BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

LAYOUT AND EXCAVATION

SPIRIT LEVEL - INSTRUMENT OR TOOL CAPABLE OF VERTICAL AND
HORIZONTAL LINE CHECK.
PLUMB BOB - ITS USES FOR VERTICAL LINE CHECK.
PLASTIC HOSE FILLED W/ WATER A METHOD OF LEVELLING
(HORIZONTAL) BATTERBOARDS WITHOUT TRANSIT.
3-4-5 MULTIPLES W/ THE USE OF STEEL TAPE MEASURE A MANUAL
METHOD OF SQUARING THE CORNERS OF BUILDING LINES IN
BUILDING LAYOUT.
SHEET PILLING A BARRIER FORMED TO PREVENT THE MOVEMENT
OF SOIL TO STABILIZE FOUNDATION.

LAYOUT AND EXCAVATIONS

LAYOUT IS SOMETIMES CALLED STAKING OUT WHICH MEANS THE
PROCESS OF RELOCATING THE POINT OF BOUNDARIES AND PROPERTY
LINE OF THE SITE WHERE THE BUILDING IS TO BE CONSTRUCTED.
IT INCLUDES CLEARING, STAKING, BATTER BOARDS AND
ESTABLISHES THE EXACT LOCATION OF THE BUILDING FOUNDATION
AND WALL LINE ON THE GROUND.
STAKE ARE WOODEN STICKS USED AS POSTS SHARPENED AT ONE
END DRIVEN INTO THE GROUND TO SERVE AS BOUNDARIES OR
SUPPORTS OF THE BATTER BOARDS.
BATTER BOARD WOOD STICK OR BOARD NAILED HORIZONTALLY AT
THE STAKE WHICH SERVE AS THE HORIZONTAL PLANE WHERE THE
REFERENCE POINT OF THE BUILDING MEASUREMENTS ARE
ESTABLISHED.

 STRING IS EITHER PLASTIC CHORD OR GALVANIZED WIRE ACROSS

THE BATTER BOARDS USED TO INDICATE THE OUTLINE OF THE
BUILDING WALL AND FOUNDATION.

LAYOUT METHODS AND PROCEDURES

1.
2.

3.

BEFORE THE CONSTRUCTION BEGINS, SEE TO IT THAT A BUILDING

PERMIT IS FIRST SECURED FROM THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES
CONCERNED.
RELOCATE THE BOUDARIES OF THE CONSTRUCTION SITE. IT IS
SUGGESTED THAT THE RELOCATION OF THE PROPERTY LINE
SHALL BE DONE BY GEODETIC ENGINEER SPECIALLY FOR THOSE
LOTS WITHOUT EXISTING REFERENCE POINTS OR ADJOINING
STRUCTURES.
CLEAR THE SITE OF ANY EXISTING STRUCTURE, TREES, AND
OTHER ELEMENTS THAT WILL OBSTRUCT THE CONSTRUCTION
WORK.

4.
5.

6.
7.

CONSTRUCT AND ALLOCATE A SPACE FOR LABORERS QUARTERS,

CONSTRUCTION OFFICE, BODEGA FOR THE MATERIALS AND
WORKING TOOLS AND TEMPORARY WASTE DISPOSAL.
APPLY FOR A TEMPORARY CONNECTIONS OF ELECTRIC AND
WATER SUPPLY. ELECTRIC CURRENT IS IMPORTANT FOR THE
POWER NEEDS OF THE TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT AND IS
NECESSARY ON OVERTIME SCHEDULES ESPECIALLY IN THE TIME
OF CONCRETING.
WATER IS ALSO A PRIME NEED IN
CONSTRUCTION.
CONSTRUCT A TEMPORARY FENCE AROUND THE CONSTRUCTION.
VERIFY THE MEASUREMENT IN THE PLAN IF THE DISTANCES
INDICATED ARE FORM:
CENTER TO CENTER
OUTER TO CENTER
OUTER TO OUTER
INSIDE TO INSIDE

8.
9.

FIX THE BATTER BOARD TO ITS HORIZONTAL POSITION WITH THE

AID OF LEVEL INSTRUMENT PREFERABLY PLASTIC HOSE WITH
WATER.
AFTER ESTABLISHING THE REFERENCE POINT AND LINE OF THE
FOOTING, TRANSFER THE INTERSECTING POINTS OF THE STRING
ON THE GROUND BY THE AID OF PLUMB BOB AND INDICATE THE
SIZE AND WIDTH TO BE EXCAVATED.

EXCAVATION
EXCAVATION WORK IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IS CATEGORIZED
INTO TWO TYPES: THE MINOR AND MAJOR EXCAVATION DEPENDING
UPON THE SIZE AND NATURE OF THE FOUNDATION TO BE
CONSTRUCTED.
EXCAVATION FOR A SMALL CONSTRUCTION WITH
INDEPENDENT WALL, OR COMBINED FOOTING IS CLASSIFIED UNDER
THE MINOR EXCAVATION, WHILE THE REST WHICH REQUIRES SIZEABLES

OR TOTAL EXTRACTION OF THE EARTH FALL UNDER THE CATEGORY OF

MAJOR CONSTRUCTION.
MINOR EXCAVATION
EXCAVATION UNDER THIS CATEGORY ARE THOSE CONSTRUCTION
HAVING INDEPENDENT FOOTING AND HOLLOW BLOCK WALL FOOTING
WHERE THE DIGGING OF THE SOIL FOR THE FOOTING EXTEND TO A
DEPTH FROM 1.00 TO 1.50 METER AND ABOUT HALF A METER DEPTH FOR
THE WALL FOOTING.
MAJOR EXCAVATION
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION THAT REQUIRES WIDE EXCAVATION OR
TOTAL EXTRACTION OF THE SOIL ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO
CATEGORIES DEPENDING UPON THE CONDITION OR LOCATION OF THE
SITE. WHEN THE AREA OF THE CONSTRUCTION SITE IS BIG THAT THERE

IS ENOUGH SPACE TO ACCOMMODATE WORKING ACTIVITIES, STORING

OF MATERIALS AND DUMPING GROUND FOR THE EXCAVATED SOIL.
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION ON A BUSY COMMERCIAL CENTER WITH
ADJACENT EXISTING STRUCTURE IS CONSIDERED TO THE MOST
COMPLICATED AMONG THE VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION WORKS SINCE
THIS REQUIRES CAREFUL STUDY AND ANALYSIS OF THE RIGHT
APPROACH.
PROBLEMS MIGHT BE ENCOUNTER:
1. THE MANNER OF THE EXCAVATION TO BE EMPLOYED WHICH WILL
NOT AFFECT OR DAMAGED THE ADJOINING STRUCTURE.
2. THE KIND OF EQUIPMENT TO BE USED IN THE DIGGING AND
EXTRACTING THE GROUND MAY NOT BE A PROBLEM BUT THE PLACE
WHERE TO STATION THE EQUIPMENT DURING THE OPERATION.

3. HOW AND WHERE TO DISPOSE THE EXTRACTED SOIL INVOLVES THE

EFFECTIVE MANNER OF MANEUVERING THE PAYLOAD AND
DRUMPTRUCKS
IN
HAULING
WITHOUT OBSTRUCTING
THE
PEDESTRIAN AND VEHICULAR TRAFFIC FLOW.
4. WHERE TO DISPOSE THE UNDERGROUND WATER TO BE DRAINED BY
THE WATER PUMP DURING THE PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION WHICH
MIGHT CAUSE MUDDY ROAD AND CREATE INCONVENIENCE TO
TRAFFIC.
5. THE KIND OF SHEETING AND BRACING TO BE USED IN SHORING OR
UNDERSPINNING TO PROTECT THE ADJOINING STRUCTURE MUST BE
CONSIDERED.

FOUNDATION AND FOOTING

THE FUNCTION OF A FOUNDATION IS TO TRANSFER THE
STRUCTURAL LOADS FROM A BUILDING SAFELY INTO THE GROUND.
ALL FOUNDATIONS SETTLE TO SOME EXTENT AS THE SOIL AROUND
BENEATH THEM ADJUST ITSELF TO THESE LOADS.
UNIFORM SETTLEMENT IS USUALLY OF LITTLE CONSEQUENCES IN
A BUILDING, BUT A DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT CAN CAUSE SEVERE
STRUCTURAL DAMAGE.
3 MAJOR PARTS OF A BUILDING:
SUPERSTRUCTURE WHICH IS THE ABOVE GROUND PORTION OF
THE BUILDING.
SUBSTRUCTURE WHICH IS THE HABITABLE BELOW-GROUND
PORTION.
FOUNDATION WHICH ARE THE COMPONENTS OF THE BUILDING
THAT TRANSFER ITS LOAD INTO THE SOIL.

3 TYPES OF SUBSTRUCTURES:
SLAB ON FILL
CRAWLSPACE
BASEMENT
2 BASIC TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS:
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS ARE THOSE THAT TRANSFER THE LOAD TO
THE EARTH AT THE BASE OF THE COLUMN OR WALL OF THE
SUBSTRUCTURE.
DEEP FOUNDATIONS TRANSFER THE LOAD AT A POINT FAR BELOW
THE SUBSTRUCTURE.
FOUNDATION IS THAT PORTION OF THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
THAT CARRY OR SUPPORT THE SUPERSTRUCTURE OF THE BUILDING.

FOOTING IS THAT PORTION OF THE FOUNDATION OF THE STRUCTURE

WHICH DIRECTLY TRANSMIT THE COLUMN LOAD TO THE UNDERLYING
SOIL OR ROCK, FOOTING IS THE LOWER PORTION OF THE FOUNDATION
STRUCTURE.
FOUNDATION BED - REFERS TO THE SOIL OR ROCK DIRECTLY
BENEATH THE FOOTING.
PILE FOUNDATION WHEN A FOUNDATION BED IS TOO WEAK TO
SUPPORT A RAFT FOOTING, THERE IS AN URGENT NEED TO PROVIDE A
SUITABLE MATERIALS WHERE TO TRANSFER THE EXCESS LOAD TO A
GREATER DEPTH WHEREIN PILES IS THE ANSWER.
PILE IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER OF SMALL CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA
WITH REASONABLE LENGTH DRIVEN DOWN THE GROUND BY MEANS OF
HAMMERS OR VIBRATORY GENERATOR.
PILE IS DISTINGUISHED FROM A CAISSON BY BEING DRIVEN INTO
PLACE RATHER THAN DRILED & POURED.

PILES ARE GENERALLY DRIVEN CLOSELY TOGETHER IN CLUSTERS

CONTAINING FROM TWO TO TWENTY-FIVE PILES. EACH CLUSTER IS
LATER JOINED AT THE TOP BY A REINFORCED CONCRETE PILE CAP.
PILE CAP DISTRIBUTES THE LOAD OF THE COLUMN OR WALL
EQUALLY AMONG THE PILES.
CAISSONS IS SIMILAR TO A COLUMN FOOTING IN THAT IT SPREADS
THE LOAD FROM A COLUMN OVER A LARGE ENOUGH AREA OF SOIL.
FOUNDATION WALL THAT PART OF THE BUILDING FOUNDATION
WHICH FORMS THE PERMANENT RETAINING WALL OF THE
STRUCTURE BELOW GRADE.
GRADE BEAM THAT PART OF A FOUNDATION SYSTEM W/C
SUPPORTS THE EXTERIOR WALL OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE AND
BEARS DIRECTLY ON THE COLUMN FOOTING.
RETAINING WALL A WALL OR LATERALLY BRACED, THAT BEARS
AGAINST AN EARTH OR OTHER FILL SURFACE AND RESISTS LATERAL
AND OTHER FORCES.

 CANTILEVER WALL A REINFORCED CONCRETE WALL WHICH RESIST

OVERTURNING BY THE USE OF CANTILEVER FOOTING.
GRAVITY WALL A MASSIVE CONCRETE WALL THAT RESIST
OVERTURNING BY VIRTUE OF ITS OWN WEIGHT.
BEARING WALL A WALL CAPABLE OF SUPPORTING AN IMPOSED
LOAD.

FOOTING ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO TYPES:

WALL FOOTING OR STRIP FOOTING IS A STRIP OF REINFORCED
CONCRETE WIDER THAN THE WALL WHICH DISTRIBUTES THE LOAD TO
THE SOIL.
A STEEL PERCENTAGE EQUALS TO 0.2 TO 0.3% OF THE CROSS
SECTIONAL AREA OF CONCRETE IS SAID TO BE ADEQUATE EXCEPT ON
UNUSUAL CASES.
COLUMN FOOTING IS CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING TYPES:
1. ISOLATED OR INDEPENDENT FOOTING IS A KIND OF FOOTING
REPRESENTS THE SIMPLEST AND MOST ECONOMICAL TYPE, IN THE
FORM OF:
SQUARE BLOCK FOOTING
SQUARE SLOPE FOOTING
SQUARE STEPPED FOOTING

2. COMBINED FOOTING IS USED WHEN TWO OR MORE COLUMNS ARE

SPACED CLOSELY TO EACH OTHER THAT THEIR FOOTING WILL
ALMOST OR COMPLETELY MERGE. ITS EITHER :
RECTANGULAR
TRAPEZOIDAL
3. CONTINUOUS FOOTING IS SOMETIMES CLASSIFIED AS WALL
FOOTING WHICH SUPPORT SEVERAL COLUMNS IN A ROW. ITS
EITHER:
INVERTED SLAB FOOTING
INVERTED TEE FOOTING
4. RAFT OR MAT FOOTING ITS OCCUPIES THE ENTIRE AREA BENEATH
THE STRUCTURE AND CARRY THE WALL AND THE COLUMN LOADS.
UNIFORM SLAB
THICKENED SLAB
BEAM & GIRDER

CONCRETE
CONCRETE IS AN ARTIFICIAL STONE MADE OUT FROM THE
MIXTURE OF CEMENT, SAND, GRAVEL AND WATER. THIS IS KNOWN AS
SOLID MASS OR PLAIN CONCRETE.
CONCRETE IN WHICH
REINFORCEMENT IS EMBEDDED IN SUCH A MANNER THAT THE TWO
MATERIALS ACT TOGETHER IN RESISTING FORCES IS CALLED
REINFORCED CONCRETE.
SLUMP TEST A READY MEANS OF DETERMINING THE CONSISTENCY
OF FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE.
DESIGNING OF CONCRETE MIXTURE IS BASED ON THE WATERCEMENT RATIO.
0.68 lb. OF WATER / lb. OF CEMENT WILL PRODUCE CONCRETE
CAPABLE OF DEVELOPING 2,500 PSI IN 28 DAYS.
LESS WATER PRODUCE STRONGER CONCRETE.
MORE WATER PRODUCE LESSER STRENGTH.

 ADMIXTURE ACCELERATES OR RETARDS CONCRETE SETTING.

SIZES OF MEASURING BOX FOR :
40 kg. CEMENT 300mm X 300mm X 300mm
50 kg. CEMENT - 320mm X 320mm X 330mm
CONCRETE MIXTURE:
CLASS
MIXTURE
40kg.
50kg.
SAND
GRAVEL
AA
1:11/2: 3
12
9.5
0.5 cu.m.
1.0 cu.m.
A
1:2:4
9
7
0.5
1.0
B
1:21/2:5
7.5
6
0.5
1.0
C
1:3:6
6
5
0.5
1.0
MORTAR MIXTURE:
CLASS
MIXTURE
A
1:2
B
1:3
C
1:4
D
1:5

40kg.
18
12
9
7.5

50kg.
14.5
9.5
7
6

SAND
1.0 cu.m.
1.0
1.0
1.0

POST AND COLUMN

POST REFERS TO A PIECE OF TIMBER OF EITHER CYLINDRICAL,
SQUARE OR OTHER GEOMETRICAL CROSS SECTION PLACED
VERTICALLY TO SUPPORT A BUILDING.
COLUMN REFERS TO VERTICAL STRUCTURE USE TO SUPPORT A
BUILDING MADE OF STONE, CONCRETE, STEEL OR COMBINATION OF
THE ABOVE MATERIALS.
STOREY IS THE SPACE IN A BUILDING BETWEEN FLOOR LEVELS OR
BETWEEN A FLOOR AND A ROOF ABOVE.
REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMN ARE CLASSIFIED AS:
SHORT COLUMN WHEN THE UNSUPPORTED HEIGHT IS NOT
GREATER THAN TEN TIMES THE SHORTEST LATERAL DIMENSION OF
THE CROSS SECTION.

 LONG COLUMN WHEN THE UNSUPPORTED HEIGHT IS MORE THAN

TEN TIMES THE SHORTEST LATERAL DIMENSION OF THE CROSS
SECTION.
TYPES OF COLUMNS ARE:
TIED COLUMN HAS REINFORCEMENT CONSISTING OF VERTICAL OR
LONGITUDINAL
BARS
HELD
IN
POSITION
BY
LATERAL
REINFORCEMENT CALLED LATERAL TIES.
SPIRAL COLUMN IS THE TERM GIVEN WHERE A CIRCULAR
CONCRETE CORE IN ENCLOSED BY SPIRALS WITH VERTICAL OR
LONGITUDINAL BARS. THE VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT IS PROVIDED
WITH EVENLY SPACED CONTINUOUS SPIRAL HELD FIRMLY IN
POSITION BY AT LEAST THREE VERTICAL BAR SPACERS.
COMPOSITE COLUMN WHERE STRUCTURAL STEEL COLUMN IS
EMBEDDED INTO THE CONCRETE CORE OF A SPIRAL COLUMN.

 COMBINED COLUMN WITH STRUCTURAL STEEL ENCASED IN

CONCRETE OF AT LEAST 7 cm. THK. REINFORCED WITH WIRE MESS
SURROUNDING THE COLUMN AT A DISTANCE OF 3 cm. INSIDE THE
OUTER SURFACE OF THE CONCRETE COVERING.
LALLY COLUMN IS A FABRICATED STEEL PIPE PROVIDED WITH A
FLAT STEEL BARS OR PLATE WHICH HOLD A GIRDER, GIRTS OR BEAM.
THE STEEL PIPE IS SOMETIMES FILLED WITH GROUT OR CONCRETE
FOR CORROSION.

METAL REINFORCEMENT
THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF STRESSES THAT MAY ACT ON THE
STRUCTURE ARE:
1.
COMPRESSION STRESS
2.
TENSION STRESS
3.
SHEAR STRESS
4.
TORSION STRESS
REINFORCEMENT NEED TO PROVIDE ON BEAM TO RESPONSE TO
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE BENDING WHICH MAY CAUSE FAILURE OR
COLLAPSE OF THE STRUCTURE.
REINFORCED CONCRETE IS A COMBINATION OF CONCRETE AND
STEEL.
CONCRETE IS STRONG IN SUPPORTING COMPRESSION LOAD BUT
WEAK IN RESISTING TENSION FORCES.

 STEEL POSSESSES THE STRENGTH TO RESIST BOTH

COMPRESSION AND TENSION.
BALANCE BEAM WHEN THE AREA OF THE CONCRETE AND STEEL
ARE JUST ENOUGH TO CARRY THE COMPRESSION AND TENSION
FORCES SIMULTANEOUSLY.
INFLECTION POINTS REFER TO THE PORTION OF A BEAM WHERE
BENDING MOMENT CHANGES FROM POSITIVE TO NEGATIVE.
NO BENT BARS WHEN BARS ARE NOT BENT, AN ADDITIONAL
STRAIGHT REINFORCING BARS ARE PLACED ON THE TOP OF THE
BEAM ACROSS THE SUPPORTS EXTENDED TO THE REQUIRED
LENGTH.
BENT REINFORCING BARS ARE BENT UP ON OR NEAR THE
INFLECTION POINT AND ARE EXTENDED AT THE TOP OF THE BEAM
ACROSS THE SUPPORT TOWARDS THE ADJACENT SPAN.
4cm. ALLOWANCE PROTECTIVE COVERING OF STEEL BARS FROM
THE OUTSIDE OF THE MAIN REINFORCEMENT.

 ADVANTAGE OF THE BEND BARS, ITS RESIST THE DIAGONAL TENSION.

