Introduction To Akkadian Text

STUDIA POHL: SERIES MAIOR
DISSERTATIONES SCIENTIFICAE DE REBUS ORIENTIS ANTIQUr

9
&Mj&
E PONTIFICIO INSTITUTO BIBLICO
ROMAE
RICHARD CAPLICE
with the collaboration of
DANIEL SNBLL
INTRODUCTION
TO AKKADIAN
Fourth edition
(Revised reprint of third edition)
<
M&6
EDITRICE PONTIFICIO ISTITUTO BIBLICO
ROMA
2002
Pontifical Biblical Institute dedicates this series to the memory of

Alfred Pohl, founder of its Faculty of Ancient Near Eastern Studies.
Stttdia Pohl reproduces in offset studies on Ancient Near Eastern history
and philology, and is intended particularly to benefit younger scholars who
wish to present the results of their doctoral studies to a wider public.
The
P.
ISBN 88-7653-566-7
2002
EDITRICE PONTIHCIO IST1TUTO BiBLICO
Piazza della Pilotta 35 - 00187 Roma,
Italia
TABLE OF CONTENTS
V
Table of Contents
Abbreviations
IX
Introductory
1.
Preface
2.
Tools
3.
Geography and Language

The Writing System
4.
Lesson
I:
Nominal Declension,
(I):
Status Rectus
11
5.
Inflection, Status Rectus
11
6.
11
7.
Forms
Gender
8.
Number
12
Case Functions
Further Annotations
Nouns with Vocalic Stems
12
12. Variations in
13
13.
Form
ahum and abum
14
14.
The Adjective
14
9.
10.
11.
11
12
13
On
Learning Cuneiform Signs

Vocabulary, Cuneiform Signs, Exercise
15.
Lesson
2:
Nominal Declension,
(II):
Absolute and Construct State.
Pronominal Suffixes
16,
Nominal
14
15
17
States
17
17. Absolute State
17
18. Construct State
17
19. Periphrasis with sa
20
20. Possessive Suffixes
21
21
Lesson
3:
21.
G-Stem of
the Strong
Verb
(I)
The Verb: General
Stems
23. Tenses*
24. Verb Types and Vocalic Classes
22.
25.
The
Preterite
24
24
24
24
25
25
TABLE OF CONTENTS
VI
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
3
1 .
The Present
The Imperative
The Infinitive
The (Active) Participle
The Verbal Adjective
The Nominal Sentence
.
26
26
26
27
27
27
27
Word Order in Verbal Sentences

32.
Lesson
G-Stem of Strong Verb
4:
Subjunctive
(II).
28
Verbal Suffixes. Ventive.

31
34.
The
The
35.
Pronominal Suffixes of Verb
33
36.
The Ventive
Some Conjunctions (Subordinating)
The Subjunctive
summa
33
33.
37.
38.
39.
Stative
31
Perfect
31
34
35
35
40. Conjunctions (Coordinating)
35
36
Lesson
5:
41.
Gt-Stem. Modals. Demonstratives and Interrogatives
TheGt-Stem
42. Volitional
43.
44.
45.
The Cohortative
The Precative
The Emphatic Particle
The
39
39
(Modal) Constructions
40
40
40
41
lii
46. TheVetitive
47.
41
41
Prohibitive
48. Questions
41
and Interrogatives
41
Negation
42
42
49. Demonstratives
50.
Lesson
6:
51.
52.
53.
54.
D,
Dt, St-Stems. Independent Pronouns
and -Stems and Their
and tn-Stems
The D-Stem and Dt-Stem

The 5-Stem and St-Stem
The Independent Pronouns
Lesson
7:
55.
56.
N,
tn,
D-Stems. Indefinite Pronouns
TheN-Stem
TheNt-Stem
45
45
45
46
47
48
51
51
51
TABLE OF CONTENTS
VII
The tn-Stems
The SD-Stem
57.
58.
51
53
Review of Vocalization in the Strong Verb

60. Indefinite Pronouns
53
59.
Lesson
Verbs
8:
III
53
54
Weak, sa
56
61.
Weak
Verbal Forms
62.
Verbs
III
56
56
57
Weak
63. Determinative-Relative
Pronoun
Lesson
Verbs
9:
64.
Verbs
58
Weak. Nominal Typology
II
61
Weak
II
61
Nominal Typology
63
65.
Lesson
10:
Verbs
68
\j, n
Aleph
66.
Verbs
67.
The a-Group
The Verb alakum
The e-Group
68.
69.
65
68
68
69
70
70
70
Verbs \j
71. Verbs I n
70.
Lesson
11:
Verbs
w. Infinitive Constructions.
72. State-Verbs I
73.
Action-Verbs
74. Initial
75.
71
Numbers
74
74
74
I iv
Infinitive
75
75
Constructions
Numerals
Vocabulary, Cuneiform
76
76.
Lesson
12: Quadriliteral
77. Quadriliteral
80.
Verbs, izuzzum. Doubly
Verbs
Weak Verbs
...
81
81
N-Stem
82
The Irregular Verb izuzzum

Doubly Weak Verbs
83
78. Irregular
79.
78
Signs* Exercise
83
81. 'Air
83
84
Appendix
82.
I:
General Phonetics of Akkadian
Akkadian Historical Phonetics
87
87
TABLE OF CONTENTS
VIII
83. Patterns of
Consonantal Structure
84. Patterns of Vocalic Structure
Appendix
II:
Numbers, Dating, Measures
85.
Numbers
86.
Year Dates
87.
Month Dates
Weight Measures
Measures
90. Area Measures
91. Solid Capacity Measures
88.
89. Linear
Index of Akkadian Vocabulary
89
91
94
94
94
94
95
95
96
96
97
English- Akkadian Glossary
100
Index of Signs
102
Index of Sign- Values
104
Additions
107
Paradigm of Strong Verb
Foldout
ABBREVIATIONS
abs.:
MB: Middle Babylonian
absolute
med.: medial
ace: accusative
nom.: nominative
adj.: adjective
n. T
AHw:
NA: Neo-Assyrian
OA: Old Assyrian
(see 2)
Akk.: Akkadian
OAkk.: Old Akkadian

OB: Old Babylonian
Arab.: Arabic
Ass.: Assyrian
Bab.: Babylonian
obi.:
common gender
CAD: (see 2)
perf.: perfect
c:
fern.:
GAG:
feminine
pres.: present
pret.: preterite
(see 2)
ptc: participle
gen.: genitive
GN:
geographical
plural
prep.: preposition
dat.: dative
f.,
pi., plur.:
PN: person's name
conjunction
conj.:
oblique case (gen.-acc.)
name
s.,
sing.: singular
Hebn: Hebrew
SB: Standard Babylonian
imp.: imperative
stat.: stative
indie: indicative
subj.: subjunctive
inf.: infinitive
Sum.: Sumerian
intr.:
intransitive
LB: Late Babylonian

m M masc: masculine
MA: Middle Assyrian
tr.:
transitive
v. adj.:
vb.:
verbal adjective
verb
wr.: written
INTRODUCTORY
1.
The Introduction
Preface
Akkadian was first published in 1980, and

form in 1983. The present edition is more
fully revised, and supplied with indices to the Akkadian vocabularies
and sign-lists, an English-Akkadian glossary, and a paradigm of the
strong verbs. Revision has profited from suggestions expressed in
reviews of the 1980 edition
especially those of J. Huehnergard,
D. Snell and S. Dalley
as well as suggestions privately offered,
particularly by W. Farber, W. R. Mayer, R. Borger, W. Rollig and
W. Sommerfeld; to all who offered suggestions I express gratitude.
The present edition also profits from the collaboration of
Prof. Daniel Snell, who contributed amplified cuneiform exercises,
the Index of Signs, and copies of cuneiform signs throughout the
to
reissued in slightly revised
book.
As
before, the Introduction
is
intended as a tool in offering a
twelve-lesson or one semester course in essential
Akkadian grammar.
The reading exercises in transliteration and in cuneiform are designed
common vocabulary and basic cuneiform

chosen from Old Babylonian, but signs are
introduced, as is customary, in their Neo-Assyrian form; phonetic
values of signs are primarily those in use in Old Babylonian, but
to introduce the student to
signs.
The
exercises are
prominent values of
later periods are also given, in parentheses. In
addition to the twelve lessons there are appendices dealing with
Akkadian phonetics and metrology,
indices,
and a paradigm of the
strong verb.
2.
Tools
The standard grammar is W. von Soden, Grundriss der akGrammatik [= GAG] (Analecta Orientalia 33, 3rded.
kadischen
1995).
The standard dictionaries are W. von Soden, Akkadisches

Handworterbuch [= AHw] and Chicago Assyrian Dictionary [
CAD]. A short dictionary, based on AHw, is J. Black - A. George
- N. Postgate, A Concise Dictionary of Akkadian (1999).
INTRODUCTORY
For syllabic values of cuneiform signs the classic listing is F.

Thureau-Dangin, Le syllabaire accadien (1926). Current manuals
listing
cuneiform signs, their formal evolution, and their
logographic and syllabic values are R. Labat, Manuel d'epigraphie
akkadienne (5th ed., revised by F. Malbran-Labat) and R. Borger,
Assyrisch-babylonische
Zeichenliste
(Alter
und
Orient
Altes
Testament 33 and Ergcinzwigsheft, 33A). A listing of logographic

values is to be found in A. Deimel, Sumerisches Lexikon, II. Teil. A
full and up-to-date listing of syllabic values is found in W, von
Soden-W.
Das akkadische Syllabar (4 th ed. 1991).

An introductory bibliography to Akkadian studies is given
Rollig,
in
R. Borger's Babylonisch-assyrische Lesestiicke, 2. Aufl., Heft I

p. IX-XI. The same scholar's Handbuch der Keilschriftliteratur, I-III
gives a bibliography of Akkadian-Sumerian studies up to 1974; its
use
may
be supplemented by the annual Keilschriftbibliographie in
the journal Orientalia.
General introductions to ancient Near Eastern studies and to

civilization are W. von Soden, Einfiihrung in die
Altorientalistik and A. Leo Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia.
Portrait of a Dead Civilization, Revised Edition completed by Erica
Mesopotamian
Reiner.
3.
Geography and Language
Akkadian is one of the great cultural languages of world

For a period of some 2500 years it was the vehicle of a
dominant culture in the Ancient Near East, and abundant written
a,
history.
records in
written,
in
it
and
in
religious, historical, literary,
modern
grammatical
times have been found, in
its
were
heartland and
other areas as widespread as Egypt, Syria-Palestine, Anatolia and
Persia.
The
central
geographical
area
of
its
use
is
ancient
Mesopotamia: this Greek name referred originally to the area

between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, but today is generally used
in a broader sense to indicate an area roughly corresponding to
modern Iraq. In the second and first millennia B.C. this area was
divided between Assyria, to the north, and Babylonia, to the south;
still earlier, in the third millennium, its southern part comprised the
city-states of Sumer and Akkade.
The earliest written records preserved to us from the area are in
Sumerian, an agglutinating language that has no provable genetic
INTRODUCTORY
any other known language, but which became part

heritage of Akkadian-speakers. The Akkadian
language (or language of Akkade) is first attested in proper names
mentioned in Sum. texts of the Fara period (ca. 2800 B.C.); from ca.
2500 B.C. we find texts fully written in Akkadian.
relationship with
of the
cultural
Akkadian
b.
indeed one of
is
member.
ancient
member
earliest
its
of the Semitic language family,
and overwhelmingly
traditional
its
best
attested
of
the
Semitic
classification
based on their geographical location: Akkadian is the

northeastern member of the family; Canaanite (a sub-group which
includes Hebrew and Phoenician, and, in the opinion of some
languages
is
scholars, Ugaritic
and
and the Aramaic
Eblaite)
dialects
form the
northwest Semitic branch; while Arabic, ancient South Arabic and

Ethiopic form the southern branch.
c-
From its first attestation in the Fara period, Akkadian is

down to the first century a.d., though in the last centuries
attested
of the pre-Christian era
it
was increasingly replaced
as a
spoken
language by Aramaic, and survived only as a traditional scholarly

During the long era and wide area of its use, the
language naturally underwent changes, and it is customary to
the
distinguish 'dialects' of Akkadian. The central dialects
forms of the language found in the Mesopotamian heartland
begin with Old Akkadian (OAkk.), the language attested in
documents of the third millennium; in the second and first
millennia we find dialectical differentiation between southern
(Babylonian) and northern (Assyrian) Akkadian, and between
different periods (Old, Middle, Neo-, Late) within Babylonian and
language.
Assyrian (OB,
MB, NB, LB; OA, MA, NA).
In addition to these
and
spoken dialects, we find in
Babylonia an artificial 'literary form of the language modelled on
the OB dialect; this has been called 'Standard Babylonian' (SB).
We may summarize this dialect-history and indicate approximate
use in both Assyria
central
dates:
OAkk. 2500-1950
OB
MB
1950-1530
1
530- 000
1
NB
1000-625
LB
625-0
SB
1500-0
OA
1950-1750
MA
NA
1000-600
500- 1 000
INTRODUCTORY
In addition to the central dialects, several 'peripheral dialects'
of the second millennium are attested; these are variant written

forms of Akkadian, influenced by different local languages (Susa,
Boghazkoy, Alalah, Nuzi, Ugarit, and various
Amarna
local types in the
texts).
Akkadian are of many types:

texts and census reports; treaties and
other political documents; business and administrative records;
codes of law; witnessed and sealed contracts of marriage, divorce,
purchase and rentals; personal and state letters; narrative poetry
recounting myths, epics and humorous fabliaux; love-songs; rituals,
prayers, hymns, omens, divination reports; scholarly texts on
The texts preserved

historical and chronographical
d.
in
language, religion, history, technology. These are spread unevenly

through the periods and dialects discussed above. Because the
Babylonian form of the language remained, even in Assyria, the

normal vehicle of literary and religious texts, and because the OB
dialect preserves in greater purity
which
later
were
lost, it is
many
features of the language
customary to begin the study of Akkadian

will be devoted principally to it.
with OB, and the following pages
4.
a.
The Writing System
Physical form of signs.
Most Akkadian
texts
were written
with a reed stylus on a clay tablet which, after the writing was
impressed, was sun-baked or fire-baked to hardness; on a smaller
wax tablets) were also used. The

system of signs was inherited from the Sumerians, who used it to
write their own language. The oldest signs in the system seem to be
imitations of clay tokens of diverse forms, used as counters in an
scale other materials (stone, metals,
accounting procedure throughout the Near East from the 9th

millennium B.C. to the 2nd; each type of counter presumably
represented an individual type of goods, and therefore an individual
word.
To
the group of signs derived
others which, in
many
from such tokens were added
cases at least, were pictographic,
i.e.
depicted
concrete objects. Early Sum. texts (from Uruk, ca. 3000 B.C.) use a
battery of signs
whose number was gradually reduced
to
those
represented in the classical (Old Babylonian) sign-lists. In form the
underwent evolution: early documentable stages are often

more recognizably pictographic, and more curvilinear in shape,
while in later stages signs are simplified and each stroke assumes a
signs also
INTRODUCTORY
wedge-shaped appearance, diverging into two main

Babylonian and Assyrian.
b. Value of signs. (1) Functionally, signs in their earliest stage
were logographic, i.e. they represented one or more specific words.
A purely logographic writing system is per se not bound to any
specific language: given a sequence of picture-signs representing
three, sheep, give, temple, a given social context might enable one
to 'read' (adding formal modifications unexpressed in the writing
system) in English 'three sheep were given to the temple' or in
French on a donne trois brebis au temple' as adequately as one
could 'read' such a text in Sumerian. Our earliest texts from
Mesopotamia are still largely or entirely at this stage, and therefore
subject to its disadvantages: the ambiguities it entails and the
endless number of signs that would be necessary to express spoken
language adequately.
(2) Sometime about 3000 B.C. the Sumerian scribes supplemented their logographic system by introducing a phonetic or
syllabic use of signs, with no relation to the syllable's wordcharacteristic
traditions,
meaning. Thus the sign H^-f (an) was no longer limited to ex-
Sum. word an
sky\ but could also represent the

sound /an/, for instance in the verb ba-an-dit 'he built' 1 When
Akkadian scribes took over this writing system to express their
language, they inherited both types of value, and often added new
phonetic values based on Akkadian: because an also had the Sum.
value dingir god', equivalent to Akk. Hum 'god' in its various
pressing the
new phonetic value
declined forms, a
/il/
came
to be used, e.g. to
write ilqe 'he took'.

(3)
The use of
specialized
kind
signs as determinative or semantic classifier
of logographic
value:
determinative
the
is
is
a
a
logogram preceding or following a word and identifying the class to

which it belongs (man, god, city, plant etc.); it is not intended to be
pronounced in reading the text aloud. Thus a writing an ASSur
refers to the god Assur, whereas uru (city) ASSur refers to the
homonymous
(4)
complement,
i.e.
with phonetic value
added
to a
may
be used as phonetic
logogram to specify
its
reading.
Thus an
The meaning of accents and numerical indices will be explained below,

Akkadian phonemes and their pronunciation see 82a and b.
1
for
city.
sign
4c;
INTRODUCTORY
(without such a complement)

'god
1
;
is
$4
= Hum
usually to be read dingir
AN-ri (with -u indicating a final long vowel)
is
to
be read as an
= samu 'sky'. Grammatical information is given by the writings

E-tum (bitum) 'house (nom.) but t-tim (bitim) (gen.).
c. Alphabetic representation of Akkadian signs. ( ) We have seen
1
that the phonetic (syllabic) values of a sign can be represented in
alphabetic
script:
an has
thus
values
the
/an/
and
It
/il/.
is
characteristic of the cuneiform writing system (due in part to the
nature of the Sumerian language) that a given syllable in Akkadian
may
be represented by any one of several signs; in order that
alphabetic representations might indicate which sign
modem
homophonous
actually
is
by index
numbers, following a standard listing compiled by the French
scholar Frangois Thureau-Dangin (see the sign-lists mentioned in
used,
Thus
2).
one
the syllable /tu/
1
,
scholars distinguish
-^p "tu
two\pT'/
may
signs
be written with the signs ypE[ Uu
three', etc.; in alphabetic representation,

1
unmarked, the 'two and 'three values are

and
indicated by acute
grave accents, and further values by a
subscribed number: tu tit, tu, ttt^ tu 5 etc. (A notation tu K indicates a
the
first
of these
is
value /tu/ assigned to a sign but not yet listed in the

sign-lists.)
(2)
Such accents or numbers have no phonetic
modern
significance.
Logographic values can similarly be indicated in alphabetic
form. Conventionally, logograms used in an Akkadian text are
word in capitals, with homophones again

by indices: lugal 'king lu 'man KU 6 'fish
indicated by the Sum.

distinguished
(3)
Determinatives
are
conveniently
represented
in
raised
Sum. form: uru Assur and an (i.e. dingir, the

Sum. reading of the sign an in the sense 'god ) Assur are
represented: uru Assur, & Assur ( d is an abbreviation derived from
position, using their
Latin deus, 'god

(4)
).
Phonetic complements are normally added to logograms in
Sum. form (E-tum) or written in raised position or parentheses

an Akk. word: bitum tum bitum(tum).
(5) Depending on the purpose to be served, Akkadian
after
written in cuneiform signs
may
texts
be represented alphabetically in
different ways:
(i) The text may be represented as written, indicating signs one
by one and separating them by hyphen (if they belong to the same
word) or space (if in different words) or position (determinatives and
INTRODUCTORY
sometimes phonetic complements are
raised).
Thus: lugal & s \g du-
us or sar-ru-um da-al-tam i-pit-us (these are two of the
sign-sequences that
daltam
Sarrum
representation
ipus
is
may
many
possible
be used to write the Akkadian sentence
'the
king
made
called a transliteration;
a
it
door*).
sign-by-sign
does not give, or gives
only incidentally, the precise linguistic form spoken in Akkadian.
The
(ii)
text
may
be represented as spoken, ignoring the
text's
and giving the reconstructed linguistic form:

sarrum daltam Tptts. Such representation is called normalization or
written
realization
transcription.
A mixed representation, using sign-by-sign transliterawhich a transcription of each logogram is added, is often
used, e.g.: sar-ru-um & daltam(\G) Tpus(D\J-us). Such a system gives
full indication of signs used, and partial indication of linguistic
(iii)
tion to
forms.
d.
sign
may
principal characteristic of the writing system
be polyvalent:
it
may
is
that each
represent different values, just as a
symbol may represent a variety of phonetic

realizations in written English. The reader of Akkadian must rely on
contextual indications to tell him whether he should read an as a
logogram sky' or 'god' or as a phonetic sign indicating the sound
/an/ or /il/. Normally these indications suffice; very rarely, they
allow more than one reading, and so leave the text ambiguous.
e. Further notes on the reading and transcription of Akkadian.
single
alphabetic
(1) The phonetic values of signs are generally of the type CV

