very few particles completely rebounded, he concluded that the total positive charge of the atom is concentrated at the centre of the atom. They are not thinly spread in the form of a sphere The tiny central positively charged core was named as nucleus. 3. The large deflection of the a-particles could take place only because of the close encounter of the a--particles with the central positively charged core i.c,,the nucleus. Rutherford estimated the diameter of the nucleus to be of the order of 10" cm and that of the atom to be 10% cm ‘Thus the diameter of the nucleus is about 10° times smaller than the diameter of the atom, Rutherford’s Atomic Model OO Atom consists mostly of empty space. Nucleus The entire positively charged particles are preseat in the centre of the atomic sphere. This concentrated positively charged mass within the atom is called the nucleus. 3. The size of the nucleus is very small compared to the size of the tonal volume of the atom. Elecron 4. The electrons within an atom must revolve around the nucleus at various distances at very high speeds in order to counter balance the electrostatic force of attraction between protons and electrons, Rutherford’s atomic model can be compared with the solar system. TT Figure 1.10 The solar systemAtomic Structure Drawbacks of Rutherford’s atomic model Ruthesford’s model could not explain the stability of an atom. Electron is a charged particle moving around the oppositely charged nucleus. According to classical electrodynamics, an electrically charged particle revolving around in a circular path, radiates energy continuously: Hence an electron revolving around the nucleus, should radiate energy and gradually move towards the nucleus. This gives a spiral path for the electron which should finally collide with the nucleus and the atom would collapse, But atoms are quite stable. Bohr's Atomic Model In 1913, Neils Bohr proposed his atomic model which explained the stability of an atom. Postulates of Bohr's atomic model: 1. Electrons revolve around the nucleus only in certain permissible circular paths called orbits or shells 2. The electron in each orbit has a definite energy. 3. The energy of an electron remains constant as Jong as it revolves in a particular orbit. 4. An electron moves from lower energy level to higher energy level when it absorbs energy fiom an external source. 5, An electron gives out energy while jumping from, a high energy level to a low energ: Figure 1.11 DISCOVERY OF NEUTRONS ‘The mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus and the mass of the electrons is negligible, Hence the mass of an atom was expected to be equal to the mas of the protons in it Except in the case of hydrogen, the mass of an atom was found to be always greater than the total mass of the protons present inside the atom, Further, the unaccounted mass of atom, i.e, (mass of atom—mass of protons) was either equal to or a multiple of the mass of proton Based on the above observation, it was assumed that an atom contains one more kind of particle which hhas the same mass as that of the proton but without any charge. These particles were named as neutrons and were found to be electrically neutral In 1932, James Chadwick proved the existence of neutrons by bombarding Beryllium nucleus with particles,Atomic Structure 9 Characteristics of fundamental particles =16x10"C 9.1% 10°" kg (or) - a Flectron (©) a's x10 esa. 0.00055 amu 1 +16 1D%C 1.67 107" kg (01) a Proton (p) 44.810" eu, 1.0078 amu _ 3 Neutron (n) 0 ee eR o 1.0083 amu Atomic number and mass number The number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom is called its atomic number and is denoted by the letter Z. The total number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is called mass number and is denoted by the letter A. For example,a chlorine atom has 17 protons and 18 neutrons in its nucleus, Hence its atomic number (Z) is 17 and its mass number (A) is 18 and is represented as CI. Isotopes Atoms of an element must have the same atomic number, but their mass number can be different due to the presence of different number of neutrons. These atoms of an element having different number of neutrons are called isotopes. For example, hydrogen occurs in nature in three different isotopic forms—protium, deuterium and tritium, The atomic number of all the three isotopes is 1, but their mass numbers are 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The percentage of protium is maximum in the natural sample of hydrogen, ic., 99.98%. Isobars These are atoms of different elements having same mass number. For example, calcium and argon are found to have the same mass number. Ca Ar Electronic configuration of the atoms Electrons move around the nucleus in different orbits. The maximum number of electrons which can be present in a particular orbit was given by Bohr and Bury. This is known as Bohr-Bury scheme of electronic configuration,10 Atomic Structure If n represents the shell number, then the maximum number of electrons which can revolve in that particular shell is given by the formu 2n? K-shell (1 Lahell (0 M-shell ( Noshell =3) But the maximum number of electrons which can be present in the outermost orbit ice, valence shell is 8.The maximum number of electrons that can be present in penultimate shell and the anti penultimate shell are 18 and 32 respectively. An atom is considered to be stable if its outermost orbit contains 8 electrons Geometrical representation of structure of an atom (@ The atomic number of carbon is 6 and the mass number of carbon is 12. number of electrons = 6 number of neutrons = 6 number of protons (i) The atomic number of aluminium is 13 and its mass number is 27. number of electrons = 13 number of neutrons = 14 number of protons = 13 Valence shell and valence electrons Valence shell of an element is the outermost shell in an atom. For example, , Na” - 2,8, 1... Here 1 electron filled in last shell, ive, M_ shell, Therefore, M shell is the valence shell The electrons filled in the valence shell are called valence electrons. In the above example, there is one valence electron which belongs to M shell. Figure 1.13test yourconcepts eee Very short answer type questions 1. How did the discovery of isotopes contradict Dalton’s atomic theory? How is Rutherfont’s theory in contradiction with the laws of electrodynamics? 2 3. Acconing to Dalton, atoms combine in ratio to form compounds. 4. Which postulate of Dalton’s atomic theory is considered to be corzeet even now? 5. What are the conditions mai rained in a discharge cube for the generation of cathode rays? 6. Acconting to Rutherford electrons revolve around the nucleus in, 7. What are isobars? Give an example. 8. What is an o-particle? 9. Give the geometrical representations of electronic arrangements of the following elements. (@) Florine (b) Phosphorus 10. What is the maximum number of electrons that can be present in the nth shell of an atom? 11, What were the comparative vilues of diameter of nucleus and atom given by Rutherford? 