BUILDING CODE REQUIRED THAT A BALANCE BEAM SHALL PROVIDE,
THAT THE CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT
SHALL BE EQUAL TO .005 TIMES THE CROSS SECTIONAL PRODUCT OF
THE WIDTH AND THE DEPTH OF THE BEAM.
USED LATERAL TIES
10mm dia. IF LONGITUDINAL BARS 32mm SMALLER
12mm dia. IF LONGITUDINAL BARS 36mm BIGGER
THREE FACTORS FOR SPACING OF THE LATERAL TIES:
SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 16 TIMES THE DIA. OF THE
LONGITUDINAL OR MAIN REINFORCING BARS.
SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 48 TIMES THE DIA. OF THE
LATERAL TIES.
NOT MORE THAN THE SHORTEST DIMENSION OF THE COLUMN.

WOOD CONSTRUCTION
SCAB A SHORT FLAT PIECE OF LUMBER WHICH IS BOLTED, NAILED
OR SCREWED TO TWO BUTTING PIECES IN ORDER TO SPLICE THEM
TOGETHER.
FISH PLATE A WOOD OR METAL PIECE USED TO FASTEN TOGETHER
THE ENDS OF TWO MEMBERS WITH NAILS OR BOLTS.
SPLICE PLATE A METAL PLATE USED FOR FASTENING TWO OR
MORE MEMBER TOGETHER.
COGGED JOINT A CARPENTRY JOINT BY TWO UNEVEN TIMBERS,
EACH OF WHICH IS NOTCHED AT THE PLACE WHERE THEY MEET.
NOTCHING JOINING OF TIMBERS, USUALLY MEETING OR CROSSING
AT RIGHT ANGLES, BY CUTTING A DAP IN ONE OR BOTH PIECES.

 CROSSLAP JOINT A JOINT CONNECTING TWO WOOD MEMBERS

WHICH CROSS EACH OTHER, HALF THE THICKNESS OF EACH IS CUT
SO THAT THE THICKNESS WILL THE SAME AS THAT OF EACH MEMBER.
SQUARE SPLICEA TYPE OF HALF LAPPED USED TO RESIST TENSION.
BRIDLE JOINT A JOINT IN WHICH TWO TONGUES PROJECT FROM
THE SIDES OF THE TENONED MEMBER, THESE TONGUES FIT INTO
CORRESPONDING SLOTS IN THE MORTISED MEMBER.
TENON THE PROJECTING END OF A PIECE OF WOOD, OR OTHER
MATERIALS WHICH IS REDUCED IN CROSS SECTION, SO THAT IT MAY
BE INSERTED IN A CORRESPONDING CAVITY IN ANOTHER PIECE IN
ORDER TO FORM A SECURE JOINT.
YACAL LUMBER PREFFERED WHEN IN CONTACT WITH CONCRETE.
BOARD FOOT THE VOLUME OF A PIECE OF WOOD ONE INCH. THICK,
ONE FOOT WIDE AND ONE FOOT LONG.
BOLIDEN SALT TREATMENT IN WOLMANIZED LUMBER.
DAP A NOTCH IN A TIMBER FOR RECEIVING ANOTHER TIMBER.

 DADO A RECTANGULAR GROOVE CUT ACROSS THE FULL WIDTH OF

A PIECE OF WOOD TO RECEIVE THE END OF ANOTHER PIECE.
SOLIGNUM TRADE NAME FOR ANTI-TERMITE SURFACE APPLICATION
ON WOOD.

FLOOR STRUCTURE
WOOD FLOOR SYSTEM
FLOOR FRAMING IS THAT PLATFORM STRUCTURE OF THE BUILDING
SUSPENDED BY POSTS, COLUMNS, WALLS AND BEAMS.
THE DESIGN OF A PLATFORM FLOOR SYSTEM DEPENDS UPON THE
FOLLOWING CONSIDERATIONS:
1.
LIVE LOAD REFERS TO THOSE MOVABLE LOADS IMPOSED
ON THE FLOOR.
2.
DEAD LOAD REFERS TO THE STATIC LOAD SUCH AS THE
WEIGHT OF THE CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS WHICH
GENERALLY CARRY THE LIVE LOAD.

3.

TYPES OF MATERIALS TO BE USED THE CHOICE FROM THE

VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS SUCH AS LUMBER,
CONCRETE, AND STEEL.
4.
THE SIZING AND SPACING OF THE STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
DEPENDS UPON ITS STRENGTH AND CAPABILITY TO CARRY
THE LOAD AT A CERTAIN SPACING.
5.
SPAN OF THE SUPPORTS PERTAINS TO THE DISTANCES
BETWEEN THE POSTS, COLUMNS OR SUPPORTING WALLS.
THE PLATFORM - FLOOR FRAMING STRUCTURE IS CLASSIFIED INTO
THE FOLLOWING TYPES:
A.
THE PLANK AND BEAM FLOOR TYPE
B.
THE PANELIZED-FLOOR SYSTEM
C.
THE CONVENTIONAL FLOOR FRAMING SYSTEM
THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF A PLATFORM FLOOR SYSTEM ARE:
GIRDER IS A PRINCIPAL BEAM EXTENDING FROM WALL TO WALL OF
A BUILDING SUPPORTING THE FLOOR JOISTS OF FLOOR BEAMS.

 SILL THAT PART OF THE SIDE OF A HOUSE THAT RESTS

HORIZONTALLY UPON THE FOUNDATION.
FLOOR JOISTS ARE THOSE PARTS OF THE FLOOR SYSTEM PLACED
ON THE GIRDERS WHERE THE FLOOR BOARDS ARE FASTENED.
HEADER AND TRIMMER HEADER IS A SHORT TRANSVERSE JOISTS
THAT SUPPORT THE END OF THE CUT-OFF JOIST AT A STAIR WELL
HOLE. TRIMMER IS A SUPPORTING JOIST WHICH CARRIES AN END
PORTION OF A HEADER.
FLOORING THE TONGUE AND GROOVE WHICH ARE POPULARLY
KNOWN AS T & G IS GENERALLY SPECIFIED FOR WOOD FLOORING.
TAIL BEAM OR TAIL PIECE A SHORT BEAM, JOIST OR RAFTER WHICH
IS SUPPORTED BY A HEADER JOIST AT ONE END AND A WALL AT THE
OTHER.
LEDGER STRIP A STRIP OF LUMBER WHICH IS NAILED TO THE SIDE
OF THE BEAM, FORMING A SEAT FOR THE JOISTS.

 DRAFTSTOP PLATE IS A PIECE OF LUMBER USES TO DRESS UP THE

EDGE OF THE JOISTS.
SOLE PLATE A HORIZONTAL TIMBER WHICH SERVES AS A BASE FOR
THE STUDS IN A STUD PARTITION.
SILL PLATE A HORIZONTAL TIMBER, AT THE BOTTOM OF THE FRAME
OF AWOOD STRUCTURE WHICH REST ON THE FOUNDATION.
TOP PLATE A HORIZONTAL TIMBER AT THE UPPER PORTION OF THE
STUDS IN ASTUD PARTITION.
CRIPPLE STUD IN ABUILDING FRAME, A STRUCTURAL ELEMENT
THAT IS SHORTER THAN USUAL, AS A STUD ABOVE AND BELOW
OPENING.
BLOCK OR SOLID BRIDGING SHORT MEMBERS WHICH ARE FIXED
VERTICALLY BETWEEN FLOOR JOISTS TO STIFFEN THE JOISTS.
CROSS BRIDGING DIAGONAL BRACING IN PAIRS, BETWEEN
ADJACENT FLOOR JOISTS TO PREVENT THE JOISTS FROM TWISTING.

 HANGER OR STIRRUP A METAL SEAT, ATTACHED TO A GIRDER TO

RECEIVE AND SUPPORT A JOIST.
BALLOON FRAMING CONSTRUCTION HAS STUDS CONTINOUS TO
ROOF SUPPORTING SECOND FLOOR JOISTS.
WESTERN FRAMING THAT HAS SUBFLOOR EXTENDED TO THE
OUTER EDGE OF THE FRAME AND PROVIDE A FLAT WORK SURFACE
AT EACH FLOOR.

REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEM

BEAM IS A STRUCTURAL MEMBER THAT SUPPORTS THE
TRANSVERSE LOAD WHICH USUALLY REST ON SUPPORTS AT ITS END.
GIRDER IS THE TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT SUPPORTS ONE
OR MORE SMALLER BEAM.
BEAM ARE CLASSIFIED AS :

A)
B)
C)

SIMPLE BEAM
CONTINUOUS BEAM
SEMI CONTINUOUS

SIMPLE BEAM REFERS TO THE BEAM HAVING A SINGLE SPAN

SUPPORTED AT ITS END WITHOUT A RESTRAIN AT THE SUPPORT.
SIMPLE BEAMS IS SOMETIMES CALLED AS SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM.
RESTRAINT MEANS A RIGID CONNECTION OR ANCHORAGE AT THE
SUPPORT.
CONTINUOUS BEAM IS A TERM APPLIED TO A BEAM THAT REST
ON MORE THAN TWO SUPPORTS.
SEMI-CONTINUOUS BEAM REFERS TO A BEAM WITH TWO SPANS
WITH OR WITHOUT RESTRAINT AT THE TWO EXTREME ENDS.
WEB REINFORCEMENT

WEB REINFORCEMENT IS THE SAME AS THEIR STIRRUPS USED IN

THE BEAM TO HOLD THE REINFORCEMENT IN ITS DESIGNED POSITION.
THE WEB REINFORCEMENT IS NOT ONLY INTENDED TO HOLD THE
REINFORCEMENT AND PROVIDE LATERAL SUPPORT BUT ALSO SERVES
TO RESIST DIAGONAL TENSION AND COUNTERACT THE SHEAR ACTION
ON THE STRUCTURE. THE VERTICAL STIRRUPS SHOULD ENCIRCLE THE
MAIN REINFORCEMENT AND HOOK BENT WITH A DIAMETER NOT LESS
THAN 5 TIMES THE DIAMETER OF THE STIRRUPS AT ITS END AND
SECURED PROPERLY TO PREVENT SLIPPING OF THE MAIN
REINFORCEMENT IN THE CONCRETE.
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB:
REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SLABS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO THE
FOLLOWING TYPES:
1.

ONE WAY SOLID SLAB AND BEAM.

2.
3.
4.

TWOWAY SOLID SLAB BEAM.

RIBBED FLOORS.
FLAT SLAB OR GIRDERLESS FLOORS SOLID OR RIBBED.

EACH TYPE OF THE FLOOR SYSTEM HAS ITS OWN ADVANTAGES IN

APPLICATION DEPENDING UPON THE FOLLOWING FACTORS:
1.
SPACING OF THE COLUMNS.
2.
THE MAGNITUDE OF THE LOADS TO BE SUPPORTED
3.
LENGTH OF THE SPAN
4.
THE COST OF THE CONSTRUCTION
ONE WAY SLAB ONE WAY SLAB IS THE COMMON TYPE OF
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
FLOOR
SYSTEM
WHICH
THE
REINFORCEMENTS RUNS ONLY IN ONE DIRECTION. MADE OF SOLID
SLAB SUPPORTED BY TWO PARALLEL BEAMS. IT IS COMPARATIVELY
ECONOMICAL FOR A MEDIUM AND HEAVY LIVE LOADS ON SHORT SPANS
RANGING FROM 2.00 TO 3.50 METERS LONG. ALTHOUGH THE
REINFORCEMENTS ARE ALSO PLACED IN THE SLAB PARALLEL WITH THE

BEAMS PERPENDICULAR WITH THE MAIN REINFORCEMENTS CALLED

TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENTS. USUALLY NO. 3 STEEL BAR IS
USED TO COUNTERACT THE EFFECT OF SHRINKAGE AND CHANGES IN
TEMPERATURE. IT ALSO DISTRIBUTES POSSIBLE CONCENTRATION OF
LOADS OVER A LARGER AREA.
TWO WAY SLAB SLAB WHICH ARE SUPPORTED ON FOUR SIDES
WHERE THE FLOOR PANEL IS NEARLY SQUARE IS GENERALLY
ECONOMICAL TO EMPLOY THE TWO DIRECTIONS OF REINFORCING
BARS PLACED AT RIGHT ANGLE WITH EACH OTHER.
THE CODE SPECIFIES THAT THICKNESS OF THE SLAB SHALL NOT
BE LESS THAN 4 INCHES OR 10 CM. NOR LESS THAN THE PERIMETER OF
THE SLAB DIVIDED BY 180. THE SPACING OF THE REINFORCEMENT
SHALL NOT BE MORE THAN 3 TIMES THE SLAB THICKNESS.

RIBBED FLOOR SLAB IS AN ECONOMICAL TYPE OF FLOOR

CONSTRUCTION BUT IS APPLICABLE ONLY TO MEDIUM SPAN LENGTH
WITH LIGHT OR MEDIUM LOAD.
A RIBBED FLOOR SLAB CONSISTS OF SMALL ADJACENT T-BEAM
WHEREIN THE OPEN SPACES BETWEEN THE RIBS ARE FILLED BY CLAY
TILES, GYPSUM TILES OR STEEL FORMS. THE TILES ARE GENERALLY 30
X 90 CM. WITH DEPTH OF 10 TO 40CM. O.C. PLACED @ 5CM. O.C. MAKING
THE RIBS 10 CM. WIDE.
THE CONCRETE SURFACE LAYER PLACED ON TOP OF THE TILES
RANGES FROM 5 TO 6.5 CM. THICK. THE REINFORCEMENT OF A RIBBED
FLOOR SYSTEM CONSIST OF TWO BARS PLACED AT THE LOWER PART
OF THE RIB WHERE ONE IS BENT AND THE OTHER REMAINED STRAIGHT,
OR SOMETIMES, STRAIGHT BARS ARE PALCED AT THE TOP AND BOTTOM
OF THE RIB. TEMPERATURE BARS ARE EITHER NO. 2 BARS OR 6 MM. OR
WIRE MESH WHICH RUNS AT RIGHT ANGLE WITH THE RIBS.

FLAT SLAB IS A RECTANGULAR SLAB DIRECTLY SUPPORTED BY

COLUMNS WITHOUT BEAMS OR GIRDERS. THESLAB IS EITHER UNIFORM
IN THICKNESS OR PROVIDED WITH SQUARE SYMMETRICAL AREA
DIRECTLY ABOVE THE COLUMN REINFORCED WITH BARS RUNNING IN
TWO DIRECTIONS. THE INCREASED AREA DIRECTLY ABOVE THE
COLUMN CALLED DROP PANEL OR SIMPLY DROP. ON THE OTHER HAND,
A FLARED HEAD IS EMPLOYED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF A FLAT-SLAB
FLOOR MAKING A CAPITAL OF THE COLUMN.
WHEN THE COLUMN DESIGN IS NOT PROVIDED WITH CAPITAS, A
STRAIGHT FLAT UNDERNEATH IS PROVIDED IN THE SLAB THROUGHOUT
THE SYSTEM, WHICH IS CALLED FLAT PLATE CONSTRUCTION.
THIS FLOOR SYSTEM IS ECONOMICAL IN TERMS OF MATERIALS
AND LABOR.
CONSTRUCTION JOINT A JOINT
PLACEMENT OF CONCRETE MEET.

WHERE

TWO

SUCCESSIVE

 CONTRACTION JOINT OR EXPANSION JOINT A JOINT BETWEEN

ADJACENT PARTS OF A STRUCTURE WHICH PERMITS MOVEMENT
BETWEEN THEM.
CONTROL JOINTS EMPLOYED TO REDUCE RESTRAINT BY
ACCOMODATING MOVEMENT OF MASONRY WALL.
BLOCK OUT IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES UNDER CONSTRUCTION, A
SPACE WHERE CONCRETE IS NOT TO BE PLACED.
COLD JOINT A JOINT FORMED WHEN A CONCRETE SURFACE
HARDEN BEFORE THE NEXT BATCH OF CONCRETE IS PLACED
AGAINST.
CREEP PERMANENT DEFORMATION OF A MATERIAL UNDER A
SUSTAIN LOAD.
CAMBER CONVEX CURVATURE IN BEAM OR TRUSS.

LAYING OUT OF STAIRS

THE METHOD OF LAYING OUT STAIRS ARE:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

DETERMINE THE CLEAR HEIGHT OF THE RISE IN METER.

ORDINARILY, THE RISE PER STEP IS 17 TO 18 CM AND THE MINIMUM
TREAD WIDTH IS 25 CM.
DIVIDE THE RISE ( HEIGHT IN METER) BY .17 OR .18 TO DETERMINE
THE NUMBER OF STEPS.
DIVIDE THE RUN DISTANCE IN METER BY .25 OR .30m.
IF THE RESULT, FOUND IN STEP THREE IS LESS THAN THE NUMBER
FOUND IN STEP TWO, THE RUN LENGTH HAS TO BE EXTENDED.
THERE SHOULD BE NO FUNCTIONAL VALUE OF A RISER. SHOULD
THERE BE FROM THE RESULT OF STEP TWO, ADJUST A
FUNCTIONAL VALUE IN EQUAL PROPORTION TO THE NUMBER OF
RISER HEIGHT, BUT IN NO CASE SHALL THE RISE PER STEP BE
GREATER THAN 19 CM OR LESS THAN 17 CM OTHERWISE, THE
STAIRS WILL NOT BE AN IDEAL ONE.

IT IS IMPORTANT TO MAKE A CROSS SECTIONAL SKETCH OF A

STAIR BEFORE MAKING THE FINAL PLAN LAYOUT INDICATING THE
NUMBER OF STEPS TO AVOID ADJUSTMENTS OF THE RUN DURING
THE ACTUAL CONSTRUCTION.
TYPE OF STRINGERS
THERE ARE SEVERAL FORMS OF STRINGER CLASSIFIED
ACCORDING TO THE METHOD OF ATTACHIND THE RISERS AND THE
TREADS.
1.
CUT
2.
CLEATED
3.
BUILT-UP
4.
RABBETED (HOUSE)
BALUSTER ONE OF A NUMBER OF SHORT VERTICAL MEMBERS
OFTEN CIRCULAR IN SECTION, USED TO SUPPORT A STAIR HANDRAIL.

 BALUSTRATE AN ENTIRE RAILING SYSTEM INCLUDING A TOP RAIL,

VERTICAL MEMBERS AND BOTTOM RAIL.
BULL-NOSED STEP A STEP USUALLY LOWEST IN AFLIGHT, HAVING
ONE OR BOTH ENDS ROUNDED TO A SEMI-CIRCLE AND PROJECTION
BEYOND THE FACE OF THE STAIR STRING/S.
BANISTER HANDRAIL FOR A STAIRCASE.
RISER A VERTICAL FACE OF ASTAIR.
KICKER PLATE STAIR ANCHOR TO CONCRETE.

TYPES OF ROOF

THERE ARE SEVERAL FORMS OF ROOF AND NUMEROUS VARIETY

OF SHAPES THAT ONE HAS TO BE FAMILIAR WITH:
SHED OR LEAN-TO ROOF- IS CONSIDERED AS THE SIMPLEST
FORM OF ROOF CONSISTING OF ONE SINGLE SLOPE.
GABLE OR PITCH ROOFTHE MOST COMMON TYPE AND
ECONOMICAL FORM OF ROOF MADE OF TRIANGULAR
SECTIONS
CONSISTING OF TWO SLOPES MEETING AT THE CENTER OF THE RIDGE
FORMING A GABLE.
SAW TOOTH ROOF- IS THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SHED MADE
INTO A SERIES TO LEAN-TO ROOF COVERING ONE BUILDING. THIS IS
COMMONLY USED ON FACTORIES WHERE EXTRA LIGHT IS REQUIRED
THROUGH THE WINDOW ON A VERTICAL SIDE.
DOUBLE GABLE ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF A GABLE OR A HIP
AND VALLEY ROOF.

HIP ROOF- IS ALSO A COMMON FORM USED IN MODERN HOUSES

HAVING STRAIGHT SIDES ALL SLOPING TOWARD THE CENTER OF THE
BUILDING TERMINATING AT THE RIDGE.
HIP AND VALLEY ROOF- IS A COMBINATION OF THE HIP ROOF AND
AN INTERESTING GABLE ROOF FORMING A T OR L SHAPED BUILDING.
THIS TYPE OF ROOF FORM HOWEVER, HAS A VARIETY OF MODIFICATION
WHICH ARE NOT ILLUSTRATED.
PYRAMID ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF THE HIP ROOF WHEREIN
THE FOUR STAIGHT SIDES ARE SLOPING TOWARDS THE CENTER
TERMINATING AT A POINT.
GAMBREL ROOF- IS A MODIFICATIN OF THE GABLE ROOF WITH
EACH SIDE HAVING TWO SLOPES.
BUTTERFLY ROOF- IS A TWO SHED ROOF WHERE THE SLOPE
MEET AT THE CENTER OF THE BUILDING.
MANSARD ROOFWHERE THE SIDES OF THE ROOF SLOPE
STEEPLY FROM EACH SIDE OF THE BUILDING TOWARDS THE CENTER
FORMING A FLAT DECK ON TOP.