(consonant + vowel), VC, or CVC: ba, ab, bab. The writing ba-ab
does not indicate a long vowel or two vowels, but the syllable /bab/.
(2) Most signs containing the vowel e or i are indeterminate,
and may represent either of these vowels; this is universally true of
CVC signs containing eji (see 15). Choice of the reading is based on
grounds extrinsic to the writing itself; thus p\-tu-u 'they are open'
must, on grammatical grounds, be read pe-tu-u, not *pi-tu-u.
(3) In cuneiform writing, a vowel sign repeating the vowel of a
preceding CV-sign (tu-u) may be used to indicate vocalic length;
vocalic length is regularly so indicated only in the case of a long
accented final vowel resulting from contraction (84e): pe-tu-ii =
petit
<
*patihu.
(4)
In normalizations, vocalic length must be indicated; two
graphic indications of vowel length are normally used:

length
is (i)
morphological
(e.g.
when
the
a of the participial form parisum) or
INTRODUCTORY
the result of consonantal loss (Viit'um
(ii)
indicated by a macron
contraction (rabium
circumflex
(~);
when
> rabum
it
is
>
hitum
'sin
(iii)
the
result
'great', 84e)
it
is
1
,
84d)
it is
of vowel
indicated by a
).
Syllabic length should be distinguished from vowel length: a

syllable
if it
is
said to be short if
it
consists of a
consonant and a short
of halaqum, 2nd of pdrisum); it is said to be long

contains a long vowel or if it is closed by a consonant (1st and
vowel
(1st syllable
of parisum, both syllables of dakum).

usually, but not always, indicated
(5)
in OB writing: 'he weighs out' may be written i-sa-qal or i-sa-aq-qal,
last syllables
Doubled consonants are
but in either case
and
writing,
indicates
writing
aleph,
its
i-il,
is
to be normalized isaqqaL
is normally not indicated in the

non-appearance in the writing system presumably
disappearance in speech; in OB, however, a word-initial
a~ad, etc. appears to indicate the historical presence of
'
(6) Initial
(aleph, see 82b)
its
and not
length: illak
(<
*yi'allak), wr. i-il-la-ak; ul (*'w/), wr.
it-uL
/ajQ)V/
(7) The signs a-a do not indicate /a/, or /a'a/ but
where V = any voweL In general, the signs used to represent /'/, /]/,
/w/ form a subsystem with special characteristics; the signs wa, 'A,
and ia, for instance, are unusual in representing any vowel (wa =
/wa/, /we/, /wi/, /wu/ etc.) in being partly reversible (wa = /aw/, *A
= /a*/ etc.), and in being partly interchangeable (wa = /ja/, ia =
f
/i'a/ etc.).
The
following norms for word accentuation are reliably

from indirect evidence: 1. words of two syllables are
accented on the first (abum); 2. words of three or more syllables are
accented on the penultimate syllable if this is long (bikltum, abidlum,
epistum, cf. 4 above), otherwise 3. on the antepenult {muparriswn).
Exceptions: word accent falls on a long final vowel resulting from
contraction {rabum) and on the root syllable of medially weak verbs
(8)
derived
{ikwh ukin).
(9) Transliterated
Akkadian
is
usually printed in
italics.
Roman
caps or small caps are used to indicate logograms (Sumerograms)
and signs whose reading
The
sign
<Th+
in
is
is
uncertain or unspecified.
used to indicate composition of two simpler signs
one complex one: thus sign u <7^TjT
ls
composed of
igi 4*
did
INTRODUCTORY
The
multiplication-sign
another: thus
x ~ an
ka x me ^Vr^f
illegible sign, or
indicates
indicates
one sign inscribed within
ka with me
written inside
it
one of unknown reading.
enclose a broken portion of the
<
>
enclose something judged to be mistakenly omitted by
text.
the ancient scribe.

{
or
by the ancient
enclose something judged to be mistakenly added

scribe.
Lesson
NOUN DECLENSION,
Nouns
5.
genitive
are
STATUS RECTUS
showing three forms: nominative,
inflected,
and accusative
I:
(for their function see 9); the 'oblique case'
has a single form, with both genitive and accusative function. Status
normal nominal formations not followed by a
rectus refers to the
genitive; for other 'states' see 16.
Forms. In status rectus the following endings are appended

(e.g. the stem *sarr~, giving Sarrum 'king\
sanation 'queen'); explanation of forms and terminology follows in
6-
to
the
noun stem
7-10:
Sing.
Masc.
Fern.
nom.
-um
-{a)t-um
gen.
-im
-{a)t-im
ace.
-am
-(a)t-am
-an
-{a)t-an
Dual nom.
Plur.
The
-in
nom.
-u
(or -aim)
-at-um
obi.
-i
(or -anT)
-at-im
adjective (e.g. the
dannatwn
'strong') has the
plur.; in the
-utini
obi.
~{a)t-in
stem *dann-, giving masc. dannum,

same endings in the sing, and in
fern.
fern.
masc. plur. the adjectival endings are -titum (nom.),
(oblique case). In
OB
the adj. has
no
dual:
an
adj.
modifying a
dual noun stands in the plur.
7.
Gender- There are two genders, masculine and feminine. In
general, the fern,
nouns without
is
marked by
this suffix are
-t.
or -at suffixed to the stem, and
masc. The shorter form of the suffix
By roof is meant the fundamental structure common to cognate words:

*dmq is the root of diimqum, damqum and udammiq, kun of kinum and ikan, ah
of ahum and ahhu. By 'stem' is meant (I) the base form of a given noun or
adjective, to which affixes are added: dumq- datnq-, ab-, kin-; (2) a verbal
1
conjugation, sec 22.
LESSON
12
more, commonly used (e.g. marum 'son', martttm 'daughter').

The longer form (-at) is used with geminate roots (i.e. roots whose
second and third consonantal radicals are identical, e.g. *dnn in
dannum 'powerful') and with the nominal formation pars 2
(kalb-at-um 'bitch'; see 65). (Nouns of the form pirs and purs add
(-/) is
-/,
but the stem takes the secondary shape puis, purus;
and puluhtum,
Number. There are separate forms for singular, plural and

is no longer a freely used form in OB, but limited to
8.
dual.
rihistum
cf.
12.)
The dual
nouns denoting or connoting parts of the body: man 'two eyes',

feet'; in an extended sense: resan 'top' (from resum
'head'), emuqan 'strength (of arms)'. For adjectives modifying duals,
sepan 'two
see 6 above.
The nominative is used as subject of a verb

The genitive is used after a
preposition or in relation to another noun (indicating possession,
agent, object of action). The accusative is used as object of a verb or
Case
9,
functions.
or predicate of a nominal sentence.
in adverbial uses (indicating time, place, specification).
The masc. plur. endings -ami, -am

late OB
number of short words (especially Hum
'god' and alum 'city') and become more widespread thereafter.
2. In the fern., -et and -et are conditioned variants of -at and
-at, when the noun has e < a: see 84f and g. Thus beltum 'lady'
10. Further annotations.
appear in
in a small
(stem *ba 7-) has
OB
Mimation
ezzum 'angry'
(the addition of
(* zz), fern,
adjectives.
Nunation
ezzetum.
to case indicators u,
characteristic of masc. sing, nouns, all fern,

all
erretum
plur. beletum (Ass. belatum); so also
'curse' (* Vr), plur. erretum;

3.
1.
i,
a)
(the addition of n to case indicators a, i)
characteristic of the dual. After the
OB
is
nouns except duals, and
period, both
is
mimation and
nunation fall into disuse: sarrum > sarru, man > Tna.
4. There is no definite or indefinite article; sarrum
may be
translated 'a king' or 'the king' as context requires.
The
of *$pr
is
sapirum.
root *prs
the
is
used as a
nominal stem
sipr-
summary
indication of forms: thus the pirs form
or the
form siprum;
full
its
parts form
is
sapir- or
LESSON
10
After the
5.
OB period,
13
the case system underwent a simplifica-
tion analogous to that of late Latin. In this regard, each dialect
must be studied
Some
6.
in itself.
feminine nouns lack the
Some nouns which

abullum
plur.:
-(a)t
ending:
ummum
lack a fern, indicator in the sing, have
abullatum
'city gate' (fern.), plur.
(masc), plur. eqletum
(fern.);
'mother
in the
it
eqlum
'field
(fern.)-
Besides the three cases listed above, there are two further
adverbial cases which occur with relative rarity, except in OB and
SB poetry: the locative, with ending -urn in, at', and the
7.
terminative, with ending
unto': qdtukka
-is 'to,
<
*qatum-ka
'in
your hand', puhrussunu < *puhrum-sunu 'in

< sepu"a < *sepum-ja 'at my feet'(84d), qerbum Bdbilim
'in (the middle of) Babylon*, ddris umT Tor length of days'.
Adjectival stem .4- -is has adverbial sense: kinis 'firmly After
1300 B.C. noun 4- -is comes to have a comparative sense: dbubis
their
assembly',
sepua
a flood', labbis 'like a lion
'like
11.
*
(82j;
Nouns with
in
With the disappearance of \ ml

marks a syllable boundary, whether
in nouns or adjectives such as rabVum
vocalic stems.
context
this
historically \ m5 or w or j)
1
'great ruba'um 'prince', sumlu'um 'to
,
fill',
contraction usually takes
> rabium >

rubaim > rubem, rabi'am remains the normal OB
form but later
rabam. In the fern. sing, the vowel preceding is
lengthened (84d): rabitum < *rabV-tum surbiitum < *surbu'-tum.
place according to the rules noted in 84e: rabi'-um
rabiim,
>
>
rubaim
'
s.
m. nom. *rabium
gen.
f.
pi.
*rabi'im
ace.
rabi'am
nom.
rabitum
m. nom. *rabiutum
obi.
f.
nom.
*rabiutim
rabVatum
>
>
>
rabiim
*rubd'um
rabim
*ruba'im
rabam
*rubaam
>
>
>
rabutum
*rubd'ii
rabutim
*rubdT
>
>
>
>
>
rubum
rubem
rubam
sumlum
sumlim
sumlam
rubii
rube
rabdtum
form between masc. and fern, or

between fern. sing, and plur. are due to such factors as vowel loss,
vowel insertion, and consonant assimilation:
12. Typical variations in
*damiq-um
f.
pi.
> damqum
damqdtum
'good',
f.
damiqtum, m. pi. damqiitum,

m. and f. pi.: 84b)
(vocalic elision in
LESSON
14
*pulh-twn
>
puluhtum Tear
'inundation',
by vowel
in sing,
>
*san-tum
pi.
pulhatum; *rihs-tum
pi.
12
>
rihistum
rihsatum (simplification of triple consonant

insertion: 83n)
sanatum (assimilation of n
Sat turn 'year\ pi.
in
sing.: 83e)
>
*libn-tum
libiitum 'brick
Hbnatum (vowel
pi.
insertion; as-
similation of n).
ahum
13.
'brother'
consonant reduplication:
The
14.
The
and abum
'father'
noun
adjective normally follows the
may
adjective
form the
plural with
ahhil, abbii.
as
serve
it
substantive;
modifies.
in
case
this
it
normally retains adjectival declension (with masc. plur. -utum), but

note STbum 'grey (-haired one), witness with double plural sibu
'witnesses' and sibutum 'elders
A noun construction in Akkadian may sometimes be translated
with an adjectival phrase: zer sarrutim (lit. 'seed of kingship ) 'royal
1
offspring'.
On
15.
Note
learning cuneiform signs.
that consonants final in
a sign- value are indeterminate, the same sign representing voiced
(b>
and emphatic consonants (q, t, s) of the

g
same locus of articulation; thus ad, at, and at are all expressed by
the same sign ad; its value may be represented most economically in
t
d, r),
voiceless {p, k,
t,
s)
sign-lists as ad, representing the three possibilities adjtjt. Similarly
the sign ig
may
Consonants
be realized as ig/k/q.
initial in
OB
a sign-value are
ib
as ibfp, uz as uzjsjs etc.
more
clearly distinguished in
emphatics are not yet in

common use; these are usually represented by signs which indicate
primarily the voiced or voiceless homorganic consonant. Thus
initial q is indicated by ga (to be read qa) and ki (read <//), ( by tu
writing, but in
(/*/),
s by
We
zu
(su) or
have seen
read with
e:
distinct signs for the
by
su.
(4e, 2) that
thus di
may
There are some exceptions:

and te ni and ne, si and se.
t
most
signs containing
may
be read di or de, and similarly

bi
and be are
Li,
also be
Gi etc.
different signs, as are
ti
LESSON
Vocabulary
ana (prep.): to
arnum: sin, crime; punishment
kima
asrum: place
mahrunw front
marsum, f. marustum (<*wa-
assum
(prep.):
because
of,
as, that,
concerning; (conj.): because
bitwn (m.),
when
rustum): sick, difficult,
man
awilum:
(prep.): as, like; (conj.):
painful
pi. bit a turn (f.):
nisu
(f. pi.):
people
house
dannum, f. dannatum: strong,
powerful
pusqum: difficulty
rabum <*rabium,
err e turn
rimum: wild bull

saphum, f. sapihtum: scattered
sanum <*anium, f. SanTtum:
pi. er return: curse,
malediction
ezzum,
f.
ezzetum: angry
gitmalum: perfect, noble
Hum, pi
//w
second, other
or /7am7: god
ina (prep.): in,
sanum: king
among, from
within, with (instrumental)
isatum
(f.), pi.
isatatwm
fire
m7m (prep.): from

kabtum, f. kabittum: heavy,
honored, important (person)
kadrum: wild,
rabitwm
f.
great
tamharum: battle
(f.): mother
wardum: slave, servant
wastum: difficult, hard, fierce
zikarum or zikrum (84b):
ummum
male,
man
fierce
Cuneiform
signs
(The first column gives the sign, in its Neo- Assyrian form; the
second gives common phonetic values, with post-OB values in
parentheses; the last column gives logographic values.)
Logographic
Phonetic
Signs
an
an = Anum 'the god Anum'

an = sarnu 'sky
1
dingir
vA
na
fcSTT
um
= Hum
'god'
LESSON
16
Logographic
Phonetic
Signs
(Wrf)
e.gal
ra
e-
go/.
bitum 'house'
= ekallum 'palace
gal = rabum
(^/)
&-
Am, /w,
THK
mes
meS
a(.meS)
"ff
(g/rf,
gid(.da)
qid, sir, sir)
'great'
= arkum
'long
(sign of plurality)
= mu
'water' (plur.)
Exercise
1.
Decline sarrum, sanation, erretum, dannum, ezzum*ruba'um
sanum,
2.
ni-si
Normalize
and
4c,5)
(cf.
translate:
a-wi-lam.
wa-ar-dim.
sa G -ap-ha-tim. ar-nam kab-lam, sar-ru-um gi-it-ma-lum. pu-us-qi
wa-as-tu-tim.
rabutum.
i-na
sar-ri.
ummum
Anwn
ra-bi-tum.
ra-bu-um.
as-sum
er-re-tim.
ki-ma
tam-ha-ri-im.
i-na
ilii
i-sa-tim
er-re-tam ma-ru-us-tam. ri-mu-um ka-ad-ru-um. sarrum

da-num. as-sum zi-ka-ri-im sa-ni-im. a-na as-ri-im sa-ni-im.
is-tu
ez-ze-tim.
bitim. i-na ma-ah-ri-im.

3. Translate into Akkadian: powerful kings, great men. the
honored god. angry gods, another place.
in the fire, from the
battle, like a slave.

4.
VH-
Cuneiform:
^3T
WTh<
tf=.
y^j
h^ y^>
TF^ mi;
Tf THr
^T
tflTT
0-
3
Plurality may also be indicated by reduplication of the logogram for noun
or adjective: thus dingir.meS, dingir.dingjr, and dingir.gal.gal all indicate /7m
'gods* (with rabutum 'great'
added
in the last phrase).
Lesson 2
NOMINAL DECLENSION, II: ABSOLUTE AND

CONSTRUCT STATE. PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES
Nominal states. In addition to the status rectus considered
1, the Akkadian noun appears in two other 'states': the
absolute state (status absolutus) and construct state (status
constructus). The latter is found in all Semitic languages, the former
only in Akkadian and (with a different function) in the Aramaic
16.
in
Lesson
dialects,
17. Absolute state. This
<
case endings: zikar
<
is
formally characterized by loss of
zikarum, sar rat
<
sar radon, sinnis (with loss
and functions
numerals and measures of length, weight, etc. which
accompany them (these will be discussed in 76) and in frozen
adverbial and adnominal expressions: sar la sanan 'king who cannot
be rivalled ana dar 'forever', zikar u sinnis 'male and female', seher
u rabi 'young and old'.
of f
-/)
sinnis turn. It occurs with relative rarity,
chiefly in
18. The construct state is the unaccented form of the noun

which immediately precedes another noun in the genitive (bel bitim
of the house') or a verbal clause in the subjunctive (awat iqbft

said
37); the nominal form preceding a
is
similar
pronominal suffix
(bel-su 'his lord'), and will also be
'lord
'the
word (which) he
discussed here.
In general
takes
the
it
may be
shortest
(according to the
said that the
form which
norm of
is
noun
in construct position
phonetically possible.
83n) phonetic adaptation
is
Where
needed to
avoid final biconsonance, the specific adaptation used will depend
on the origin of the word: we must distinguish e.g. a formation pars

(pirs, purs) such as mahrnm (siprum, sulmum) from a formation paris
such as saknum < sakinum (cf. 84b) and from feminines such as
subtum, formed on a base sub- < *wsb + fern. -k There follows a
schematic overview of the forms normal in OB; for translation see
the vocabularies.
LESSON
18
Group with
i.
18
different forms before genitive
and
suffix:
Before a genitive:
mimation, ruination, and short case endings are lost: bel

bitim, ana bel bitim, assat awllim; long case endings are retained:
a.
belli bitim, bell
generally
c.
end
bitim
but biconsonantal stems (such as ab- 'father'
b.
add
-i
for
all cases:
polysyllabic fern, stems in
in a reduplicated
-t-
*'a6-)
consonant add
and monosyllabic stems which

-i
for
ummi
awllim, tuppi awllim, libbi awllim,
monosyllabic stem sarr- may simplify

d. bisyllabic masc. stems ending
it:
<
abi bitim, idi awllim
all
cases
sarrim;
(cf.
83n): nidinti
by exception, the
to sar: Sarri or sar mcitim

in
double consonant simplify
kunuk awllim
stems ending in a vowel may follow rule a above (rabi bitim,

kala matim\ but the final vowel may be lost (rab bitim, kal matim\
and -a may be replaced by -/ {kali); long -a is usually replaced by the
e.
gen. ending -e
ii.
<
-a-U
Before suffix (other than
mimation,
a.
84e (ruba'um, constr. rube).
cf.
nom./acc. are
-f):
and short case endings in sing,

massu (< *mat-su, 83f), but mqtqiusu,
nunation,
lost: belsu,
inasu
b.
short case endings are retained (and secondarily lengthened:
84i) in
gen.
sing,
and
in
fern,
plur.:
ana
belisu,
matatusu, ana
matatisu
and stems which end in a

consonant add -a for nom./acc. sing.: nidintasu,
tuppasu, libbaki, kumikkasu, ummasunu, sarrasu
d. biconsonantal stems (abum, ahum), stems from roots with a
third weak consonant (marum < *mar'um, blsum < *bisjum) and
vocalic stems in -a {kalum < *kala-um) generally retain case endings
throughout sing.: abusu, abisu, abasu, blsusu, marusu, kalusu <
*kala-u-su, rubiisu (but the /-stem banium forms banisu according to
c.
polysyllabic fern, stems in
-/-
reduplicated
a above).
2.
Group with
a.
pars, pirs, purs (mahr-, sipr-, sulm-) repeat their first vowel:
mahar awllim,
b.
elision
single
form before genitive and suffix (except
-f ):
sipirsu, sulumkumi
forms such as sakmim < *sakinum resulting from vowel
(84b) restore the lost vowel: sakin matim, sakinsu
LESSON
18
final
c.
-/
of monosyllabic
19
fern,
stems (sub-t-um)
is
usually
replaced by -at {subat awilim, subassu), but sometimes a helping
vowel
(l,i,c
3.
and
l,ii,c
above)
is
The above summarizes
should be noted that
in
employed
(qisti
awilim, qistaka).
the formations found in
OB, but it
OB,
other dialects, and sometimes even in
may differ: what remains constant is the avoidance of

double consonance and the tendency to lengthen words that
are shorter than usual, but the means taken can change.
treatment
final
4.
(i)
Survey of forms
84i
(cf.
on secondary
length):
Simplest type:
with genitive
nom.
betum
with suffix
gen
ace.
nom.
bel alim
s.
pi.
belu alim
belt
alim
belu-
bel-7
beli-ja
bel-su
beli-su
belT-Ja
'a
bclu-su
QSSQtUm
assat awilim
s.
gen.
ace.
belhsu
assat-T
assati-ja
assassu
(ii)
i.
assat awilim
assati-su
assatu- 'a
assati-ja
assatu-su
assati-su
Special types:
libbum
libbi
kunuk awilim
kunukkum
mahar awilim
mafjrum
siprum
sipir
subtum
qistum
nidintum
awilim
sulum awilim
sulmum
saknum
awilim
<
*sakinum
sakin matim
subat awilim
qisti
awilim
nidinti awilim
libb-i
libbi-ja
libba-su
libbi-su
kunukk-i
kunukki-ja
kunukka-su
kunukkhsu
mahr-T
mahri-ja
mahar-su
mahrhsu
sipr-i
siprhja
sipir-su
sipri-su
sulm-i
sulmi-ja
sulum-su
sulmi-su
sakn-i
sakni-ja
sakin-su
sakni-su
subt-i
subti-ja
subassu
subti-su
qist-i
qisti-ja
qista-su
qisti-su
nidinti-ja
nidint'i
nidinta-su
nidinti-su
LESSON
20
18
with suffix
with genitive
nom.
banum <*banium
banijbdn awllim
bdmtwn
kalian
gen.
ace.
bdniat awilim
<
*kala'um
kala
nom.
bdni
<
bdmt-i
bdniti'ja
bdmssu
bdnlti-su
*kali
(kali, kal)
<
rube dlim
<
kald-su
rube
<
*rubd-i gen.
abi awilim
For
mar um
the
(mar J mar awilim