12, When electric field is applied, the cathode rays bend towards 13. Find the number of valence electrons in the following elements by writing the electronic arrangement in their atoms. (a) Nitrogen (b) Sulphur (c) Chlorine 14, Why is Rutherford’s model called a nuclear mode? 15. Define atomic number and mass number. How can you represent an atom by using atomic number and ‘mass number? Give two examples 16. Who discovered neutrons? How was the discovery made? 17. Why is a partially evacuated discharge tube taken for Thomson's experiment? 18. Atoms of different elements having the same mass number are known as 19. The nature of. rays depends upon the nature of the gas in the discharge tube. 20. How did Rutherford explain the stability of atom? 21, Name the isotopes of hydrogen and give the number of neutrons present in each of them. 22. What is the relative mass of proton with respect to hydrogen atom? 23. Which experiment led to the discovery of nucleus? 24. Most of the o-particles passed straight through the gold foil. This proved the existence of in an atom, 25. According to Rutherford, force of nucleus is balanced by the high velocity of revolving electrons. ee ul26. The atoms of the same element may differ in the number of 27. Ibobars do not differ in the number of. 28. The valence shell of an element of atomic number 35 is the shell 29. Give the mass and charge of an electron, a proton and a neutron in kg and coulombs respectively. 30. According to Bohr’ atomic model, electrons revolve in orbits. Short answer type questions 31. Exphin Thomson's atomic model. What are the drawbacks of this model? 32. An atom‘X"is made up of 20 protons and 20 neutrons. Write the atomic number and mass number and represent the atom with atomic number and mass number 33. Why does chlorine have fractional atomic mass? 34. How could Bohr explain the stability of an atom? 35. Give the postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory. 36. What are the observationsof O-ray scattering experiment? Based on these observations, how did Rutherford disprove Thomson's model? 37. Write the electronic arrangement for the following elements.Also give the geometrical representations. (@) Oxygen (6) Argon (¢) Calum =) Potassium 38. When different gases are taken in the discharge tube, how do the e/m values of cathode rays and canal ays vary? 39. Give the differences between isotopes and isobar 40. In J. J. Thomson's experiment, what observations were found when {@) a'small obstruction was placed in the path of cathode rays, ) a paddle wheel is placed between cathode and anode. ‘What were the conclusions drawn on the basis of these observations? 41. Calculate the number of neutrons for the following elements, fa) Na? (b) Ar” (cl @) Pe 42. What happens to the cathode raysunder a strong magnetic field or an electric field? What is the conclusion made from this? 43. An atom of an clement has 4th shell as the valence shell. The difference between electrons present in Land M, K and N shellsare 1 and 0 respectively. Find the atomic number of an element, 44. Anatom of an element has one electron in the valence shell and the two inner shells have 8 electrons each. Find the atomic number of that clement. 45. Mass of total positive charge present in an atom: is 16533 times to that of mass of electron, Find the atomic number of an element. 12Essay type questions 46. Write down the @) electronic configuration (©) number of val (©) number of neutrons and (@) nature of the element, for the following, a x" Oe @) 2" ce electrons, 47. Explain how the results of oLray scattering experiment led to Rutherford’s model of atom, Give the postulates and drawbacks of Rutherford’s atomic model 48. Sute the postulates of Bohr’s theory. 49. Find ont the maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in K shell, shell M shell and N shell by using Bohr-Bury scheme. 50. Give the properties of cathode rays in comparison to the properties of eanal rays, CONCEPT APPLICATION Ré Concept Application Level—1 Directions for questions 1 to 7: State whether the following statements are true or false. 1, In Thomson's atomic model, positive mass occupies more space than the negative charge in an atom. 2. d-ray scattering experiment proved the presence of neutrons in an atom. a homson could successfully explain the electrical neutrality of an atom. 4. The ¢/m ratio of cathode rays is different for different gases. 5. High pressure and low voltige should be maintained in the discharge tube for the production of cathode rays. 6. Mass number is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom, 7. Cathode rays defect in the presence of magnetic field Directions for questions 8 to 14: ill in the blanks. 8. The discovery of proved that atom is divisible, 9. The maximum namber of electrons present in 5th shell is 10. Electron present in orbit cannot lose its energy. 1314 11. The fundamental particle present in anode rays produced by ,H' is 12. The electrode connected to the negative terminal of a battery ina discharge tube is called 13. The specific charge value of anode rays produced by is the maximum. 14. The sum of protons and neutrons is same in Directions for question 15: Match the entriesin column A with the appropriate ones incolumn B. 15. A. Plum pudding model () a. Isobars B. Planetary model (.) b. Bohr’ atomic model C. Definite circular paths for electrons (1) © Isotopes D. Fractional atomic weights of elements (.) d. Rutherford’s atomic model E. Same number of nucleons (.) e. Thomson's atomic model Directions for questions 16 to 30: For each of the questions, fourchoices have been provided. Select the correct alternative. 16. Certain amount of « gas is enclosed in a discharge tube. The bulb in the arrangement given, below can be made to glow when ° ® li > tao Figure 1.14 (1) vaccum is exeated in the discharge tube. (2) the gasis replaced by the same amount of an easily ionisable gas. (3) the other gas of low molecular weight is introduced, (4) the amount of gas in the discharge tube is decreased,17. Which of the following particles is largely responsible for the chemical behaviour of elements? (1) Proton —@) Electron (3) Neutron. (4) Positron. 18. ,X and X" represent (1) Kotones@) Isobars_ (3) Isotopes. (4) osters 19. The isotope with zero neutrons is (1) protium. —Q) deutaium. (3) tritium @) None of these 20. Two elements X and ¥ have 6 and 7 electtons in their N-shell and M-shell respectively. Find the ratio of atomic numbers of X and. () 324 Q@) 1:2 @) 2:1 @ 6:7 21. The number of valence electrons in X* atom is at 2 a3 a4 22. The number of valence electrons in * X is a7 Q9 BS 2 23. Two elements A,B have 14 and 9 electrons in M and N shells respectively. Then the ratio of their atomic numbers is (1) 2:3 Q 3:4 (3) 3:2 @ 1:2 24. According to Thomson (1) negative charge of an atom is uniformly distributed throughout the atom, ) the volume occupied by positive charge is less than that occupied by the negative charge G) electrons are embedded in the positive charge which is spread uniformly. (4) None ofthe above 25. JA, '°!A are two isotopes of element A. Difference between number of neutrons in the isotopes is, () 1-2y Qi- Bt 2 26. Low pressure is maintained in the discharge tube to () increase the number of molecules. @) increase ionisation of gas molecules. @) decrease the velocity of the rays coming from: the cathode. (4) All the above. 