FRENCH OR CONCAVE MANSARD ROOF- IS A MODIFICATION OF

THE MANZARD ROOF WHERE THE SIDES ARE CONCAVE.
DOME- IS A HEMISPHERICAL FORM OF ROOF USUALLY USED ON
OBNSERVATORIES.
CONICAL ROOF OR SPHIRE- IS A STEEP ROOF OF CIRCULAR
SECTION THAT TAPERS UNIFORMLY FROM THE CIRCULAR BASE TO A
CENTRAL POINT.
TYPES OF ROOF FRAME
THE THREE TYPES OF ROOF FRAME COMMONLY USED ARE:
1.
RAFTERS TYPE
2.
TRUSS TYPE
3.
LAMINATED TYPE

THE VARIOUS KINDS OF RAFTERS FOR ROOF CONSTRUCTIONS ARE:

COMMON RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS EXTENDED AT RIGHT ANGLES
FROM THE PLATE OR GIRTS T THE RIDGE.
HIP RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS LAID DIAGONALLY FROM THE CORNER
OF A PLATE OR GIRTS TO THE RIDGE.
VALLEY RAFTERS- RAFTERS PLACED DIAGONALLY FROM THE PLATE
OR GIRTS AT THE INTERSECTION OF GABLE EXTENSION WITH THE
MAIN ROOF.
OCTAGONAL RAFTERS- ARE RAFTERS PLACED ON AN OCTAGONAL
SHAPED PLATE AT THE CENTRAL APEX OR RIDGE POLE.
JACK RAFTERS- ANY RAFTER WHICH DOES NOT EXTEND FROM THE
PLATE OR GIRTS TO THE RIDGE.

JACK RAFTERS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO:

1.
2.
3.

HIT JACKS
VALLEY JACKS
CRIPLE JACKS

JACK RAFTERS FRAMED BATWEEN HIP RAFTERS AND GITS ARE CALLED
HIP JACKS. THE FRAME BETWEEN THE RIDGE AND VALLEY RAFTERS
ARE CALLED VALLEY JACKS, WHILE THOSE FRAMES BETWEEN THE HIP
AND THE VALLEY RAFTERS ARE CALLED CRIPPLE JACKS.
TRUSS IS A BUILT-UP FRAME COMMONLY EMPLOYED ON A LONG SPAN
ROOF UNSUPPORTED BY INTERMEDIATE COLUMNS OR PARTITIONS.
TRUSS IS A DESIGN OF A SERIES OF TRIANGLES USED TO DISTRIBUTE
LOAD, STIFFEN THE STRUCTURE AND FLEXIBILITY FOR THE INTERIOR
SPACING AS WELL AS STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY.

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRUSSES ARE:

LIGHT TRUSSES:
PITCHED

HOWE

SCISSORS

RAISED CHORD

SAWTOOTH

1 STORY FRAME

FLAT

UTILITY

BOWSTRING

HEAVY TRUSSES:
HOWE TRUSS

BELGIAN

FINK

PRATT

SCISSORS

CAMBERED FINK

WARREN

FLAT HOWE

SAW TOOTH

FLAT PRATT

PURLINS THE STRUCTURAL MEMBER PLACED ON TOP OF A RAFTER

OR TOP CHORD OF A TRUSS THAT SUPPORTS THE ROOF SHEATING.
PURLINS SIZE AND SPACING:
SPAN:

2.00
3.0
3.50
4.50

SIZE:

50mm X 75mm
50mm X 100mm
50mm X 150mm
50mm X 200mm

ROOF AND ROOFING MATERIALS

THE TERM ROOF USED HERE MEANS THE TOP COVERING OF A
BUILDING THAT SERVES AS A PROTECTIVE COVERING FROM THE
WEATHER.
ROOFING CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE MATERIALS USED:
FIBER
WOOD
METAL
SLATE
TILES
REINFORCED CONCRETE
PLASTICS
FIBERGLASS

METAL ROOFING IS THE MOST COMMON MATERIALS IN BUILDING

CONSTRUCTION, THIS ARE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS:
GALVANIZED IRON
ALUMINUM
TIN
TITANIUM COPPER ZINC
COPPER
STAINLESS STEEL
LEAD
AMONG THE METAL ROOFING ENUMERATED, GALVANIZED IRON
SHEET IS THE MOST COMMONLY SPECIFIED CONSIDERING THE
ADVANTAGES THAT IT OFFER.
GALVANIZED IRON ROOFING IS EITHER PLAIN OR CORRUGATED.
THE THICKNESS ARE MEASURED IN TERMS OF GAUGE FROM ga. 14 TO
ga. 30. Gauge 26 IS THE MOST COMMONLY USED FOR ROOFING.

THE STANDARD COMMERCIAL SIZE WIDTH IS 0.80 m. WITH LENGTH

THAT RANGES FROM 1.50 TO 3.60 m.
PLAIN G.I. SHEET COMMERCIAL STANDARD SIZE IS 0.90m. X 2.40m.
ITS ALSO USED FOR ROOFING, GUTTERS,FLASHING,RIDGE,HIP AND
VALLEY ROLLS, DOWNSPOUT, AND STRAP FOR RIVETING.
CORR. G.I.ROOFING FASTENERS:
NAILING
RIVETING

 PANTILE A ROOFING TILE WHICH HAS THE SHAPE OF S LAID ON

ITS SIDE.
MISSION TILE A CLAY ROOFING TILE, APPROX. SEMI-CYLINDRICAL IN
SHAPE LAID IN COURSES WITH THE UNIT HAVING THEIR CONVEX SIDE
ALTERNATELY UP AND DOWN.
ROMAN TILE A CHANNEL SHAPED, TAPERED, SINGLE LAP ROOPING
TILE.
GALVANIZED ZINC COATED MATERIALS.
A FRAME A 3-PIECE RIGID STRUCTURAL FRAME IN THE SHAPE OF
THE UPRIGHT CAPITAL A.
CHORD A PRINCIPAL MEMBER OF A TRUSS.
BATTEN WOOD STRIPS TO SUPPORT ROOF TILES.
SPLIT RING CHORD SPLICE CONNECTORS FOR TRUSSES.

FORM, SCAFFOLDING AND STAGING

FORM IS A TEMPORARY BOARDING, SHEATING OR PANS USED TO
PRODUCE THE DESIRED SHAPE AND SIZE OF CONCRETE. FORMS ARE
USED IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. STRUCTURAL MEMBERS OF A
BUILDING ARE BUILT-UP INTO ITS SPECIFIED DIMENSIONS BY THE USE
OF FORMS THAT SERVES AS MOULD FOR THE MIXED CONCRETE.
FORMS SHOULD BE WATERTIGHT, RIGID AND STRONG ENOUGH TO
SUSTAIN THE WEIGHT OF CONCRETE. IT SHOULD BE SIMPLE AND
ECONOMICALLY DESIGNED TO BE REMOVE EASILY AND REASSEMBLED
WITHOUT DAMAGE TO THEMSELVES OR TO THE CONCRETE.
FACTORS CONSIDERED IN THE SELECTION OF FORMS ARE:
COST OF MATERIALS

 THE CONSTRUCTION AND ASSEMBLING COST

THE NUMBER OF TIMES IT COULD BE USED
STRENGTH AND RESISTANCE TO PRESSURE AND THE TEAR & WEAR
WOOD BOARD AND PLYWOOD FORMS
WOOD FORM IS THE MOST COMMON AND WIDELY USED FORMS IN
MINOR OR MAJOR CONSTRUCTION.
PLYWOOD AS FORM IS GENERALLY ECONOMICAL BOTH IN LABOR AND
MATERIALS.
PLYWOOD HAS PLAIN EVEN SURFACE WITH UNIFORM THICKNESS.
IT OFFERS FITTED JOINTS, ELIMINATE DRESSING, PLANING OF THE
SURFACE WHICH IS NORMAL TO WOODEN BOARDS FORMS.
THE LAMINATED CROSS-GRAINED OF PLYWOOD HAS MADE THE
BOARD STRONGER AND FREE FROM WARPING.
PLYWOOD IS LIGHT-WEIGHT, HANDY AND FAST TO WORK ON.
PRODUCE SMOOTH FINISHES OF CONCRETE THAT SOMETIMES NEED
LITTLE OR NO PLASTERING AT ALL.

METAL FORM ARE SELDOM USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

BECAUSE OF THE VARIED DESIGNS AND SHAPES OF THE STRUCTURES.
ALTHOUGH METAL FORMS ARE EXTENSIVELY USED ON ROAD
CONSTRUCTION. METAL FORMS ARE GENERALLY MADE OUT OF G.I.
SHEET, OR BLACK IRON SHEET, SUPPORTED BY FLAT AND ANGLE BARS
DESIGNED TO BE ASSEMBLED AND LOCKED BE MEANS OF CLAMP,
BOLTS AND NUTS.
CONSTRUCTION OF FORMS
CONCRETE WEIGHS ABOUT 2,200 TO 2,400 kg./cu.m. FORMS SHALL
BE GUARDED AGAINST BULGING AND SAGGING FAILURE THAT OCCUR
DURING THE PROCESS OF POURING. THE THICKNESS OF THE FORM
AND THE SIZES OF THE FRAME AND RIBS DEPENDS UPON THE NATURE
OF THE STRUCTURE TO BE SUPPORTED CLASSIFIED AS SMALL, MEDIUM
AND MASSIVE STRUCTURE.

 SMALL STRUCTURE CONSISTING OF SMALL FOOTINGS, COLUMNS

AND BEAM FOR ONE OR TWO STOREY BUILDING WHEREIN 6mm. THK.
PLYWOOOD IS SATIFACTORILY USED SUPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm
WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.
MEDIUM STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING CONCRETE COLUMNS,
BEAMS, AND CONCRETE FLOOR SLAB GENERALLY OF 2 TO 3 STOREY
HIGH. WHEREIN 6mm OR 12mm THK. PLYWOOD IS USED AS FORM
SUPPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm OR 50mm X 75mm WOOD FRAME AND
RIBS.
MASSIVE STRUCTURE ARE THOSE HAVING HEAVY LOADS USES
FORMS OF VARIOUS THICKNESS THAT RANGE FROM 6mm TO 19mm
THK. PLYWOOD SUPPORTED BY 50mm X 50mm TO 50mm X 100mm
WOOD FRAME AND RIBS.
TWO TYPES OF FRAMING:
LONGITUDINAL RIB TYPE
PERPENDICULAR RIB TYPE

TYPES OF COLUMN FORMS:

SQUARE
RECTANGULAR
CIRCULAR
BEAM FORMS CONSIST OF ONE BOTTOM FORM AND A PAIR OF SIDE
FORMS.
TYPES OF WALL FORMS:
CONTINUOUS
FULL UNIT
LAYER UNIT
GREASING OF FORMS
THE PURPOSE OF GREASING THE FORM IS TO MAKE THE WOOD
WATER PROOF, THUS PREVENTING ABSORPTION OF WATER IN THE
CONCRETE WHICH CAUSES SWELLING AND WARPING.
ITS ALSO
PREVENTS ADHERENCE OF CONCRETE TO THE PORES OF THE WOOD.

YOKE IS A HORIZONTAL FRAMEWORK AROUND THE FORMWORK FOR A

COLUMN.
SCAFFOLDING WORKERS PLATFORM
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION TERMS
ENGLISH

VERNACULAR

ENGLISH

VERNACULAR

Adobe Anchor --------------------Aligned ----------------------------Alero,Barakilan,

Liyabe
Kaliniya

Earth Fill------------------Eave ------------------------

Alignment -------------------------Alternate or staggered -----------Anchor -----------------------------Architect ---------------------------Astragal ----------------------------Balusters ---------------------------Beam --------------------------------

Asintada
Uno Sinotra
Liyabe
Arkitekto
Batidura
Balustre,Barandilla
Biga

Sopo
Electrician ----------------Engineer ------------------Exterior Siding ----------Faucet ---------------------Fascia Board -------------Feet -----------------------Fill -------------------------

Escombro

Elektrista
Inhenyero
Tabike
Gripo
Senepa
Piye
Tambak

Banisters ---------------------------Dagdag
Barrel Bolt -------------------------Baseboard -------------------------Bath tub ---------------------------Bolt --------------------------------Bottom Chord --------------------Brace ------------------------------Brick -------------------------------

Barandil

Filler -----------------------

Trankilya
Rodapis
Baniera
Pierno
Tirante, Estunyo
Pie de Gallo
Landrillo

Canopy ---------------------------Cabinet Hinge -------------------Carpenter ------------------------Carpentry ------------------------Cast Iron -------------------------Ceiling ---------------------------Ceiling Board -------------------Ceiling Joist ---------------------Cement --------------------------Cement Brick --------------------

Media Agua
Espolon
Karpintero
Karpinteria
Pundido
Kisame

Floor Joist ----------------- Soleras

Fillet ----------------------Batidura
Flooring ------------------Sahig, Suelo
Floor sill -----------------Guililan
Flush ---------------------Alahado
Foundation or Footings- Pundasyon
Foreman -----------------Kapatas,
MaestroDe Obra
Framework --------------Balangkas
Gable Roof -------------Dos Aguas
Girder --------------------Guililan
Girts or Girder ----------Sepo
Gravel --------------------Graba
Good Grain --------------Haspe
Groobe -------------------Canal
Gutter --------------------Alulod, canal
Hand rail ----------------Gabay
Head ---------------------Sombrero

Kostil Yahe
Semento
Ladrilyo

Tapal,

Cement Tiles --------------------Chain bolt -----------------------Aguas

Collar ----------------------------Column --------------------------Concrete -------------------------Concrete Slab -------------------Concrete Beam -----------------Conductor -----------------------Contractor -----------------------Pahingahan
Corr. G.I. sheets ----------------Galbanisado
Closed Stringer ------------------

Baldosa
Baral de Kadena

Hinge --------------------Hip roof ------------------

Bisagra
Kuatro

Sinturon
Kolumna,Haligue
Konkreto
Larga Masa
Biga
Alulod
Kontratista

Horizontal Stud -------Inch ----------------------Jamb ---------------------Joist ----------------------Kingpost ----------------Laborer ------------------Landing ------------------

Trabe-Anzo
Pulgada
Hamba
Suleras
Pendolum
Piyon
Mesa

Yiero Canalado

Lavatory -----------------

Lababo

Escalera

Crushed Stone ------------------Diagonal Brace -----------------Door ------------------------------Pasante

Door Fillet ------------------------

Eskombro
Sinturon
Pinto

Laying of CHB orAdobe Stone -----------Asinta

Lean to roof ------------Sibe
Level --------------------Lebel
Machine Bolt ----------Peirno

Batidora

Mason -------------------

Kantero

Door Head -----------------------Door Jamb -----------------------Drawbore Pin or Drawpin ------

Sombrero (Pintuan) Masonry ----------------Hamba Pintuan

Masonry Fill -----------Punsol
Meter ---------------------

Kanteria
Lastilyas
Metro

Mitre or Miter -------------------Mixture of Sand & Gravel -----Mortar ----------------------------Mortar Joists ---------------------Moulding -------------------------Nailers ----------------------------Nail -------------------------------Nail Setter -----------------------Newel Post ----------------------Nut --------------------------------Nicolite Bar ----------------------Oakum -----------------------------

Canto Mesa
Lastilyas
Paupo
Kostura
Moldura
Pamakuan
Pako
Punsol
Tukod
Tuerka
Estanyo
Estopa

Poso Negro
Korte
Plantsa
Dutsha
Tabika
Prigadero
Krokis
Larga Masa
Bahada
Hinang
Estaniyo
Biento

Septic Tank ------------Shape -------------------Sheet --------------------Shower ------------------Sidings ------------------Sink ----------------------Sketch Plan -------------Slab (rough) -------------Slope ---------------------Solder --------------------Solder Bar ---------------Spacing -------------------

Open Stringer --------------------Over Hand or Projector ---------Painter -----------------------------Panel -------------------------------Panellee Door ---------------------Madrina
Pattern -----------------------------Pea Gravel ------------------------Pendulum (King Post) -----------Pickwork --------------------------Subuhan
Piglead -----------------------------Plain G.I. sheet -------------------Plain G.I. Strap -------------------Plank Board -----------------------Plaster ------------------------------Plastered Course ------------------Plug ---------------------------------Plumb Bob --------------------------

Hardinera
Bolada
Pintor
Bandeha
De Bandeha

Split Knob ---------------Stairs ---------------------Stake ----------------------Stringer (open) ----------Stringer --------------------

Poleya
Hagdanan
Staka
Hardinera
Madre,

Plantilya
Grabita
Pendulon
Piketa

Stucco --------------------Stud (vertical)------------Stud (horizontal) --------Temper (metal work)-----

Palitada
Pilarete
Pabalagbag
Suban,

Tingga, Estopa
Thread --------------------Roskas
Yiero Liso Galbanisado
Tinsmith ------------------Latero
Lingueta
Tinsmithing --------------Lateria
Senepa
Top Chord ---------------Kilo, Tahilan
Palitada
Transom -----------------Espeho
Kusturada
Tread ---------------------Baytang,
Perdano
Tapon
Trellise -------------------Pergola
Hulog
Truss ----------------------Truss, Kilo

Plumber ----------------------------Plumb Line ------------------------Post ---------------------------------Projection --------------------------Purlins ------------------------------Putty --------------------------------Quarter Round ---------------------Rabbet -------------------------------

Tubero
Hulog
Poste, Haligue
Bolada
Reostra
Masilya
Mediacana
Vaciada

Rafters ------------------------------- Kilo

Bintana
Reinforcing Bar -------------------- Cabilla, Bakal
Ridgeroll ---------------------------- Caballete
Riser --------------------------------- Senepa, Takip
Silipan
Rivets ------------------------------Rimatse
Roof -------------------------------Atip, Bubong
Sand -------------------------------Buhangin
Scaffolding -----------------------Andamiyo, Plancha
Scratch Coat ----------------------- Rebokada

Varnished ----------------Vertical Stud -------------Wainscoating Tiles ------Washer --------------------Water Closet -------------Window ------------------Window Grille ----------Window Head -----------Bintana
Window Jamb ------------

Varnisado
Pilarete
Asolehos
Pitsa, Tsapa
Inidoro
Bintana
Rehas
Sombrero

Window Sill -------------W.I. Strap ----------------Wiring Knob -------------

Pasamano
Planchuela
Poleya

Wood Grain -------------Wood Plank -------------Wrought Iron Strap ------

Haspe
Tabla
Plantsuela

Hamba

Screw -------------------------------

Turnilyo

PRECAST AND PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION
THE INTRODUCTION OF PRECAST-CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION WAS
BROUGHT ABOUT BY BUILDING COSTS THAT HAS CONSIDERABLY
INCREASED FASTER THAT MOST INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS THAT ARE
AFFECTED BY THE LARGE AMOUNT OF ON-SITE LABOR INVOLVED IN THE
TRADITIONAL METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION.
THE DEMAND FOR SKILLED WORKERS ON ON-SITE BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION IS INCREASINGLY OUTRUNNING THE SUPPLY. THE
ANSWER TO THERE PROBLEMS WERE BROUGHT ABOUT BY THE

INDUSTRIALIZATION OF CONSTRUCITON AND SUBSTITUTION OF SITE

LABOR BY FACTORY PRODUCED PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURE
WHICH HAS RAPIDLY DEVELOPED AND GAINED IMPORTANCE.
THE CONCRETE IS CAST IN PERMANENT FORMS OF STEEL,
CONCRETE, GLASS-FIBER-REINFORCED PLASTIC.
THE WET CONCRETE IS VIBRATED MECHANICALLY IN THE FORMS
TO ACHIEVE MAXIMUM DENSITY AND HIGHEST SURFACE QUALITY.
CONCRETE STRENGTH IN PRECAST IS USUALLY 5000 PSI, WHILE
270,000 PSI FOR STRENGTH OF STEEL.
PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS ARE USUALLY STEAM CURED
WITH THE USE OF HIGH EARLY STRENGTH CEMENT TO ENABLE A
PRECAST TO REMOVE IN FORM IN 24 HOURS.
FORMS ARE CALLED CASTING BEDS. THE CASTING BEDS AVERAGE
125 METERS TO EXTEND 250 METERS IN LENGTH.
TYPES OF PRECAST STRUCTURE

WALL PANELS THIS TYPE OF PRECAST STRUCTURE HAS

NUMEROUS DESIGNS DEPENDING UPON THE ARCHITECTURAL
REQUIREMENTS. THE COMMON SHAPES PRODUCED FOR ONE TO FOUR
STOREY HIGH STRUCTURES ARE SECTIONS HAVING A WIDTH UP TO 2.40
m. THEY ARE USED AS CURTAIN WALLS ATTACHED TO COLUMNS AND
BEAMS OR SOMETIMES AS BEARING WALLS.
THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF WALL PANELS ARE:
1.
2.
3.
4.