i)
learner,
it
is
kali-su
rube-ja
*rubd-T
rubd-su
ab-T
abu-su
marum <
kali-ja
*kala-T
rubu-su
abum
bant-ja
bdni-su
kalu-su
< *rubaum
*bani-T
bdni-su
mdtim
rubum
gen.
ace.
rubi-su
abi-ja
aba-sa
mar-T
maru-su
mara-su
abi-su
mari-ja
mdri-stt
important to recognize the markers
distinguishing one form from another in this sub-system, and
forms
(bitim)
in
it
and
from the case endings of the status
all
rectus: thus abi
tuppi (awilim) are not necessarily genitive,
nor tuppasu
necessarily accusative; subtisu cannot be nominative or accusative;
massu cannot be
genitive.
19. In place of the construction construct H- genitive (bel

mdtim) a periphrasis may be used: status rectus + sa 4- genitive
(helam sa mdtim, ana belim sa mdtim), sa '(the one) of derives from
the determinative
pronoun Su
(63).
This periphrasis must be used when the principle noun would

be separated by an adjective from the genitive: *sar dannum mdtim
dannum sa
mdtim or by sar mdtim dannum 'mighty king of the land'. The sa
construction is also frequently used to avoid ambiguity when the
construct state has the same form as the status rectus (e.g. the nom.
pi. belii), or to avoid a stylistically heavy construct chain (thus mar
Sarrim sa mat Hatti 'the prince of Hatti-land' avoids the cumbrous
mar sar mat Haiti).
is
impossible, and must be replaced either by Sarrum
LESSON
20
21
20. Possessive pronominal suffixes are used with prepositions
and nouns; with
(54,2)
the latter they
may
indicate possession or
other functions of the genitive (objective gen., subjective gen.).
forms
The
are:
Singular
Plural
person
1st
-ni
2nd m.
2ndf.
3rd m.
-to
-kunu
-fa'
-kina
-su
-Sunu
3rd
-sa
-sina
f.
The 1st sing, suffix takes three forms in standard OB: -T after a
noun in nom./acc. sing., -ja after gen. sing./oblique plur., but this is
reduced to -a after nom. pi. (transcribed belua 'my lords', or with
explicit notation of the syllable boundary, belua). Thus belt 'my
ana belija 'to my
lord', assdtu'a 'my wives', ana belija 'to my lord
7
lords'.
Note
(83f) that dental/sibilant
land', *res-sa
>
H- s
>
*mat-5u
ss:
>
massu
'his
ressa 'her head'.
Vocabulary
abum, pi. abbu\ father
ahum, pi. ahhu: brother
assatum (stem *'ant~): wife
awatum, pi. awdtwn: word
*banium, bamim: builder, maker
beltum,
pi.
beletwn: lady, mistress
belum: lord, master,
owner
dinum: judgment, legal case
eli:
(< Sum.
e.gal): palace
on, upon; elfsu
eqlum (m.),
pi.
on
eqlelum
it'
(f.)
(84i)
(*hq[):
////
(prep.): with; i7/Bju 'with
(*/f/7):
ersetum: earth
(tenant-)farmer
him'
(84i)
kalum: totality, entirety

seal
libbum: heart, center, middle

a Marduk:
the
god Marduk,
patron of Babylon
marum: son
malum
(f.), pi.
misarum
field
erresum
fnum: eye
kunukkum: cylinder
btsum: possession
*darium, dariim: (everlasting
ekallum
esemtum, pi. esmetum: bone

hulqum: lost object
fY/um: arm, side
matatum: land
(*Jr): justice
nidintum, nidittum: gift

quz/u/H
(f.)-
hand
LESSON
11
sar ration: queen
qistum: present, gift
sarriitum: kingship
re'utum: shepherdship
*rubd'um, rubum: prince, noble
f.
sibtum,
construct sibat
work
Siprum:
subtum: seat, dwelling
se/jertwn: small
seljrum,
(*\vsb):
suhniim: wholeness, health
swnum: name, offspring
interest (on capital)
sirtum: exalted
suqurum, L Suqurtum
saknum (< *akinum): governor
costly, precious
sirum,
f.
one third
SahiStum:
of the
(f.
ordinal salsum 'third')
sama%
*,
l
samii
(m.
sky,
heavens
very
tuppitm: (clay-)tablet
u:
pi.):
(*\vqr):
and
zerum: seed
zittwn: share (of properly)
Cuneiform signs
Logographic
Phonetic
Signs
^T
/>,
cr
jr
Mf<
ti,
ti
ti(.la)
mf
ia
m
^
BlK
m
#<y-
also
/e, ii t
= wardwn
balatum
tur = sehrum
(tur)
'small
dumu = marum
ad = abum
ad
ga>
id,
qa
ga =
ed
wa> we, wi, wu;

si,
Urn
lum, (ln A )
'to live
in
pi,
pe
son'
'father
sizbxtm 'milk
idum 'arm, side
geStu
= uzmim
igi
mum
igi
= panum
lim
**=
'slave, servant'
'ear'
1
'eye
= limum
'front
pi. 'face
'thousand'
LESSON
23
Exercise
Normalize and
1.
di-nim. i-na qa-at
sar
ekallim.
sar-ru-tim.
be-el-ti-sa.
warad
translate: be-el sa-me-e u er-se-tim. a-ra-an
warad
a-wi-lim. as-sa-at a-wi-litn. as-sa-sit.
mi-sa-ri-im.
mar
li-ib-bi
a Marduk.
zerum
da-ri-um
a-wi-lim se-elyra-am. sa-lu-us-ti eqlim. si-ba-su.
be-le-sa.
e-li-su.
it-ti-su-nu.
re-u-si-na.
sa
ii-ti
esemti
be-el-ni.
a-wi-lim. sum-su si-ra-am. i-na li-ib-bi-su. a-na be-Ii-Stt. bis-su
(-su). zitta-su.
a-na
mar
a-na a$-sa-ti~su. a-wa-ti-ia sn-qu-ra-tim.
di-ni.
ma-su.
ni-si-su. er-re-sum. er-re-su. be-el hu-ul-qi-im. hu-lu-uq-su.

2.
Translate into Akkadian: the man's son. with the man's son.
with his son. the man's brother, the man's work, the man's
his son.
gift,
heart,
their
man's wife, the man's dwelling, his tablet, their seal, your
our maker, her son. my brother, his father, my possession,
bones, my word, her small queen, with my share, his tenant
the
farmer.
3.
fear
mi
Cuneiform:
kT<
j^-
& #
Tf-<P-;
it*?- <&-i
m*T
^ m\ 0-i
Lesson
G-STEM OF THE STRONG VERB
(I)
Akkadian has some purely nominal

no adjectival or verbal
cognates. Generally, however, words with verbal function lend
The
21.
verb:
general.
stems such as ab- 'father
kalb- 'dog', with
themselves freely to the formation of cognates with nominal or
and in the same way nouns or adjectives can

Thus we find the verb isriq 'he stole', the
adjective sarqitm 'stolen', the noun sarraqum 'thief; from such a
group of words we may isolate a root common to all: the
consonantal sequence *srq which (as both its form and the asterisk
adjectival functions,
cross functional lines.
indicate)
is
Akkadian
an abstraction never attested as such. Most such roots in

are
but
triconsonantal,
biconsonantal
and
quadri-
consonantal verbs are also found.
As
in other Semitic languages,
we
distinguish the 'strong' verb
(paradigm: parasum 'to separate ) from the various types of 'weak'

verbs which undergo phonetic modification (assimilation of >V [83e],
disappearance of
and
\ m7 [82j
84c-f], etc.)
and from irregularly
formed verbs.
22,
Stems.
As
Hebrew
in
or Arabic,
Akkadian verbs
are
subsystems called 'stems'; these are

distinguished by lack or presence of reduplicated and infixed or
prefixed elements. There are four main stems, usually termed G, D,
S,
or I, II, III, IV (G, from German 'Grundstamm', signifies the
basic stem; D refers to the doubled middle radical which
conjugated
in
several
characterizes this stem;
and
the four stems correspond to
indicate affixed elements s
Hebrew
and
n)\
Qal, Pfel, Hifil and Nifal.
Further stems can be formed from these by infixing -/a- or -tan-.

The infixed stems are referred to as Gt or 1/2, Gtn or 1/3, Dt or II/2,
Dtn or
II/3, etc.
23. 'Tenses'. In each stem
we
find four finite
forms, usually
called tenses: (1) the 'present (iparras) expresses a continuing action,
Finite forms are those
which express a predication.
LESSON
23
and
25
normally translated by an English present or future
is
builds,
('he
building, will build'); (2) the 'preterite' (iprus) expresses an
is
action as taking place at a single point in time, and
by a past narrative tense
translated
(iptaras) represents the verbal action in
action or to the present time, and
is
most often
is
('he built'); (3)
the 'perfect'
temporal relation to another

usually translated by a past
tense ('he built', lie has built'); (4) the 'stative' (par is) expresses a
state ('he
old'). In
is
an action or process ('he becomes
old') rather than
addition to the four tenses, each stem has an imperative, a
nominal form (the infinitive), and two adjectival forms

and verbal adjective).
(participle
24. Verb types and vocalic classes. Akkadian verbs divide into
two basic groups: those having an originally verbal function of
expressing action or process, which we may call action-verbs, and
verbs derived from adjectives and expressing the inception or
existence of a state, which we may call state-verbs.
Action-verbs are found in four classes characterized by
different stem-vowels (the stem-vowel is the vowel preceding the
final radical in finite forms); the classes are designated by the stem
vowel of the G pres. (iparras) and the G pret. (iprus).
The
(iparras iprus 'separate')
class
(isabbat isbat 'seize)
class
(irappud irpud 'run')
class.
(ipaqqid ipqid 'entrust')
meaning
relation of these patterns to verbal
from one vowel
shift
the
aju class
class to another
is
is
not
rigid,
following general tendencies are observable:
the aju
classes contain transitive verbs; the u class intransitives; the
transitives
some
whose
result
is
is
and a
/
class
produced by a momentary action, and
intransitive verbs of motion.
State-verbs are predominantly of the
and a
not infrequent; nonetheless
also
pasahum
25.
prefixes
found:
'to
to
type, but the
stem vowel
become good': idammiq, idmiq;
be at peace, calm down': ipassah, ipsah.
The
and
damaqum
preterite
(iprus,
isbat,
etc.)
is
formed by adding
normally
suffixes to a base -prus- (-sbat-, -pqid-). It
represents a simple past action (isbat 'he seized') or the inception of
a state (idmiq 'he improved').
The forms of parasum
follow:
LESSON
26
Sing.
3c.
iprus
3m.
iprusil
2m.
taprus
3f.
iprusa
2f.
taprusi
2c.
taprusa
fl/?rw.s
Ic.
niprus
1c.
(In
25
Plur.
the proper stem vowel should be
the other vocalic classes,
substituted throughout for u: isbat, tasbat, tasbatT; irpud, tarpud.)
Note
OB
that in
the 3rd sing,
form
is
common
and
to masc.
fern, ('he/she separated');
other dialects preserve a distinctive fern,
form taprus
'she separated
A 3rd person dual iprusa
is
also found, but
is
generally replaced
by the plural
26.
The
present
of
action-verbs
continuous: irappud 'he runs,
action
represents
running, will run
is
the present has an ingressive sense: iballut 'he
1
.
as
In state-verbs,
comes
to enjoy
good
health, he will get well'.
The present
is
characterized by reduplication of the middle
radical; its conjugation parallels the preterite:
Sing.
3c.
iparras
3m.
iparrasu
2m.
2f
taparras
3f.
iparrasa
taparrasT
2c.
taparrasa
lc.
aparras
lc.
niparras
Plur.
with regular substitution of other stem vowels in irappud, ipaqqid.

27.
on the
an
The
imperative, expressing positive
commands,
is
formed
preterite base *prus, *sbat, *rpud, *pqid. In the masc. sing.,
initial
biconsonantal cluster
(83n); this
is
usually the
rupud, piqid), but in

'learn!', pilah 'fear!',
some a
sing.
it is
The
elided.
purus sabat
limad rupud piqid
sabtT
limdi
comm. pursd
sabtd
limda rupda piqdd
(The form taken by negative

28,
vowel (purus, sabot,

vowel / is inserted {limad
tikal 'trust!'). When an ending is
pursT
masc.
sing. fern.
plur.
resolved by insertion of a vowel

as the stem
class verbs the
rikab 'ride!
added, the vowel preceding
is
same
infinitive
is
commands
rupdi
will
piqdi
be seen
in 47.)
a declined verbal noun which
is
patterned
parasum in the G-stem (for phonetically conditioned variants such
LESSON
28
erebum see
as seberum,
27
Because of
84f-g).
verbal and nominal form, the infinitive
its
may
constructions with accusative object (these will
double character as
be used in verbal
be discussed in 75)
or in nominal constructions such as construct state

is used to express time, ana finality:
genitive; ina
'when you separate' (lit. 'in your separating')

a boat ana rakabija 'that I may ride in it' ('for my
ina parasika
give
me
riding
ana sakdp nakrim 'in order to overthrow the enemy'

overthrowing of the enemy').
29.
The
(active) participle
has in the G-stem the form parisum,
with normal adjectival declension

parisatam).
The
(f.
paristam, m.
pi.
normally functions as a noun,
ptc.
('for the
parisuium,
i.e.
it
f.
pi.
governs a
an accusative: palih Hint 'godfearing (person)'.

do not form a ptc. (*damiqum); its place is taken by
genitive rather than
State-verbs (24)
the corresponding adjective (damqwn).
30.
(<
The
verbal adjective has in the G-stem the form
*parisum),
with
adjectival
declension.
The
verbal
parsum
adj.
of
normally passive in sense: habalum 'to treat unjustly',

awilum hablum 'a wronged man'; compare the verbal adj. from
state-verbs damqwn good' baltum 'living'.
action-verbs
is
31.
predicate.
nominal sentence
It
is
is
one without a
(54,4) or the enclitic
-ma
id abi atta
'you are not
is
king'
my
father'
salimatum sa ami Esnunna dastum-ma

ruler of Eshnunna are treachery'.
32.
verbal form as
(40,3):
Adad sarrwn-ma 'Adad
finite
often characterized by an independent pronoun
'the alliances of the
verbal sentence normally has the order: Subject - Object
Indirect object - Verb: Sarrum eqlam ana awilim iddin 'the king
gave the man a field'. The final position of the verb, which
unusual in Semitic, is probably due to Sumerian influence.
is
LESSON
28
Vocabulary
alakwn
(pres.
illak,
pret.
illik;
further forms will be seen in
go
68): to
dajjanum: judge
wood
isum: tree,
kaspum:
silver
kaSadum
at,
(a/u):
to reach, arrive
conquer
{a): to
mil (plur.
<*mau): water
(pres.
<
iddin
inaddin,
inakkis,
ikkis: 83e): to cut
pret.
sell
pret.
down, cut
off
namkurum: possession
(*;?2/cr, cf.
83c)
nasarum
(pres.
msurn: oath
ms
inassar,
83e): to guard,
i.??z/r:
(lit.
life);
ms
pret.
keep
usually in
dim: (oath) by the
god,
life
of a
sarrim and the like
nuhsum: abundance
palahum
(a):
(w):
to claim, raise a
legal claim
*indin: 83e): to give;
(pres.
to care for (ace), to
parasum (a/ii): to cut, divide

pasatum (i): to erase, efface
pum: mouth (construct state: pi)
*purussaum, purussum: decision;
purussam parasum: to make a
ragamum
beat, strike
(ana kaspim) nadanum: to
nakaswn
(/):
entrust (ace.) to (ana/d&L)
decision
mahasum
nadanum
paqddum
to fear, reverence
riitwn
(f.,
*rht): wrist,
hand
sabdtum (a): to seize

sakanum (a/u): to put, place, set
saqalum (a/u): to weigh (out),
pay
sarakum (a/u): to present, give
saraqum (/): to steal
seberum (/, pres. isebbir; tesebbir
esebbir; pret. isbir iesbir, esbir\
t
v.
adj.
sebrum;
cf.
84g): to
break
summa
(conj.): if
zakarum
{a/u):
to
speak,
say,
name
niahar (constr. of maljntm, see
lesson 1): in front of, before
LESSON
29
Cuneiform Signs
>^
6a
wr
ZU, JW,
MS
w.
Logographic
Phonetic
Signs
.yz/
zu
zu
= lamadwn
gAl
ez, (gis, efe)
GiS
idwn
know
'to
= basum
'to learn'
'to be'
am
zz,
sit,
{qad)
*T
/z/j, //tf,
/?/r,
(par, lah,
in)
iswn
5u
qatum
U4
//,
em
UTU = ^Santas (sun-god)
d iKUR
= pesum
d Adad
im
im
= sarum
KU =
<ft
'hand'
iimum 'day
babbar
-4>ft
wood'
'tree,
'white'
(storm-god)
tittum 'clay'
'wind'
ellum 'pure, holy'
kO.babbar = kaspam
<Ff <T
hurasum
za, $a
'silver
'gold'
sa
Exercise
1.
Normalize and
mi-sa-ra-am
pu-ru-sa-am
i-na
pi
ip-ru-iis.
translate: is-ru-uk. im-lja-as. ik-su-ud, ip-si-ii.
ma-tim
as-ku-un.
a-wi-lum
namkur
is-ba-at. i-sa-ak-ka-mt. i-na-sa-ar.
sum-ma
ilim
da-a-a-mt-um
is~vi-iq.
bit(bis)-su
i-pa-aq-qi-du. ni-is i-lim i-za-kar.
LESSON
30
i-ra-ag-gu-wn. i-se-eb-bi-riL i-sa-am i-na-ak-ki-su. ritta-su i-na-khsu.
kaspam
sa-ki-in
i-sa-qa-lu.
bit-sit
a-na kaspim
me-e nu-uh-sim a-na
i-na-ad-di-in.
pa-li-ih
i-li.
ni-si-su. pa-qi-id bi-iim. i-na a-la-ki-su.
a-na ka-sa-dim. bi-tum na-ad-nu-um.
Conjugate in pret, pres. and imp. and give ptc. and verbal
kasadum, saraqum, seberum,
4. Translate into Akkadian: you raised a claim, he reverences
the gods, he struck the man. my lord broke his tablet. I entrust my
father to the gods, he placed his gift before the god. he is weighing
out silver in his father's house, he effaced my words, when you
arrive, in order to guard his house, the seized man.
5. Cuneiform:
2.
adj.:
vft
yg vÂ^-i
OT
<ff^r
&
Lesson 4
G-STEM OF STRONG VERB (II). VERBAL SUFFIXES.

VENTIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE
33. The stative is a conjugated form of the verbal adjective

parsum (< *parisum). It designates atemporally a state or the
lasting effect of an action: damiq 'he is (was, will be) good
1
(state-verb), paris
action-verbs
'it
is
(was, will be) decided' (action-verb). In
usually passive in sense (sabit 'he
it is
in captivity'),
is
but occasionally active (bitam sabit 'he possesses a house').
The
the
is
of action-verbs
stative
when an ending
elided
is
sick'
< marasum
formed on a base
suffixed. State-verbs also usually
may have
have the base paris, but

(a),
rapas
which
is
is
paris, in
the base parus or paras:
'it is
wide'
<
rapasum
(i).
mams
'he
The forms
of the stative are:

Sing.
3m. paris
3f.
parsat
2m. parsata
3m. parsu
Plur.
3f.
parsa
2m. parsatunu
2f.
parsati
3f.
parsdtina
lc.
parsaku
lc.
parsanu
Any noun
or adjective
may
be used with
stat.
endings and
function as a predicate:
king\ sar 'he is king < sarrum (noun)

rabidta, rabata 'you are great < rabum (adj.)
damqu 'they are good' < damqum (adj.) or damaqum
sarraku
'I
am
Non-final
84f: bel, belet
-at
of the stative endings
>
(vb.).
e in accordance with
beleta, beleti, belekti, belu, bela, beletunu, beletina,
belenu.
34.
Though
must be
The
perfect
this tense
is
formed by infixing
-/(a) after
the
first radical.
shares forms with the stems that infix
clearly distinguished
from them. Like other
-/(a)-, it
tenses,
perfect expresses aspect of action, whereas the derived stems

lexical significance.
the
have a
LESSON
32
The
G perfect
Sing.
3c.
has the following forms:

Plur.
iptaras
3m.
iptarsu
iptarsa
2m.
taptaras
3f.
2f.
taptarsi
2c.
taptarsd
lc.
aptaras
lc.
niptaras
In dependent temporal
main verb
34
and conditional
(39) clauses,
when
the
future, imperative or volitional (42), the perf. indicates
is
a futurum exactum
(i.e.
a future prior to the future of the main
clause):
imima eleppetim issakpu 'when they
(shall)
have dispatched
the boats'
istu sabum su iktasdakkum sabam sdti ana sir ahika turdam
'after those
to
men
your brother
For use of the
(shall)
have come to you, send those
men
perfect in conditional clauses see 39.
In independent clauses, the perf. has the following uses:

(a) in
and
OB we
often find a perfect after one or
usually connected to
them by -ma;
this
more
sequence, pret.
preterites,
"''-ma +
sequence of tenses or 'consecutio temporum'),
perf. (the so-called
expresses past actions performed in sequence:
ihliqma issabtusu 'he fled but they caught him'

ana GN asniqma alam sdti ashupma assabat 'I reached gn,
and overran and
seized that city'
may be used as an 'epistolary

from the temporal viewpoint of the letter's
sender (this usage is often introduced by the
(b) the perfect (like the pret.)

tense', expressing actions
recipient,
adverbs
not
its
anumma
'herewith' or inanna 'now'); translation
is
best
given in the present:

tuppi
'
anniam astaprakkum
'I
send
this letter
of mine to you'
write to you'
anumma astaprakkum/ aspurakkum 'I herewith

inanna attardakkum 'I now send to you'.
1
forms
2.
For the assimilation of / of the infix to the first radical

< *istabat igdamar < *igtamai\ see 83h.
in
The stem vewel of
like issabat
the perf.
is
pres.: iptaras, issabat, irtapud, iptaqid.
identical with that of the
LESSON
34
3.
Note
base form
that
when an ending
elided: *iptaras-u
is
>
is
33
added, the final vowe! of the
iptarsu.
Pronominal suffixes, accusative and dative, may be added

forms of the verb, indicative or subjunctive, and to the
imperative: iSruku 'they gave', isrukusu "they gave him/if, iSrukuswn
'they gave to him\ The forms are as follows:
35.
to all finite
Accusative
Sing.
Plur.
1.
The
Dative
lc.
-w
2m.
-ha
-am
-kum
2f.
-ki
-kirn
3m.
-Sll
-sum
3f.
-Si
-Sim
lc.
-niati
-niasim
2m.
-kunuti
-kunuSim
2f.
-kinati
-kinasim
3m.
-Sunuti
-sunusim
3f.
-sinati
-SindSim
1st sing. dat.
form -am
is
used only after endingless
verbal forms (isruk, tasruk, aSritk, niSruk: e.g. isruk-am 'he gave to
reduced to -m
2nd and 3rd
),
plur. verb, it is replaced by -nim (isruku-nim 'they gave to me*).
2. Note again that dental/sibilant + S > ss (83f) in ipqissu <
me');
after
-/"
of the 2nd
(tasrukT-m 'you gave to
sing,
fern.
me
and
verb,
it
is
after -u, -a of the
imhassu < *imhas-su and similar forms.

Dat. and ace. suffixes may be used together, with dat.
*ipqid-su,
3.
preceding; in this case final
-m of
the dat. assimilates to a following
< *isrukii-sum-Su 'they gave it to him\

Loss of mimation in the dat. occurs toward the end of OB;
brings about loss of distinction between some forms of dat. and
(ni, ki, su, Si), and is accompanied by increasing confusion
consonant: iSrukusuSSu
4.
this
ace.
between
36.
ventive,
dat.
The
is
ace. suffixes in general.
ventive.
special
form of
the verb, usually called the
formally identical with verb
-amf-mj-ninv,
(iprus-am,
and
choice of form follows the
taprusT-m,
iprusu-nim).
development from the dat.
'to
me
The
1st
sing.
dat.
suffix
norms given in 35,1

form seems to be a
but the original dat. sense of the
LESSON
34
suffix
has been
lost.
36
With verbs of motion, the ventive ending may

(illik 'he went', but illikam 'he came'), and
indicate direction 'hither'

it is
from
this sense that the
name
ventive derives; in many instances,
however, the ending appears to have a stylistic rather than a lexical

significance; sentences like ana serija takassad 'you will arrive to me'
(motion hither, no ventive marker), ana serika akassad-am-ma 'I will
arrive
you'
to
(motion
ventive
thither,
marker) are common.
With verbs of motion and other verbs, the ventive is especially

before -ma and pronominal suffixes, dative and accusative,
especially 1st sing. ace. {ishat~an-ni 'he seized me') and all dat.
suffixes except 1st sing., with which it would be identical
common
(isruk-ak-kum 'he gave to you', but isruk-am 'he gave to me'). Final
-m of ventive -am, -m and -nim assimilates
to a following
consonant:
isbatil-nin-ni, tasruki-s-sum.
adi allakam 'until
you
to
ummanatum
go (there)'
*atarrad-am-kum-su-ma
<
atarradakkussuma
'I
will
send him
iptatranim ana
gn
iksudatrim 'the troops
left
and
reached gn'
Since dat. suffixes 'to me' and ventive endings are formally
may
be unclear which is intended.

found with clear dat. suffixes (JSrukSum etc.),
-am/-m/-nim may be taken as dat.; if it is not (thus *irappudfisum is
not found) the endings may be taken as ventive.
2. Loss of mimation occurs toward the end of OB, so that in
later periods the ventive endings are -a and -/, with no special
ventive form in the 2nd fern. sing.
identical,
it
Generally,
if
a verb
occasionally
is
Some conjunctions (subjunctions) which introduce

37.
dependent clauses are inuma 'when lama 'before warki 'after',
assum 'because'. The verbs in such clauses are in the subjunctive
1
mood
(38). Relative clauses also are in the subjunctive; these are
mostly introduced by sa 'who,

discussed
more
constructus
almadu
'the
4-
fully in 63); in
whom, which
OB
(the use of sa will be
the construction
noun
in status
verb in subjunctive expresses a relative clause: tern
news which
learned' (18).
LESSON
38
35
The subjunctive. Finite verbal forms (pret, pres., perf,

when they are used in dependent clauses, stand in the
subjunctive mood. The negation of dependent clauses is expressed
38,
stat.),
by
la,
whereas the negation of independent clauses
is
usually
expressed by ul (see 50).
The subj. is formed by adding -it to verbal forms which do not

have an ending (iprus, taprus, aprus, niprus, parts, iparras etc.);
verbal forms with an ending (-F, -u, -a, -at, and the ventive endings)
remain unchanged, and have therefore a common form in indie, and
subj.:
iprus 'he separated*, Sarrum sa iprusu 'the king
inuma iprusu 'when he separated

iprusu
separated',
'they
sarru
sa
who
separated',
iprusu
'the
kings
who
separated", assum iprusu 'because they separated'
iksudam 'he arrived', sarrum sa la iksudam 'the king who did

not arrive warki sarrum iksudam 'after the king arrived'
balit 'he is in good health', sarrum sa baltu 'the king who is in
1
good
health'
good health', Sanation sa baltat 'the queen

good health'
eqlwn nadin 'the field is given', lama nadnu 'under the
baltai 'she
who
is
is
in
in
conditions of the grant'

39.
Summa if
(lit.
'as
it
was/is given
).
introduces a nominal clause or a clause in the
is la. The pres. and stat. in a ii/mma-clause

normal range of meaning; the pret. indicates temporal
priority to the main verb, and the perf. appears to have much the
same sense, though some scholars claim for it an additional
hypothetical nuance. In lawcodes, to fit usage in European
languages, pret. and perf. are sometimes translated as present.
indicative; the negative
have
their
summa
summa
isriqjistariq 'if
bitam iplusma
stole'
he
stole'
istariq
'if
he broke into a house and
(consecutio temporum, 34)

serika panam istaknam
summa nakrum ana

in
40.
your direction' (futurum exactum,
'if
the
enemy
turns
34).
Other conjunctions are coordinating, and do not necessitate
use of the subjunctive.

1.
it
'and'
There are two apparently homonymous conjunctions u.

(< *wa) is a simple coordinating conjunction uniting
LESSON
36
40
(< *aw)
sentences, phrases, or single words, u 'or'
words (nouns or
unites single
The two conjunctions are not
verbs).
graphically
distinguished in cuneiform, but must be distinguished by context.

hi
2.
kaspam
hi 'either
...
hurasam
hi
and single words: hi

he stole) either silver or
unites phrases
mimma Sumsu
hi
ft
or
...
'(if
gold or anything whatsoever'

3.
The
enclitic particle
-ma has two main functions besides
of marking nominal sentences

is
a particle of emphasis:
(31). (a)
anakuma
'I
that
Affixed to a single word,
myself, ina
musimma
it
'on that
same
night*, (b) Affixed to the verb of one clause and preceding

another verbal clause, it has conjunctive force; unlike the simple
coordinating conjunction u, however, it implies a temporal or
logical sequence between the two clauses. It may often be translated
'and, and then', but other translations may be required by the
context:
iksudamma se'am istariq 'he arrived and stole the barley' (34)
sabam atrudma gusuru id iksudii 'I have sent workers, but the
beams have not arrived
awnlT Sarutim tatarradma ipattarunim 'if you send rich men,
1
they will desert
supurma bain lisniqimikkum
'write so that they will
muster
military auxiliaries for you'.
Vocabulary
adi
(prep.):
until,
as
far
as,
kittum
together with; (conj.): as long
(f.
justice; pi.
of kinwn): truth,
kinatum: justice
lama: before
as, until
ana minim ammini{m): why?
lu
anaku:
-ma: emphatic particle; connective
anumma: now, herewith

balatum
(u): to live,
(/):
either
...
or
martum: daughter
narum (< na 4 .ru.a):
to be lost, destroyed,
stele
nmum: beloved
Sin: the moon-god
perish
inuma:
when
kVam:
thus, as follows
kirum
<
garden
lu:
particle
be in health
gimilhim: favor
halaqum
...
sinnistum:
*kiri'um:
woman
who, whom, which (see 37)

saparum (a/u): send; send (a
sa:
orchard,
letter),
write ('to
dat.)
LESSON
sarraqum: thief
satarum (a/u): to write
siqlum: shekel
u:
id:
ca. 8.3
grams
tamkarum: merchant
taradum
temum
(a/u): to
(*t*m):
37
or
not
waladum
(pres. ullad, pret.
w//rf):
to bear, give birth to (ace.)
send (a person)
news,
report,
warki: after
decision
Cuneiform signs
NU =
>r-
72U
ri, re,
id, la
'not'
(dal), tal, tal

i
3r
rftf,
&
ma
m
4t
Logographic
Phonetic
Signs
/a
ifl
/m\ me>
ge 6
sil
= musum
'night'
ge 6 = salmum
<fr
di,
ti,
de, te
silim
'black'
= sulmum
sA in sA.sA
'health'
= kasadum
'to
reach'
<P*
ki, he, qi,
qe
Ki
ki
ersetum 'earth'
asrum
'place' (also as
determinative: Babilum ki )
Pf
ku,
qii,
(dur, tus)
dur = wasabum
dwell'
'to sit,
LESSON
38
Exercise
1.
Normalize and
translate: a-wi-lum sar-ra-aq.
se-he-er. sinnistum ii-ul as-sa-at.
sinnistum
man
sa
a-na-ku
wa-al-da-at.
ih-ta-li-iq. it-ta-ra-ad.
d Sin at-tar-da-ak-kum.
mar-sa-ku.
is-sa-ba-at. is-sa-ba-as-si.
a-na
Gi-mil- a
Marduk
marai
a-wi-lim
im-ha-as
kaspam
is-pu-ru-nim.
i-sa-qal.
sum-ma
Sum-ma a-wi-lum
as-tap-ra-am.
a-ba-su im-ta-ha-as ritta-su i-na-ak-ki-su.
ki-a-am
na-di-in.
iz-za-kar.
a-nu-um-ma Ri-im-
marum
is-pu-ra-am.
sum-ma maru-su
eqlum ki-ma na-ad-nu-ma
is-titr-sum.
am-mi-nim
kasap
tu-ur-da~ni-is-su-nu-ti.
kasap tamkarum is-qu-lu. a-wa-at iz-ku-ru. asar il-li-ku, a-di

te 4 -em kirim su-up-ra-am. a-wa-at mi-sa-ri-im sa i-na
is-qu-lu.
ba-al-ta-at.
narim as-tu-ru. a Samas ki-na-tim is-ru-uk-sum.

2. Conjugate in the stative: halaqum, damqum, belum.
3. Conjugate
in the perfect: satarum, taradum, halaqum,
balatum*
4.
Translate into Akkadian:
He
is
a thief.
Marduk and Anum
have spoken, they have spoken, he sent you.

he sent the man to you. he gave to them, he gave them, he went, she
came, after he struck the man he wrote to me. if he struck either a
king or a slave he will perish, he cut the wood and then broke (it).
5. Cuneiform:
are angry,
it is
lost. I
Lesson
Gt-STEM. MODALS.
DEMONSTRATIVES
AND INTERROGATES
41.
The Gt
The Gt-stem
is
is formed by infixation of -/(a)- in the G-stem.

used mainly to express (a) reciprocal (sometimes reflexive)
action:
maharum
magarum
'to face, encounter',
please,
'to
agree',
mithurum 'to face one another

mitgurum 'to agree with one
another
salum 'to ask\ siifdum
'to deliberate',
of motion, motion away from (separative sense):
(b) in verbs
alakum
go atlukum 'to go away'

go up etlum 'to go up from, to lose
'to
eliim 'to
Forms:
1.
with
Pres.
iptarras
iptaqqid
irtaggum
Pret.
iptaras
iptaqid
irtagum
Perf.
iptatras
iptatqid
irtatgum
Ptc.
muptarsum
muptaqdum
murtagmum
muptaristum
muptaqittum
murtagimtum
Imp.
pitras
pitqid
ritgum
Inf.
pitqudum
*pitqudum
ritgumum
V. Adj.
pitrusum
*pitrusum
Stat.
pitrus
pitqud
ritgum
f.
in the
*ritgitmum
Conjugation of these forms follows the pattern already seen

G. Thus pres. iptarras, taptarras, etc.; pret. (identical in form
G perf.:
34 with note 3) iptaras,
pi. iptarsu
<
*iptaras-u\ imp.
pitras, fern. pitrasT, plur. pitrasa', stat. pitrus, pitrusai.

2.
Pres., pret., perf.
pres.; in the
3.
Note
and imp. have the stem vowel of the G

all verbs have the same vocalization.
remaining forms,
that in
all
regular verb, the infinitive, verbal adj.,
base form.
G) of the
have the same
derived stems (stems other than
and
stative
LESSON
40
4.
For metathesis of
without prefix
<
*diikusat
initial djtjsjsjz
(e.g. tisbaia
'is
severed
41
),
<
with infixed
Gt forms
in
*sitbatd 'grasp one another!', tidkusat
For assimilation of
see 83i.
radical in forms with prefix (e.g. igdapus
<
to first
*igtapus 'he has
grown
mighty'), see 83h.

5.
In each simple stem, the forms of the perfect are identical
with the t-stem preterite.

(for example) a
is
One must determine whether such a form

or a Gt pret. on the basis of lexical
perf.
and context. Thus imtahsu in a military chronicle will

normally be taken as Gt pret. 'they fought' in view of the
well-attested Gt mithusum, but ihtabal will be taken as
perf. 'he
attestation
has wronged
5
,
since a
Gt
*hitbirium
not attested.
is
There are two forms which

and the precative. Two
the vetitive and the prohibitive.
42. Volitional (modal) constructions.
express positive volition: the cohortative
forms express negative volition:
The cohortative expresses exhortation in the 1st person

is formed by preposing the particle / to the preterite:
43.
plural;
it
nimgur Met us agree'.
44. The precative expresses a wish (may...!); it is formed by

preposing the particle hi to the stative or the preterite.
stative expresses a desired state,
4-
Ill
and
is
found with
all
persons:
'may you be in good

'may it be lasting!'.
hi baltata
lit
ddri
lu 4- preterite expresses
health!'
a desired action, and
is
found
in
only with the 1st person sing, and 3rd person sing, and plur.
particle
unites with the initial vowel
lu
Babylonian the resulting vowel

3rd person sing, and plur.:
luksud 'may
is
always
OB
The
of the verbal form; in
hi- in 1st
person
sing.,
//-
in
I attain!'
limhas 'may he strike!'

lipqidu
Note
1
to
'I
'may they
entrust!'
that the 1st sing, precative
is
often best translated
must', or by an emphatic future: lumhas
will strike'.
'I
want
'I
wish
to strike,
LESSON
45
The
45,
41
particle lu has a further sense
which must be clearly
distinguished from the precative: preposed to a verb without crasis,

it
serves as a particle of emphasis:
aksud
hi
'I
indeed reached,
compare luksud 'may
The
46.
did reach' (emphatic)
reach,
want
to reach!
vetitive expresses a negative wish,
and
(precative).
is
found
in all
When
addressed to or said of other persons, it has the

character, not of a command (noli facere!) but of a strong request
(ne facias, ne faciat) to superiors or equals. It is expressed by the
persons.
particle aj (before
vowel) or e (before a consonant) and the
preterite:
imhur 'may he not receive!

aj amras 'may I not fall ill!'
aj
e tatrudassi
The
47.
'may you not send
prohibitive,
her!
negative
or
'don't send her!'
command,
formed by
is
preposing the negative la to the present, and is found normally in

the 2nd or 3rd person. A negative imperative is expressed by this
may
form: the imperative form (27)
be
Id tapallah 'don't
llbbaka
la
(compare
imarras
not occur after a negative.
afraid!'
'let
your heart not be grieved!
ul tapallah 'you are not afraid', libbaka id imarras
'your heart
48. Questions
is
may
not grieved').
be indicated by an interrogative pronoun
(who?, what?), adjective (which?), or adverb (why?,
etc.).
When
these are not present, the interrogative character of the sentence
may
be indicated in writing by lengthening the last syllable of the

most important word: eqletim i-sa-ab-ba-tu-u ii-id i-sa-ab-ba-tu-u (in
place of declarative i-sa-ab-ba-tu) 'can they take possession of the
Fields
or
not?\
however,
Often,
question
distinguished from a declaration; depending
may mean
49.
'he
is
my
king' or
Demonstratives
pronouns are annum
he
my
on context,
sarrT su
king?'.
interrogatives.
fern,
be used independently (amutam
modify
not graphically
The demonstrative
anmtum 'this' and idlum
with normal adjectival declension. They
and
Ifonnium),
fytlium), fern, ullitum 'that',
may
'is
is
noun [Sarrum ullum
liqbi 'let
'that king').
him say
That
this')
or
(person or thing
LESSON
42
already mentioned)'
pronoun
(m.
sil
(m.
s.
these
pi. obi.);
is
expressed
nom.), suati (m.
may
49
by the anaphoric 3rd person

s.
obi.), siati
(f.
obi), sunuti
s.
be used independently or modify a noun.
(Full declension of su will be presented in 54).
The interrogative pronouns are mannum 'who?' (gen. mannim,

ace. mannam) and minum 'what?' (gen. minim, ace. minam): mannum
iksudam 'who arrived?', minam isbat 'what did he seize?'. Note also
ana minim, amminim 'why?'; miSsu 'what of that?' (< *min-su 'its
what?'). There is also a secondary form ofminum with shift of stress
and length: minum.
The interrogative adjective ajjiim 'which?, what?' is normally
used as a modifier (ina ajjitim mdtim 'in what land?'), but may also
be used independently (ajjum iksudam 'which one arrived?').
50. Negation. There are two main words which express
negation in OB, id and la. id is used to negate declarative sentences
and interrogative sentences which do not contain an interrogative

pronoun, adjective, or adverb, la is used to negate subordinate
clauses
conditions
(37),
(39),
commands
(47),
interrogative
sentences which contain an interrogative pronoun, adjective, or
adverb, and individual words or phrases:
amhur
id
'I
did not receive' or 'did
not receive?'
you not afraid?'

be afraid!'
id izkur 'he did not say', awTlum sa la izkuru 'the man who did
not say'
amminim la tatrudassu 'why have you not sent him to me?'
awTlum la mustalum 'an imprudent man'.
id tapallah 'you are not afraid' or 'are

la tapallah 'don't
Vocabulary
ajjiim:
which, what?
annum:
karabum
(aju): to claim
(w): to
hat (a turn:
bless,
greet,
dat.)
not (50)
labasum (a): to put on, wear; Gt
to
hattum (usually
to
la:
(legally)
dabdbum
pray (for
this
arhis: quickly
baqarum
(afn)
clothe
speak
(+
fern.), pi.
(ace.)
staff, scepter
ace);
on
clothe someone
oneself,
to
put
with (ace); S to clothe
(metaphorical use)
LESSON
labirum: old
magarum
(G
rifwrn
agree
to
(a/u):
(ace), welcome;
Gt
to
someone about
manmim: who?
(ana)
*r7):
shepherd
.y/Wr
(*sr):
agricultural holding, property
Salamum
(i):
be whole, healthy
sunutt those
A7, suati, siati: that;
minum, minum: what?