27. If velocity of &. particles increases then angle of deviation (1) increases 2) decreases (3) remains same (4) Cannot be predicted 28. Which of the following unipositive ions possesses all the three sub-atomic particles? (1) Helium —Q) Deuterium (3) Tritium @) Hydrogen 15aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.44, Rutherford’ ony scattering experiment wis conducted in order to test the validity of Thomson's model. What results were expected from this experimen 48. Ifthe average atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 then find the percentage abundance of the two isotopes of chlorine which have the mass number 35 and 37. Concept Application Level—3 46. Discharge doesn’t take place at normal atmospheric pressure inside the cathode ray tube, Justify 47. The ¢/m ratio of cathode rays does not change by changing the gas in cathode ray discharge tube, But the e/m ratio of anode rays changes by changing the gas in the discharge tube. Justify this statement 48. When the canal ray experiment was conducted by taking helium gas in the discharge ibe, e/m value of the particles was found to be less under low voltage and it was found to be more under high voltage. How do you explain this? 49. Different gases can produce different colours in discharge tube, Explain with reason. 50. Anode rays produced by isotopes and isobars possess same change when taken in different discharge tubes. Which among the two sets of anode mys show different deflections in the presence of electric field? key points for selected questions Very short answer type questions 14. Discovery of nucleus 1. Like atoms with unidentical mass 15. Z = no. of protons,A = p +n 2. A charged particle in motion loses energy and__16+ Bombarding Be nucleus with @ particles leads to collapse of atom 17. Negligible intermolecular forces of attraction 3. fixed 18. Isobars 4. Tiniest particles of matter that take part in 19. Anode rays chemical reactions 20. High velocity of electron counterbalancing of 5. High voltage and low pressure. forces of attraction 6. certain paths 21. HY HEH ‘7: Different cleniesies having sani anase 22. Number of protons in hydrogen 8. Doubly ionised He atom 24. empty space 10. 2n* 25, electrostatic AL. Angstrom, Fermi 26. neutrons 12. Anode (positive terminal) 27. protons + neutrons 17aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Classification of Matter INTRODUCTION The objects around us, including air, water, stones, metals, wees, ete, are different varieties of matter Anything that occupies some space and has mass is called matter. The smallest particles of matter which retain all the properties of matter and exist independently are called molecules On the basis of the forces of attraction existing between the molecules of a substance, matter can be classified as solids, liquids and gases. The characteristics of these three states of matter and the interconversion of a substance from one state to the other is one aspect of the study of matter Matter can abo be classified on the basis of chemical composition into three major categories namel elements, compounds and mixtures. There are 111 elements discovered till today and these elements are further classified into metals, non-metals and metalloids on the basis of certain characteristic properties, Study of matter also involves study of the properties of various categories of elements. Italo includes the study of basic differences between compounds and mixtures and the study of techniques of separation of different types of mixtures Molecules are the constituent particles of matter and the characteristics of these molecules and their arrangement in the various states of matter was explained by kinetic molecular theory of matter Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter Postulates 1. Every form of matter is composed of small particles called molecules. 2. The empty space (gaps) chat exists in between the molecules is called inter-molecular space. 2aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Classification of Matter 25 Classification of Matter on The Basis of Chemical Composition Pure substances Mixture | v £ 1 Bioment ‘compound | [Homogeneous] [Heierogeneous mixtures mixtures Figure 2.1 PURE SUBSTANCES Substances which are homogeneous in nature and contain particles (molecules) of only one kind are called pure substances. pure substance is homogeneous in nature and has definite set of properties. The composition ofa pure substances cannot be changed by physical methods, Pure substances can be further classified as elements and compounds Elements Pure substances in which molecules are composed of only one kind of atoms are called elements ‘© Example Silver, Iron, Oxygen, Nitrogen, ete Atomicity of an element The number ofatoms present in the molecule of an element is called its atomicity. Based on the atomicity, the elements are classified into 3 types () Monoatomic elements: The elements each of whose molecules contains only one atom. © Example: Cu,Agand He. (ii) Diatomic elements: The elements each of whose molecules contains rwo atoms © Example: H,,O,and N, (iii) Polyatomic elements: The elements each of whose molecules contain more than two atoms, © Example: ,,P, nd 8,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Essay type questions 46. What is the method of separation of () NCO, mixtu (6) H,-O, mixture () NH,Cl, KCI and sand mixture, (a) Ink-water mixture 47. Compare solids, liquids and gases on the basis of their properties, 48. Name the metalloids and state the reasons why they are categorized as metalloids. 49. Write the main postulates of the kinetic molecular theory? 50. Compare metals and non-metals based on their physical properties. CONCEPT APPLICATION Concept Application Level—1 Directions for questions 1 to 7: State whether the following statements are true or f 1. Gas molecules have higher intermolecul forces of attraction due to larger intermolecular spaces 2. Non-metals usually form acidic oxides. 3. Boiling occurs throughout the liquid. 4. German silver is an alloy of silver and copper 5. Distillation is the method used for separation of petrol from water. 6. Glucose: water mIXt fe can be separated by the method of evaporation. 7. Metals form basic oxides or amphoteric oxides Directions for questions 8to 14: I in the blanks. 8. Decrease of pressure the boil og point of a liquid. 9. Rate of evaporation is increased by increasing and 10. acts asa catalyst during the hydrogenation of vegetable oils 11. Liquid is used to preserve biological specimens 12.N in KOH solution while CO, is 13. Tincture of iodine is a mixture of. and 14. Gases cannot be liquefied above 4 certain temperature called 41aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.23. A,B,C, D are four gases. If the order of their critical temperature is as follows.D < B < which of the following gis has the highest boiling point? (aA QB ac @D 24. Addition of potasium nitrate to ice results in (1) increase in melting point.