FLAT TYPE
DOUBLE TEE TYPE
RIBBED TYPE
WINDOW OR MULLION TYPE

TO IMPROVE THE THERMAL INSULATION OF THE PANEL, FOAM

GLASS, GLASS FIBER OR EXPANDED PLASTIC IS INSERTED BETWEEN
TWO LAYERS OF LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE ADEQUATELY BONDED

INTERCONNECTING THE TWO LAYERS TO ACT AS ONE UNIT. STRESSES

IN HANDLING AND ERECTION OF THE MEMBER IS MORE THAN THAT OF
THE FINISHED FILLED STRUCTURE, HENCE, CONTROL OF CRACKING IS
OF GREAT IMPORTANCE.
PRECAST COLUMN
PRECAST COLUMN SIZES ARE FROM .30 x .30m. to .60 x .60m. IN A
MULTI-STOREY CONSTRUCTION, THE COLUMNS ARE MADE CONTINUOUS
UP TO FOUR STORIES WHEREIN CORBELS ARE USED TO PROVIDE
BEARING FOR THE BEAM. TEE COLUMN IS SOMETIMES USED TO
SUPPORT DIRECTLY DOUBLE TEE FLOOR MEMBERS WITHOUT THE USE
OF INTERMEDIATE MEMBERS.
PRECAST BEAMS

THE SHAPE OF PRECAST BEAMS DEPENDS UPON THE MANNER OF

FRAMING. THE VARIOUS SHAPES ARE:

RECTANGULAR BEAM
INVERTED TEE BEAM
L SHAPED BEAM
AASHTO BRIDGE GIRDER AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE
HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS.

ROOF AND FLOOR MEMBERS

SOLID FLAT SLAB WIDE RANGES FROM 0.60M. TO 2.4M.

HOLLOW CORE SLAB WIDE RANGES FROM 0.60M. TO 2.4M.
DOUBLE TEE WIDE RANGES FROM 2.4 TO 3.0M.
SINGLE TEE WIDE RANGES FROM 2.4 TO 3.0M.

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF A PECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURE

ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF A PRECAST SOLID SLAB AT 1/40 OF ITS
SPAN. DEPTH TYPICALLY RANGE FROM 90-200mm.
AN 200mm PRECAST HOLLOW-CORE SLAB CAN SPAN APPROXIMATELY
7.60M., 250mm SLAB APPROX. 9.80M., AND A 300mm SLAB APPROX.
12.0M. SPAN.
ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF PRECAST CONCRETE DOUBLE TEES AT 1/28
OF THEIR SPAN. THE MOST COMMON DEPTHS OF DOUBLE TEES ARE
300,350,400,450,510,610, AND815mm.
A PRECAST CONCRETE SINGLE TEE 928mm DEEP SPANS
APPROXIMATELY 26.0M. AND 1142mm TEE FOR 32.0M. SPAN.
ESTIMATE THE DEPTH OF PRECAST CONCRETE BEAMS AND GIRDERS
AT 1/16 OF THEIR SPAN FOR LIGHT LOADINGS AND 1/12 OF THEIR
SPAN FOR HEAVY LOADINGS.
THESE RATIOS APPLY TO
RECTANGULAR, INVERTED TEE AND L-SHAPED BEAMS. THE WIDTH
OF A BEAM OR GIRDER IS USUALLY ABOUT ITS DEPTH. THE

PROJECTING LEDGERS ON INVERTED TEE AND L-SHAPED BEAMS ARE

USUALLY 150mm WIDE AND 300mm DEEP.
TO ESTIMATE THE SIZE OF A PRECAST CONCRETE COLUMN. ADD UP
THE TOTAL ROOF AND FLOOR AREA SUPPORTED BY THE COLUMN. A
250mm. COLUMN CAN SUPPORT UP TO ABOUT 185 sq.m. OF AREA. A
300mm. COLUMN FOR 240 sq.m. AREA. A 400mm. COLUMN FOR 370
sq.m. AREA. A 500mm. COLUMN FOR 560 sq.m. AREA. A 600MM.
COLUMN FOR 740 sq.m. AREA.
JOINING PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS
BOLTING, WELDING, AND GROUTING ARE ALL COMMONLY
EMPLOYED IN THESE CONNECTIONS. EXPOSED METAL CONNECTORS
NOT COVERED BY TOPPING ARE USUALLY DRY PACKED WITH STIFF
GROUT AFTER BEING JOINED, TO PROTECT THEM FROM FIRE AND
CORROSION.

THE SIMPLEST JOINTS IN PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

ARE THOSE THAT RELY UPON GRAVITY BY PLACING ONE ELEMENT ON
TOP OF ANOTHER, AS IS DONE WHERE SLAB ELEMENTS REST ON A
BEARING WALL OR BEAM, OR WHERE A BEAM RESTS ON THE CORBEL
OF A COLUMN. BEARING PADS ARE USUALLY INSERTED BETWEEN THE
CONCRETE MEMBERS AT BEARING POINTS TO AVOID THE CONCRETETO-CONCRETE CONTACT THAT MIGHT CREATE POINTS OF HIGH STRESS.
BEARING PADS ALSO ALLOW FOR EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN THE
MEMBERS. FOR SOLID AND HOLLOW-CORE SLABS THESE PADS ARE
STRIPS OF HIGH-DENSITY PLASTIC. UNDER ELEMENTS WITH HIGHER
POINT LOADING SUCH AS TEES AND BEAMS, PADS OF SYNTHETIC
RUBBER AREUSED.
PRESTRESSING OF CONCRETE
THERE ARE SEVERAL METHODS EMPLOYED
PRESTRESSED FORCE TO A CONCRETE BEAM:

IN

APPLYING

 PRECOMPRESSING METHOD IS A PROCESS OF USING JACKS

REACTING AGAINST ABUTMENT.
SELF-CONTAINED METHOD THE PROCESS IS DONE BY TYING THE
JACK BASE TOGETHER WITH WIRES OR CABLES LOCATED ON EACH
SIDE OF THE BEAM. USUALLY THE WIRES AND CABLES ARE PRESSED
THROUGH A HOLLOW CONDUIT EMBEDDED IN THE CONCRETE BEAM.
ONE END OF THE TENDON IS ANCHORED AND FORCES ARE APPLIED
AT THE OTHER END. AFTER ATTAINING THE DESIRED PRESTRESS
FORCE, THE TENDON IS THEN WEDGED AGAINST THE CONCRETE,
REMOVING THE JACK EQUIPMENT.
BOND FRICTION THE PRESTRESSING STRANDS ARE STRETCHED
BETWEEN MASSIVE ABUTMENT PRIOR TO CASTING OF CONCRETE IN
THE BEAM FORMS. AFTER THE CONCRETE HAS GAINED SUFFICIENT
STRENGTH, THE JACKS ARE THEN RELEASED TRANSFERRING THE

PRESTRESSED FORCE TO THE CONCRETE BY BOND AND FRICTION

ALONG THE STRANDS.
THE SELF CONTAINED AND THE BOND AND FRICTION METHODS
CAN GENERALLY BE CLASSIFIED AS PRE-TENSIONING OR POSTTENSIONING SYSTEM. THESE METHODS CAN BE APPLIED TO MASS
PRODUCTION OF CASTING SEVERAL METERS LONG OF STRUCTURE
AND CUTTING THE INDIVIDUAL BEAM OR POST TO THE DESIRED LENGTH
OUT FROM THE LONG CASTING.
THERMAL PRESTRESSING THE STEEL IS PREHEATED BY MEANS OF
ELECTRIC POWER WHICH ARE ANCHORED AGAINST THE OPPOSITE
END OF THE CONCRETE BEAM. THE COOLING PROCESS PRODUCES
PRESTRESS FORCE THROUGH RESTRAINED CONTRACTION.
THE CAUSES OF PRESTRESS LOSSES ARE:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

SLIP AT ANCHORAGE
ELASTIC SHORTENING OF CONCRETE
CREEP OF CONCRETE
SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE
RELAXATION OF STEEL STRESS
FRICTIONAL LOSS DUE TO INTENDED OR UNINTENDED
CURVATURE IN THE TENDONS.

CONCRETE FOR PRESTRESSING

CONCRETE OF HIGHER COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IS USED FOR
PRESTRESSED STRUCTURES.
MOST OF THE PRESTRESSED
CONSTRUCTION SPECIFY A COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE
BETWEEN (4,000 to 6,000 psi) 280-422 kg/cm2 BECAUSE OF THE
FOLLOWING ADVANTAGES THAT IT OFFERS.
A)
HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE HAS A HIGHER MODULUS OF
ELASTICITY. IT MINIMIZE THE REDUCTION OF PRESTRESS
LOSS.

B)

C)
D)

INCREASING THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF THE

CONCRETE MEETS THE PROBLEM OF HIGH BEARING
STRESSES AT THE ENDS OF POST AND BEAM WHERE THE
PRESTRESSING FORCE IS TRANSFERRED FROM THE TENDON
TO THE ANCHORAGE DOWELS WHICH DIRECTLY BEARS
AGAINST THE CONCRETE.
HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE DEVELOPS STRONGER BOND
PRESTRESSES TO PRETENSIONING CONSTRUCTION.
HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE GIVES HIGHER STRENGTH TO
PRECAST CONSTRUCTION WHEN CURING IS CAREFULLY
CONTROLLED.

MEASUREMENT OF PRESTRESSING FORCE

PRESTRESSING FORCE COULD BE DETERMINED BY:
1.

MEASURING THE TENDON ELONGATION.

2.

EITHER BY CHECKING JACK PRESSURE ON A CALIBRATED

GAGE OR LOAD CELL OR BY THE USED OF CALIBRATED
DYNAMOMETER.

POST TENSIONING THE STRESSING OF UNBONDED TENDONS AFTER

CONCRETE HAS CURED.

BUILDING MATERIALS
WOOD MATERIALS
WOOD HAS DURABILITY AND BEAUTY. IT HAS GREAT ABILITY TO ABSORB
SHOCKS FROM SUDDEN LOAD AND LIGHT IN WEIGHT WHICH ADAPTABLE
IN A COUNTLESS VARIETY OF PURPOSES.
TWO MAJOR CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD:
SOFTWOOD THESE ARE USED FOR GENERAL CONSTRUCTION.

 HARDWOOD THESE ARE USED FOR FLOORING, STAIRS,

PANELLING, FURNITURES AND INTERIOR TRIM.
PROPERTIES OF WOOD:
HARDNESS MEASURED BY THE COMPRESSION, WHICH A
PIECE UNDERGOES WHEN A WEIGHT IS APPLIED.
FLEXIBILITY THE AMOUNT A PIECE WILL BEND BEFORE
BREAKING.
STRENGTH TO THE GRAIN.
DURABILITY THE RELATIVE VALUE / LIFESPAN OF WOOD.
DEFECTS OF LUMBER:
DECAY CAUSED BY THE ATTACKED OF FUNGI.
CHECKS CRACKS OR LENGTH WISE SEPARATION ACROSS THE
ANNUAL RINGS OF GROWTH.

 KNOTS IRREGULAR GROWTHS IN THE BODY WHICH

INTERRUPS SMOOTH CURVE.
PITCH POCKETS WELL REFINED OPENINGS BETWEEN ANNUAL
RINGS CONTAINING SOLID OR LIQUID PITCH.
WANE IS THE LACK OF WOOD ON THE EDGE OR CORNER OF A
PIECE.
TYPES OF WARPING:
CUPPING IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH THE FACE
IS CONVEX/CONCAVE ACROSS THE BOARD.
BOWING IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH THE FACE
IS CONVEX/CONCAVE LONGITUDINALLY.
TWISTING IS A DISTORTION OF THE BOARD IN WHICH ONE
CORNER IS RAISED.
DEFINITION OF TERMS:

 STRIPS PIECES LESS THAN 2 THICK AND LESS THAN 8 WIDE.

BOARDS PIECES LESS THAN 2 THICK AND AT LEAST 8 WIDE.
DIMENSION LUMBER PIECES MORE THAN 2 THICK AND LESS
THAN 5 IN ANY DIMENSION.
TIMBER PIECES 4 OR MORE ON THE SMALLEST DIMENSION.
LOG PIECES 12 OR MORE ON THE SMALLEST DIMENSION.
THREE CATEGORIES OF LUMBER:
YARD LUMBER USED FOR ORDINARY LIGHT CONSTRUCTION
AND FINISHING WORK. COMMONLY USED FOR FLOORING, PLANK
SIDING, TRIM AND MOULDING.
SHOP LUMBER IT IS INTENDED FOR USE IN SHOPS OR IN MILLS
MAKING SASH, DOORS, AND CABINETS.
STRUCTURAL LUMBER IS INTENDED FOR USE IN HEAVY
CONSTRUCTION FOR LOAD-BEARING PURPOSES AND IS CUT
INTO TIMBERS OF LARGER SIZE.

WOOD GRAIN:
EDGE GRAIN ANNUAL RINGS RUN APPROX. AT RIGHT ANGLE TO
THE FACE.
FLAT GRAIN WHEN THE ANNUAL RINGS RUN MORE OR LESS
PARALLEL TO THE SURFACE.
ANGLE GRAIN WHEN THE ANNUAL RINGS ARE AT ABOUT 45
DEG. TO THE FACE.
SEASONING OF LUMBER:
AIR DRYING LUMBER IS STRIP-PILED AT ASLOPE ON ASOLID
FOUNDATION. THIS ALLOWS AIR TO CIRCULATE AROUND EVERY
PIECE WHILE THE SLOPING ALOOWS WATER TO RUN OFF
QUICKLY.
KILN-DRYING MORE EXPENSIVE LUMBER WHICH IS REQUIRED
FOR MORE REFINED USES SO AS WOOD WILL NOT MOVE. IT
MUST BE DRIED TO A MOISTURE CONTENT OF NOT MORE THAN 5

TO 10 PERCENT. THIS IS DONE IN AN AIRTIGHT STRUCTURE

SCIENTIFICALLY HEATED BY STEAM PIPES IN WHICH THE
LUMBER IS ARTIFICIALLY DRIED TO THE CORRECT MOISTURE
CONTENT.
MANUFACTURE BOARDS:
MANUFACTURED BOARDS ARE MADE OF WOOD BUT DOES NOT
APPEAR IN THEIR NATURAL STATE. THIS TYPE OF BUILDING MATERIALS
CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS A TYPE OF LUMBER AS THEY ARE THE BYPRODUCT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF LUMBER. THE COMPLETE
UTILIZATION OF WOOD HAS LEAD TO AN EXPANDED FIELD OF
MANUFACTURED BOARDS.
TYPES OF BOARDS:
PLYWOOD IS MADE OF AN ODD NUMBER VENEER SHEETS
GLUED TOGETHER WITH THE GRAINS RUNNING AT RIGHT ANGLE
TO EACH OTHER. IT IS LIGHT IN WEIGHT AND STRONG THAT

SCREW OR NAIL CAN BE DRIVEN CLOSE TO THE EDGES

WITHOUT DANGER OF SPLITTING.

THE DIFF. TYPES OF PLYWOOD:

SOFT PLYWOOD - THE MOST COMMON FOR STRUCTURAL
USE
HARDWOOD PLYWOOD ARE USED FOR PANELLING AND
FINSHING WHERE USUALLY ON ONE FACE IS HARD
FINISHED.
EXTERIOR OR MARINE PLYWOOD
IS MADE FOR
EXTERNAL USE.
HARDBOARD IS MADE FROM WOOD CHIPS WHICH ARE
EXPLODED INTO FIBERS UNDER STREAM OF HIGH PRESSURE.
THE LINING IN THE WOOD ITSELF BINDS PRESSED WOOD
TOGETHER WITH NO FILLERS OR ARTIFICIAL ADHESIVES
APPLIED.
PRESSED WOOD IS EQUALLY STRONG IN ALL

DIRECTIONS BUT VERY BRITTLE. ITS COLOR VARIES FROM

LIGHT TO DARK BROWN.
PARTICLE BOARD IS MANUFACTURES FROM WOOD CHIPS,
CURLS, FIBERS, FLAKES, STRANDS, SHAVING, SLIVERS ETC.
BOUND TOGETHER AND PRESSED INTO SHEETS AND OTHER
MOLDED SHAPED. PARTICLE BOARD HAS EQUAL STRENGTH IN
ALL DIRECTION OF A GIVEN CROSS SECTIONAL AREA, IT IS NOT
BRITTLE AND CAN RESIST WARPING.

MASONRY
MASONRY REFERS TO A MAN-MADE UNITS WHICH ARE FORMED
AND HARDENED INTO MODULAR BUILDING UNITS.
BASIC BRICKWORK TERMINOLOGY:
COURSE IS A HORIZONTAL LAYER OF BRICKS OR OTHER MASONRY
UNITS.

 BED JOINT IS THE HORIZONTAL MORTAR IN EVERY COURSE.

HEAD JOINT IS THE VERTICAL MORTAR IN EVERY MASONRY UNIT.
STRETCHER IS A BRICK LAID WITH ITS FACE PARALLEL TO THE WALL
AND ITS LONG DIMENSION HORIZONTAL.
HEADER IS A BRICK LAID SO AS TO BOND TWO WYTHES TOGETHER.
WYTHE IS A VERTICAL LAYER OF MASONRY UNITS, ONE UNIT THICK.
SOLDIER IS A BRICK LAID ON ITS END WITH ITS FACE PARALLEL TO
THE WALL.
ROWLOCK IS A BRICK LAID ON ITS FACE WITH ITS END VISIBLE IN
THE WALL FACE.
STRUCTURAL BONDS FOR BRICKWORK:
RUNNING BOND CONSISTS ENTIRELY OF STRETCHERS.
COMMON BOND HAS A HEADER COURSE EVERY SIXTH COURSE
ENGLISH BOND ALTERNATES COURSES OF HEADERS AND
STRETCHERS.

 FLEMISH BOND ALTERNATES HEADERS AND STRETCHERS IN EACH

COURSE.

JOINT TOOLING PROFILES FOR BRICKWORK:

WEATHERED JOINT
CONCAVE JOINT

VEE JOINT

FLUCH JOINT

RAKED JOINT

STRIPPED JOINT

STRUCK JOINT
REINFORCED BRICK MASONRY
A REINFORCED BRICK WALL IS CREATED BY CONSTRUCTING TWO
WYTHES OF BRICK 50 100mm APART, PLACING THE REINFORCING
STEEL IN THE CAVITY, AND FILLING CAVITY WITH GROUT. GROUT IS A
MIXTURE OF CEMENT, AGGREGATES, AND WATER.

BRICK BOUNDS
THE METHOD OF LAYING BRICKS IN A WALL IN ORDER TO FORM
SOME DISTINCTIVE PATTERN OR DESIGN IS REFERRED TO AS
THE PATTERN BOND.
THE METHOD BY WHICH THE INDIVIDUAL UNITS IN A BRICK
STRUCTURE ARE TIED TOGETHER EITHER BY OVERLAPPING OR
BY METAL TIES IS KNOWN AS THE STRUCTURAL BOND.
THE ADHESION OF MORTAR TO BRICKS OR TO STEEL
REINFORCEMENT USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH THEM IS CALLED
THE MORTAR BOND.
CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS:

CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS ARE CLASSIFIED AS BEARING AND

NON-BEARING BLOCKS. LOAD BEARING BLOCKS ARE THOSE WHOSE
THICKNESS RANGES FROM 15 CM. TO 20 CM. AND ARE USED TO CARRY
LOAD ASIDE FROM ITS OWN WEIGHT. NON-BEARING BLOCKS ON THE
OTHER HAND, ARE BLOCKS WHICH ARE INTENDED FOR WALLS,
PARTITIONS, FENCES OR DIVIDERS CARRYING ITS OWN WEIGHT WHOSE
THICKNESS RANGES FROM 7.5 CM. TO 10 CM.
CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS HAS THREE CELLS AND TWO ONE
HALF CELLS AT BOTH ENDS HAVING A TOTAL OF FOUR.