mustalum (*7): prudent
qaqqadum: head (also serves as
reflexive pronoun: qaqqadi =
'myself); qaqqadum kabtum:
'honored self, honor
(49)
ulliim: that
water (status absolutus used as

adv.): further, excessively
d Zarpanftum
Cuneiform
d SarpanTtwn):
goddess, spouse of
Marduk
signs
Logographic
Phonetic
Signs
of
ptc.
construct
sibtum,
agree with
(ft//)
>S*
43
ka = piim 'mouth'
Arc
dug 4 = qabum
gu = sasum
'to cry'
= awatum
inim
ZC
'to say'
'word, affair'
sinnum 'tooth'
*
J
//,
/,
fe
(sub)
SUB
- nadum
SUB
= maqatum
throw'
'to
'to fall'
ab
it,
ta
ta, ta
sam
istu 'from'
= sammum
'plant'
kOS = animation
'cubit'
udu = immerum
'sheep'
nun, mini, (mt)

lit,
(dib,
dab)
dab
dib
=
=
sabatum
etequm
'to seize'
'to pass'
LESSON
44
Exercise
1.
Normalize and
translate: stmi-ma re urn
im-ta-gar> sarrum mu-us-ta-lum. ki-ma ahu-ka

is-ta-ak-nu.
il-ta-ab-su.
i-na
ki-ma
sa-ab-tu-ma
hi
d Zar-pa-ni-tum
ma-har
pu-ru-sa-si-na li-ip-ru-us. hatta-su
ii-ti
be-el eqlim la
su-ma-am ra-bi-am
li-ik-m-ba-am.
li-is-bi-ir. si-bi-is-su-mi
a Marduk
sa-ab-tu.
li-is-kii-un-ka. lu-ii sa-al-ma-ta> la
la-bi-ra-am
qa-qa-dam
ka-ab-tam
wa-tar i-ba-aq-qa-ar. la
il-la-ak. e
ta-ap-la-ah. la ta-pa-al-la-ah. a-wi-lam su-u. a-ra-an di-nim su-a-ti.
wardam
su-a-ti.
su-up-ra-am.
sinnistam
Sarri su-nu-ti.
a-na
ma-ni-im
an-ni-tam ar-hi-is
si-a-ti.
a-na
lu-ud-bu-ub.
ma-an-ni-im
a-sa-ap-pa-ar.
2.
Give the paradigm of the Gt stem of maharum, following the

maharum in Gt pres. and perf.
Translate into Akkadian: he clothed himself, he clothes
outline of 41 ,b above. Conjugate

3.
himself, he has clothed himself (perf.). clothe yourself! don't clothe
may
yourself!
he clothe himself!
agree with the thieves,
us clothe ourselves! they did not
let
we did agree,
that slave
is
man
not honored, is this

why did you not
not a king? what did those shepherds steal?

write to me? did you not write to me?
4. Cuneiform:
>&
ftp
tm
>fi
TF
v*
#t*
Hf <T# <W
mi $s rrr
;
w*
#- &
&% m:
g=rr
vp(
y<\<
jff TF
TF
*T<
^rr
Tf
t$
Tf <P-
Wr
*~ *rrr
-,
Lesson 6
D, S, Dt, St-STEMS.
51.
INDEPENDENT PRONOUNS
and S-stems and
vocalic pattern in
all
their
and tn-stems have a uniform

G and N-stems, which
strong verbs, unlike the
distinguish verbs by vocalic class.
The D-stem is characterized by reduplication of the middle

and by the prefix-vowel u- in pres., pret. and perf. The
D-stem has two basic senses: (1) in both state-verbs and
52.
radical,
action-verbs
state
may
it
indicate the factitive,
denoted by the
damiq
'he
is
salim 'he
is
good',
dummuqum
friendly',
peace with'
lamid 'he has learned',
(2)
with
the causative of the
make good
sullumum 'to make friendly, conclude
'to
lummudum
action-verbs the
transitive
i.e.
stative:
'to teach';
may
express multiplicity of
object (the so-called Poebel Piel), sometimes of subject:

isbir
broke (one
'he
sepija issiq 'he kissed
object)',
my
usebbir 'he broke
feet', sepija
(many) 5
unassiqu 'they kissed
my
Teet'.
The Dt-stem has the

salamum
'to
'to
be
basic sense of passive to the D-stem:
be whole', sullumum
made
'to
make
D
Forms:
whole', sutallumum
whole'.
Dt
uparras
uptarras
Pret.
uparris
uptarris
Perf.
uptarris
uptatarris
Ptc.
muparrisum
muptarrisum
Imp.
purris
putarris
Inf.
V.Adj.
purrusum
purrusum
putarrusum
*putarrusum
Stat.
purrus
*putarrus
Pres.
LESSON
46
52
Conjugation of these forms follows the pattern already seen:

thus
nparras,
pres.
tuparras,
tuparrasT,
uparras;
uparrasu,
uparrasa, tuparrasa, nuparras; precative 1st sing, luparris, 3rd sing.

liparris.
53,
The S-stem
prefix-vowel
w-. Its
characterized by the prefix s{a) and the
is
vocalic pattern
basic sense of the S-stem
is
is
causative,
D. The
parallel to that of the

i.e.
the subject causes a second
person or thing to perform the action or process specified by the

verb's G-stem:
iksudam 'he arrived', asakSidassu 'I caused him to

arpud 'I ran', tusarpidanni 'you caused me to run'
In state- verbs, the S-stem
amrus
'I fell ill',
may
arrive'
also express the factitive, like the
usamrisanni 'he caused
me
to fall
D:
ill'
The St-stem has two uses, corresponding to two different forms

of the present; all other forms are the same for both uses. (1) the St
may
serve as a passive to the S-stem (tj). In this use the present

appears in the short form ustapras, without gemination of the
middle radical; since the S verbal adjective and stative are already
passive in sense, the passive St has no verbal adjective or stative:
ustalpit 'was destroyed' (cf.
(2)
more common
is
sulputum
'to destroy');
the so-called lexical St (3t 2 ), a general
term for
those cases in which the St-stem stands in various non-passive
no
relations (or in
clear relation) to the corresponding
G and
other
stems. In the present appears the geminated form ustaparras:
marl siprim
have gathered messengers' (causative to

'to grasp one another, be joined')
sabim Sutemid 'have the troops join the (other)
ustasbii
reciprocal
sabam
itti
'I
Gt of sabatum
troops!' (causative to reciprocal
come together')
naram ustesirani 'I kept
the
N of emedttm 'to be joined,
canal
in
good
order'
(adds
extension in time to eserum S 'to put in order')

id
ustamarras 'he
will
not trouble himself (marasum
'to
be
ill').
LESSON
53
47
Forms:
St
Pres.
usapras
Pret.
usapris
ustapris
Perf.
ustapris
ustatapris
ustaprasjustaparras
Ptc.
musaprisum
mustaprisum
Imp.
supris
sutapris
Inf.
V.Adj.
suprusum
suprusum
sutaprusum
sutaprusum
Stat.
suprus
sutaprus
Conjugation of these forms follows the pattern already seen:

thus pres. usapras, tusapras, tusaprasT, usapras; usaprasu, usaprasd,
tusaprasd, nusapras, (For the change of
OB
ust- to alt- in later
Babylonian, see 83,1.)

54,
S.
PL
The independent pronouns have
three forms:
Nom.
Gen. -Ace.
Dat.
lc.
andku
jati
jasim
2m.
atta
kati (kdta)
2f.
atti
kdti
3m.
su
suati (snatu. satiju)
kdsim
kdsim
sudsim (sdsim)
3f.
si
sidti (sudti, sati)
sidsim (sudsim, sdsini)
lc.
ninu
nidti
nidsim
2m.
attunu
kunuti
kunusim
2f.
atiina
kindti
*kindsim
3m.
sumi
sunuti
sunusim
3f.
sina
sinati
*sinasim
from the paradigm that masc. and
fern,
some
text
forms often
groups is a
secondary development resulting in new distinctive forms of the
masc. Mimation in the dative is sometimes lost in OB, and regularly
thereafter; with its loss, the semantic distinction between dative and
accusative forms is increasingly lost.
2. Use with prepositions. Some prepositions are used with
pronominal suffixes (ittika; cf. 20; 84i), others with independent
pronouns in the genitive (kTma jati). ana is exceptional: it is
normally used pleonastically with an independent pronoun in the
dative {ana jasim taddinam 'you gave to me').
1. It is
clear
coalesced; introduction of endings
-a, -u in
LESSON
48
Use with
3.
An
verbs.
54
unemphatic pronominal subject is

itself; an unemphatic pronominal
(35). An independent pronoun" added
expressed by the verbal form

object
is
expressed by suffixes
to these indicates emphasis:

atta
bain anniktam
jati gimlanni 'do
me
Use
in
here!'
a favor!'
atta marsata 'you yourself are

4.
muster troops
siniq 'you yourself
ill'.
nominal sentences. Predication of the type 'you are a
(good) king' takes two forms, the stative (33) and the nominal
sentence with -ma or independent pronoun (31). The stative can
only be used
when
the predicate
is
unqualified (sarrdku
the nominal sentence with independent
when
the predicate
matim
atta 'you are king of the land,
is
'I
am
king');
pronoun can only be used
qualified: sarrT atta 'you are
my
king', sar
5. We have seen (49) that the forms of the 3rd person may also
be used adjectivally in nominative, genitive, and accusative {bit
awilim suati 'the house of that man').
Vocabulary
abbuttum: slave-lock (a hair-style
characteristic of slaves)
Aja: a goddess, spouse of Sha-
mash
<
life
to
*giguna'um: 'terrace-
temple'
gullubum (D):
shave, shave
to
isdum: foundation (often dual)
make
sanaqum (i): to come close;

and D to check, control
sammr. false, lying
{aju)
and D:
(i):
to pile
widen
suklulum
(S):
to
perfect,
corn-
plete
sursudum
Kis: a city
(a):
be wide;
*se'wn: barley
up, heap up
to
learn;
to
(*hrt):
tertum,
cultivation;
(5): to
pi.
mand;
teach, inform
merestum
broad, abundant
sadalum
hulluqum (D): to destroy
lamadum
'what-
its
subatum: garment, mantle
off
kamarum
(lit.
name')
rapasum (i): be broad;
bullutum (D): to heal, give
field
soever, everything
ever
alum: city
gigunum
Meslam: name of a temple (Sum.)

minima sumsu: anything what-
found firmly
teretum
(extispicy)
(*>v'r):
com-
omen
iimma: thus (says)
warqum: green, yellow-green
LESSON
Cuneiform
49
signs
Phonetic
Signs
H-
hal
Y&
mu
Logographic
mu ~ sumum
'name'
mu = zakarum Ho
mu =
'my
-ia 5
-z 14 ,
tag = lapatum
sum, (tag)
'to
speak'
1
touch'
il
is,
mil
bi, be, pi,
&F
ni,
ne
i,
pe (k as,
li,
kas, gas)
zal, (sal)
kaS
sikarum
= Samnum
'beer'
'oil'
ai-
xxx
es, (sin)
'30'
d xxx
me,
ME =
(sib, sib)
Sin
(moon god)
plural determinative
(short
form of meS,
Lesson 1)
signlist,
sal, (sal, rag,
mim)
Ml,
munus =
sinnistum
\voman'
Exercise
and translate: a-wi-lam ub-ta-al-li-iL ab-ba-ti

1. Normalize
u-lam-mi-da-an-ni.
ki-a-am
ug-da-al-li-ib
(cf.
83h).
wardim
mu-kam-me-er nu-uh-si-im. mu-ra-ap-pi-is mi-im-ma sum-su a-na
Ales-lam. a-al-su ii-ha-al-la-aq> as-sum se-e-em sa us-sa-an-na-qu.
mu-sar-si-id su-ba-at uru AT/5 lci sar-ru-tam da~ri~tam sa ki-ma sa-me-e
.
LESSON
50
u er-se-tim is~da-sa su-itr-su-da. mu-sa-al-bi-is wa-ar-qi-im gi-gu-ne-e

a A-a.
mu-sa-ad-di-il
i-il-la-afc.
um-ma
me-re-es-tim.
sii-ii-ma.
mu-sa-ak-li-i!
te-re-tim.
sa-ar-ru-tim su-nu~ti. ki-ma
ia-ti.
su-nia
a-na
ka-si-im.
Give the paradigm of the D, Dt, 5 and St-stems of saparum.

Conjugate the same verb in D pret. and 5 perf.
3. Translate into Akkadian: he healed them, they were healed,
he broadened the foundation, farmers perfect the earth, who is like
you? we are judges, we are your judges, he clothed me with a
garment, they clothed me with a garment, he perished, he destroyed
the city, it was I (see 54,3) who destroyed it. it was I to whom they
gave the silver.
4. Cuneiform:
2.
>-
Htrt
'<
^T
<lHTKr
v >#
WK ^Hf
0s;
<1>- J52T
^ #v- h^
^^K^
tfmfttB
-*fr
Lesson 7
N,
55.
tn,
SD-STEMS. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
The N-stem
is
marked by
na- prefixed to the verbal root in
the imperative, infinitive, verbal adjective
other forms by infixed
-;i-
which
and
stative,
and
in the
assimilated to the following
is
consonant.
The basic function of the N-stem of action-verbs is passive to

G-stem (ihabbal 'he wrongs', ihhabbal 'he is wronged ); rarely
1
the
he advised', immalik 'he deliberated') or reciprocal

were quarreling [grasping one
another]'). The N-stem of state-verbs usually expresses an ingressive
(nadru 'they rage', innadru 'they went on a rampage'). A deponent
also occurs with the sense of the normal G-stem (naplusum 'to see',
reflexive {imlik
{isbaiu 'they seized, nasbutu 'they
transitive).
The
vocalic system of the
N-stem
mixed: verbs of the aju

class, the a class and generally also the u class show stem-vowel a in
pres. and perf., i in pret. and imp. Verbs of the / class retain their
characteristic vowel throughout. The final vowel of the pret. is
an ending: ipparis
elided before
>
is
ipparsu.
aju
Ptc.
<
<
<
ittapras
mupparsum <
Imp.
napris
natnhis
napqid
Inf.
V.Adj.
naprusum
naprusum
namhusum
namhusum
Stat.
naprus
namhus
napqudum
napqudum
napqud
Pres.
ipparras
*inparras
immahhas
ippaqqid
Pret.
ipparis
*inparis
immahis
ippaqid
*intapras
ittamhas
ittapqid
*mtmparisum
mummahsum
muppaqdum
Perf.
56.
An
is
if it existed, is rare: cf.
GAG
Erg. 95d.
tn-stems. All four basic stems can be augmented by an

(Gtn = 1/3, Dtn = II/3, Stn = HI/3, Ntn - IV/3). The
most easily recognized in the present, whereas in other forms
57.
The
infix -/ahinfix
Nt-stem,
LESSON
52
57
of the infix is either assimilated to the following consonant or

suppressed completely to avoid the succession of three consonants
-n-
(83n).
The vowel system of Dtn and Stn is the same in all verbs, and is
and 5. The stem-vowel of pres., pret., perf.
analogous to that of
and imp. in Gtn is the same as that of the G pres., in Ntn the same
pres.
as that of the
The tn-stems are iterative-habitative in meaning, i.e. they
indicate action as repeated or habitual. This connotation may be
rendered by an auxiliary verb or by an adverb 'again and again,
continually', etc.
asappar T write', astanappar T write again and again

irappud 'he runs', irtanappud 'he keeps running'
Gtn
(a/a , a)
Pres.
iptanarras
Pret.
iptarras
Perf.
iptatarras
Dtn
>
uptanarras
Ptc.
muptarrisum
Imp.
pitarras
Inf.
pitarrusum
<
<
<
<
<
*ip-tan-ras
aptarris
*ip-ta-tan-ras
aptatarris
*mup-tan-risum
muptarrisum
*pi-tan-ras
putarris
*pi-tan-rusum
putarruswn
putarrusum
V.Adj. pitamisum
putarrus
pitarras
Stat.
Ntn
Stn
(aju, a)
Pres.
ittanapras
Pret.
ittapras
Perf.
*ittatapras
Ptc.
muttaprisum
Imp.
itapras
Inf.
itaprusum
>
ustanapras
ustapris
<
<
<
<
*in-ta-ta?i~pras
ustatapris
*?mm-tan-prisam
mustaprisum
*ni-tan-pras
sutapris
*ni-tan-prasum
sutaprusum
sutuprusum
V. Adj. *itaprusum
Note
sutaprus
itapras
Stat.
Gtn pret. is formally identical with Gt pres.; Dtn and

Dt and St formally only in the pres. When a form
two stems is found, the stem to which it belongs must
that
Stn differ from
common
to
be determined by sense and context and by grammatical

thus liptarras must (because
Gt
pres.
it is
precative, see 44) be
Gtn
criteria;
pret.,
not
LESSON
58
58.
poetry.
The
It is
(III/II) is
53
a relatively rare form, found mainly in
characterized by the insertion of
--
of stem
III
between
the conjugational preformative and the verbal root of stem II

(ihs~parras u-s-parris, etc.).
t
Review of vocalization in the strong verb.

perf. and all finite forms of Gt and Gtn have the
pres.
stem-vowel of
2.
Verbs of the vocalic class i normally retain their
characteristic vowel throughout the N and Ntn-stems, but those of
classes afu and a, and generally u, form an ablaut variation in
(different final vowels in ipparras and ipparis etc.); the Ntn is
formed with the vowel of the
pres.
3. The D and 5 stems and their t and tn-stems have a uniform
59,
1.
vocalization for verbs of

4.
all
Forms with vowels
vocalic classes.
added (cf. 84b) are iptaras (G perf.

purus (G imp.), parts (G stat.).
60.
Indefinite pronouns are
*man and *min by
when an ending is
and Gt pret.), ipparis (N pret.),
subject to elision
formed from the interrogatives
reduplication or the addition of -ma.
The
basic
independent pronouns are mammanj mamma 'someone, anyone' and

minima 'something, anything', both indeclinable. The adjectival
pronoun ajjitmma (f. ajjitumma, m. pi. ajjutamma, f. pi. ajjatumma)
may also be used as a substantive 'someone, something'.