(2) decrease in melting point. 3) change in colour of ice. (4) Both (1) and (3) 25. Identify the heterogeneous mixture among the following. (1) Brine solution 2) Duralumin (@) Gun powder (4) Liquor ammonia 26. Which of the following is a pure substance? (1) Duralumin (2) Magnalium (3) Bell metal (4) Magnesium 27. Aluminium foil can be made ftom aluminium by using (1) its thermal and electrical conductivity Q) its malleable property @) its sonorous property. () All the above 28. Pickles are not stored in steel or aluminium containers because (1) seel has chromium which is poisonous. Q) aluminium takes up oxygen from pickles and spoils it. @) pickles have acids which can corrode iron and aluminium making pickles poisonous. (4) None of the above 29. The molecular arrangement of a substance depends upon (1) temperature ) concentration ©) pressare (@) Allof the above 30. Silver, gold and platinum are called noble metals because (1) these are costly @) these are precious @) these have very less reactivity () All the above Concept Application Level—2 31. The thermal expansion of solids isthe least among solids, liquids and gases. Justify. 32. In winter mornings, the exhaled air tarns foggy. Explain, 433. Exphin the method by which CCI,, H,O and ethyl alcohol mixture can be separated, 34. Conduction of heat is not possible through gases. Explain using kinetic molecular theory. 435. For a certain purpose, a liquid having a liquid range from ~ 10°C to 110°C is required in large ‘quantities, What is the suitable liquid for the above purpose and how can it be used? 36. Water is sprayed in orange grooves in very cold countries during winter. Give reasons, 37. Explain the effect of temperature on the electrical conductivity of metals. 38. Why do naphthalene and camphor sublime under normal conditions of temperature and pressure? 43aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.3 Language of Chemistry and Transformation of Substances INTRODUCTION Chemistry is the branch of science which deals with the study of matter. The study of matter can have different aspects such as preparation, composition and properties. Since preparation and properties of a substance invariably depend on the composition of the matter, the study of composition of matter is of prime importance. On the basis of composition, the matter can be classified into elements, compounds and mixtures, In nature, every substance has an inherent tendency to undergo transformation which may or may not be associated with the change in composition and hence properties. The transformations which are associated with the change in the properties of the matterare considered as chemical changes in contrast to the physical changes in which the matter retains its identity. The innumerable chemical changes occurring in nature can conveniently be represented in the form of chemical equations. For the sake of convenience and universal application, the 111 elements discovered so fir have been assigned unique symbols, The molecules formed by the combination of the various elements are represented by distinct formulae, The study of symbols, formule and chemical equations comes under the purview of language of chemistry. The transformation which involves a change in the structure or composition of a substance is called chemical change 49aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Language of Chemistry and Transformation of Substances 53 Ozone 2 O, Water Sulphuric acid The compounds are formed by the combination of atoms of different elements During the formation of the molecules of the compounds, atoms combine in certain fixed proportions. This is due to the fact that different atoms have different combining capacities. The combining capacity of an atom is known as its valency. “The valency of a hydrogen stom is taken as one and is selected as the standard. Valencies of the other elements are expresed in terms of hydrogen. Valeney of an elemeat can also be defined as the number of hydrogen atoms which combine with one atom of it. HC! ‘One hydrogen atom combines with one chlorine atom. 1 (Chlorine) Hydrogen chloride HO ‘Two hydrogen atoms combine with one oxygen atom. 2 (Oxygen) Waer NH, Three hydrogen atoms combine with one nitrogen 3 (Nitrogen) Ammonia atom. cH, Four hydrogen atoms combine with one carbon atom. 4 (Carbon) Methane Since most of the elements do not combine with hydrogen, the valency or the combining capacity of the clement is also defined in terms of other elements like chlorine or oxygen. This is because almost all the elements combine with chlorine and oxygen. Valency with respect to chlorine: Since valency of chlorine is one, the number of chlorine atoms with which one atom of an element can combine is called its valency. © Example NaCl = Valency of Na= 1 Valency with respect to oxygen: In another way, valency can be defined as double the number of ‘oxygen atoms with which one atom of an element can combine since valency of oxygen is two.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Language of Chemistry and Transformation of Substances: 61 Naming of Acids, Bases and Salts 1. Binary acids: Binary acids are named as hydro........ie acid. © Examples Hcl Hydrochloric acid HBr Hydrobromic acid 2. Oxyacids: Oxyacids are named without mentioning hydrogen. Often an element (non-metal) is able to form more than one oxyacid, In naming such acids, the one with the greater number of oxygen atom is given the suffix ~ic and the one with the lesser number of oxygen atoms is given the suffix ous. © Examples HNO, Nitrous acid HINO, Nitric acid HSO, Sulphuric acid H,SO, Sulphurous acid When a non-metal forms more than two oxyacids, the prefix hypo—is used for the acids containing, lesser number of oxygen than ous acids and per- is used for acids containing more oxygen atoms than —ic acids. © Examples HCIO Hypochlorous acid HClO, ——Chlorous acid HCIO, ——Chlorie acid HClO, Perchlorie acid 3, Bases: For naming bases, the name of the metal (or postive radical) is specified first and then hydroxide due to the presence of hydroxyl radical © Examples KOH Porassium hydroxide Ca(OH), Calcium hydroxide Fe(OH), Iron (ll) hydroxide Fe(OH), — Iron (lll) bydroxide NH,OH Ammonium hydroxide 4. Salts Salts of binary acids ire writien with “ide suffix, ic, the name of the metallic radical (or positive radical) is written first and it is then followed by the name of the negative radical.