CONCRETE
CEMENTS
PORTLAND CEMENT
MADE FROM MATERIALS WHICH MUST CONTAIN IN THE PROPER
PROPORTIONS OF LIME, SILICA, ALUMINA AND IRON COMPONENTS.

FOUR PARTS OF LIMESTONE TO ONE PART CLAY ARE BASIC

INGREDIENTS.
THESE ARE MIXED, BURNED THEN PULVERIZED.
PORTLAND CEMENT IS SOLD EITHER IN CEMENT BAGS OF 40 & 50 KILOS
WEIGHT OR IN BULK INTO CEMENT TRUCKS.
SPECIAL CEMENTS
WHITE PORTLAND CEMENT SAME MATERIALS AS NORMAL
PORTLAND EXCEPT IN COLOR. THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS IS
CONTROLLED TO PRODUCE A PURE WHITE, NON-STAINING CEMENT.
IT IS USED PRIMARILY FOR ARCHITECTURAL PURPOSES SUCH AS
CURTAIN WALL AND FACING PANELS, DECORATIVE CONCRETE
STUCCO AND TILE GROUT, OR WHEREVER WHITE OR COLORED
CONCRETE OR MORTAR IS SPECIFIED.
MASONRY CEMENT OR TILE ADHESIVES HAS BEEN SPECIALLY
DESIGNED TO PRODUCE BETTER MORTAR THAN THAT MADE WITH
NORMAL PORTLAND CEMENT OR WITH A LIME-CEMENT HAS

PARTICULARLY GOOD PLASTICITY AND WORKABILITY, GOOD

ADHESION AND BOND.
WATERPROOFED PORTLAND CEMENT NORMALLY PRODUCED BY
ADDING A SMALL AMOUNT OF STEARATE, USUALLY CALCIUM OR
ALUMINUM TO THE CEMENT CLINKER DURING THE FINAL GRINDING.
TYPES OF AGGREGATES USED IN CONCRETE
CONCRETE CAN BE CONSIDERED TO BE AN ARTIFICIAL STONE
MADE BY BINDING TOGETHER PARTICLES OF SOME INERT MATERIAL
WITH A PASTE MADE OF CEMENT AND WATER. THESE INERT MATERIAL
ARE THE AGGREGATE.
AGGREGATES USED ARE SAND, GRAVEL
CRUSHED STONE, CINDER. CRUSHED FURNACE SLAG, BURNED CLAY,
EXPANDED VERMICULITE, AND PERLITE.
SAND
FINE AGGREGATE

- FOUND IN RIVERBEDS, FREE OF SALT

AND MUST BE WASHED.
- AND SMALLER DIAMETER STONES.

COARSE AGGREGATE

- BIGGER THAN DIAMETER STONES.

CONCRETE MIXES
CLASS AA

- 1: 1 : 3 - CONCRETE UNDER WATER, RETAINING

WALLS

CLASS A

- 1:2:4

- FOOTINGS, COLUMNS BEAMS, R.C.

SLABS

CLASS B
CLASS C

- 1: 2 1/ 2:5- SLAB ON FILL, NON BEARING WALLS

- 1: 3: 6 - CONCRETE PLANT BOXES, ETC.

CONTROL OF CONCRETE MIXES

SLUMP TEST- WHEN FRESHLY MIXED CONCRETE IS CHECKED TO
ENSURE THAT THE SPECIFIED SLUMP IS BEING ATTAINED

CONSISTENTLY. A STANDARD SLUMP CONE IS 12 INCHES HIGH (0.30)

AND 8 INCHES (O.20) IN DIAMETER AT THE BOTTOM AND 4 INCHES (O.10)
ON TOP WHICH IS OPEN ON BOTH ENDS.
THE CONE IS FILLED IN THREE EQUAL LAYERS, EACH BEING
TAMPED OR RODDED 25 TIMES WITH A STANDARD 5/8 BULLET NOSED
ROD. WHEN THE CONE HAS BEEN FILLED AND LEVELED OFF, IT IS
LIFTED CAREFULLY AND THE AMOUNT OF SLUMP IS MEASURED.
ALLOWABLE DEFLECTION X
BEAMS AND COLUMNS

7.5 cm. (.075) 3

SLABS AND TUNNEL INVERTS

5.0 cm. (.50) 2
TOPS AND WALL, PIERS, PARAPET & CURBS
5.0 cm. (.50) 2
SIDE WALLS AND ARCH IN TUNNEL LINING
10.0 cm. (.10) 4
CANAL LINING
7.5 cm. (.075) 3
HEAVY MASS CONSTRUCTION
5.0 cm. (.50) 2

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST- COMMON QUALITY-CONTROL TEST OF

CONCRETE, BASED ON 7 AND 28 DAYS CURING PERIODS. SPECIMENS
ARE USUALLY CYLINDRICAL WITH A LENGHT EQUAL TO TWICE THE
DIAMETER. STANDARD SIZE IS 12 INCH. HIGH AND 6 INCH. DIAMETER.
FILLING IS DONE THE SAME WAY AS THE SLUMP TEST BUT TAKEN OUT
FROM THE MOLD IN 24 HOURS. IT IS THEN SENT TO A COMPRESSION
TESTING LABORATORY, BY MAKING THE CYLINDER WHILE STILL WET.
SOME COMPRESSIVE STRESSES ARE 2,000 psi, 2,500 psi, 3,000 psi.
SOME OF THE BRANDS OF PORTLAND CEMENT
ISLAND CEMENT
CONTINENTAL CEMENT
HI- CEMENT
UNION CEMENT
RIZAL CEMENT

FILIPINAS CEMENT
PACIFIC CEMENT
FORTUNE CEMENT
REPUBLIC CEMENT
NORTHERN CEMENT

BRANDS OF WHITE CEMENT

PRIME WHITE CEMENT
KEENE
TRINITY
SNOWCRETE
MORTAR CEMENT, SAND & WATER.
GROUT CEMENT AND WATER MIXTURE.
CONCRETE CEMENT, SAND, GRAVEL & WATER.
TYROLEAN FINISH ROUGH PLASTER FINISH OBTAINED BY FLINGING
PLASTER ON A WALL W/ A HAND OPERATED MACHINE.

 EFFLORESCENCE AN ENCRUSTATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS CAUSED

BY FREE ALKALIES LEACHED FROM MORTAR OR ADJACENT
CONCRETE AS MOISTURE MOVE THROUGH IT.
ADIABATIC CURING - THE CURING OF CONCRETE OR MORTAR W/O
THE GAIN OR LOSS OF HEAT DURING THE CURING PERIOD.
WHEATHERED MOST WATERPROOFED TYPE OF MORTAR JOINTS
FOR WALLS.
ADOBE BRICK LARGE ROUGHLY MOULDED SUN DRIED CLAY BRICKS
OF VARYING SIZES.
ASHLAR BRICK A BRICK WHOSE FACE HAS BEEN HACKED TO
RESEMBLE ROUGHLY HACKED STONE.
RETARDER AN ADMIXTURE WHICH DELAY THE SETTING OF CEMENT
PASTE OR MIXTURES/ AN ADDITIVE MIXED WITH PLASTER TO
CONTROL THE RATE OF HARDENING.

 STEAM CURING THE CURING OF CONCRETE OR MORTAR IN WATER

VAPOR AT AN ELEVATED TEMPERATURE AT EITHER ATMOSPHERIC OR
HIGH PRESSURE.
QUOIN / COIN IN MASONRY, A HARD STONE OR BRICK USED TO
REINFORCE AN EXTERNAL CORNER OF A WALL.
ZOCALO LOW WALL AROUND A CHALET-TYPE HOUSE.
FORTIFICATION THA WALL OF INTRAMUROS.
SCRATCH COAT INITIAL SCORED LAYER OF PLASTER WORK.
CINDER BLOCK A LIGHT WEIGHT MASONRY UNIT MADE OF CINDER
CONCRETE.
MORTAR FOR BLOCK LAYING IS 0.0125 m.
PLASTERING THICKNESS IS 0.016 m.
MORTAR FILLER FOR HOLLOW CELL 0.05 X 0.075 X 0.20 = 0.00075 cu.m.
FOR 4 CELL/BLOCK = 0.00075 X 4 = 0.003 cu.m. FOR 4 CHB.

FERROUS AND NONFERROUS METALS

FERROUS- METAL IN WHICH IRON IS THE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT.
NONFERROUS- CONTAINING NO, OR VERY LITTLE IRON.
FERROUS METAL:
STEEL- A MALLEABLE ALLOY OF IRON AND CARBON PRODUCED BY
MELTING AND REFINING PIG IRON AND/ OR SCRAP STEEL, GRADED
ACCORDING TO THE CARBON CONTENT.
PRODUCE BY THREE BASIC RAW MATERIALS, IRON ORE, AND
LIMESTONE. FIVE PARTICLES OF ALL THREE BASIC INGREDIENTS OF
STEEL, WHICH OTHERWISE WOULD BE WASTE, ARE BLENDED AND
BURNED ON A MOVING GATE TO CAUSE THE FORMATION OF CLINKERS.
THESE ARE CALLED SINTER, A HIGH- GRADE BLAST-FURNANCE CHARGE
MATERIAL.
FROM THESE, RAW MATERIALS WHICH IS MELTED INTO INGOTS
PLACE IN MOLDS, A GRAT VARIETY OF PRODUCTS USED IN
CONSTRUCTION ARE MADE. THEY INCLUDED:

 COLD-ROLLED SHEETS ARE GALVANIZED (GIVEN A ZINC COATING).

PIG IRON IS USED TO MAKE CAST IRON WHICH IS HIGH IN
COMPRESSIVE STRENGHT BUT LOW IN TENSILE STRENGHT, AND HAS
LITTLE USE FOR CONSTRUCTION. HOWEVER SINCE IT IS CHEAP AND
EASY TO CAST, IT IS USED FOR PUMPS, MOTORS, ENGINES AND
BECAUSE OF ITS CORROSION RESISTANCE IT IS USED FOR PIPES TO
SOME EXTENT.
WROUGHT IRON IS PRODUCED WHEN PIG IRON IS MELTED IN SUCH A
WAY AS TO REMOVE NEARLY ALL OF THE CARBON AND OTHER
IMPURITIES. IT IS EASILY WORKED AND IS TOUGH AND DUCTILE. ITS
MAIN USES ARE FOR WIRE AND METAL ORNAMENTS.
STAINLESS STEELS ARE MADE WITH CHROMIUM OR A COMBINATION
OF NICKEL AND CHROMIUM USED IN BUILDINGS OF EXTERIOR WALLS

PANELS, FRAMES FOR DOORS EXPANSION JOINTS, FLASHING,

COPINGS, FASCIA AND GRAVEL STOPS.
COPPER- BEARING STEEL HAS HIGH RESISTANCE TO CORROSION
AND IS USED FOR MAKING SHEET STEEL AND METAL LATH.
STEEL PRODUCTS
ROLLED STRUCTURAL SHAPES
SHEET PILING- SECTIONS ARE MADE TO INTERLOCK AND ARE
AVAILABLE IN SEVERAL SHAPE.
STEEL PIPE- SEAMLESS OR WELDED SMALL DIAMETER PIPE AND
ELECTRICALLY WELDED LARGE DIAMETER PIPE.
REINFORCING STEEL- MADE FROM NEW STEEL OR FROM
DISCARDED RAILWAY- CAR AXLES OR RAILS.
REINFORCING STEEL COMES IN PLAIN OR DEFORMED BARS, THAT
IS, BARS WHICH HAVE LUGS OR DEFORMATIONS ROLLED ON THE
SURFACE TO PROVIDE ARCHORAGE IN CONCRETE.

SIZES-START WITH NO.2 OR in. (DIVIDE A NUMBER OF BAR BY 8 TO

GET THE EQUIVALENT IN inch DIAMETER)
No. 2=
No. 3=
No. 4=
No. 5=
No. 6=
No. 7=
No. 8=
No. 9=

3/8

5/8

7/8
1
1 1/8

= 6 mm.
= 10 mm.
= 12mm.
= 16mm.
= 20mm.
= 22mm.
= 25mm.
= 30mm.

WELDED WIRE FABRIC- ANOTHER TYPE OF REINFORCING

MATERIAL. IT CONSISTS OF PARALLEL, LONGITUDINAL WIRES
WELDED TO TRANSVERSE WIRES AT REGULAR INTERVALS.

 STEEL WIRE OVER 150,000 USES FOR WIRE INCLUDING PINS,

NEEDLES, NAILS, BOLTS, CABLES, PIANO WIRE, FENCES.
BOLTS AND NUTS (EITHER HOT FORGED OR COLD-FORMED FROM
WIRE OF THE APPROPRIATE DIAMETER). FOR BOLTS, WIRE IS FED
INTO AN AUTOMATIC BOLT-MAKING MACHINE WHICH CUTS TO
LENGTH HEADS, TRIMS, POINTS, AND IN MANY ROLLS THE THREAD.
STEEL STRAPPING MADE FROM HIGH-TENSILE FLAT WIRE IN A
NUMBER OF SIZES. USED FOR BANDING COLUMN FORMS TO KEEP
THEM FROM BULGING UNDER THE PRESSURE OF FRESHLY
POURED CONCRETE. A TIGHTERNER TIGHTENS IT AND THE TWO
LAPPED ENDS IS SEALED.
OPEN WEB STEEL JOISTS LIGHTWEIGHT WARREN-TYPE TRUSSES
MADE IN SEVERAL DIFFERENT STYLES.
SHEET STEEL BLACK AND GALVANIZED, CAN BE USED TO
MANUFACTURE CORRUGATED ROOFING AND SIDING AND FORMED
STEEL DECKING.

 STEEL STUDS LIGHTWEIGHT, REQUIRING MINIMUM STORAGE

SPACE AND DOES NOT WARP OR SHRINK. FASTENERS DO NOT
POP, AND JOINTS STAY CLOSED. MUCH FASTER TO INSTALL THAN
WOOD STUD INSTALLATION. AVAILABLE IN 1 5/8, 2 AND 3 5/8
INCHES. PLUMBING STACKS AND ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS FIT
EASILY INTO A STEEL-FRAMEWALL.
PANS AND DONES MANUFACTURED FOR USE IN FORMING ONEWAY AND TWO-WAY RIBBED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS.
NONFERROUS METALS:
ALUMINUM ITS ORE, BAUXITE, REQUIRES 10 KILOWATT HOURS FOR
EACH POUND OF METAL ALUMINUM EXTRACTED. THE REDDISH BROWN
ORE IS WASHED AND TREATED IN A SODA SOLUTION TO YIELD A CHALKYWHITE POWDER CALLED ALUMNA, CONTAINING A HIGH CONCENTRATION
OF ALUMINUM.

ALUMINUM FOIL USED AS A VAPOR BARRIER ON WALLS AND

CEILINGS AND AS REFLECTIVE INSULATION.
COPPER A LUSTROUS REDDISH METAL, HIGHLY DUCTILE AND
MALLEABLE; HAS HIGH TENSILE STRENGTH, IS AN EXCELLENT
ELECTRICAL AND THERMAL CONDUCTOR, IS AVAILABLE IN A WIDE
VARIETY OF SHAPES; WIDELY USED FOR DOWNSPOUTS, ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTORS, FLASHINGS GUTTERS, ROOFING, ETC.
COPPER ALLOYS ARE BRASSES, AND BRONZES WHICH
CONTAIN PRIMARILY ZINC AND TIN, RESPECTIVELY, AND THE ALLOYS
CONTAINING NICKEL.
BRASSES ARE USED IN ARCHITECTURAL AND HARDWARE
APPLICTIONS. BRONZES ARE USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF SPRINGS.

LEAD A SOFT, MALLEABLE, HEAVY METAL; HAS LOW MELTING

POINT AND A HIGH COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION. VERY EASY
TO CUT AND WORK, ENABLING IT TO BE FITTED OVER UNEVEN
SURFACES. USED FOR ROOFING, FLASHING AND SPANDREL WALL
PANELS.
TIN A LUSTROUS WHITE, SOFT AND MALLEABLE METAL HAVING A
LOW MELTING POINT; RELATIVELY UNAFFECTED BY EXPOSURE TO AIR;
USED FOR MAKING ALLOYS AND SOLDER AND IN COATING SHEET
METAL.
STRUCTURAL SHAPES
THE MOST COMMON SHAPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL USED IN
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION ARE THE AMERICAN STANDARD FORMS SUCH
AS:
1.
SQUARE BARS
6.
I-BEAM
2.
ROUND BARS
7.
TEE BEAM

3.
PLATE BARS
8.
H-COLUMN
4.
ANGLE BARS
9.
WIDE FLANGES
5.
CHANNELS
10. ZEE
STANDARD CHANNEL
THE STANDARD CHANNEL HAS THE SHAPE OF UNSYMMETRICAL
BALANCE CONSISTING OF TWO FLANGES ON ONE SIDE. IT THEREFORE
REQUIRES LATERAL SUPPORT TO PREVENT ITS TENDENCY TO BUCKLE.
THE STANDARD CHANNELS ARE GENERALLY USED AS ELEMENTS OF
BUILT-UP SECTIONS FOR COLUMNS AND ARE ALSO SUITABLE FOR
FRAMING AROUND FLOOR OPENINGS, SPANDRELS, AND LINTELS
ATTRIBUTED TO THE ABSENCE OF FLANGE ON THE OTHER SIDE. THE
CHANNEL SECTION IS IDENTIFIRD AS C 15 x 20 WHICH MEANS THAT THE
CHANNEL HAS A DEPTH OF 20 cm. AND WEIGHTS 15 kg. PER METER
LENGTH.

WIDE FLANGE
WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE DESIGNATED AS W 12 x 24 WHICH
MEANS THAT THE FLANGE HAS A DEPTH OF 24 cm. AND IT WEIGHS 12 kg.
PER METER LENGTH. ALL WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE GENERALLY
WITH PARALLEL FACE FLANGE EXCEPT THOSE WITH 5% SLOPE INSIDE
FACE PRODUCED BY BETLEHEM STEEL COMPANY. COMPARATIVELY,
WIDE FLANGE SECTIONS ARE MORE EFFICIENT THAN STANDARD I BEAM
WITH RESPECT TO BENDING RESISTANCE.

STANDARD I-BEAM
THE USE OF I-BEAM AS A COLUMN IS UNECONOMICAL, BECAUSE
THE WHIRL OR REVOLVING ACTION OF THE STRUCTURE ABOUT AN AXIS
THROUGH THE CENTROID PARALLEL TO THE WAB OF THE I-BEAM IS
COMPARATIVELY SMALL.

H-BEARING PILES
H-BEARING PILES ALTHOUGH SUITABLE FOR PILE DRIVING ON
DEEP EXCAVATIONS IS MUCH MORE SUITABLE THAN THE I-BEAM FOR
COLUMNS.

ZEE SECTIONS
THE ZEE SECTION IS ANOTHER STRUCTURAL FORM IN A LETTER Z
WHICH IS NOT FREQUENTLY USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION EXEPT
ON THE FABRICATION OF STEEL WINDOWS AND OTHER FRAMES.

WROUGHT IRON A COMMERCIALLY PURE IRON OF FIBROUS

NATURE, VALUED FOR ITS CORROSION RESISTANCE AND DUCTILITY.
CAST IRON AN IRON ALLOY USUALLY INCLUDING CARBON AND
SILICON WHICH HAS HIGH COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH BUT LOW
TENSILE STRENGTH.
WELDING IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH TWO METALS ARE SO JOINT
THAT THERE IS AN ACTUAL UNION OF THE INTERATOMIC BONDS.

 EXTRUSION THE PROCESS OF PRODUCING METAL SHAPES OF A

CONSTANT CROSS SECTION BY FORCING THE HOT METAL THROUGH
AN ORFICE IN A DIE BY MEANS OF A PRESSURE RAM.
RED OXIDE PROTECTIVE COAT FOR IRON.
LAP SEAM A JOINT FORMED BY OVERLAPPING THE EDGES OF
METAL SHEET OR PLATES AND JOINING THEM BY RIVETING OR
SOLDERING OR BRACING.