From minima there developed the form mimmu < *mimma-u (gen.
'some'
mimmafu), used with genitive or pronominal

mimmusu 'something of his, his property'.
mimmeju,
ace.
mamman turdam 'send me someone'

mimma sa ilputu 'whatever he touched'
mamman uljla 'no one', mimma uljla 'nothing'
mimma (adverbial, reinforces negation) 'in any
mimma la tapallah 'do not fear at all'
The indefinite relative pronoun
kaspum mala isbatu 'all the silver
is
mala
'as
much
that he seized'.
suffixes:
way, at
all':
as,
all
that
LESSON
54
Vocabulary
ajjumma: some
Dagan: an Amorite and West
there
difficult,
possessive suffix: see 60

is
(other forms
of
basum will be seen in Lesson 8)

Imar (or, more commonly,
Emar): a city in northern Mesopotamia
Jasub: (Amorite name-element
from *[wb 'return')

kabatwn (i): to be heavy;
make heavy, to honor
kajjdnis: constantly
maharum
be sick,
a god
ibassi:
(a): to
grieved
mimma: something, anything

mimmu- mimme-, mimma- +
Semitic deity
dullum: work, ritual
Ellil:
marasum
musum: night
nakadum {it):
naplusum (N;
to
to look at
a/u):
(favorably)
saharum
seek,
to beat (of heart),
be disturbed
(w):
to
turn
turn,
to,
concern oneself about
{ana)
Sattukkum
(<
Sum.):
ration
(Mari); regular offering
{a/u): to receive
much as
mammon: someone, anyone
mala: as
sarum <*sarium:
urrum: light, day
zamarum
(u,
rich,
wealthy
also a/u): to sing
Cuneiform signs
Logographic
Phonetic
Signs
>m
tu
ku 4 = erebum
>T
hu, {bag, pag)
muSen = issurum
'bird'
fr
pa, {had)
ugula = waklum
'overseer*
'to enter*
= hattum 'scepter'
dug = tabum 'good, sweet'
hi.a = plural determinative
gidri
hi,
he
Avtffr
ah, eh,
<&f
id
<vm
ih,
uh
u.tu
= walddum
'to give
birth to, bear'
P3
flK
ur, lig, (as, {lis)
ur = kalbum
'dog'
ha
KU 6 = numtm
Tish'
LESSON
55
Exercise
1.
Normalize and
in-na-ad-di-is-sum (83e).
translate:
ii-nl
ma-la in-na-ad-niL
is-sa-ak-ka-aru
in-na-ad-di-in.
it-ta-as-bat.
li-iz-za-mir.
sattukkT im-ta-na-ha-riL li-im-ta-ha-nt. Ia-su-ub- d Da-gan a-na I-ma-ar ki

ka-a-ia-ni-is is-ta-na-ap-pa-ar. a-na du-ul-li biti-su is-sa-na-ah-hu-ur. a-na
a-hi-ia
as-ta-na-ap-pa-ar.
a-na
ba-Ia-ti-ka
mu-sa-am
it
ur-ra-am
ak-ta-na-ra-ab. a-na mi-nim li-ib-ba-ki im-ta-na-ar-ra-as. Anion u d Ellil

a-na a Marduk ip-pa-al-su-sum. mi-im-ma sa is-qu-liL mi-im-ma bi-sa-am.
sum-ma a-wi-lum
sa mi-im-mu-su hal-qu mi-im-ma-su hal-qa-am i-na
mi-im-ma awili sa-ru-tim la ta-th-ar-ra-ad.

mi-im-ma ma-la iz-ku-ru. mi-im-ma li-ib-ba-ka la
i-na-ak-ku-ud. ka-ab-twn u ru-bu-u-um ma-am-ma-an sa qa-qa-di la
qa-ti a-wi-lim
ma-la
is-sa-ba-at.
iz-ku-ru.
u-ka-ab-bi-tu
u-itl i-ba-as-si.
Give the paradigm in N and tn-stems of sabatum (see 83i);

paqddum; kasddum.
3. Translate into Akkadian: his name was erased, my name was
continually erased, he himself was struck, no one keeps striking
him. he learned nothing, day and night he was always concerned
about his silver, he constantly destroys cities, they continually
taught me. they looked upon me (with favor).
4. Cuneiform:
2.
Lesson
m WEAK. SA
VERBS
61.
Weak
verbal forms are generally phonetic modifications of
and interpretation of such forms

be facilitated by a rapprochement to the corresponding forms of
regular formations. One's reading

will
the strong verb:

iklu
<
iklau
(cf.
iprusu)
banum < *banijwn

uttakkar
usakil
<
<
parisum)
(cf.
*untakkar
(cf.
uptarras)
*u$a'kil (cf usapris), etc.
62. Verbs third
the largest class of
weak
weak
(i.e.
with a weak third radical) are by far
They include
verbs.
verbs which in
all
related languages have as third root consonant the appropriate
representatives of Proto-Semitic
',
'
//,
//,
g, w, j.
In Akkadian these
l
imnu he
counted', ikla 'he withheld', isme 'he heard'. Etymological grounds
would lead us to expect a long final vowel (isma > isme, cf 84d),
but in Akkadian this vowel remains long only before pronominal
suffixes and -ma (ismema, cf 84i), but is shortened when final (isme)
and before vocalic endings. When vocalic endings are added
ea,
contraction usually takes place save in the sequences ia
and
which frequently remain uncontracted in OB: isme + u > ismu, zaku
4- dku > zakaku, iqbi + am > iqbiam, later iqbam (84e).
Of the four vocalic classes, that in -/ is the most numerous, and
there is a tendency for verbs of other classes to be assimilated to it.
fall
into four classes with endings
The
stative,
-i,
-w, -a, -e: ibni
he
built',
except often in the -w class, has final
-/.
The
form parts with the usual contractions, but in the

status constructus bani is sometimes replaced in OB and regularly
thereafter by ban (18,l,i,e). For the shift a > e in verbs of the -e
class, see 84f
In D and 5-stems, the etymologically expected final vowel gives
way to -a in the present, -/ in the preterite, analogous to uparras,
uparris in the strong verb. In the N-stem, the present and perfect
retain the characteristic vowel (pres. ibbanni, ippette, *immannu,
participle has the
ikkalla),
but the preterite has
-/
universally.
LESSON
62
57
Pres.
ibanni
isemme
Pret.
ibni
isme
2m.
tabni
tesme
2f.
tabni
lc.
ikalla
tesmeji
imannu
imnu
tamnu
tamni
abni
esme
amnu
akla
3m.
ibnu
ismu
ibniaja
ismedja
2c.
tabnidja
tesmeajd
lc.
nibni
nisme
Perf.
ibtani
isteme
imnu
imnd
tamna
nimnu
imtanu
iklu
3f.
Ptc.
banum
senium
Imp.
bini
sime
mamim
mumi
f.
bini
sime/i
mum
kill
pi.
biniaja
simedja
muna
kila
Inf.
manum
mamim
Stat.
bani
semiim
Senium
semi
kalian
V.Adj.
banum
banum
manu
kali
Pret.
Subj.:
ikla
takla
takli
ikla
takla
nikla
iktala
kaliim
kila
kaliim
ibnu, tabnu, tabni, abnii, ibnu, ibniaja, tabniaja,
nibnu (archaizing ibniu, tabniu, abniu, ibniu, nibniu; 84e).
Dt
N
ibbanni
Pres.
ubanna
ubtanna
usabna
Pret.
ubanni
ubtanni
usabni
ibbani
Perf.
ubtanni
ubtatanni
us tabni
ittabni
Ptc.
mubannum
mubtannum
musabnum
mubbanum
Imp.
bunni
butanni
subni
nabni
Inf.
butannum
*butannum
Subnum
Subnum
nabnum
V.Adj.
bunnum
bunnum
Stat.
bunnu
*butannu
subnu
nabni
63. Determinative-relative pronoun.
*nabniim
Old Akkadian possessed a
determinative pronoun with the sense he of, *she of,
be followed by a noun
equivalent, a verbal
only in masc. sing.,
masc. sing,
etc. It
latter's
could
functional
form in the subjunctive. It receives case endings

forms being in the construct state:
su (nom.)
sat
masc. plur.
silt
plur.
sat
fern.
or by the
all
sing,
fern.
in the genitive,
si (gen.)
sa (ace.)
LESSON
58
This survives
There
1.
OB
in
pronoun
determinative
in various functions:
remnants
are
63
in
of the
declined
names
personal
serving
su
and
few
as
frozen
expressions: Su-Sin 'He of Sin', Sat-Aja 'She of Aja\ sa resim, plur.

sut resim 'royal official(s)'
Indeclinable
2.
sa
(lit.
'the one/those of the head').
serves
as
determinative
pronoun
in
periphrases for the construct chain: awdtum sa sarrim 'the word,
'the king's word' (19). sa may also be used

without a nominal antecedent: sa patarim 'ransom money' (lit, 'that
of releasing').
that of the king'
Indeclinable sa functions also as a relative
3.
This sa
the
origin
in
is
of relation
accusative
pronoun
('in
(37).
regard
to
which/whom') and may functionally stand for nom., ace, gen., or

dat. In the latter two functions (sometimes also as ace.) it is
specified by a pronominal suffix: 'in regard to whom ... his/to
him/him' correspond
Sarrum sa
malum
in translation to
illiku 'the
'whose/to
whom/whom':
king who went'
sa uballitu(sa) 'the land which he healed'
sarrum sa ana matisu erubu 'the king into whose land I entered'
awnlum sa tatakkalusum 'a man in whom you have confidence'.
Vocabulary
banum
(-/):
to
make,
create,
basum
(-i):
exist;
to be; to cause to
to
come
to be,
appear, grow (ingressive)

epistum: deed
gamdlum
(i):
kussum
<
*kussium:
throne,
seat
lequm
(-e)\
to take
(-h):
to
count, reckon,
consider, recite
to spare,
show
mercy
hadum (-h), stat. hadi: to rejoice;

D make happy
Id: the god 'River, Canal'
noun
to retain, hold back,
(-a):
manum
dajjdnutum: judgeship
Istar: a
kalum
withhold
build
goddess (also a
'goddess')
istu (conj,): since, after
common
Mera: an archaic name for the

city Mari
petum (-e): to open
rabum (-/): to become great,
grow; D to raise (children); S
to
make
rasum
redum
(-/):
great
to acquire
(-i/e):
to lead, bring
LESSON
salamum
(i):
to
be reconciled
tazzimtum (*nzm): complaint

(tazzimtaka: a complaint
good
with, be friendly, be in
by/about you)
relations
salum
to plunge (into the
(-/):
river[-god]
semum
(-e):
59
tebian
a Id [ace.])
to rise up;
(-/):
good, sweet, pleasant;
[abunv.
Surqum: stolen object
pn
Cuneiform
tab:
it is
of, rw/w, ni (dil,
>-<
(z/r, kill, qui,
HJ&
zi ze,
Logographic
HT^
gi>
ge
dim,
til)
gul)
si, se, si,
eli
pleasing to pn
signs
Phonetic
raise
up
to hear
Signs
to
se
ina
(pseudo-logogram)
'in'
NUMUN = zerum
'seed'
zi
gi
= qanum
gi
/dru/H 'to return
en
6<?/wm 'lord
napistum
'life*
'reed'
7
tint
en
d EN.zu
tf^T
dar, tar
tttr
ur
iDr
d Sin
(moon god)
murium 'lap, busom'
sar (sar)
t
(sir),
*
JHF
<
hir
sar
keSda
satarum
'to write
rakaswn
'to bind'
/ig (in d /ig - tar)
Se
ib,
Se
eb
*se'um 'barley'
LESSON
60
Exercise
1.
Normalize and
translate: zer sar-ru-tim sa a Sin ib-ni-ii-su. sa
su-ur-qa-am i-na qa-ii-su im-hu-ru. su (archaic for sa) ig-mi-ht ni-si
Me-ra ki sa
.
ep-se-tu-su e-li Is%-tar ta-ba. se-elyre-ku-u.
il-qe. i-le-qe. il-te-qe. il-qu-u. ip-te. it-te-ep-ie.
is-li-mu-iL
marT-sa u-ra-ab-ba.is-tu
marT-sa ur-ta-ab-bu-u. i-ba-as-su-u. us-tab-si. ib-ba-as-su-iL

ilu ii-sar-bhii-siL
i-sa-al-li-am.
ik-ta-la-su.
mu-ha-ad-di
li-ib-bi Is^-lar.
it-tab-si.
a Da-gan ba-ni-sn.
a fd
i-na kussi da-a-a-nu-ti-su u-se-et-bu-u-su. i-na bi-ti-su
ir-de-am.
ir-te-de.
i-ma-an-nu-si.
ir-ta-si.
es-te-ne-me-e
ta-zi-im-ta-ka. ta-zi-im-ta-ka la es\s~te-ne-me.
Give the paradigms of basum and petum,

Translate into Akkadian: he takes, they take, he took, take!
he was taken, he makes my heart happy, make them happy! the man
who withheld his silver, the lying woman who raised my sons, he
recites, did he not open?
4. Cuneiform:
2.
3.
fit
H^T
^rr
Hf <^T ^1T
^^w
>^p?
Lesson 9
VERBS
II
WEAK. NOMINAL TYPOLOGY
64. Verbs with a second
weak
medial
',_5
weak
radical or 'medially
verbs' include both hollow verbs (medial wfj)
and verbs with
(cf. 82j).
Hollow verbs correspond
*kwn, *qj$ etc. in the traditional

analysis of Semitic languages, and the forms of such verbs have
traditionally been analyzed as variations, due in part to phonetic
1.
changes and
*kawanum
ikuan (Ass.)
scholars
analogy, from the parasum type: thus
in part to
> kudnum
>
to
(Ass.)
> kanum
ikdn (Bab.); pret. *ikwun
however prefer
inf.
(Bab.); pres. *ika\vwan
>
ikiin.
Most
>
recent
to analyze such roots as biconsonantal with

1
*kfm 'be firm *qis 'present *bas

'be ashamed'; this interpretation is thought to be more accurate on
a synchronic level, and it better accounts for such 'irregular' forms
as takwmi(cf. tapcirrcisi) and usdik (cf. usapris). The notation of
vocalic length in general use today is based on interpretation as a
medial long vowel
ft
or
or
a:
vocalic root.
Verbs with medial radical aleph. A small number retain a

and are conjugated like other strong verbs, e.g.
da'apum 'to knock down', pres. ida"ip (SB). Most verbs of this type
however regularly lose and are conjugated on the pattern of the
hollow. verbs. Since original 3.5 has the usual reflex of a to e, they
fall into two classes which may be described as having roots with
2.
strong consonantal
'
'
medial a and
3. In the
e:
*sdl 'ask
1
,
*bel
'rule'.
and S-stems of medial weak verbs the final root

consonant is doubled before a vocalic ending (e.g. pret. ukin, plur.
ukinnu). In the G-stem and N-stem such gemination (combined with
insertion of a in endingless forms: iqT-a-s, *ikfhCHi>ikdn)
teristic
is
of the present, but not the preterite or perfect (thus

(Note that there
ikdn, pi. ikunml, but pret. ikun 9 pi. ikiinu).
bling of final root consonant in these verbs in the
where the strong verb doubles the middle
radical.)
charac-
pres.
dousame forms
is
LESSON
62
4.
AHw
lists
these
verbs in their
64
OB
qiasum, but contracted kanum, basum, belum.
form:
CAD
uncontracted
lists all
four in
the contracted form.

Pres.
Pret.
Perf.
ikan
ikun
ikttln
takan
takun
taktun
takunni
takiinT
akdn
akun
taktum
aktun
ikunnu
ikiinil
iktunu
ikunna
ikund
iktuna
lakanna
takuna
taktuna
nikdn
nikun
niktun
iqTS
iqtis
ibas
ibtas
iqiasjiqas, pi. iqissu

ibas, pi
ibassu
ibel, pi. ibellii
isal, pi. isallu
ibel
ibtel
isal
istal
Inf.
daikun h baisum qa'isum, sailum, *be'ilum

lain (f. kum, pL kiina), qis, bas bel, sal
kanum, qiasumjqasum, basum, belum, salum
V.Adj.
kinum, qisum
Stat.
kin (pL kinu),
Gt
Pres.
*iktan, pret. iktun, ptc.
Pres.
ukan,
Pret.
ukin, pi. ukinnu
Ptc.
Imp.
bds, be I
qTs,
pi.
muktinum,
inf.
ukannu
Perf.
uktin, pi. uktinnu
Ptc.
mukinnum (construct
Imp.
kin, pi.
Inf.
kunnum
state
mukin)
kinna
V.Adj. kunnum
kunnu
Stat.
kun,
Pres.
usdak,
Pret.
usdik, pi. usdikku, *usbel
pi.
pi.
usdakku, *usbel
Perf.
ustadik
Ptc.
musdikkum (construct
Imp.
sudik, pi. sudikka
Inf.
sudukum
V.Adj.
Stat.
sudilk, pi.
sudukku
state
musdik)
kitunum
LESSON
64
63
Pres.
iddak, pi. iddukku, iqqias/iqqds, issal
Pret.
*iddlk, iqqis, issal, ibbel
Nominal typology. There are several nominal-adjectival

formations in Akkadian, which correspond generally to semantic
65.
categories.
The most important

1
are:
the adjectival formations:
normal form of adj. and verbal

*damiqum> damqam, fern, damiqtum 'good'
paris, fern, parist:
adj.:
*ka'inum (cf. 64,4) > kTnum, fern, kittum 'firm, just

*patium > petum, fern, petitum 'open(ed)
paras, fern, paras t:
rapsum, fern, rapastum 'broad'

sehrum (Ass. sahrum), fern, sehertum
'small'
parus, fern, parust:
lemnum (OA lamnum), fern, lemuttum 'bad

marsum, fern, marustum 'sick'
purrus,
fern,
purrust:
verbal
of D-stem, adj.
adj.
denoting
corporal defects:
kubbutwn 'heavy'
sukkukum 'deaf
1
suprus, fern, suprust: verbal adj. to -stem
and
elative
heightening in the meaning of the simple form):
surbum < *surbuum 'very big cf. rabium

sumrusum 'very sick cf. marsum 'sick
1
'big
2.
the nominal formations:

pars, fern, parsat: primary
and some deverbal nouns:
kalbum 'dog kalbatum 'bitch

mar'um > marum 'son mar turn 'daughter
*'anpum > appum 'nose
,
(i.e.
LESSON
64
pirs, fern, pirist: expresses the
65
action
itself,
or
its result:
rihsum, rihistum 'inundation*
gimrum
'totality'
>
*irk-tum
Slriktum
'gift'
purs, fern, purust: abstracts
dumqum
'good'
puluhtum
'fear'
paras:
adjectives:
G infinitive:
*hadatam
*laqahwn
pans,
from
fern,
>
>
edesum
'to
be
new
leqiim 'to take'
panst: substantivized verbal adjectives:
kanikum
samidum
'sealed
document'
'fine flour
puras, fern, purdst: animals, diminutives, other nouns:
puhadum iamb'
rubd'um, riibum 'prince'
suharwn 'servant'
musalum 'mirror
1
parras, fern, parrast: habitual activity, profession:
qarradum 'hero'
nappahum 'smith'
kassapum, fern, kassaptum
'sorcerer, sorceress'
and fern, action-noun:

bussurtum 'message'
maprasj fern, maprast: place or instrument:
*markabtwn > narkabtum (83c) 'chariot'
purrus, fern, purntst: infinitive
*ma rabw7i > nerebum

*mawsabitm
'entry'
> musabum
'dwelling' (84a)
tapras, fern, taprdst: reciprocal action:
tamhdrum
tahazum
'battle'
'battle'
tapns, fern, taprisi: D-stem action-noun (infinitive):
iamlum
'filling'
tedistum 'renewal'
3.
the affixes:
which some scholars see

an individualizing force:
nadinanum 'the seller in question cf. nadinum 'seller
sarraqanum 'the thief in question', cf. sarraqum 'thief
rabidnum 'mayor', cf. rabium 'great'
-an: nominal/adjectival afformative in
LESSON
65
-lit:
-f:
65
affprmative of abstract nouns:
sarrutum 'kingship',
cf.
sibutum 'testimony',
cf.
sarrum 'king'
sibum 'witness'
relational afforniative ('nisbc') including gentilic:
*mahnum mahrum
t
mahrum
'first', cf.
'front
*assunum, assurum 'Assyrian cf. the city-name Assur

*subanum Subarum 'Subaraean', cf. the country Subartum,
,
Vocabulary
abubum: flood
Simtum
Barsipa: the city Borsippa
strum: flesh; siram tubbum: to
dcikum (med.
to
u):
give joy to ('make pleasant
kill;
causative
passive; 5
the flesh oP)
Ellilutum: 'Ellil-ship'
Eridum: the city Eridu

kdnum (med. u): to be firm; D to
make firm, fast, to prove
kiSSatum: entirety, universe
malum (med.
cause the death
of,
mutum: husband
riabum, rdbum (med.
murder
make
to
7):
make
make
to
rejoice
(med.
a): to
its
turrwm to
into s.th. else
remains of a
city; /*///
from the
tell, tell
T):
to be
determine
7):
go
command,
to
to
pleasant
waarum, wdrum (med.

class): to
buy
sidmum, samum B (med.

fix,
s.th.
t ilium: tell,
iiabum, tabum (med.
Sipparum: the city Sippar
turn
to restore (to
ana
good, pleasant, sweet;
riasum, rdsum (med.
samum
turrwm
flood
to
7):
restitution
abubim: old
replace, substitute,
rejoice;
sumrusum: sick, very ill

(drum (med. u): to return;
to make return, ana asrisu
place),
to die; 5 to
5):
(*sTm): fate
zdzum (med.
off,
',
instruct
u): to
divide,
receive a share of (an
inheritance)
zerum (med.
e): to*
to send,
hate
LESSON
66
Cuneiform signs
Logographic
Phonetic
Signs
6e, 6arf, (6W, pid, mid),
bad
= petum Ho
idim
= kabtum
us, (sun, ziz)
til,
sun,
ta:
ug
^5
az
Vvrr
ir,
'to
old'
= qatum
nita
us, us, (nid)
nri
'heavy'
sumun = iabarum
become
til
open'
'to
be ended'
zik(a)rum 'male'
er
rrxx
(gid, kid, qid, HI, sih
[i
sah,
d EN.LiL ('Lord
god
sidj A )
kur,
qiir,
mad, sad, (nad,
lad, gin,
km)
Storm')
the
Ellil
kur = malum
'land'
KUR (+ vowel) = sadum

'mountain'
te, teA
<
(zur), sur
amar = burum
d AMAR.UTU
'calf
= ^Marduk
Exercise
1.
Normalize and
mu-ki-in
i-ta-ar
a-na
isdi
a-na
Sipparim.
translate:
si-ir
be-li-su. ma-sii
as-ri-su.
i-zu-uz-ziL
sinnistum mu-sa
i-ze-er.
id-da-ak. mu-ti-ib li-ib-bi d Marduk.
ni-si u-ti-ib.
a-na
tilli
i-zu-zu.
mu-sa
i-ri-a-ab.
a-bu-bi-im
ii-ul
a-sa-am. is-ta-am.
li-te-er.
i-za-az,
mu-te-er Eridim
i-du-uk-ku.
sum-ma
us-di-ik. us-ta-mi-it. mu-ri-is Bar-si-pa ki
>
u-wa-e-ra-an-ni sa-i-im si-ma-at matim. a-na a Marduk Ellilu-ut kissai

ni-si i-si-mu-sum.
zikram am u sinnistarn am ma-am-ma-an
la i-sa-a-am.
LESSON
67
To what noun-type do
the following nouns belong: erresum

sarraqanum 'thief, sakmim 'governor', nemelum
'profit
teptitum 'opening Simtum Tate
3. Translate into Akkadian: he kills, they kill he killed, they
killed, he has killed, they have killed, he causes to die. they cause to
die. he caused to die. they caused to die. he restores, they restore, he
2.
'tenant-farmer
restored, they restored, after she
made
his life pleasant, she divided
(the inheritance) with her sons.