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Language of Chemistry and Transformation of Substances 63 © Example Na SO, + CuCl — > 2NaCl + CuSO, Mol.wt of Na,SO, = 126g — Mol.wt of NaCl = 58.5 g Mol.wt of CuCl, = 134.5 g — Mol.wt of CuSO, = 143.5 ¢ Total mass of reactants = 260.5 g Total mass of products = 117 + 143.5 = 260.5 g (ii) Law of definite proportions When two or more elements combine to form a compound, they combine in a fixed ratio of their weights irrespective of the method of preparation, © Example ‘Carbon dioxide can be obtained by three processes (a) By the decomposition of metallic carbonates, (b) By burning carbon, (c) By the reaction of metallic carbonates with acids. When the three samples of CO, produced by the three different methods are analysed, the ratio by weight of carbon and oxygen has been found to be same, ie., 12:32 or 3 :8. (ii) Law of multiple proportions When two elements combine in different ratios to give more than one type of product, the ratio of the masies of the element that combines with a fixed weight of the other element always bears a simple integral ratio = Example Nitrogen and oxygen combine and form compounds like N,O, NO, NO,, etc. N,O: 28 g of nitrogen combines with 16 g of oxygen. Therefore, 14 g of nitrogen combines with 8 g of oxygen. NO: 14g of nitrogen combines with 16 g of oxygen. NO, 14g of nitrogen combines with 32 g of oxygen. If we analyse the ratio of oxygen that is combining with fixed mass of nitrogen in all the three compounds, it bears a simple integral ratio, Le, 1:2 <4. A quantitative relationship exists between the reactants and products in a chemical reaction. If specific amount of reactants are taken, then definite quantity of products are formed. Hence, it is required to balance all the chemical equations with respect to the number of atoms of various elements involved in the equation,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Language of Chemistry and Transformation of Substances 65 © Example Skeleton equation: HCL =— > KCI+ CrCl, + HO + Cl, Process of balancing: K.Cr,O,+HCl = —> — 2KC1 + 2CrCl, + HO + 2KCl + 2CrCl, + HO + Cl, 2KCI+ 2CrCl, + 7H,O + Cl, Balanced equation: K.Cr,0, +14HClL —> — 2KC1+ 2CrCl, + 7H,0 + SCI, Writing a balanced chemical equation does not necessarily imply that the reaction takes place inevitably at all conditions. For every chemical reaction to take place, certain specific conditions are required. CONDITIONS REQUIRED FOR A CHEMICAL REACTION (i) Physical contact Chemical reaction takes place only when the reactants are brought in contact with each other. © Example CaO + HO —> Cx(0H), Calcium hydroxide is formed only when calcium oxide comes in contact with water. (ii) Solution Some chemical reactions take place only when the reactants are taken in the form of solutions. © Example There is no reaction between silver nitrate and sodium chloride when they are in solid state, Reaction takes place only when they are dissolved in water. AgNO, + NaCl ——+AgCl + NaNO, iii) Heat A large number of chemical reactions take place by the absorption of heat. These are called thermo~ chemical reactions. © Example (@) 2KCIO, —4+ — 2KCI +30, ) Fe+S +5 Pes On simple mixing of iron fillings and sulphur, no reaction takes place; they combine and form iron sulphide only on heating,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.28. oe 29. ct 30. Po? 3. Po? 32. cae HCO," 33. NH," OH Me NH," HPO,* 35. Ky HPO," 36. Ht cl 37. nH clo" 38. HY clo, 39. HY clo" 40. x" 10,7 A. KN cr0> 42. Sn'* a 43. cet So2 M4 NH," en 45. Fe"? OH 46. Pb cr 47. Mn"? 48. Ba 49. Nat 50. Pb'? 2, Why is the burning of LPG a chemical change? 3. The forma of ammonium bisulphate is 4. Balance the following chemical equations () As + HNO, —>NO, + H,As0, + HO i) Cl, + $0, + H,O —> HO, + HCI (ii) Zn + HNO, —+ Zn(NO), + NO, + HO. (») NH, + Br, —>N,+ NH Br (v) KI + HSO, + MnO, —> KHSO, +MaSO, +1H,0 + I,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.i) BO, ©) MgS wi) NaAlo, (wii) MnO, (iti) Lit (i) KMn0, @) casio, (si) CaF, (sii) HOC! (sit) CXC), vi) HSO, ox) KHPO, (vi) K.HPO, (vi) HS (sviii) HSO, (xix) Mn(ClO,), co) B(OH) 10. The compound SF, is named as 11, For each of the following reactions, identify the products formed and bal (@ NaCl + AgNO, —> Gi) KOH + HSO, —> Gi) HCO, 4 (iv) KNO, + HSO, —> () HgO > wi) Ch (wii) Nay (cil) Zn + HCL —> (x) Ca(OH), + HCO, —> () AgNO, +Cu —> (si) BaCl, + NaS, —> (xii) Cus +O, —> (sii) PRS, + Na,CO, —>(xiv) Na + HO —> (xv) K+ Cl.—> (vi) Caco, —14 (svi) NaBr + Cl, —> (svi), NOH + HCl —> (xix) Fe + Cl, —> (x) KCI +0, —> 12, Why is a physical change reversible? 13. What is the diffecence betw. on synthesis and analysis? 14. The reaction Fe + S ——> Fe represents 15. Why is the action of heat on iodine a physical change? 16. What is meant by oxidation and reduction? 17. What is the change that takes plice when common salt is disolved in water? 18. Stibnum is the Lat 1e of. 19, Define exothermic reaction. Give an example. 20. Ag + CuSO, > Cu + AgSO, Is this reaction possible? Explain. 21. Why do chemical reactions involve loss or gain of energy? 22. What is meant by oxidation and reduction? 23. When Fe"? combines with O*, the compound obtained is 24. What is a displacement reaction? 25. What is chemical decomposition? Give one example. 26. What are catalytic reactions? Give an example 27. Define endothermic reaction, 28. N, + 3H, ——> 2NH, + X keal/mole, then the formation of NH, involves respect to reactants. Bive one example. 29. The symbols of carbon and cobalt are and respectively. 30. The symbol S stands for Short answer type questions of energy with 31. Sugar, on being treated with H,SO,, forms a black residue. If we observe the weights of sugar and the residue, we find a difference in weights. Why? 32. Burning of candle is an example of both physical and chemical changes. Justify your answer. 33. What is chemical equation? Write the steps involved in writing a chemical equation 34. Write the differences between reduction and oxidation. 7635. To obtain hydrogen and oxygen from water, what are the conditions to be maintained? ‘What are the different names that can be given to this reaction? 36. Why are the double decomposition reactions also called double displacement reactions? 37. Write the steps in naming a binary compound formed by two non-metallic elements, except hydrogen, with the help of an example, 38. Write the steps in naming a base. 39. FeO, + 4H, ——> 3Fe + 4H,0 2Na + Cl, ——> 2NaCl. Identify the oxidizing agent and reducing agent in the given reactions, 40. Photolysis comes under which type of chemical reaction? Explain it with an example. 41. Classify the following equations into combination, displacement, decomposition and double displacement () NH.Cl—> NH, + HCI Gi) 2NO + O, —>2NO, (ii) ZnCO, —+ ZnO +CO, (i) AgSO, + 2FeSO, —> Ag+ Fe,(SO,), () 2NH, —>N, +3H, (vi) AgNO, + HCl —+ AgCl + NaNO, (i) 280, + 0, —> 280 42. Write the characteristics of chemical reaction. 43. Classify the following into physical and chemical changes, @) Freezing of water (i) Fermentation of alcohol Gi) Burning of coal (iv) Breaking of glass (©) Glowing of an electric bulb 44. Why do we need to use formulae? 45. Write the steps in naming oxyacids () with greater number of oxygen atoms and (ii) with less number of oxygen atoms. Essay type questions 46. Explain the law of definite proportions with an example, 47. Give the differences between oxidation and reduction in terms of oxygen, hydrogen, electropositive element and sctronegative 48. What is a decomposition reaction? Explain different decomposition reactions with equations. 