JOINING STEEL MEMBERS

STEEL SHAPES CAN BE JOINED INTO A BUILDING FRAME WITH ANY
OF THREE FASTENING TECHNIQUES.
RIVETS

A RIVETS IS A FASTENER CONSISTING OF A CYLINDRICAL BODY

AND A FORMED HEAD WHICH IS BROUGHT TO A WHITE HEAT, INSERTED
THROUGH HOLES IN THE MEMBERS TO BE JOINED, AND HOT-WORKED
WITH A PNEUMATIC HAMMER TO PRODUCED A SECOND HEAD OPPOSITE
THE FIRSTHEAD.
PROCESS OF RIVETING:
A)
A HOT STEEL RIVET IS INSERTED IN HOLES THROUGH THE TWO
MEMBERS TO BE JOINED,
B)
ITS HEAD IS THEN HELD WITH HAND HAMMER WITH A CUPSHAPED DEPRESSION,
C)
WHILE A PNEUMATIC HAMMER DRIVES A RIVET SET REPEATEDLY
AGAINST THE BODY OF THE RIVET TO FORM THE SECOND
HEAD,
D)
THE RIVET SHRINKS AS IT COOLS, DRAWING MEMBERS TIGHTLY
TOGETHER.

 BOLTS
THE BOLTS COMMONLY USED IN STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION
FALL INTO TWO GENERAL CATEGORIES:
1) CARBON STEEL BOLTS OR COMMON BOLTS ARE SIMILAR TO
THE ORDINARY MACHINE BOLTS THAT CAN BE PURCHASED IN
HARDWARE STORES.
2) HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTS ARE HEAT TREATED DURING
MANUFACTURE TO DEVELOP THE NECESSARY STRENGTH. IT
IS USUALLY TIGHTENED USING PNEUMATIC OR ELECTRIC
IMPACT WRENCH.
A MAJOR PROBLEM IN HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTING OR FRICTIONTYPE CONNECTIONS IS HOW TO VERIFY THE NECESSARY TENSION HAS
BEEN ACHIEVED IN ALL THE BOLTS IN A CONNECTION.
SEVERAL WAY TO ACHIEVED PROPER TIGHTENING:

 TURN-OF-NUT METHOD
LOAD INDICATOR WASHER
TENSION CONTROL BOLTS
PROCESS OF TIGHTENING A TENSION CONTROL BOLT:
A)
THE WRENCH HOLDS BOTH THE NUT AND THE SPLINED BODY OF
THE BOLT, AND TURNS THEM AGAINST ONE ANOTHER TO TIGHTEN
THE BOLT,
B)
WHEN THE REQUIRED TORQUE IS ACHIEVED, THE SPLINED END
TWISTS OFF IN THE WRENCH,
C)
A PLUNGER INSIDE THE WRENCH DISCHARGES THE SPLINED END
INTO A CONTAINER.
WELDING

WELDING CAN JOIN THE MEMBERS OF A STEEL FRAME AS IF THEY WERE

A MONOLITHIC WHOLE. WELDED ARE STRONGER THAN THE MEMBERS
THEY JOIN IN RESISTING BOTH SHEAR AND MOMENT FORCES.
TYPICAL WELDS USED IN STEEL FRAME CONSTRUCTION:
FILLET WELD
DOUBLE FILLET WELD
DOUBLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD
SINGLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD WITH BACKUP BAR
V-GROOVE WELD
V-GROOVE WELD WITH BACKUP BAR

 PUDDLE WELD
PARTIAL-PENETRATION SINGLE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD
THE BASIC SYBOLS ARE:
BACK
FILLET
GROOVE OR BUTT
SQUARE
V
BEVEL
U

PLUG OR SLOT
J

FLARE V

FLARE BEVEL

THE ARROW
THE REFERENCE
SYMBOLS

LINE

CARRIES

THE

DESCRIPTIVE

THE ARROW POINTS TO THE WELD

THE BASIC SYMBOLS

THE BASIC WELD SYMBOL IS LOCATED ON EITHER SIDE
OF THE REFERENCE LINE AS FOLLOWS:

SYMBOLS ON THE TOP OF THE REFERENCE LINE REFER

TO WELDS ON THE SIDE OF THE JOINT OPPOSITE THE
ARROW
SYMBOLS ON THE BOTTOM OF THE REFERENCE LINE
REFER TO WELDS ON THE SAME SIDE OF THE JOINT AS
AS THE ARROW

SUPPLEMENTARY SYMBOLS
FIELD WELD THIS WELD BE DONE IN THE FIELD DURING ERECTION.
OTHER WELDS ARE DONE EARLIER IN THE FABRICATORS SHOP.

WELD ALL AROUND THIS INDICATES THAT THE WELD SHOULD BE

CARRIED FULLY AROUND THE PERIMETER OF THE JOINING PIECES.

BACKUP BAR AS INDICATED IN THIS EXAMPLE, A BACKUP BAR TO

SUPPORT THE FIRST PASS OF THE WELD MUST BE PLACED ON THE SIDE
OF THE JOINT OPPOSITE THE ARROW.
SPACER SMALL METAL SPACERS ARE USED TO MAINTAIN A GAP
BETWEEN THE PIECS TO BE JOINED, PRIOR TO WELDING.

A SHARP BEND NEAR THE END OF THE ARROW INDICATES THAT THE
ARROWHEAD IS POINTING TOWARD THE GROOVED SIDE OF THE BEVEL
OR J-GROOVED JOINT.

GLASS
THE MAJOR INGREDIENT OF GLASS IS SAND (SILICON DIOXIDE). A
HARD BRITTLE INORGANIC SUBSTANCE, ORDINARILY TRANSPARENT OR
TRANSLUCENT; PRODUCED BY MELTING A MIXTURE OF SILICA, A FLUX
AND A STABILIZER; WHILE MOLTEN MAYBE BLOWN, DRAWN, ROLLED,
PRESSED OR CAST TO A VARIETY OF SHAPES.
DURING ITS MANUFACTURED, ORDINARY WINDOW GLASS IS
ANNEALED, COOLED SLOWLY UNDER CONTROLLED CONDITION, TO

AVOID LOCKED-IN THERMAL STRESSES THAT MIGHT CAUSE IT TO

BEHAVE UNPREDICTABLY IN USE.
THICKNESSES OF GLASS
GLASS IS TYPICALLY MANUFACTURED IN A SERIES OF
THICKNESSES RANGING FROM APPROXIMATELY 2.5mm, THROUGH 3mm,
IS CALLED SINGLE-STRENGTH, OR 6mm TO 22mm, IS CALLED DOUBLESTRENGTH, AND ON SPECIAL ORDER, 25mm IS AVAILABLE.
TYPES OF CLEAR GLASS
1.

TEMPERED GLASS
TEMPERED GLASS IS PRODUCED BY CUTTING ANNEALED
GLASS TO THE REQUIRED SIZES FOR USE, REHEATING IT TO
APPROXIMATELY 1200 DEGREES FAHRENHEIT, COOLING BOTH ITS
SURFACES RAPIDLY WITH A BLAST OF AIR WHILE ITS CORE COOLS

MUCH MORE SLOWLY. ITS FOUR TIMES AS STRONG IN BENDING

AND MORE RESISTANT TO THERMAL STRESS AND IMPACT.
2.

3.

HEAT-STRENGTHENED GLASS
THE HEAT STRENGTHENED PROCESS IS SIMILAR TO
TEMPERING, BUT ITS, ABOUT ONE-THIRD AS HIGH AS TEMPERED
GLASS IN TERMS OF BENDING AND STRENGTH.
LAMINATED GLASS
ITS MADE BY SANDWICHING A TRANSPARENT VINYL INTERLAER
BETWEEN SHEETS OF GLASS AND BONDING THE THREE LAYERS
TOGETHER UNDER HEAT AND PRESSURE. WHEN ITS BREAKS, THE
SOFT VINYL HOLDS THE SHARDS OF GLASS IN PLACE RATHER
THAN ALLOWING THEM TO FALL OUT OF THE FRAME.

4.

PATTERNED OR ROLLED AND ROUGH CAST GLASS

HOT GLASS CAN BE ROLLED INTO SHEETS WITH MANY DIFFERENT

SURFACE PATTERNS FOR USE WHERE LIGHT TRANSMISSION IS DESIRED
BUT VISION MUST BE OBSCURED FOR PRIVACY.
5.

SPANDREL GLASS
SPECIAL OPAQUE GLASSES ARE PRODUCED FOR COVERING THE
SPANDREL AREA (THE BANDS OF WALL AROUND THE EDGES OF
FLOORS) IN GLASS CURTAIN. IT IS USUALLY TEMPERED OR HEATSTRENGTHENED TO RESIST THE THERMAL STRESSES THAT CAN
CAUSED BY ACCUMULATIONS OF SOLAR HEAT BEHIND THE SPANDREL.
6.

WIRED GLASS
SIMPLY A ROLLED GLASS INTO WHICH WIRE MESH IS INSERTED
DURING THE PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE.
THE WIRE GREATLY
INCREASES THE RESISTANCE TO SHATTERING THROUGH IMPACT. ITS

USE FOR SAFETY GLAZING, WHEN ITS BREAKS FROM THERMAL STRESS,
THE WIRES HOLD THE SHEET OF GLASS TOGETHER.
TINTED AND REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS
SOLAR HEAT BUILDUP CAN BE PROBLEMATIC IN THE INHABITED
SPACES OF BUILDINGS WITH LARGE AREAS OF GLASS, ESPECIALLY
DURING THE WARM PART OF THE YEAR. THIS IS USE TO REDUCE GLARE
AND CUT DOWN ON SOLAR HEAT GAIN.
1)

TINTED GLASS
TINTED GLASS IS MADE BY ADDING SMALL AMOUNTS OF SELECTED
CHEMICAL ELEMENTS TO THE MOLTEN GLASS MIXTURE TO PRODUCE
THE DESIRED HUE AND INTENSITY OF COLOR IN GRAYS, BRONZES,
BLUES, GREEN, AND GOLDS.
2)

REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS

REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS APPEAR AS MIRROR FROM THE

OUTSIDE ON A BRIGHT DAY AND AT NIGHT, WITH LIGHTS ON INSIDE THE
BUILDING, THEY APPEAR AS DARK BUT TRANSPARENT GLASS.
3)

INSULATING GLASS
A SECOND SHEET OF GLASS APPLIED TO A WINDOW WITH AN
AIRSPACE BETWEEN THE SHEETS CUTS THIS RATE OF HEAT LOSS IN
HALF. TWO KINDS OF EDGES SEALS ARE FUSED GLASS EDGES AND A
METAL SPLINE AND ORGANIC SEALANT.
GLASS PRODUCTS
I.
GLASS BLOCKS
COMPARABLE IN MANY WAYS TO UNIT MASONRY BUT HAVE THE
ADDED FEATURE OF TRANSMITTING LIGHT. THEY ARE MADE INTO TWO
SEPARATE HALVES, WHICH ARE HEAT-SEALED TOGETHER TO FORM A
HOLLOW UNIT WITH REASONBLY HIGH THERMAL EFFICIENCY AND

SOUND INSULATION. THE EDGE SURFACES OF THE BLOCK ARE COATED

WITH A GRITTY MORTAR BOND.
TWO TYPES:
1. FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS DIRECT OR DIFFUSE THE DAYLIGHT WHICH
PASSES THEOUGH THEM TO IMPROVE THE ILLUMINATION OF THE
BUILDING INTERIOR.

THREE STYLES OF FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS:

A.
A LIGHT DIRECTING BLOCK DIRECTS INCOMING LIGHT UPWARD
TOWARD THE CEILING. USED ALWAYS ABOVE EYE LEVEL.
B.
A LIGHT DIFFUSING BLOCK DIFFUSES INCOMING LIGHT EVENLY
THROUGHOUT THE INTERIOR OF THE ROOM.
C.
GENERAL PURPOSES BLOCK

2. DECORATIVELY OR ARCHITECTURAL GLASS AVAILABLE IN A WIDE

RANGE OF STYLES AND PATTERNS. THESE GLASS MASONRY UNITS
PROVIDE ALMOST UNLIMITED DESIGN VERSATILITY WHEN USED IN
WINDOW, OPENINGS AND FACADES, AS INTERIOR WALLS AND DIVIDER
PANELING.

PAINT FINISHES
THE PURPOSE OF A FINISH IS TO PROTECT, PRESERVE OR
VISUALLY ENHANCE THE SURFACE TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED. FINISHES
INCLUDE PLASTIC LAMINATED SURFACE COVERINGS SUCH AS PLASTIC
LAMINATED AND VINYL OF FABRIC WALL COVERING.

PAINT GENERALLY REFERS TO OPAQUE OR CLEAR FILM-FORMING

MATERIAL THAT ACTS AS A SHIELD OR BARRIER BETWEEN THE BUILDING
MATERIAL AND THOSE ELEMENTS OR CONDITIONS THAT MAY
ADVERSELY AFFECTS OR DETERIORATE. THE PAINT FILM MUST RESIST
DETERIORATION DUE TO SUNLIGHT HEAT, TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS,
WATER OR MOISTURE VAPOR, MILDEW AND DECAY CHEMICALS AND
PHYSICAL ABRASION. PAINT MAY ALSO SERVE TO MAKE SURFACES
MORE SANITARY, IMPROVE HEATING AND LIGHTING EFFECTS, AND
PROMOTE HUMAN COMFORT AND SAFETY.
WHEN USING PAINT, THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF COLOR AND
SURFACE TEXTURE MUST BE CONSIDERED. CERTAIN COLORS MAY BE
STIMULATING WHILE OTHERS ARE RELAXING.
WHITE AND LIGHT
COLORS REFLECT SIZE OF FORM AND SPACE. DARK COLOR CAN
INHIBIT THE PERCEPTION OF FORM AND MAY BE USED FOR CONTRAST.
FLAT PAINT FINISHES SOFTEN AND DISTRIBUTE, ILLUMINATION EVENLY.

GLOSSY FINISHES REFLECT LIGHT AND CAN CAUSE GLARE, BUT THEY
ALSO PROVIDE SMOOTH, EASILY CLEANED, NON-ABSORPTIVE
SURFACES.
MOST PAINTS ARE CAREFULLY FORMULATED TO MEET SPECIFIC
APPLICATION THAT USE REQUIREMENTS AND ARE READY-MIXED FOR
APPLICATION EXCEPT FOR THINNING, STIRRING, OR THE ADDITION OF
AN ACTIVATOR OR CATALYST. IT IS ALWAYS ADVISABLE THEREFORE TO
FOLLOW THE PAINT MANUFACTURERS RECOMMENDATIONS IN THE
APPLICATION AND USE OF A PAINT OR OTHER PROTECTIVE COATING.
PAINTS MAY BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO:
MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS APPLIED
WOOD, METAL MASONRY, CONCRETE, PLASTIC, ETC.,
SURFACE FINISH TEXTURE
GLOSS, SEMI-GLOSS, EGG SHELL, SATIN, FLAT,& VARNISH.

CONSIDERATIONS IN THE SELECTION AND USE OF A PAINT INCLUDE:

SURFACE PREPARATION
- THE FOUNDATION OF ANY PAINT SYSTEM MUST BE PROPERLY
PREPARED TO ENSURE PROPER ADHESION OF THE PAINT FILM TO ITS
SURFACE.
TYPE OF PAINT
- PAINT MUST BE COMPATIBLE WITH THE MATERIAL TO WHICH IT IS
APPLIED.
- SPECIFICATIONS INCLUDE THE PAINT VEHICLE, FINISH COLOR,
EXPOSURE, AND MANUFACTURER AND/OR TRADE NAME.
METHOD
- DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF PAINT AND THE MATERIAL TO WHICH IT
IS BEING APPLIED.
COATINGS MAY BE BRUSHED, ROLLED OR
SPRAYED ON.

DRYING
- THE TIME AND CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR A PAINT TO DRY MUST
BE CHECKED.
FILM THICKNESS
- THE DRY FILM THICKNESS (DFT) IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN THE
NUMBER OF COATS.
- MULTIPLE THIN COATS ARE GENERALLY MORE EFFECTIVE THAN A
SINGLE THICK COAT.
- A MINIMUM OF 2 COATS IS REQUIRED TO PRODUCE 5 MIL DFT.
COVERAGE
- A PAINTS COVERAGE CAN BE ESTIMATED BY ITS PERCENTAGE OF
VOLUME SOLIDS:
- ie. PAINT WITH 100% VOLUME SOLIDS:
(NO THINNER)

1 GAL
1600 SF (149 m2)
800 SF ( 74 m2)
400 SF ( 37 m2)

COVERS
@ 1 MIL DFT
@ 2 MIL DFT
@ 4 MIL DFT

-PAINT WITH 50% VOLUME SOLIDS

(50% THINNER)
1 GAL
COVERS
800 SF (74 m2)
@ 1 MIL DFT
400 SF (37 m2)
@ 2 MIL DFT
PAINT GENERALLY CONSIST OF:
PIGMENT FINELY GROUND SOLIDS THAT PROVIDE THE PAINTS
COVERINGS OR HIDING POWER OR ITS COLOR.

VEHICLE LIQUID MEDIUM TO CARRY THE PIGMENT IN

SUSPENSION DURING APPLICATION. AND CONSISTS OF BINDERS AND
SOLVENTS.
BINDER SERVE TO FORM THE PAINT FILM AND CAUSE IT TO ADHERE
THE SURFACE BEING PAINTED.
BINDERS ARE LARGELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE PROTECTIVE
QUALITY AND DURABILITY OF THE PAINT FIL OR PROTECTIVE
COATING.
SOLVENTS OR THINNERS ACTS DRYING AGENTS.
DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF SOLVENT USED, A PAINT MAY DRY OR
HARDEN BY OXIDATION, EVAPORATION, CHEMICAL ACTION, OR BY
THERMOSETTING ACTION AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES.
COLOR
DEPENDS ON THE TYPE OF PAINT AND THE MANUFACTURER.

EXPOSURE
EXTERIOR OR INTERIOR
CHARACTERISTICS:
PIGMENTED COATING
LACQUER AND ENAMEL PAINTS
CLEAR COATINGS
VARNISHES, LACQUERS, SHEELAC, SEALERS
RUST INHIBITIVE COATINGS
ZINC-PIGMENTED COATINGS
ZINC, SILICONS, ALKYD, OR ASPHALT OR BASE COATINGS
ASPHALT OR TAR COATINGS THAT FORM NON-PEMEABLE BARRIERS
AGAINST WATER AND OXYGEN TO PROTECT SUBMERGED FERROUS
METAL AND TO WATERPROOF MASONRY SURFACES.
CEMENT MORTAR COATINGS

 MIXTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT, LIME AND WATER USED TO

DAMPPROOF MASONRY MATERIALS AND PROTECT EXPOSED STEEL
PLASTIC AND SYNTHETIC RUBBER COATINGS
COATING RESISTANT TO MILDEW, MOLD, FUMES, MARINE
ENVIRONMENTS ETC.,
PAINTS MAY BE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO ITS VEHICLE OR BINDER:
ALKYDS USED FOR EXTERIOR PAINTS.
OIL MODIFIED RESINS THAT HARDEN BY OXIDATION AND
EVAPORATION.
THE MOST COMMON PAINT VEHICLE
FAST DRYING A HARDER THAN ORDINARY TIME, LOWERS THE GLOSS,
AND IMPROVES THE PAINTS WETTING PROPERTIES, DURABILITY AND
ELASTICITY TO RESIST BLISTERING.
HAVE GOOD DRYING PROPERTIES, DURABILITY AND WATER
RESISTANCE FOR EXTERIOR EXPOSURES, AND GOOD COLOR
RETENTION.