4.
Cuneiform:
v& y<K ]Hr

v#?r
J^r
<T^
^
W
]>3m
;
*^-<&-*r;
Tfxf
tft
&
Lesson 10
VERBS
/, /V
',
by the loss or
two groups: an a-group in
which the vowel a remains unchanged, and an e-group in which the
loss of '3.5 (82j) is accompanied by a change of a to e (84f).
66.
Verbs with
initial
radical aleph are affected
transmutation of the aleph. They
671.
into
The a-group.
>
usually disappears without trace in the writing

imp. and
initial *7- or *'m- becomes a- in
Initial
('akalum
fall
Gt/Gtn imp, and
the
marked by double
>
(*'ukul
inf.
OB
athuzum). In
ii-up-pi-is
akalum), but
akul, *'itkas
and
pres.
writing of the
pres.
initial
>
atkas, *'ithuzum
and
vowel
>
are usually
pret.
(i-ik-ka-al
ikkal,
ttppis; cf. 4e,6).
and
D)
and the
vowel following it are elided: *i'akkal > ikkal, *u'ahhaz > uhMz.
3. Before a consonant, initial v' (short vowel + aleph) > v
(long vowel): *i'kul > ikul, *u'tahhaz > utahhaz, *usa kil > usdkil,
but , t,Ntn pres. and all forms of Stn have vCC: *usa'kal >
2.
Between vowels
(pres.
G;
pres., pret.
ptc.
'
usakkal *ustana'kal
%
4.
*na'hiz
>
ustanakkal, *ittanakal
In the N-stem, *w
>
>
nn (*in'ahfjaz
The following paradigm

perf.,
>
nanhiz and *iita haz
ptc, imp.,
inf.,
ittanakkal,
innahhaz)\ by analogy,
ittanhaz.
follows the usual order pres., pret.,
verbal adj.,
(afu) ikkal, takkal
>
>
Gt
stat.
itappal
Gtn
Ttanakkal
Tkul, tdkul
itapal
Ttakkal
Ttakal
*Ttatpal
Ttatakkal
dkilum
mutaplum
*mutakkilum
akul
atpal
atakkal
akalum
aklum
atpulum
*a(pulum
atakkulum
*atakkulum
akil
*atpul
*atakkul
LESSON
67
Dt
uhhaz
uhhiz
69
10
Dtn
utahhaz
*utanahhaz
utahhiz
utahhiz
utalihiz
xilatahhiz
*utatahhiz
muhhizum
mutahhizum
mutahhizum
uhhiz
*utahhiz
utahhiz
uhhuzum
uhhuzum
utahhiizum
* utahhiizum
uhhuz
usakkal
St
usdkil
ustakkal
Stn
*utahhuz
usianakkal
ustakkil
ustdkil
ustdkil
ustaiakil
*ustatakkil
musdkilum
mustakilum
musiakkilum
silkil
sutakil
sutakkil
sukulwn
sukulwn
sutdkulum
*sutdkiilum
sutakkulum
*sutakkulum
sukul
sutdkul
sutakkul
(a/u)
Ntn
innahhaz
innahiz
ittanahhaz
ittanhaz
ittanhaz
munnahzum
nanhiz
nanhuzum
nanhuzum
nanhuz
The verb aldkum (*hlk) belongs to the above class of verbs,

abnormal in that \ when final in a syllable, is assimilated to a
following consonant in the G, Gt and Gtn-stems (*i'lik > illik,
compare *i'kul > Tkul):
68.
but
is
G
Gt
Gtn
Pres.
Pret.
Perf.
Imp.
illak
illik
ittalak
alik
ittallak
ittalak
ittatlak
ittanallak
ittallak
itiatallak
The S-stem
is
regular:
usdlik (like usdkil)
sillukum (like sukulwn)
atlak
LESSON
70
The
69.
<?-group
with the vowel
parallel in
is
shift
>
e (84f).
69
10
formation to the a-group, but
Due
to systematic levelling, e
forms without *a'3 .5 or *'3 .5 fl thus

utappis (*uhtappis) > uteppis on the analogy of *tahappas >
teppes. Examples from epesum to do* {aju, later
//) and erebum
a even
replaces
verbal
in
to enter' (u).
Gt
Gtn
ippes
Tterrub
Tteneppes
uppas
useppes
inneppes
Tpus
Tterub
Tteppes
uppis
itsepis
innepis
Ttepes
*Tteteppes
uteppis
ustepis
*ittenpes
muteppisum
muppisum
musepisum munnepsuih
etrub
*eteppes
uppis
supis
*Ttetrub
episum
epus
epesum
epsum
iieppusum
uppusum
uppusum
supusum
supusum
epis
*etrub
*eteppus
uppus
supus
*etrubum
*nenpusum
Tense conjugation:
Pres.
Pret.
Perf.
Compare:
irrub
Trub
Tterub
Tkul
terrub
terub
teterub
takul
terrubT
terubi
teterbl
tdkulT
errub
erub
eterub
dkul
irrubu
Trubfi
Tterbu
Tkulii
irruba
Trubd
Tterba.
Tkuld
terruba
terubd
teterbd
takula
nirrub
mrub
mterub
mkul
70. Verbs with initial radical/ inflect like the e-group of verbs
1
(/
class).
in the
G-stem enequm
to suck (*jandqum) has pres.
tenniq, enniq, inniqil, pret. Tniq, perf. Tteniq, imp. eniq, stat.
inniq,
eniq;
Thus
eserum
useser
(cf.
to be straight, prosperous
84h), perf. usteser,
N pres.
has 5 pres. usesser, pret.
innesser, pret. inneser.
pardsum,
consonant
71. Verbs with initial radical n follow the pattern of
but with assimilation of the

(*indin
in
>
iddin;
first
radical to a following
note however that assimilation does not take place
some forms of
the N-stem),
imperative (*nidin, *nidm
>
and with
idin,
loss
idm; *nuqur
n in the
uqur) and in the
Gt
of
>
initial
LESSON
71
71
10
and Gtn forms without conjugation-prefix (*nitqurum > itqurum,

*nitaqqar > itaqqar). (Where n is augment to an original biradical
root, as *ndn, Ass. retains the original root in the imp. din.)
naqarum Ho
From
destroy':
Gt
usaqqar
innaqqar
usaqqer
innaqer
iqqur
ittaqar
unaqqar
unaqqer
ittaqar
ittatqar
uttaqqer
ustaqqer
ittanqar
naqirum
muttaqrum
munaqqirum
musaqqirum
munnaqrum
uqur
itqar
nuqqer
suqqer
naqarum
naqrum
itqurum
*itqurum
nuqqurum
nuqqurum
suqqurum
Suqqurum
nanqurum
nanqurum
naqer
*itqur
nuqqur
suqqur
nanqur
inaqqar
ittaqqar
*nanqer
Vocabulary
ahazwn
in
(a/u): to take, seize,
take
akalum (a/u): to eat

alakum (pres. illak, pret. illik): to
go; ana simtim alakum: to die;
Gt to go away; Gtn to walk
about
amarum
apalum
pay
^
eserum
(i):
to be straight, in
order, be a success; to put
marriage
answer,
keep
ezebum
(i):
behind;
to leave, leave
kunukkam suzubum:
to cause to leave a sealed
satisfy,
kispu
(pi.):
nadum
(-i):
sorcery
to throw, cast; 'to
E-abzu: a temple
throw murder on'
E-babbar: a temple
of murder
ebebum
(/):
to be pure, holy;
to purify;
Dt
innepis, ittenpes alongside
NB
OB,
inneppus, innepus,
ittenpus): to do,
nakarum
(i):
accuse
to be foreign, be in
enmity, be estranged from
passive
edesum (i): to be new; D to

renew
epeswn (*afu or u: ippes/ippus,
Tpus\ OB N-stem inneppes,
SB,
in order,
lead aright
document
(a/u): to see
(a/u): to
in order; St to
make
erebum (u): to enter; 5 causative

eresum A (/): to ask for
eresum B (0: to cultivate (a field)
(itti)
natalum
(a/u): to
look
at,
see
nertum: murder
siduhhum (< Su.luh): ritual

cleansing, hand washing,
ritual
suttum, pL Sunatum:
warka
(conj.): after
dream
LESSON
72
10
Cuneiform
signs
Logographic
Phonetic
Signs
abzu
= apsum
'subterranean
water'; E-abzu:
name of
temple
in
&
m^
ne,
bil, pil, bi, (te)
izt
isatum Tire'
SA
libbum 'heart
mar
qar, gar, kar
uz
sa, (lib)
*rrr
A.SA
Ay<
eqlum
'field'
kam, (gam), qam
dam,
dam.gAr tamkarum
tarn
'merchant'
Exercise
1.
Normalize and
e-li-su
it-ta-di-in.
i-na-ad-di-in.
id-na-su-nu-si-im.
tamkaram
a-na
si-im-tim
i-te-ru-ub.
sa e-li-su ki-is-pi id-du-u.
id-di.
i-di-in.
id-di-in.
ii-ta-an-di-in.
i-di-is-sum.
it-ta-la-ak.
it-ta-al-ku.
it-ta-al-la-ak.
it-tii-ul.
u-se-er-re-eb-si.
i-pu-us.
a-na a Id
wa-ar-ka
sum-ma ku-nu-uk-kam
i-na-ad-du-u-si,
i-na-di-is-sL
su-ut-tam
i-ip-pa-al. i-ta-mar, i-hu-uz. i-ih-ha-az.
si-im-tim
sum-ma
translate: a-na i-sa-tim in-na-ad-di.
ne-er-tam
i-il-la-ak,
a-bu-um
u-se-zi-ib.
a-wa-a-tim
eqletim
it-ta-lti-ir.
si-na-ti
a-na
i-ir-ri-is.
ep-sa.
mu-ub-bi-ib su-luh E-abzu. mu-ud-di-is E-babbar. a-na su-te-su-ur

ni-si.
2.
Give the paradigm and
nadariwn.
pret.
conjugation of ezebum and
LESSON
3.
73
10
Translate into Akkadian: he saw a dream
country,
who brought
and
left
his
the liar into the king's palace? the king's
daughter purified the temple. Samas, you lead the people aright, he
renewed the foundations of the house, if that man accused me of
murder, he
will
be
was estranged from

4.
slain, after
her.
he had taken the
why was
woman
the temple not purified?
Cuneiform:
^ W\ jW
as wife, he
^T *m <W
&fri
Lesson
VERBS
72.
I h\
INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS.
G-stem
number of
small
state-verbs with
wasamwn
11
triradical
NUMBERS
verbs with first radical

root:
thus
are
waqarum Ho be
class
costly',
These are generally conjugated in the

j (70): pres. iqqer, pret. Tqer, stat. waqar/wasim
Ttaqer varies from \j Tteniq). In the derived stems they are
to
be
fitting'.
like verbs I
(but perf.
conjugated like
73.
I n>
action verbs (73).
The majority of
verbs
are action-verbs formed by
prefixing w(a)~ to an original biconsonantal root: thus for

4
to carry',
wasabum
to
wabalum
dwell' the original root appears in the
sit,
nominal derivatives (hiltum, Subtum <

*sibtum). The formation of secondary verbs with a variant augment
imperative
is
(bil, sib)
and
in
typical of the class (tabalum, tasabum).
In the G-stem, there
and
is
pret. {ubil)\ the latter
:^
ablaut alternation between pres. (tibbal)
forms the plur.
ublit,
there are also forms without elision of the
The
precative follows the
norm
ventive ublam, but
(see 84b): ubilu, ubilam.
seen in 44: lubil 'may
carry!*,
The perf. is normally formed on a triradical

analogous to I n verbs, but occasionally OB has iibal,
formed on the biconsonantal root.
The D-stem normally retains strong forms awassar, uwasser,
utasser. Outside of OB, however, contraction sometimes takes place,
giving rise to forms partly indistinguishable from G: ussar pres.,
libil
base
'may he
carry!'.
{ittabal),
usser pret.
S-forms without prefix appear with su~ (inf. subulum). In the

forms with prefixes, usubil appears only in poetry; the prose forms
*
are assimilated to those of verbs I * a-group (usassab, usdsib) or I
e- group (usesseb, usesib).
In the N-stem, n
iwwalid.
4-
w becomes ww
in
OB
(" in SB): *inwalid
>
LESSON U
73
forms
Paradigmatic
wussurum (D) Ho
below
75
wabaium 'to bear',

waladum 'to give
from
are
l
wasabum
release',
to dwell',
birth to
Gtn
xtbbal
itianabbal
uwassar
ubil
ittabbal
uwasser
ittabal {itbat)
*ittatabbal
utasser
wabilum
muttabhilum
muwassirum
bil
itabbal
wusser
itabbithtm
wussurum
wussurum
wabaium
wasib
wussur
5
usabbaljusesseb
iwwallad
usabiljusesib
iwwalid
ustabiljustesib
musabilum/museSibiim
subil/susib
subulum/susubum
subulumjsusubum
subuljsusub
pres.: ubbal, tubbal, tubbali, ubbal; ubbalu,
ubbala
tubbala,
mibbal
pret:
ubil.
tubil,
tubilTjtubli,
ubil;
ubilujublu,
ubilajubla,
tubilajtubla, nubii
74. Initial
OB
(84c).
AHw
w sometimes
CAD
in their
OB
disappears in OB, and regularly after
such words in their SB form (abalu, avdu),

form {wabaium, wardum).
lists
75. Infinitive constructions. (1)
We
have seen that the
infinitive,
introduced by a preposition, often serves as a temporal or final

clause (28).
The
infinitive
may
be construed as a noun, with a
following genitive or pronominal suffix representing the logical

object or subject:
ana epes biiim 'in order to build a temple'

ina kasadija 'when I arrive'.
LESSON
76
75
II
it may be construed as a verb; in this case, when the

Object - Preposition - Infinitive, the object is put in the
Alternatively,
order
is
accusative:
Semem 'when (you) hear
tuppT anniam ina
raggam u senam ana hulluqim

but when the order
the object
'to
of mine'
this tablet
destroy the evil and wicked
changed to Preposition - Object -
is
Infinitive,
attracted into the genitive:
is
ana sugitim ahazim to marry a sugitum-womaif

ana eburim kamasim 'to gather the harvest'.
The
logical subject appears as a nominative in a verbal construction,
whether
it
precedes or follows the preposition:
tuppum kuna kasadim 'when the tablet arrives'

klma awTlii Sanu la naparkim 'so that those men may not
defect',
but mixed verbal and nominal constructions with accusative object
and genitive
tuppam
suffix indicating logical subject are frequent:
ina
semeka 'when you hear the
(2) Infinitive absolute.
A finite verbal form is given emphasis by
same root with
the infinitive of the
tablet'.
locative(?)
ending -um, and
usually with the enclitic -ma:
saparumma aspur
(3)
such
leum
as
to
certainly sent\
and verbs meaning

may take an infinitive in
be
qabiim,
'I
able'
'to say,
the
command',
accusative
as
complement:
halaq alisu liqbi
kullasunu aqbi
'I
'let
him command
pihassu apalam ul ile"i *he cannot

76. Numerals,
st. rect.
The
m.
the destruction of his city'
told (you) to hold them'

fulfil his
cardinal numerals
f.
st.
from
abs.
feudatory duty'.
m.
to 10 are:
f.
1.
istenum
istetum
isten
istiat, is tit
2.
sina
sitta
sina
sitta
3.
salasum
erbum, arba'um
Salastum
salas
salasat
er bet turn
erbe
erbet
4.
LESSON
76
st.
rect.
m.
77
11
abs. m.
st.
f.
f.
5.
hamsum
hamistum
6.
sessum
sedistum
7.
sebum
sebettum
sebe
sebet
8.
*samanum
*samantwn
samdrie
samanat
9.
tisum
ti/esitum
tise
tisTt
0.
esrum
esertum
eser
eseret
The numerals
hamsat
hamis
sesset
and 2 are adjectives which usually precede and

agree in gender with the noun they qualify. 3-10 are nouns which
usually have the chiastic concord common in Semitic: feminine
forms are used with masculine nouns and vice-versa. 20-50: esra,
salasa, erba, hamsd. Various constructions are found in the
1
different dialects; thus, to express 'five lords
1
:
hamsat belu/belum (apposition, abs. state 4- pl./sing.): the

normal OB construction is hamsat belli
belu hamistum (apposition, pL + status rectus)
belli hamsat (apposition, pi. + abs. state)
hamsat belijbelim (construct state of numeral + gen. sing./pl.)
belu hamsim/hamistim (construct state of thing + gen. of
numeral).
Since numerals are not usually phonetically written in
texts
(see
85),
construction
is
is
it
frequently
impossible
to
Akkadian
specify
which
intended.
With measures, the normal construction is: numeral in absolute

+ measure in absolute state 4- thing measured in apposition,
case being determined by function in the sentence:
state
salds
silt
qemum
(or qemim,
qemam)
seahs of flour'.
The ordinal numerals from 3 on are adjectives

and usually precede the noun they modify:
1st
panum,
2nd sanum,
f.
pamtum; mahrtim,
f.
saniium
3rd
salsum,
4th
rebum,
5th
hamsum,
6th
sessum,
7th
sebum,
f.
f.
f.
f.
salustum
rebutum
f.
hamustum
sedustum
sebutum
f.
mahntum;
in
parus form,
isten
LESSON
78
8th
samnum,
9th
tisum,
10th
samuntwn
f.
tisutum
f.
esrum,
76
11
eSurtum
f.
Both ordinals and cardinals are often expressed

the Sumerian phrase 'number 4- kam (or kAm)':
mu J.kam
by
in writing
third year' or 'year three', 'three years'.
Multiplicatives are expressed by the cardinal with adverbial

suffix
and pronominal
-T-
suffix -su; the preposition adi
may
precede:
(adi) sinisu 'twice
Fractions are expressed by the
Mustum =
employed
to express fractions: igi.S.gAl
oblique
sittaju
forms of the ordinal:
fern,
In writing, the Sumerian phrase
1/3.
sit tin
1/8.
igi.a.gal
Note also
is
the dual
'2/3\
Vocabulary
arba'um: four (76)
sattum,
enswm weak
sit tan:
erbian,
wabahtm
erbettwm four (76)
f.
(a/u, also
/):
to oppress,
wrong
isten,
f.
istiat, istet:
one,
(wr.
watarwn
ma.na):
bear,
passive
(ussab, usib): to
sit,
(ittir, Ttir):
excessive; to
to be
make
excessive, multiply
bright;
on
to say, speak
enlighten, shed light
rebum: fourth
ulid): to
dwell
first
kibratum (pi): world regions
(-/):
(ubbal, ubil): to carry
give birth to;
wasabwn
*mana'um manum
mina (cf. 88)
nawaram (/): to be
qabum
Sanatum: year
waladurn (ullad,
esrwn: ten
habalum
pi.
2/3
to
miSsurum (D):
to release, let
go
zcTirum: hostile (used as noun:
enemy)
LESSON
Cuneiform
79
11
signs
Logographic
Phonetic
Signs
si,
se
= qarnum
si
si.sA
'horn'
4
eserum to be
prosperous'
t=
tab
&&
{sar)
lugal = sarrum
du, tu, {gub, qub)
gin
alakum
'to
gub = izuzzum
go
'to stand'
tum wabalum
dan, kal, lab,
'king'
'to bring'
kalag = dananum, dannum
(lib, rib)
'(to be) strong'
lu
Hfrr
= amlum
'man'
lam
*^
zum, sum, sum, su
geme = amtwn 'woman
par
GlN
Uu)
servant'
siqlum 'shekel'
Exercise
1
Normalize and
translate: za-e-ri-su ii-\va-as-sa-ar. u-ta-as-sar.
amat-su sa marl ul-du~sum.
sum-ma man
ii-li-sum,
ub~lam.
dan-nu-um en-sa-am a-na

a-na
si-ir
ni-si
ki-ib-ra-at
i-na-ad-di-in.
sar
igiJ.gAl.
i-na
sum-ma marl
ub-ba-lu,
la ha-ba-li-im.
tu-ub-bi-im.
er-be-tim.
it-ta-la-ad.
us-sa~ab.
ki-ib-ra-tim
re-bu-tim
u-li-id.
u-sa-te-ru-su.
a-na ma-tim nu-mi-ri-im.
ma-tim
pu-ru-se-e
la
a-na pa~ra-si~im.
ar-ba-inu
sa-at-tim.
a-di
30-su
MU.4.KAM.
sa
sa-at-tim is-ti-a-at. si-it-ti-in i-na-ad-di-in sa-lu-us-tam i-le-qe. 4 sut
se'am. 2 qa se'anu
kaspum.
ma.na kaspam,
e-es-ri-su as-tap-pa-ra-ak-ki-um
A MA.NA
kaspam. 10
siqil
LESSON
80
II
2.
Give the paradigm of waladum
3.
Translate into Akkadian: he dwells in the land of Hatti. they
me
carried
made me
to heaven, since he
in
and N-stems.
was born he has said nothing, he
carry his throne and his scepter, he increased the regular
offerings.
Translate into Akkadian, using both nominal and verbal
4.
infinitive
arrives, as
5.
you
rise up. in
to
destroy his enemies,
when
the king
order to construct the house.
Cuneiform:
r&fr-
<>_
constructions:
<pi
mm
jar
n v$ <w*r
^ ^ ^ T^
^ y^ CT
tfff^
*#***->
>%
^ t&
3#;
T?wT
Lesson 12
QUADRILITERAL VERBS, IZUZZUM.