49. What is a chemical combination reaction? Explain the different types of combination reactions. 50, Explain the law of multiple proportions with an example, 778 NCEPT APPLICATION a Concept Application Level—1 Directions for questions 1 to 7: State whether the following statements are true or false. 1. Formula for potassium biphosphate is KHPO,, 2. The compounds H,O and D,O follows law of multiple proportions. 3.A.X is comprised of owo divalent negative radicals and one monovalent positive radical 4 = Formation of sodium nitrite and oxygen by thermal decomposition of yodium nitrate involves only chemical change, 5. The reaction C + O, —> CO, follows the law of conservation of mass, 6. Valency of sulphur in SO, is 2 7. In exothermic reactions, the energy of products is more than the energy of reactants. Directions for questions 8 to 14: Fillin the blanks. 8. The valencies of sulphur in hydrogen sulphide and sulphur dioxide are and respectively. 9. When 58 g of Mg(OH), reacts with 98 g of H.SO,,.it gives 36 g of H,O and of MgSO, 10. If the molecular weight of a compound Na, SO, is 142, then the values of X and Y are respectively and 11. In Sn + HNO, —>+ Sn(NO), + H,O + NH,NO, the valencies of Sn are 12. In binary compounds, suffix is added to the second element. 13. The symbol of the element is 14. The reverse reaction of neutralization is Directions for question 15: Match the entries given in column A with appropriate onesin column B. 15. cot cota A 2H () a 9 Nitrogen atoms B 3co ()b. 9 Sodium atoms c 4H,0 () 3 Hydrated copper sulphate molecules Dd, 2H, () d. 4 Water molecules E Na () e 3 Cobalt atoms E 8cr! () £2 Hydrogen atoms G ON () 3 Carbon monoxide molecules H. Na" () hb. 2 Hydrogen molecules 1 3Co () i 8 Chloride radicals J 5CuSO, 5H,O (i. 9 Sedium ionsDirections for questions 16 to 30: For each of the questions, four choices have been provided. Select the correct alternative. 16. Which of the following is not a physical change? (1) Dissolution of oxygen in water. (2) Dissolution of carbondioxide in water, @) Dissolution of alcohol in water (4) Disolution of silt in water. 17. Which of the following double displacement reactions is correct? (1) AB + CD—> ac + BD (2) AB+ CD ——> AD + BC @) AB+CD—>CA+BD (4) AB + CD —> AD + CB 18. The formula of the phosphate of an clement R is RPO, then the formule of its hydroxide and sulphide respectively are __and_. (1) ROM), and RS, 2) ROH), and RS, 6) ROH), and RS, (4) R(OH), and RS, 19. The molecular weight of a compound which contains total number of five radicals is 160, then it is () Cap, Q) FeO, (3) ALO, () Mg, 20. Removal of CO, and H,O from atmospheric air by wsing KOH and anbydrous CaCl, is an example of, and changes respectively, (1) chemical, chemical 2) physical, physical 3) chemical, physical (4) physical, chemical 21. Which of the following reactions is a synthesis reaction? (1) When steam is passed over red hot coke, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen is formed. 2) Sodium reacts with water to form sodium hydroxide and hydrogen. 3) When the milk of lime (calcium hydroxide) is added to hot sodium carbonate solution, sodium hydroxide is obtained and calcium carbonate separates out as mud. (#) Stannic chloride is prepared by passing chlorine into molten tin, 22. Pb (NO), + Fe, SO,), — Fe (NO), + PbSO, Coefficients of lead sulphate and ferric nitrate in the balanced equation of above reaction are (34 Q 3.3 (3) 3,2 23 23. The names of the salts formed by the reaction of (@ Ca and HNO, (i) Ca and H,SO, are (1) @ Calcium nitrate Gi) Calcium sulphate Q) @) Ca @) @ Calcium nitrite (i) Calcium sulphite @ jum nitrite ii) Calcium sulphite @) @ Calcium nitrite i) Calcium sulphate 7924. A,B, C are the elements such that A on reaction with air produces dazzling white flame B is used in rubber industry for hardening C acts asa conductor with rise in temperature, Then A,B,C are (1) metals (2) metal, and non-metal respectively (3) non-metal, metal, metalloid respectively (4) metal, non-metal, metalloid respectively. 25. In the preparation of HSO, the catalyst and the inhibitor respectively are (1) Platinum, Molybdenum (2) Iron, Arsenic oxide (3) Platinum, Arsenic oxide (4) tron, Molybdenum 26. Fe,O, + 3C ——> 2Pe + 3CO, in this reaction (1) Fe undergoes oxidation and C undergoes reduction. (2) Fe undergoes reduction and C undergoes oxidation. (3) both Fe and C undergo redaction. (4) both Fe and undergo oxidation 27. Arrange the elements Zin, Sn, Ca and Al in the increasing order of their reactivity for replacing Cu from CuSO, solution is (1) Zn > Sa>Ca> Al Q) Ca> AL> Zn> Sa @) Ca> Al> Sn > Zn () Ca> Sn > Zn> Al 28. The valency of sulphate radical is equal to the valency of (1) phosphate mdical 2) hydrogen phosphate radical. (3) dihydrogen phosphate radical. (4) phosphide radical 29. The ratio of oxygen atoms present in one molecule of cupric nitrite and ferric sulphite is (49 @ 2:3 @ 1:2 (4) 1:3 30. Which of the following statements is false? (1) A catalyst is highly specific ) The percentage of yield of products can be influenced by a catalyst (3) All catalysts have lange surface area (4) Composition of a catalyst changes during the reaction. Concept Application Level—2 31. An oxide X of carbon on treatment with oxygen givesY which turns lime water milky and blue litmus t0 red. Predict the valencies of carbon in X and ¥ and what is the composition of milky precipitate formed? 32. One molecule of a binary acid contains two hydrogen atoms and a negative radical X.What will be the formula of the silts when it reacts with bases like M(OH), M(OH), and M(OH),? Exphin with reasons.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Concept Application Level—1 True or false 1. False 2. True 3. False 4, False 5. False 6. False 7. False Fill in the blanks 11. O and 2 12. ide 13. fluorine 14, hydrolysis Match the following BA: £ Big cid D:h E:b Fid Gia Hj Tie Jie Multiple choice questions 16. Choice @) 17. Choice (4) 18. Choice (4) 19. Choice @) 20. Choice 6) 21. Choice (4) 22. Choice 6) 23. Choice 6) 84 24. Choice (4) f 25. Choice () : 26. Choice (2) 27. Choice @) 28. Choice @) 29. Choice (1) 30. Choice @) Concept Application Level—2,3 Key points 31.) dentification of ¥ from the given data. (ii) Identification of X from Y. il) Predicting the valencies of carbon in X. and, (iv) Reaction between ¥ and lime water (%) Composition of the cbove product. 32. (i) Formula of the binary acid, (ii) Valency of X. Gil). Valency of M in each ease. (is) Derivation of the formulae of salts produced. 33. @) Valency of M, (ii) Identification of the valency of metal M. (iil) Derivation of the formula of chloride, bicarbonate and sulphite from its valency: 34.) Reactants on left hand side and products oon right hand side. (i) Balancing the equations by keeping appropriate coefficients on either side of reaction. 