ASPHALT USED FOR WATERPROOFING AT FIREWALL AND ROOF

DECKING.
COATINGS WITH A VEHICLE OF BOTH PETROLEUM AND NATURAL
ASPHALTS ARE USED TO PROTECT WOOD, MASONRY, CONCRETE AND
AS ROOF COATING.
HAVE GOOD WATER RESISTANCES BUT THERMOPLASTIC IN NATURE.
ADDITION OF ALUMINUM GLAKES HELPS TO REFLECT THE SUNS
RAYS.
ADDITION OF EPOXY RESINS MINIMIZES THE COLD FLOW AND
MAXIMIZES THE CHEMICAL-RESISTANCE OF ASPHALT.
CHLORINATED RUBBER USED FOR INDUSTRIAL FLOORING.
USED IN COATINGS HIGHLY RESISTANT TO ALKALIES, ACIDS,
CHEMICALS, AND WATER
MAY BE REMOVED BY COAL TAR SOLVENTS

 HAS LIMITED RESISTANCE TO PROLONGED HEAT EXPOSURE

USED IN SWIMMING POOLS, WATER TREATMENT PLANTS
EPOXY CATALYZED USED FOR DUCO FINISH.
TWO COMPONENT COATINGS CONSISTING OF A PIGMENTED PRIMER
OR ENAMEL AND AN ACTIVATOR OR CATALYST.
MIXED JUST PRIOR TO USE HAS LIMITED POT LIFE
PRODUCES BY CHEMICAL ACTION A DENSE, HARD FILM SIMILAR TO
BAKED ENAMEL.
HAS EXCELLENT RESISTANT TO SOLVENTS, CHEMICALS, PHYSICAL
ABRASION, TRAFFIC WEAR, A CLEANING MATERIALS
HAS GOOD ADHESION PROPERTIES, COLOR RETENTION AND STAIN
RESISTANCE.
HAS GOOD DURABILITY FOR EXTERIOR EXPOSURE BUT MAY CHALK.

HARDWARE
HARDWARE - METAL PRODUCTS USED IN CONSTRUCTION, SUCH AS
BOLTS, HINGES, LOCKS, TOOLS, ETC. THEY ARE CLASSIFIED AS:

FINISHING HARDWARE HARDWARE, SUCH AS HINGES LOCKS,

CATCHES, ETC. THAT HAS A FINISHED APPEARANCE AS WELL AS
FUNCTION, ESP. THAT USED WITH DOORS, WINDOWS, AND CABINETS,
MAYBE CONSIDERED PART OF THE DECORATIVE TREATMENT OF A
ROOM OR BUILDING.
ROUGH HARDWARE IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, HARDWARE
MEANT TO BE CONCEALED, SUCH AS BOLTS, NAILS, SCREWS, SPIKES,
RODS, AND OTHER METAL FITTINGS.
SOME FINISHING HARDWARE BRANDS:
1.
SARGENT
7.
2.
STANLEY
8.
3.
YALE
9.
4.
CORBIN
10.
5.
SCHLAGE
11.
6.
KWIKSET
12.

RABBIT
UNIVERSAL
EAGLE
MASTER
ALPHA
YETI

DOORS AN ENTRANCE WAY

TYPES OF DOOR:
FLUSH A SMOOTH-SURFACED DOOR HAVING FACES WHICH ARE
PLANE WHICH CONCEAL ITS RAILS AND STILES OR OTHER
STRUCTURE WHEN USED INSIDE, IT IS OF HOLLOW CORE, WHEN
USED FOR EXTERIOR IT IS OF SOLID CORE.
PANEL DOOR A DOOR HAVING STILES, RAILS AND SOMETIMES
MUNTINS, WHICH FORM ONE OR MORE FRAMES AROUND RECESSED
THINNER PANELS.
KINDS OF DOORS:
SWINGING DOOR
OVERHEAD SWING-UP GARAGE DOOR A RIGID OVERHEAD DOOR
WHICH OPENS AS AN ENTIRE UNIT.

OVERHEAD ROLL-UP GARAGE DOOR A DOOR WHICH, WHEN OPEN,

ASSUMES A HORIZONTAL POSITION ABOVE THE DOOR OPENING,
MADE OF SEVERAL LEAVES.
ROLL-UP DOOR (SOLID OR SEE-THROUGH ALUMINUM SHUTTERS) A
DOOR MADE UP OF SMALL HORIZONTAL INTERLOCKING METAL SLATS
WHICH ARE GUIDED IN A TRACK: THE CONFIGURATION COILS ABOUT
AN OVERHEAD DRUM WHICH IS HOUSED AT THE HEAD OF THE
OPENING, EITHER MANUAL OR MOTOR - DRIVEN.
ACCORDION DOOR A HINGED DOOR CONSISTING OF A SYSTEM OF
PANELS WHICH ARE HUNG FROM AN OVERHEAD TRACK. WHEN THE
DOOR IS OPEN, THE FACES OF THE PANELS CLOSE FLAT AGAINST
EACH OTHER.
WHEN THE DOOR IS CLOSED, THE EDGES OF
ADJACENT PANELS BUTT AGAINST (OR INTERLOCK) EACH OTHER TO
FORM A SOLID BARRIER.
BI-FOLDING DOOR - ONE OF TWO OR MORE DOORS WHICH ARE
HINGED TOGETHER SO THAT THEY CAN OPEN AND FOLD IN A
CONFINED SPACE.

REVOLVING DOOR - AN EXTERIOR DOOR CONSISTING OF FOUR

LEAVES (AT 900 TO EACH OTHER) WHICH PIVOT ABOUT A COMMON
VERTICAL AXIS WITHIN A CYLINDRICALLY SHAPED VESTIBULE,
PREVENTS THE DIRECT PASSAGE OF AIR THROUGH THE VESTIBULE,
THEREBY ELIMINATING DRAFTS FROM OUTSIDE.
SLIDING DOOR - A DOOR MOUNTED ON TRACK WHICH SLIDES IN A
HORIZONTAL DIRECTION USUALLY PARALLEL TO ONE WALL.
BY-PASSING SLIDING DOOR - A SLIDING DOOR WHICH SLIDES TO
COVER A FIXED DOOR OF THE SAME WIDTH OR ANOTHER SLIDING
DOOR.
SLIDING POCKET DOOR - A DOOR WHICH SLIDES INSIDE A HOLLOW
OF THE WALL.
DUTCH DOOR - A HINGED DOOR WHICH IS DIVIDED TO TWO. THE
UPPER PART CAN BE OPENED WHILE THE LOWER PORTION IS
CLOSED.
FRENCH DOOR

FINISHING HARDWARES:
A. TO HUNG A DOOR
HINGE- A MOVABLE JOINT USED TO ATTACH SUPPORT AND TURN A
DOOR ABOUT A PIVOT, CONSISTS OF TWO PLATES JOINED TOGETHER
BY A PIN WHICH SUPPORT THE DOOR AND CONNECT IT TO ITS FRAME,
ENABLING IT TO SWING OPEN OR CLOSED.
TYPES OF HINGES:
1. BUTT HINGE - CONSISTS OF TWO RECTANGULAR METAL PLATES
WHICH ARE JOINED WITH A PIN, IN LARGE HINGE, THE PIN IS
REMOVABLE, IN SMALL HINGES, IT IS FIXED.
FAST PIN HINGE - A HINGE IN WHICH THE PIN IS FASTENED
PERMANENTLY IN PLACE.
FULL SURFACE HINGE - A HINGED DESIGNED FOR ATTACHMENT ON
THE SURFACE OF THE DOOR AND JAMB WITHOUT MORTISING.

LOOSE JOINT HINGE - A DOOR HINGED HAVING TWO KNUCKLES,

ONE OF WHICH HAS VERTICAL PIN THAT FITS IN A
CORRESPONDING HOLE IN THE OTHER, BY LIFTING THE DOOR UP,
OFF THE VERTICAL PIN, THE DOOR MAY BE REMOVED WITH
UNSCREWING THE HINGED.
LOOSE PIN HINGE - A HINGE HAVING A REMOVABLE PIN WHICH
PERMITS ITS TWO PARTS TO BE SEPARATED.
PAUMELLE HINGED - A TYPE OF DOOR HINGE HAVING A SINGLE
JOINT OF THE PIVOT TYPE, USUALLY OF MODERN DESIGN.
OLIVE KNUCKLE HINGE - A PAUMELLE HINGE WITH KNUCKLES
FORMING AN OVAL SHAPE.

2. SPRING HINGES - A HINGE CONTAINING ONE OR MORE SPRINGS,

WHEN A DOOR IS OPENED, THE HINGE RETURNS IT TO OPEN POSITION
AUTOMATICALLY, MAY ACT IN ONE DIRECTION ONLY, OR IN BOTH
DIRECTIONS.

DOUBLE ACTION - EXCELLENT FOR USE IN RESTAURANTS,

HOSPITALS, KITCHENS, THE DOOR OPENS BY JUST PUSHING IT
WITH THE SHOULDER OR FEET.
SINGLE ACTION

3. PIVOT HINGE - THE AXLE OR PIN ABOUT WHICH A WINDOW OR DOOR

ROTATES.
VERTICAL SPRING PIVOT HINGE- A SPRING HINGE FOR A DOOR
WHICH IS MORTISTED INTO THE HEEL OF THE DOOR, THE DOOR
IS FASTENED TO THE FLOOR AND DOOR HEAD WITH PIVOTS.

B. TO FIX ONE SASH

TYPES OF BOLT AND FASTENER:
CHAIN HEAD AND FOOT BOLT
DOOR OR BARREL BOLT

 FLUSH BOLT
CHAIN DOOR FASTENER
C. TO LOCK THE DOOR
LOCKSET A COMPLETE LOCK SYSTEM INCLUDING THE BASIC LOCKING
MECHANISMS AND ALL THE ACCESSORIES, SUCH AS KNOBS
ESCUTCHEONS, PLATES, ETC.
BUTTON A SMALL REJECTING MEMBER USED TO FASTEN THE
FRAME OF A DOOR OR WINDOW.
KNOB A HANDLE, MORE OR LESS SPHERICAL USUALLY FOR
OPERATING A LOCK.
ESCUTCHEON A PROTECTIVE PLATE SURROUNDING THE
KEYHOLE OF A DOOR.
PLATES A THIN FLAT SHEET OF MATERIAL.

 STRIKES A METAL PLATE OR BOX WHICH IS SET IN A DOORJAMB

AND IS EITHER PLACED OR RECESSED TO RECEIVE THE BOLT OR
LATCH OF A LOCK, FIXED ON DOOR.
LIP STRIKE THE PROJECTION FROM THE SIDE OF A TRIKE PLATE
WHICH THE BOLT OF A LOCK STRIKES FIRST, WHEN A DOOR IS
CLOSED; PROJECTS OUT FROM THE SIDE OF THE STRIKE PLATE TO
PROTECT THE FRAME.
USE A DIFFERENT LOCKSET FOR EACH ROOM:
ENTRANCE LOCKSET WITH A KEY AND UNIVERSAL BUTTON
WHICH WHEN PUSHED STAYS PUT AND LOCKS THE DOOR.
BEDROOM LOCKSET SAME AS THE ENTRANCE LOCKSET BUT
SIMPLER IN DESIGN.
TOILET LOCKSET WITHOUT A KEY HAS A BUTTON THAT IS
PUSHED TO LOCK INSIDE.
KIND OF LOCKSET:

 INTEGRAL LOCK A TYPE OF MORTISE LOCK HAVING ITS

CYLINDER IN THE KNOB.
CYLINDER LOCK A BORED LOCK WHICH HAS A CYLINDRICAL
CASE INTO WHICH A SEPARATE LATCH CASE FITS.
LATCH A SIMPLE FASTENING DEVISE HAVING A LATCH BOLT, BUT NOT A
DEAD BOLT CONTAINS NO PROVISIONS FOR LOCKING WITH A KEY.
NIGHT LATCH KEY OPERATED LATCH WITH SAFETY PIN.
LIFT LATCH A TYPE OF DOOR LATCH WHICH FASTENS A DOOR BY
MEANS OF A PIVOTED BAR THAT ENGAGES A HOOK ON THE DOOR JAMB,
A LEVER WHICH LIFTS THE PIVOTED BAR USED TO UNFASTEN THE
DOOR.
RABBETED LOCK A LOCK OR LATCH IN WHICH THE FACE IS FLUSH
WITH THE RABBET ON A RABBETED DOOR JAMB.

ROLLER LATCH A TYPE OF DOOR LATCH HAS A ROLLER UNDER

SPRING TENSION INSTEAD OF A BEVELED SPRING BOLT, THE ROLLER
ENGAGES A STRIKE PLATE, HAVING A RECESS FORMED TO RECEIVE.
SCREEN DOOR LATCH A SMALL LOCKING OR LATCHING DEVICE USED
ON SCREEN DOORS AND GENERATED BY A KNOB OR LEVER HANDLE,
SOMETIMES EQUIPPED WITH A DEAD BOLT.
HASP A FASTENING DEVICE CONSISTING OF A LOOP OR STAPLE AND A
SLOTTED HINGE PLATE NORMALLY SECURED WITH A PADLOCK.
KEY-PADLOCK A DEVICE WHICH FASTENS IN POSITION MAYBE
OPERATED BY A KEY.
MAGNETIC PADLOCK A KIND OF LOCK WHICH OPENS BY USING THE
CORRESPONDING MAGNET WHICH GOES WITH IT.

HASPLOCK A KIND OF HASP THAT HAS A BUILT-IN LOCKING DEVICE

WHICH CAN BE OPENED ONLY WITH A KEY.
BORED LOCK A LOCK INTENDED FOR INSTALLATION IN A CIRCULAR
HOLE IN A DOOR.
CREMONE BOLT USED TO FASTEN UPPER AND LOWER DOOR.
DEAD BOLT A TYPE OF DOOR LOCK, THE BOLT, WHICH IS SQUARE IN
SECTION IS OPERATED BY THE DOOR KEY OR A TURN PIECE.
TYPES OF AUTOMATIC DOOR CLOSER:
PNEUMATIC TYPE
SEMI-CONCEALED OVERHEAD TYPE
CONCEALED TYPE
OVERHEAD LIQUID TYPE

TYPES OF CABINET HINGED DOOR:

FLUSH
OVERLAPPING
OFFSET
TYPES OF CABINET HINGES:
BUTT HINGES
COMMON BUTT
LOOSE PIN
T-HINGE
PIANO HINGE
DECORATIVE HINGE
OFFSET HINGES USED FOR HANGING LIPPED OR
OVERLAPPING DOORS, AVAILABLE IN SEMI-CONCEALED AND
SURFACE-MOUNTED STYLES.

 PIVOT HINGES MADE FOR BOTH FLUSH AND OVERLAPPING

DOORS.
INVISIBLE HINGES DONT SHOW FROM THE FRONT AND IS
EXPENSIVE.
THEY CAN BE USED FOR BOTH FLUSH AND
OVERLAPPING DOOR.
FLUSH COUNTER HINGE FOR A DROP DOWN DOOR THAT CAN
BE LOWERED TO SERVE AS WORK SURFACES REQUIRE HINGES
THAT LAY FLUSH IN THE SURFACE, MORTISE THEM INTO BOTH
SURFACES, THEY DONT SHOW WHEN THE DOOR IS CLOSED. A
DROPDOWN DOOR ALSO REQUIRES A CHAIN OR STAY SUPPORT
TO HOLD THE DOORS WEIGHT WHEN ITS OPEN.
CATCHES FOR CLOSING OF CABINET DOORS IN PLACE
KINDS OF CATCHES:
FRICTION CATCH ANY CATCH WHICH WHEN IT ENGAGES A
STRIKE, IS HELD IN THE ENGAGED POSITION BY FRICTION.

 MAGNETIC CATCH A DOOR CATCH FLAT THAT USES A MAGNET

TO HOLD THE DOOR IN A CLOSED POSITION.
BULLET CATCH A FASTENER WHICH HOLDS A DOOR IN PLACE
BY MEANS OF A PROJECTING SPRING ARCTUATED STEEL HALL
WHICH IS DEPRESSED WHEN THE DOOR IS CLOSED.
TYPES OF KNOBS:
SCREW-IN KNOB
BOLT-ON KNOB
FLUSH KNOB
FLUSH RING
PULL
OTHER FINISHING ACCESSORIES:
GRAB BAR A HAND GRIP USUALLY INSTALLED IN SHOWER,
WHICH MAY BE USED FOR STEADYING ARE SELF.

 SELF BRACKET ANY OVER HANGING MEMBER PROJECTING

FROM A WALL OR OTHER BODY TO SUPPORT A WEIGHT.
METAL BRACKET USED TO SUPPORT ANY CABINET OR SHELF.
SPRING DOOR CLOSER ATTACHED ABOVE A SCREEN DOOR TO
AUTOMATICALLY CLOSE IT.
DOOR STOPPER TO PREVENT THE DOOR WITH ITS LOCKSET
FROM HARMING THE WALL OR TILES.
ROUGH HARDWARES:
NAILS
COMMON WIRE NAIL WITH HEAD AND FOR STRENGTH.
FINISHING NAIL WITHOUT HEAD AND FOR BETTER APPEARANCE
MASONRY OR CONCRETE NAIL USED FOR CONCRETE, MORTAR AND
BRICK SURFACE
SIZES, 1, 1 , 2 , 2 , 3, 3 , 4, 6

OTHER COMMON HAMMER DRIVEN FASTENER

SCOTCH NAILS
BRADS
STAPLES
TACKS
SCREWS
CLASSIFIED BY GAUGE (DIAMETER), LENGTH, HEAD TYPE, AND
METALLIC MAKE-UP.
TYPES OF SCREW HEAD
FLAT HEAD SCREW
OVAL HEAD SCREW
PHILIPPS HEAD
SHEET-METAL SCREW
ROUND HEAD SCREW
LAG SCREW
WASHERS

 FLAT
COUNTER SUNK
FLUSH
BOLTS
BOLTS HAVE THREADED SHAFTS THAT RECEIVE NUTS. TO USE
THEM, A HOLE IS DRILLED, PUSHING A BOLT THROUGH AND ADDING A
NUT.
BOLTS TIGHTENED WITH SCREW WHILE HOLDING THE NUT WITH A
WRENCH.
NUTS
FLAT SQUARE NUT
HEX NUT
SQUARE NUT

ACORN NUT
T NUT
KNURLED NUT
WING NUT

HUNGER BOLTS FOR HANGING FIXTURES FROM WALLS.

U-BOLTS TO ATTACH FLAT SURFACE TO ROUND POLES AND PIPES.
JOINERY BRACKETS
MENDING PLATE
T-PLATE
FLAT CORNER PLATE
L-BRACKET

 AWNING AN ARCHITECTURAL PROJECTED WINDOW.

BAY WINDOW A WINDOW WHICH PROJECTS OUTSIDE THE MAIN LINE
OF A BUILDING.
HOPPER WINDOW A WINDOW SASH WHICH OPENS INWARD AND ITS
HINGED AT THE BOTTOM.
ORIEL WINDOW A PROJECTED WINDOW BEYOND BUILDING WALL
CARRIED BY A CORBEL.
BATTEN DOOR - A DOOR W/OUT STILES WHICH IS COSTRUCTED OF
VERTICAL BOARDS HELD TOGETHER BY HORIZONTAL BATTENS.
STILE VERTICAL FRAMES OF PANELLED DOOR.

 TRANSOM WINDOW OVER A DOOR.

DOOR JAMB FINISHED FRAME SURROUNDING A DOOR.
ANCHOR BOLT A STEEL BOLT USUALLY FIXED IN ABUILDING
STRUCTURE WITH ITS THREADED PORTION PROJECTING.
PLATE BOLT A BOLT IN A BUILDING FOUNDATION WHICH SECURES
THEPLATE OR SILL.
MACHINE BOLT A THREADED BOLT HAVING A STRAIGHT SHANK AND
A CONVENTIONAL HEAD SUCH AS A SQUARE, HEXAGONAL, BUTTON
OR COUNTERSANK.
CARRIAGE BOLT A BOLT WITH NECK FOR NON-RATATING MOUNTING.
LAG SCREW COMMON HARDWARE FASTENER FOR TRUSS BRACES.
KNOB BOLT A DOOR LOCK WITH A SPRING BOLT CONTROLLED BY
ONE OR BOTH KNOBS AND DEAD BOLT CONTROLLED BY AKEY.
BACKSET THE HORIZONTAL DISTANCE FROM THE FACE OF A LOCK
OF LATCH TO THE CENTER OF THE KNOB OR LOCK CYLINDER.

 GUSSET A PLATE ATTACHED TO SIDE OF A JOINT FOR INCREASE

HOLDING POWER.
BRAD A THIN NAIL WITH SMALL HEAD.
KERF IN A SUSPENDED ACOUSTICAL CEILING, AGROOVE CUT INTO
THE EDGES OF AN ACOUSTICAL TILES TO RECEIVE SPLINES OR
SUPPORTING MEMBERS OF THE CEILING SUSPENSION SYSTEM.
PERFORATED TAPE A TYPE OF TAPE USED IN FINISHING JOINTS
BETWEEN GYPSUM BOARD.
SAHARA USED FOR WATERPROOFING.
PARQUET INLAID WOOD FLOORING USUALLY SET IN SIMPLE
GEOMETRIC PATTERN.
VINYL TILE A FLOOR TILE COMPOSED PRINCIPALLY OF POLYVINYL
CHLORIDE.
BEVEL THE ANGLE WITH ONE SURFACE OF A BODY MAKES WITH
ANOTHER SURFACE WHEN THEY ARE NOT AT RIGHT ANGLE.

 CHASE A CONTINOUS RECESS BUILT INTO A WALL TO RECEIVE

PIPES, DUCTS, ETC.
GYPSUM BOARD MATERIAL USED IN DRYWALL CONSTRUCTION.
PLOUGH A GROOVE EXTENDED ALONG THE EDGE OR FACE OF THE
WOOD MEMBER BEING CUT PARALLEL TO GRAIN.

BUILDING PROTECTION
PREVENTIONS
WATERPROOFING A METHOD OF PROTECTING SURFACES AGAINST
THE DESTRUCTIVE EFFECTS OF WATER.
DAMP-PROOFING PROTECTION FROM THE OUTSIDE IS PROVIDED
BY WATER REPELLENT MATERIALS WHICH TURN WATER ASIDE AND
FORCE IT TO RETURN TO THE EARTH.
THE DAMPNESS THAT
SOMETIMES OCCURS INSIDE THE BUILDING CAN BE CAUSED BY

PENETRATION OF MOISTURE FROM THE OUTSIDE OR BY

CONSIDERATION OF WATER VAPOR GENERATED ON THE INSIDE.
CLEAR PROTECTIVE TREATMENTS FOR MASONRY, CONCRETE THIS
IS A CLEAR, INVISIBLE SILICONE WATER REPELLENT SPECIALLY
FORMULATED FOR APPLICATION ON MASONRY AND BRICKS
(STANDARD SILICONE REPELLENT) AND FOR LIMESTONE AND
CONCRETE THAT SEEPS MUCH RAINWATER (SPECIAL FORMULATED
SILICONE REPELLENT). THE SILICONE LIQUID IS APPLIED BY BRUSH
OR LOW PRESSURE SPRAY AND DOES NOT AFFECT THE COLOR OR
NATURALNESS OF THE MATERIAL.
ANAY (TERMITE) PROOFING BY SOIL POISONING IT IS IMPORTANT TO
POISON THE SOIL AGAINST ANAY (WHITE ANTS) IN ORDER TO STOP
THE ANAY FROM INFESTING THE MAINPOSTS, WALLS AND FLOORING.
WOOD PRESERVATIVE (POWDER POST TERMITES) A CHEMICAL LIQUID
PAINTED AND APPLIED TO LUMBER TO PRESERVE IT FOR YEARS. IT
PROTECTS WOOD AGAINST POWDER POST BEATLES (BUKBOK)

POWDER POET TERMITE (UNOS), DECAY CAUSING FUNGI, SUCH AS

SAP STAIN AND SRYROT.
FIREPROOFING A CLEAR LIQUID APPLIED EASILY ON WOOD,
PLYWOOD, LUMBER AND OTHER BOARD THAT RETAINS THE NATURAL
BEAUTY, GIVES ADDED STRENGTH AND PROTECTS MATERIALS
AGAINST FIRE, WEATHER, DECAY, INSECTS AND WARPING. SINCE THE
LIQUID PENETRATED INTO THE WOOD, WHEN THERE IS FIRE. IT
REACTS BY DISPERSING THE FLAME, PREVENTING PROGRESSIVE
BURNING.
RATPROOFING A METHOD OF PROTECTING ROOMS AGAINST THE
INTRUSION OF RATS AND OTHER SMALL DESTRUCTIVE ANIMALS
FROM GNAWING THE WOODEN PARTS OF THE HOUSE, HABITATING
ON CEILINGS AND FLOORS OF HOUSES AND BUILDINGS.
RUSTPROOFING A METHOD OF PROTECTING THE FERROUS
MATERIALS LIKE STEEL, IRON FROM RUSTING OR CORROSION.

 FLOOR PROTECTION WHEN FLOORS ARE SUBJECTED TO WEAR AND

TEAR, OR FROM CHEMICAL ABRASIONS AND HEAVY USE, A SPECIAL
KIND OF MATERIAL SHOULD BE USED TO PROTECT THE FLOORING.
DESCALERS, PAINT AND CHEMICAL STRIPPERS WHEN AN OLD
HOUSE HAVING OLE PAINT IS IN NEED OF REPAINTING, PAINT
REMOVER IS APPLIED TO THE SURFACE WHICH SOFTENS AND LIFTS
THE PAINT. FOR CLEANING OF BUILDINGS FROM STAINS, RUST,
ALGAE OR EVEN CEMENT BUILD UP FROM FORMS OR EQUIPMENT,
ETC. A CHEMICAL STRIPPER OR DESCALER IS USED.
CONTROL, PROTECT AND MANAGE FOR BUILDINGS THAT NEED
TOTAL CONTROL OF THE INCOMING AND OUTGOING INDIVIDUALS FOR
THE PROTECTION OF THE BUILDING AS A WHOLE FROM ROBBERS,
STEALERS, ETC. THERE ARE SO MANY EQUIPMENTS WHICH CAN BE
INSTALLED.
THIS IS APPLIED ON THE FOLLOWING LOCATIONS:
ROOF DECKS

CONCRETE TERRACES AND BALCONIES

SHEATHING FOR WOOD SHINGLE AND TILE ROOFING
WATER TANKS
CONCRETE ROOF GUTTERS
PLANT BOXES INSIDE
KITCHEN FLOOR
TOILETS
CANOPIES
BASEMENT FLOOR AND WALLS
ELEVATOR PITS
SWIMMING POOL
MACHINE ROOMS, AIR CON & PUMP ROOMS
REFRIGERATION & COLD STORAGE ROOMS

THREE TYPES OF WATERPROOFING:

 INTEGRAL TYPE MEDIUM IN POWDER FORM IS ADDED AND

MIXED WITH THE AGGREGATES OF CONCRETE. IN THIS CASE,
ONE PACK OF USUALLY .908 KILOS IS ADDED TO ONE BAG OF
KILOS CEMENT. SOME OF THE KNOWN BRANDS ARE SAHARA
AND SAKURA.
MEMBRANE TYPE RECOMMENDED FOR USE WHERE DIRECT
RAIN, OR STANDING WATER ARE EMINENT, THERE ARE ABOUT 14
USES.
THE MATERIALS USED DEPENDING ON THE
MANUFACTURER IS EITHER ASPHALT PAPER LAID WITH HOT
ASPHALT, IMPREGNATED ASBESTOS FELT, SOMETIMES THICK
POLYETHYLENE SHEETS IS ALSO USED. OTHER MATERIALS ARE
PERFORMED SELF SEALING ASPHALT.
FLUID APPLIED A FLUID APPLIED ELASTOMERIC COATING
BASED ON HAVY SOLIDS ELASTOMER COMPOUND FORMULATED
TO WATERPROOF AND PRESERVE THE SUBSTRATE, LIKE
CONCRETE, WOOD, BRICKS AND STEEL. THE WATERPROOFING
IS MONOLOTHIC, SEAMLESS, FLEXIBLE AND ELASTIC OVER A

WIDE TEMPERATURE RANGE, WITHSTANDS EXTREME THERMAL

MOVEMENT, SETTLING AND CRACKING. IT RESISTS PUNCTURE
AND TEARING ABRASIVE OVERLAYMENTS. THIS ELASTOMERIC
FLUID CAN BE APPLIED BY ROLLER, BRUSH, SPRAY OR
SQUEEGEE.
ROOFING FELTS THE BASE FELTS USED IN BUILT-UP ROOFING ARE
AVAILABLE IN TWO BASIC TYPE ASBESTOS FELTS AND ORGANIC OR
RAG FELTS. THEY LOOK ALIKE, SUPERFICIALLY, BUT THEY DIFFER
WIDELY IN SERVICE.
ASBESTOS:
ASBESTOS FELTS COMPOSED PRIMARILY OF ASBESTOS FIBER,
A NON-ROTTING, NON-WICKING INORGANIC MINERAL FIBER.
IDENTICAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION PROPERTIES TO
FINISHING FELTS.

 MINIMUM STRETCH AND SHRINKAGE OR WETTING OR DRYING

WHICH MEANS MINIMUM DISTORTION.
LOSES STRENGTH SLOWLY WHILE AGING.
EXCELLENT RESISTANCE TO BURNOUT IN HOT CLIMATE.
RAT RESISTANT.

ORGANIC:
ORGANIC FELTS COMPOSED OF FIBROUS ORGANIC
MATERIALS. SUBJECT TO DETERIORATION BY OXIDATION AND
TO WICKING.
DIFFERENT EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION PROPERTIES FROM
FINISHING PLIES.
MAXIMUM STRETCH AND SHRINKAGE ON WETTING AND DRYING
WHICH MEANS MAXIMUM DISTORTION.

 LOSES STRENGTH RAPIDLY WHILE AGING.

POOR RESISTANCE TO BURNOUT IN HOT CLIMATE.
POOR RESISTANCE TO ROT.
VAPOR INSULATION (DAMPROOFING)
THE DAMPNESS THAT SOMETIMES OCCURS INSIDE BUILDINGS CAN BE
CAUSED BY PENETRATION OF MOISTURE FROM THE OUTSIDE OR BY
CONDENSATION OF WATER VAPOR GENERATED ON THE INSIDE.
PROTECTION FROM THE OUTSIDE IS PROVIDED BY WATER REPELLENT
MATERIALS WHICH TURN ASIDE AND FORCE IT TO RETURN TO THE
EARTH DONE THE OUTSIDE OF THE BUILDING. MOISTURE VAPOR ON
THE OTHER HAND CAN PERMEATE MOST ORDINARY BUILDING
MATERIALS SUCH AS WOOD, PAPER, LATH PLASTER, UNTREATED BRICK,
ETC.
THE MOISTURE VAPOR WILL CONDENSE WATER WHEN ITS
TEMPERATURE IS REDUCED BY CONTACT WITH A COOL SURFACE OR
COOL AIR. HENCE, HIGH HUMIDITY IN A BUILDING MAY RESULT IN

CONDENSATION OF WATER NOT ONLY ON THE INSIDE OF WALLS AND

WINDOWS BUT ALSO ON THE OUTSIDE OR WITHIN THE EXTERIOR
WALLS, CEILING OR ROOF. MOISTURE VAPOR IS PRODUCED BY
COOKING OCCUPANTS, LAUNDERING, EARTH CRAWL SPACES,
BASEMENT FLOORS, HUMIDIFIES, ETC.

VAPOR BARRIERS (DAMPROOFING MATERIALS)

THESE ARE MATERIALS WHICH EFFECTIVELY RETARD OR STOP THE
FLOW OF WATER VAPOR AND NORMALLY ARE PRODUCED IN SHEETS OR
THIN LAYERS. VAPOR BARRIERS SHOULD BE INSTALLED ON THE WARM
SIDE OF THE INSULATION. THEY SHOULD BE CONTINUOUS SURFACES
OF ASPHALT OR WAX COATED PAPER, ALUMINUM, OR OTHER METAL
FOIL SHEETS OR POLYETHYLENE FILM. THEY CAN BE ATTACHED TO THE

INSULATION AS PART OF THE MANUFACTURED PRODUCT OR INSTALLED

SEPARATELY IN OR ON THE WARM SIDE OF THE WALL, FLOOR, OR
CEILING. THEY MUST BE CONTINUOUS AND ALLOW NO OPENINGS
THROUGH WHICH VAPOR MAY PASS. ALTHOUGH ASPHALT PAPER IS A
GOOD MOISTURE BARRIER, IT IS NOT A VAPOR BARRIER, AND SHOULD
BE USED ON THE OUTSIDE OF A BUILDING FOR THAT PURPOSE.
MATERIALS USED AS VAPOR BARRIERS:
POLYETHYLENE FILM THIS IS CHEMICALLY INERT PLASTIC,
UNAFFECTED BY ACIDS, ALKALIS AND CAUSTICS, PRODUCED IN
ROLLS OF 3 TO 20 FT. WIDE. COMMON THICKNESSES ARE 2,3,4
AND 6 MIL (1MIL = .001 IN.) THIS FILM IS USEFUL NOT ONLY AS
VAPOR BARRIER FOR WALLS, CEILINGS AND FLOORS BUT ALSO
AS A BARRIER TO PREVENT THE PASSAGE OF MOISTURE FROM
THE EARTH UPWARD THROUGH A CONCRETE SLAB LAIN ON THE
GROUND. POLYETHYLENE FILM CAN BE APPLIED VERTICALLY IN

36 IN. WIDE STRIPS TO STUDDING ON 16 IN. CENTERS WITH A

FULL OVERLAP ON ALTERNATE STUDS. FILMS ARE STAPLED TO
STUDS.
OVERLAPS AND EXTENSIONS TO FLOORS AND
WALLINGS SHALL BE 6 IN.
ALUMINUM FOIL USED AS VAPOR BARRIER AS A SINGLE SHEET,
OR AS A THIN LAYER OF FOIL LAMINATED TO A HEAVY BACKING
OF ASPHALT-IMPREGNATED KRAFT PAPER. THIS IS ALSO DONE
WITH TWO LAYERS OF FOIL LAMINATED WITH ASPHALT CEMENT.
KRAFT PAPER COATED WITH ASPHALT OR WAX. SOMETIMES
TWO LAYERS OF PAPER ARE CEMENTED WITH A CONTINOUS
LAYER OF ASPHALT. ANOTHER MATERIALS USED FOR DAMPPROOFING OF CONCRETE WALLS IS WEATHERKOTE
BITUMINOUS EMULSION, BY SHELL.
THERMAL INSULATION

IN COLD WEATHER, WE ARE INTERESTED IN TRANSFERRING HEAT FROM

FURNACES, RADIATORS, HEATING PANELS, INTO VARIOUS ROOMS OF
OUR BUILDINGS.
AT THE SAME TIME WE ARE INTERESTED IN
PREVENTING THAT HEAT FROM BEING TRANSFERRED FROM THE
INTERIOR OF THE BUILDING TO THE OUTSIDE.
DURING THE SUMMER, IT IS IMPORTANT THAT WE PREVENT THE
TRANSFER OF HOT OUTSIDE TEMPERATURES TO THE WORKING AND
LIVING SPACE WITHIN OUR BUILDINGS.
ALL OF THESE ARE DONE BY THE JUDICIOUS USE OF MATERIALS WHICH
IS BEST PREVENT THE TRANSFER OF HEAT, THIS WE CALL THERMAL
INSULATION.
KINDS OF THERMAL INSULATION
LOOSE FILL THIS BULKY AND DIVIDED INTO:
FIBROUS TYPE

 GRANULAR INSULATION
FIBROUS LOOSE FILL
GRANULE
BLANKET INSULATION- IS MADE FROM SOME FIBROUS MATERIAL
SUCH AS MINERAL WOOL, WOOD FIBER, COTTON FIBER, OR ANIMAL
HAIR.
BATTS
STRUCTURAL INSULATION BOARD
STRAWBOARD
CORKBOARD
BLOCK OR RIGID SLAB INSULATION THIS TYPE OF INSULATION IS SO
CALLED BLOCK OR RIGID BECAUSE THE UNITS ARE RELATIVELY STIFF
AND INELASTIC.
FOAMED PLASTIC INSULATION
CELLULAR GLASS INSULATION
FOAMED CONCRETE

CELLULAR HARD RUBBER

SHREDDED WOOD OR WOOD FIBER
RIGID SLAB INSULATION
RIGID INSULATION- WHICH ARE IMPERVOUS TO MOISTURE
PENETRATION RESULTING FROM CONTINUOUS CONTACT
WITH THE EARTH AND MOISTURE ARE PARTICULARLY
USEFUL AS PERIMETER INSULATION.
REFLECTIVE INSULATION
ALUMINUM FOIL
COPPER- FOIL INSULATIONS
REFLECTIVE INSULATION
SHEET FOIL
FOAMED-IN PLACE INSULATION THIS IS POLYURETHANE PRODUCT
MADE BY COMBINING A POLYISOCYANATE AND A POLYESTER RESIN.
THIS TYPE OF INSULATION CAN BE APPLIED EITHER BY POURING OR

BY SPRAYING. THE BASIC INGREDIENTS FOR BOTH ARE DRAWN

FROM THEIR CONTAINERS, MEASURED, AND MIXED BY MACHINE.
APPLICATION BY POURING
APPLICATION BY SPRAYING
SPRAYED-ON-INSULATIONS MATERIALS USED ARE POLYURETHANE
FOAM ASBESTOS FIBER MIXED WITH INORGANIC BINDERS,
VERMICULITE AGGREGATE WITH A BINDER SUCH AS PORTLAND
CEMENT OR GYPSUM AND PERLITE AGGREGATE USING GYPSUM AS A
BINDER. MACHINES ARE USED FOR BLOWING THESE INSULATIONS
INTO PLACE; AS A RESULT THE SHAPE OR IRREGULARITY OF THE
SURFACE BEING INSULATED IS OF LITTLE CONSEQUENCE.
ASBESTOS FIBER INSULATION
CORRUGATED INSULATION

SOIL TESTING
LARGER THAN A SINGLE FAMILY HOUSE, IT IS NECESSARY TO
DETERMINE THE SOIL AND WATER CONDITION BENEATH THE SITE.
METHOD OF SOIL TESTING:
1.
DIGGING TEST PITS ARE USEFUL WHEN FOUNDATION IS NOT
EXPECTED TO EXTEND DEEPER THAT ABOUT 8 FEET WHICH IS THE
MAXIMUM PRACTICAL REACH OF SMALL EXCAVATION MACHINE.

2.

TEST BORING BORING WITH STANDARD PENETRATION TESTS

CAN GIVE AN INDICATION OF THE BEARING CAPACITY OF THE SOIL
BY THE NUMBER OF BLOWS OF A STANDARD DRIVING HAMMER
REQUIRED TO ADVANCE A SAMPLING TUBE INTO THE SOIL BY A
FIXED AMOUNT.

TYPES OF SOILS:
ROCK IS A CONTINUOUS MASS OF SOLID MINERAL MATERIALS,
SUCH AS GRANITE OR LIMESTONE, THAT CAN ONLY BE REMOVED BY
DRILLING AND BLASTING.
SOIL IS A GENERAL TERM REFERRING TO EARTH MATERIAL.
BOULDER IF THE PARTICLE OF SOIL IS TOO LARGE TO LIFT BY
HAND.

 COBBLE IF THE PARTICLE OF SOIL TAKES THE WHOLE HAND TO

LIFT.
GRAVEL IF THE PARTICLE CAN BE LIFTED EASILY WITH THUMB
AND FOREFINGER.
SAND IF THE PARTICLE SEEN BUT ARE TOO SMALL TO BE PICKED
UP.
FINE GRAINED SOIL IF THE PARTICLES ARE TOO SMALL TO BE
SEEN.
SILT
CLAY
PILE DRIVING
MATERIAL USED IN PILE FOUNDATION ARE:
1.
TIMBER
2.
CONCRETE
3.
STEEL

TIMBER CANNOT RESIST HIGH STRESSES DUE TO HARD DRIVING THAT

IS REQUIRED TO PENETRATE HIHLY RESISTANT LAYER OF SOIL. THE TIP
OF THE TIMBER PILE WHICH COULD BE EASILY DAMAGED IS PROTECTED
BY THE USE OF STEEL SHOES, ON THE OTHERHAND THE BUTT IS ALSO
PROVIDED WITH AN AMPLE PROTECTION BY THE USE OF CUSHION
BLOCK.
CONCRETE PILES ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO TYPES:
1.
CAST-IN-PLACE
CASED IS CAST INSIDE A METAL SHELL FORM WHICH ARE LEFT
IN THE GROUND.
UNCASED ELIMINATE THE METAL CASING.
2.
PRECAST PILES ARE REINFORCED TO RESIST HIGH STRESS
CAUSED BY THE HAMMER IN DRIVING.
METAL PILE IS AN EXCELLENT AMTERIAL FOR PILE BECAUSE OF ITS
STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS TO WITHSTAND HARD DRIVING AND

RAPID PENETRATION INTO THE GROUND, RELATIVELY WITH SMALL

MATERIAL DISPLACEMENTS.
DIFFERENT METAL PILES:
H-BEARING PILES
BOS PILES
RAIL PILES