35. () Law of definite proportions. i) Determination of the weight of nitrogen and oxygen which combine to form nitric oxide culation of the weight of oxygen from the weight of nitrogen given, () 5.08 36. (i) Negative radical in an oxyacid Gi) Identification of the types of negative radicals formed from sulphur and oxygen (ii) Derivation of the formula of the silt (s) Derivation of the formula of the base formed by the metal. ii)37. @) Gai) «ip Gy) © i) 38. (i) @ i) 39. 0) (i) Gi) @) 40. 0 (i) ao Gi) (ii) @) 42. 0) @ i Identification of negative radical of the given oxyacid. Mentification of salt of an oxyacid from the given molecular weight. Calculation of atomic weight of metal and identification of metal. “Writing formulae of the divalent metal with corresponding negative radicals Calculation of molecular weights of the above salts, 58 Calculate valency of M and N (metals) present in the reactants and products, ‘Valencies of M,N in their respective equations. densification of the element with variable valency. Reactivity series of metals. Reactivity of metals according to metal reactivity series, Reactions taking place Change in property of the solution due to the reaction. ‘Changes that take place in nitric acid on long standing. Effect of the product on nitric acid solution, Reactivity of HCI towards concentrated. H,80,, P.O, and quick lime. Give the formula of ron (III) oxide. Reaction between Aland iron (IM) oxide. Based on the above chemical reaction, predict the type of reaction. Identification of oxidizing and reducing agents. Formulae of salts based on valency of met Derivation of formulae ofthe compounds based on the valency of the metal Calculation of its corresponding molecular weight 43. Significance of coefficient and subscripts asiociated with the formula. 4. Formula of the white precipitate 45. (i) General balanced chemical equation for combustion of hydrocarbon. Gi) Calcution of the coefficients of carbon dioxide and water using the formula. (iii) Coefficient of Amount of H.O produced Molec wr weight (iv) Coefficient of Amount of H,O produced Molecalar weight (¥) Chemical formula of hydrocarbon from the coefficients of carbon dioxide and water 46. (i) Oxygen remains in the disiolved state in water. Gi) Conversion of oxygen to another allotropic form. (iii) Condition required for the conversion, (iv) Role of that allotropic form in the purification of water. 47. (i) Difference betweea luminous and non- luminous fame. (i) Reactions taking place in luminous and non huminos (iii) Conditions required for these reactions. 48. (i) Identification of X from the respective anhydride. (ii) Predicting the formulae of the bases based on nomenclature (ii) Nature of reaction between acid X and respective bases. flame, (iv) Predicting the valency of negative radical nx. (¥) Predicting the valency of sodium, caleium and aluminium respectively. (vi) Applying criss-cross method to determine formulae of the corresponding salts. (i) Identification of A from the product formed by the reaction of silver with ozone, (ji) Identification of X from B. Gi) Identification of ¥ and Z from X 49. 50. (i) Identification of the metal from given ratio, (ii) Identification of halogen based on color. (iii) Identification of chemical formula of salt of oxyacid, 85aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Air and Oxygen 87 (i) Troposphere: The layer of atmosphere which is in contact with the earth's surfice is called troposphere. The range of temperature in this layer is clase to chat of the earth since itis just above the earths surface. In this layer, the temperature decreases with increase in altitude upto about —S0°C. It lies between 0 km and 10 km above the earth’s surface and contains the maximum percentage of the total mass of the atmosphere (ii) Stratosphere: The layer of atmosphere above the troposphere is called stratosphere. In this layer, temperature range does not alter upto a height of about 25 km, Above this, the temperture gradually decreases upto a range of °C to 10°C. Ir Ties between 10 km to 50 km ahove the surface of the earth. (iii) Mesosphere: The layer succeeding the stratosphere is called mesosphere. In this layer, the range of temperiture is lower than that of the layers below it, It lies between 50 km to 80 km above the surface of the earth. (iv) Thermosphere: This is the topmost layer of atmosphere and itis called so due to the very high temperatures prevailing there. The basic reason for this is that the atmosphere in this layer absorbs the intense solar radiation, The composition of air is not other layer. form throughout the atmosphere. It varies from one hyer to the Significance of atmosphere The atmosphere plays an important role in all natural phenomena taking place. These are (i) Formation of clouds Gi) Occurrence of rain Gi) Formation of snow (iv) Preventing the harmful radiations reaching the earth (v) Formation of winds Since atmosphere is associated with all these natural processes, the study of atmosphere helps in making weather forecasts regarding cyclones, floods and droughts. They further help in taking proper steps to protect the life from these natural disasters. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE The atmosphere in any layer is composed of air, which exerts a downward pressure, and this downward presure exerted by air due to its weight on the surroundings is called the atmospheric pressure. Since pressure is defined as the force exerted per unit area, it is expressed in Newtons/metre® which is called pascal. Hence, S.1, unit of pressure is pascal or kilopascal. Measurement of atmospheric pressure Since the composition and hence the density of air varies with the altitude, the pressure exerted by air also varies. The atmospheric pressure decreases with a that the atmospheric pressure is measured at sea level where it is maximum, increase in the altitude. It is due to this reasonaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.96 Air and Oxygen Respiration ‘The process of respiration taking place in plants and animals is also a slow combustion reaction. During respiration, oxygen gas is inhaled which combines with heamoglobin of blood to form oxyhiemoglobin, This oxygen oxidizes the digested food (mostly present as glucose) to form carbon dioxide and water. During this process of combustion, energy is released. By this process, oxygen supports life on earth. H,,0, +60, —> 6CO, + 6H,0 + Energy ‘Though respiration is similar to the combustion of organic compounds, these two processes differ in some respects, Fast process. Slow process. Takes place at high temperature, Takes place at body temperature, ‘Catalysts are not essential. Enzymes are essential Energy is released in the form of heat Energy is released in the form of heat and light, only. (ii) Reaction with metals Oxygen reacts with metals to form metal oxides which are genenilly basic in nature, Though most of the metals form metal oxides, the metals differ in their reactivities with oxygen. (a) Sodium and potassium: Both reactwith oxygen vigorously and form oxidesat room temperature. 4Na+0, 2Na,0 4K +0, > 2K,0 (b) Magnesium and calcium: Both react with oxygen on heating dightly to form corresponding oxides, 2Mg + 0, —> 2MgO 2Ca +O, —> 2Ca0 (©) Aluminium and iron: They react with oxygen at rom temperature forming an oxide coating cover the metal surface. In the case of aluminium, it prevents further oxidation of metal. 4Al + 30, ——> 2A1,0. 4Fe +30, —> 2Fe,0, (d) Athigher temperature, iron gives reddish brown powder with crackling noise due to the formation of ferric tetraoxide or ferroso ferric oxide. Fe +2 |, —> FeO,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.102 Air and Oxygen CFCs (i) Air conditioners (chlow flouro ‘Organic chemicals Depletion of ozone layer. carbons) (ii) Refrigeration systems. (i) Automobiles (Pb) () Presentin petrol as) Nervous disorders Metals Gi) Thermal power plants. anti-knock. (i). Problems of digestion, (Pb, Hg) As,Co,Cu) (ii), Chemical reactions, (ii) Cancer, (Automobiles Hydrocarbons Gi) Degradation of onganic Exhaust gas () Carcinogenic @ Metal oxides and toxie ‘metals of fly ash cause health problems (Thermal power (i) Silica causes bronchitis and Fly ash jaa Combustion of coal. tg one (ii) Contamination of ground ae Suspended @ Lung and respiratory Particulate a Exhaust gas disorders Matcer(SPM) ‘© Indostries Gh; Forhuicnrotonag HAZARDS OF AIR POLLUTION AND THEIR PREVENTION (i) Acid rain Rain water is actually the purest form of water. However, the presence of pollutants such as oxides of nitrogen and sulphur in the air imparts acidity to the rain water. The sources of these gases are the eruption of volcanoes and the burning of fossil fuels, factory chimneys, ete. These gases dissolve in rain water forming nitric acid and sulphuric acid. SO, + HO —>H80, 2NO, + HO —> HNO, + HNO, Acid rain reduces the fertility of soil and thus damages vegetation. It also pollutes water bodies, thus affecting animal and aquatic life. Acid rain also results in the corrosion of buildings, starues and archeological monuments, Acid rains are not confined only to industrial areas. The regions fice of industrial pollution may also be affected by acid rains due to the movement of the rain clouds from one region to the other region. Prevention ‘The casual agents for acid rain being the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen are difficule to be controlled. But, avoiding the usage of fossil fuels, the use of the non-conventional sources of energy and safe disposil ofaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this 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Ammonium chloride on reaction with quick lime gives a gas ‘X’ which turns red litmus blue. : Excess of X’ and greenish yellow gasare taken in container ‘A’ and excess of greenish yellow gas and °X” are taken in container B which on reaction gives different sets of products. When moist litmus paper is introduced into the jars, it turned to red in jar “B". Identify the reactions involved and give equations, 42. Hydrogen chloride gas can be subjected to drying only with cone. H,SO, but not with quick lime or phosphorus pensoxide. Exphin. 43. Why are soaps ineffective during usage with hard water which contains soluble salts of calcium and magnesium? 44, When abinary sat ofiron reacts with hydrochloric acidit gives outa gas which can be used for identification of many metal ions. Identify the sie, the gas and explain how itis useful in detecting metal ions. 45. Nitric acid is colourless when freshly prepared. But, on long standing, it turns to yellow. How do you account for this? Concept Application Level—3 46. Two non metallic gaseous elements react in 1-3 ratio to give another gas“X”.A mixture of X and oxygen is taken in a jar and a burning match stick is introduced into it, Another sample of the same mixture containing large excess of ©, is pased over heated platinum, The mixture of gaseous products ig digobred da water iy give sid 2 whith wc aloucless (2 5 X.Y and Z by giving reasons wherever necessary. Also identify the exothermic reaction in the above sequence. long standing turns to yellow. Identify 47. Both slow cooling and rapid cooling of glass are avoided. How do you account for this? 48. Why is common salt sprinkled over pots during the heating process while making pots? 49. Phosphorite rock when treated with phosphoric acid gives a fesliser which is preferred to a fertiliser obtained from the same mineral on treatment with conc. sulphuric acid. Justify 50. Why is the compound AgCl used in photo-gray lenses? key points for selected questions Very short answer type questions 5, Mg + Cl —> MgCl, 1. By passing KOH or NaOH; electric precipitators 6 Sulphides, sulphates and in organic matter. or filters. 1. Dark brown, amozphous, density is 1.92 gem’, 2. Zinc phosphide insoluble in CS,, bad conductor of heat and aLNIGLEGI electricity, BLP. 444°C, no sharp M.P. 4. Calcium phosphate (Ca,?O,),) Sets Hes 9. Nitrogen fixation 21410, 2 + 3C1, —> 2PCI, ;5P + 5c], —> 2PCl, 11, HO + SO,—-> HSO. 13. HS + Cl—> 2HCIT + § 14. Formation of precipitates. 15, 3, calcium ammonium nitrate, fertilizer. 16. 965°C. 17. Manufacture of different glass articles; freeblowing, mould blowing. 18. Large scale production, cost, durability, 19. 3Ca,(PO,)CaF, 20. In the form of minerals, organic matter 21. @ COC. i) CCINO, Gi) CHC, 22. Oxides, nitrides, carbides and borides. 23. The nutrients which are required in large and small cuantities respectively 24. 4NH, + 30, —> 2N, + 6H,0 25. Nitrolim is mixture of calcium cyanamid and graphite, Obtained by the reaction of nitrogen and calcium carbide. 26. Sicilian 27. Greenish yellow, pungent smell, sparingly. soluble in water havier than air, vapour density. 35.5 and atomicity 2. 28. Mixing up of chlorine gas with slaked lime. 29. Due to formation of hydrochloric acid. 30. Nitric oxide(NO). Short answer type questions 32. (i) Composition (ii). Property Gi), Mechanism of burning 33. (i) Existence/position of sulphur (Gi) Brick kilns, sloping hill sides key points for selected questions ii) Small spaces (iv) Powdered sulphur (v) Molten sulphur 34. Gi) Gi) Preparation Gi) Colour (iv) Shape/structure Other names (¥) Density: (vi) (vii) Sclubility Melting point Conductivity Boiling pomt (ey) 35. (i) Metal sulphides Gi) Precipitate Gi) Colour of precipitate 36. (i) Bleaching action (i) Nature Gi) Gv) 37. (i) Formula of turpentine. (i) Conditions, ii) Products formed. 39 Gi Gi) Interaction of polar end of soap with water Extraction of metals Industries ‘The negative and positive ends of soap (ii) Decrease in surface tension of water. 40. (i) Solvent i) Refrigerane 41. (i) Acidic nature (ii) Reducing nature Gi] Reaction with potassium permanganate (iv) HCl formation 42. (i) Definition of chemical fertilizers. Nitrogenous fertilizers Phosputatie fertilizers Gi) (iv) Potash fertilizers. 43. (i) Reducing agent (0) Production of nascent hydrogen wath water. 44, ()) Definition of plaste (i) Thermophsties ii) Thermosets 215aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.