DOUBLY WEAK VERBS
77. Quadriliteral verbs in
into
two
1
(m, n)
The
is
Akkadian are generally taken
to fall
classes:
S-group: the
radical is s, and a liquid (/, r) or nasal

and fourth position: suqallulum 'to hang',
first
in fourth or third
suharrurum 'to fall into a numbed silence, be silent', suqammwnum

'to be still', suparrurum 'to spread out' (tr.). These are usually
conjugated in one stem, similar to D, and its -/a- and -tanderivatives:
Pres.
Pret.
Perf.
Ptc.
Imp.
Inf.
Stat.
usqammam, pi. usqam{m)ammu

usqammim
*ustaqammim
*musqammimum
suqammim
suqammwnum
suqammum (also
Note the weak verbs supelum
sahur, pi. sahurru).

4
'to
exchange', sukinum to
bow down'
(OA
supa"ulum, suka"unum). These undergo the usual alterations of

medial weak verbs:
Pres.
uspel, pi. uspellu
Pret.
uspel, pi. uspehl
Perf.
ustepel, pi. ustepelu
Ptc.
muskejinum.
2. The N-stem group: the second radical is always / or r, and

forms are found in two stems, N (with ingressive sense) and
(causative), with their iterative -tan- stems. They normally indicate
motion: nabalkutum (*blkt) 'to cross over, transgress, revolt',
napalsuhum 'to prostrate oneself, naparsudum 'to flee naparkum (-z/
class) 'to stop, to cease work', neqelpum (-m class) 'to drift,
1
LESSON
82
napalkum (usually
float)',
forms
-/
77
12
class) 'to
be open(ed) wide'. Their
are:
Ntn
Pres.
ibbalakkaljil
ittanahtakkat
Pret.
ibbalkit
ittabalakkat
Perf.
ittabalkat/it
ittatablakkat
Ptc.
mubbalkitwn
Imp.
*nabalkit
nabalkutum
Inf.
V.Adj. nabalkutum
mut tablakki turn
itablakkutum
Stat.
nabalkut
Pres.
usbalakkat
uSianablakkat
Pret.
usbalkit
Perf.
ustabalkit
sutablakkutum
Stn
ustablakkit
Ptc.
musbalkititm
Imp.
subalkit
Inf.
Subalkutum
V. Adj. Siibalkutum
Stat.
subalkut
78. Irregular N-stem.
small group of geminate verbs
(i.e.
and 3rd radical) have an irregular

and
Ntn-stem. They are probably not to be considered quadriliteral, and
are listed by the modern dictionaries under the corresponding
with identical 2nd
G-stem, when that
is
extant (thus nahalluhim 'to slink'
is
given
under halalum). They are characterized by doubling of the second

radical in N infinitive and stative, and doubling of the final radical
before endings in other forms. Thus nasallulum Ho crawl off (most
forms not attested, but restored from similar verbs; plural
morphemes added in parentheses):
Ntn
Pres.
issaltal(lu)
Pret.
issalil(Iu)
Perf
ittaslal{lii)
ittatastal(hl)
Ptc.
mussalillum
muitaslillum
Inf.
nasallulum
Stat.
nasalhd{u)
itianaslal{lu)
itaslullum
LESSON
79
79.
The
12
83
irregular verb izuzzum (post-OB uzuzzum) 'to stand':

Pres.
Imp.
Pret.
Perf.
izziz
iitaziz
iziz,
itazzaz, -zza
izzaz
Gt
Gtn
ittazzaz
ittanazza
uszaz
usziz
izizza
suziz, suzizza
All forms double the final consonant before an ending: izzazzu,

uszazzu, etc.
Doubly weak verbs combine the
80,
weak verb
the types of
characteristics of
discussed above.
Thus idum
'to
two of
know'
(*jadaum) forms the preterite Tde, with the modifications of I j

{Jniq) and III e (isme). (Note that when two normally weak features
occur as successive radicals, one of them, usually the middle radical,
is most often treated as a strong consonant, e.g. e'elum, nawarum,
tawum, le'iim.) Some of the more commonly found verbs are:
elum
go up'
'to
Gt
pres.
(I
Ttelli,
III 0* pres.
',
pret.
pres. ulla, pret.
wasitm 'to go out'
imp.
warum
ulli,
5 pres.
(I vv, III
lead' (I
\v,
III
pres.
Tli,
perf.
Tteli,
imp.
Ttenelli, pret. Ttelh\
eli,
uselle, pret. useli, perf. usteli;
pres. ussi, pret.
/):
u):
pret.
////,
Gtn
pres. usesse, pvet.
si,
'to
Tteli,
ilsi,
perf, ittasU
usesi, perf. ustesi;
5 pres. usarra, pret.
pret. tint,
usari;
idum
know'
'to
(Iy, III e): this
verb and the following one have
only one tense, pret. in form and stative in meaning
(compare Latin cognovi, German ich

tided etc., irregular ptc.
isitm 'to
le'um
seum
have
mudwn
weiss); Tde, tide, Tde,
{*mude-> form mupras)\
(I y, III u): pret.
to be able' (II
',
Tsu;
III eji): pres. ile"ilile y pret. il'e. He;
'to seek': like le'um;
qu'um
'to
uqa"i
81. 'All'
await* (D): pres. uqo"a, uqa (plur. uqa"ii), pret.

uqi.
is
expressed, not by an adjective, but by gimrum,
kalum, kissatum or other nouns meaning
'totality'.
These
may
precede in construct relation to the noun to which they refer {gimir

1
maiim 'all the land ), or follow it in apposition, usually with

pronominal suffix {malum kalusa 'all the land', ana matim kalisa 'to
the entire land').
LESSON
84
12
Vocabulary
numatum: household goods
alpum: ox
nurum:
bivum: divination
eliim
go up; Gl
to
(-/):
4-
ina: to
(-/):
gimrwm
change
to
to await
sarratum
forfeit (41, b)
enum
light
qu'um:
sabum
(tr.)
(f. pi.): lies,
workmen
totality
know
STbutum: testimony
isiim. (-k): to
have
se'um
izuzzum:
stand;
idum
(-e):
to
to
stand before,
deception
(collective): soldiers,
4-
come
dat.:
to
4-
-su:
{-e/i):
to seek
when used with
his;
its,
ana/ ina pan{i): to stand in the
of time, has a
demonstrative or distributive
service of, to serve
force: ina iinusu 'at that time,
le'um
be able
to
(-e/i):
before;
transgress, revolt
to raise, bear, carry;
eye to
'raise the
msum:
lifting;
ms
time'; ilmTsu
'(throughout) his days,
all
his
life'
napalsuhum: to prostrate oneself

(-/):
proper
the
at
nabalkutum: to cross over,
nasum
expressions
covet
qatim ('raising
of the hand'): prayer
wapum
3 to
warum
wasum
(-/):
become
to
make
lead
(-): to
(-/):
visible;
visible, glorify
to
go out;
causative
Cuneiform signs
H3T
Logographic
Phonetic
Signs
eri, iri, ri,
re
URU = alum
'city'
kA = babum
'gate
KA.DlNGiR.RA ki = Babilum kl
'Babylon' (etymologized as
bob
si,
se, zi,
ilimjilT)
ze
GUD ~ alpum
fa
nin
&$r
el
NIN
il5
sikil
=
=
'ox*
beltum iady
ellwn 'pure, holy"
LESSON
85
12
Exercise
1.
Normalize and
gi-mi-ir sa-bi-im sa
translate:
ma-a-tim
i-du-iL mu-se-si nu-ri-im
sa-bu-um ka-lu-su. gi-mi-ir marti-im.
ka-li-sa.
i-te-ni.
i-te-el-lL
Adad
sum-ma
sum-ma da-a-a-nu-um
di-in-su
a-na ma-at Su-me-ri-im
ne-er-tam e-li-su id-di-ma la uk-ti-in-siL
a-na wa-se-em. alam
ma-tim a-na su-pi-im. a-na nu-ma-at
ni-is qa-ti-su a
Ak-ka-di-im.
ru-bu-um sa
ii
u-se-es-sii-ihsu.
mi-sa~ra-am i-na
be-el bitim i-in-su is-sL
sum-ma
a-wi-lum i-na di-nim a-na Si-bu-ut sa-ar-ra-tim u-si-a-am. a-ra-an di-nim

it-ta-na-as-si.
sa
114-mi-su
iz-zi-iz-za-am.
^Belet-bi-ri
iz-za-zu
i-na
a-na
pa-ni
E-babbar.
bi-ti-ia
i-na
ta-az-za-az.
su-ut-ti-ia
alpu
sa
ma-ah-ri-ka iz-za-az-zu. e-es-me-e-ma at-ta-pa-al-sa-ah. a-na Babilim ]d

a-al-la-ak u ab-ba-Ia-ka-tam.
2.
revolt,
Translate into Akkadian: he will revolt, they caused them to
he
knows, he
is
is
silent, he falls silent, he fell silent, the whole country

not able to go out. he stood by me. they are waiting for
the king.
3.
Cuneiform:
^mt ^kt<^? ^terfcw
^WtfffW*
86
LESSON
Appendix
GENERAL PHONETICS OF AKKADIAN
82.
AKKADIAN HISTORICAL PHONETICS
a, i, u, e. They should be pronounced as in Latin

can
be long or short; for conventional indications
or German. They
of length see 4e,4. Of the vowels, a, /, u are Proto-Semitic; e is a
reflex of either a or /. Other vowels (such as o, ii) do not appear
directly in the writing system, but their existence in some stage of
the spoken language has been argued.
a.
Vowels are
Consonants are
b, p, d, t, t, g, k, q, h> /, r, m n, z, s, s, s, j,
approximate pronunciation is deduced from other Semitic
languages. Semitic consonants not familiar to the speaker of English
include the following (for ease of reference the traditional Hebrew
name of the consonant is given): (aleph), a glottal stop, like the
the
glottal closure between the two words of English 'oh oh!
'emphatic' consonants /, q and s (teth, qoph, sade), equivalent to t,
k, s pronounced with throat constriction; h (lost in Hebr.) is
sounded like ch in Scots *loch s (shin), pronounced like sh in
English; j (yod) has the sound of English y: in transcriptions most
scholars use the symbol j\ but some use y to represent this .sound
{jasim 'to me*, rarely yasim), but in transliterations the symbol / is
b.
',
w. Their
'
g is pronounced as in go, game The

remaining consonants are pronounced roughly as in English.
As compared with other Semitic languages, the consonantal
system of Akkadian has undergone a simplification, through the
merging of several groups of sounds. Though the inadequacies of a
writing system adapted from Sumerian may conceal phonemic
generally used: ia-si-im.
distinctions that were
still felt,
considered that by the
consonants
d,
Proto-Semitic
tt
d,
may
/,
OB
at least in
some
areas,
it is
generally
period Akkadian had lost the original
g, h, h
L The
consonantal evolution from
be indicated as follows:
APPENDIX
88
c.
Dentals
>
(d,
remain in Akkadian)
t,
82
Arab. 'udn Hebr. ozen, Akk. uznum 'ear

t > s: Arab, taur, Hebr. sor, Akk. surum 'bull'
i (J*) > 4 Arab, zill, Hebr. .re/, Akk. $///w/n 'shadow'
4 (u^) > Arab. Vw^, Hebr. 'ere$, Akk. ersetum 'earth*
z:
remain)
c}.
Labials
e.
Palato-velars
g >
(6,
':
h remain)
(g, k, q,
Arab, garaba, Hebr. ereb, Akk. erebum
'to set
(of sun)'
f.
Sibilants (z
>
s:
s, s,
Arab,
s remain)
Hebr. kares, Akk. karsum
kirs,
remain)
g.
Liquids
h.
Nasals (m, n remain)
i.
Laryngeals
(/,
'belly'
remains in some words, but has a tendency to disappear,

with consequent vocalic alteration (this is true also of
developed from g, ' h, or It)
'
'
':
r
:
/i:
/;:
j.
origin
Arab, lamia, Hebr. satne{'\ Akk. samum 'be

Arab, sa 'ata, Hebr. saal, Akk. saahon 'ask'
thirsty'
Arab, ra's, Hebr. r0('), Akk. resum 'head'

Arab, samia, Hebr. sama\ Akk. senium 'to hear'
Arab, /w/ir, Hebr. nahar, Akk. narum 'river'
Arab, hadata, Hebr. hiddes, Akk. edesum 'be new
From the Akkadian point of view, consonants of

may be classified according to their counterparts
multiple
in other
Semitic languages:
':
*',
sometimes termed 'aleph

regular development w >
inasmuch as
*/i,
1
six
'
*/;,
= *\
and 'aleph seven
or j
>
s:
s:
*j,
*i,
*g (w andy are
while there
\ the terminology
w and/ underwent a development

-= *z, 2 = *d.
= *s, 2 - */, 3 = *d.
z:
*/.
is
is
no
convenient
analogous to that of
').
APPENDIX
83
PATTERNS OF CONSONANTAL STRUCTURE
83.
In 82
a.
89
we have
discussed the relation of
Akkadian con-
sonantal phonemes, taken individually, to those in other Semitic

languages, a relation traditionally conceived as 'the development of
Akkadian from Pro to-Semitic
In the pre's^nt section
we
see
some
inner-Akkadian patterns of consonantism dependent on environment. Some of these patterns are typical of Akkadian in all periods,
as
compared
to other Semitic languages;
these are conveniently
developments from a reconstructed Proto-Semitic or

Proto-Akkadian. Others (where this is stated) are typical of particular dialects of Akkadian.
stated
as
Geers law of dissimilation. Unlike other Semitic languages,

Akkadian does not tolerate a root with two emphatic consonants,
and dissimilates one of them (s is retained in preference to q and /, q
b.
in
preference to
/)
*qasarum > kasdrwn 'to bind'

*qutturum > qutturum 'to fumigate'
*qalnum > qainum 'thin'.
c.
its
Barth's law of dissimilation.
variant me-),
when preceding
A nominal
preformative ma- (or
a root containing a labial
(b, p,
m)
dissimilates to na- (ne-):
>
*markabtum
narkabtum
*maktamum > naktamum
'chariot'
'cover
*mapharum > napharum 'total'.

*mahpasum > nepesum 'ritual
1
d.
Vs
(82j)
retained in
is
but more normally
changes
that of
e.
is
in vocalization.
'
some words
as a strong consonant,
subject to disappearance, with consequent
The development of j and w
is
analogous to
kansu,
iddin-su (also
(see below, 84c-f ).
n often assimilates to a following consonant:

* 'anta
*
>
'anpum
but note
atta 'you'
>
appimt 'nose'
at least in written
iddis-su),
form
nidintum (also nidittum).
APPENDIX
90
f.
Dental (d
>
regularly
z)
{s> $, s,
s of
pronominal
suffix
ss:
>
*mat-su
mas-su
>
*imhas-su
>
*eres-su
Note
or sibilant
t)
t,
83
imhas-su 'he struck him'
eres-su 'his desire'.
forms
assimilated
that
land
'his
may be
written
'historically'
(mat-su, ma-at-su) as well- as 'phonetically' (ma-as-su, ma-su); both

4
types of writing represent /massu/.
After
g.
(representing
OB, m before a
n before dental,
s, s, q or k
before velar):
dental,
rj
tem-ka or ten-ka 'your report

h.
of the verbal infix
t-stems or the tn-stems,

(i.e.
becomes voiced
it
sibilants other than
>
>
*iztakar
i.
and
infix
*sitbutil
*zitkar
j.
d and
whether in the perfect tense, the
partially assimilated to a first radical
is
d)
and wholly assimilated
to
d,
tt
g
and
igdamru 'they have finished'

attardam 'I have sent'
assabat
'I
have
seized'
izzakar 'he has said'.
In verbs whose
radical
>
*attardam
*astabat
be written n
S\
>
*igtamru
-ta- t
may
first
radical
takes place in
is d,
t,
z, s,
or
s,
metathesis of that
Gt and Dt-forms without
> tisbutu 'they are

> tizkar 'speak!'
before feminine ending
prefix:
grappling'
>
t:
> ma 'at turn 'much'.

> wdlittum 'mother'
*muballittum > muballittum 'cage'.
*ma'adtum
*walidtum
k. b
and p can
assimilate to a following in of -ma:
erub-ma or erum-ma
1.
In
entered'.
MB and later, a sibilant before another sibilant or a dental
appears as
called'
'I
/:
OB
MB
usziz
'I
stationed', astur
ulziz, altur, alsi.
'I
wrote', assi (also assi)
'I
APPENDIX
83
m. In Babylonian from
a verb,
when
it
nasal (written
is
voiced
or n)
91
MB on the geminated
or
b, d, g,
middle radical of
frequently dissimilated to a
z,
the simple consonant, representing
mb, nd
Vg, nz:
> inambi 'he names'

> inamdin, inandin (/inandin/) 'he gives'
imaggar > imangar (/imaggar/) he agrees'
inazziq > inanziq 'he becomes angry'.
inabbi
inaddin
n.
An
consonant
initial
or final double consonant
simplified (*sarr-
is
introduced (*prus
>
>
is
avoided: either the
sar 'king') or a resolutory vowel
purus, *tupp-
>
tuppi 'tablet', *kalb
>
is
kalab
>
bilat 'burden'). Medial triconsonance is similarly

consonantal simplification or vocalic epenthesis
(*ni-tan-prusum > itaprusum *to undergo constant separation',
*pullj-tum > puluhtum 'awe', *rihs-tum > rihistum 'inundation').
'dog\
*bilt
resolved
by
84.
a.
PATTERNS OF VOCALIC STRUCTURE
The Proto-Semitic diphthongs au and

*taurum
*baitum
*saptain
b.
When two
interiors, the
>
>
>
Surum
*damiq-um
>
u and
f:
'bull'
SaptTn 'two
lips'.
vowel of the second
*iptaras-u
normally
bitum 'house'
short open syllables
*kasid-aku
ai
is
come
in succession in
word
normally elided:
> kasdaku 'I reach'

> iptarsu 'they divided'
> damqum
'good'
but before r and / the elision need not take place {zikarum or
zikrum 'male\ akalum or aklum 'bread').
When three short open syllables come in succession, the vowel
of the second or third
is
*pitarusum (Gt
elided:
inf.)
>
pitrusum (Bab.), piiarswn (Ass.).
APPENDIX
92
c.
'
84
Vocalization consequent on the disappearance of word-initial
(above, 82j and 83d):

(i)
>
'|_5
alakum
usually disappears with
'to
no vowel lengthening: *halakum
go\
j similarly disappears, but

ispur 'he sends', *janaqum > enequm
know'.
(iii)
is
'to suck',
usually preserved in
wabalum or abalum
>
initial ja-
(ii)
OB
e or
i:
*jaspur
*jadaum >
writing, but
may
>
idiim 'to
be
lost:
'to carry'.
Loss of *'j_ 7 at the end of a syllable is accompanied by

compensative lengthening of the preceding vowel:
d.
*igrub
> Trub it set'

> belum 'lord'
*balwn
>
*jajsir
When nouns
>
*ijsir
III
V7
Tsir
l se
'he
went
straight'.
the opened syllable
'
is
lengthened, or
reclosed by a secondary consonant gemination:
> zerum 'seed'

> kitsam or kussum 'cold
*bisjum > biswn 'possession'
*minman > minum 'counting'.
*zarum
*kus'um
Vowels put in immediate contact within a word by loss of \.i

normally contracted. Some vowel combinations, however,
resisted contraction for a longer time; thus the sequences ia and ea
(and iu in archaizing prose or poetry) frequently appear
uncontracted in OB. In most cases the contracted vowel is a long
grade of the original second vowel, the most important exception
e.
are
being ai
>
e:
rabium normally > rabum 'great' (nom.)

rabiam may > rabam (ace.)
rubaum > rubwn

purussaim
f.
>
Loss of original
same
of a
following syllables
to e in the
>
*balum
*isma
is
>
'prince'
purussem 'decision'
h,
(rarely h)
syllable; in
assimilated to
belum
*isme
is
(gen.).
accompanied by a change
Babylonian, a in preceding or
e:
'lord'
>
isme 'he heard'
APPENDIX
84
93
> Ass. erdbum, Bab. erebum 'to set'

> Ass. belat, Bab. belet 'lady'
*talqah > Ass. talqe, Bab. /e/ge 'you took'
*
tasamma > Ass. tasamme, Bab. tesemme 'you
*garabum
*
balat
This assimilation of a to e takes place even

intervening consonant in III
*zarum > zerum
'
there
is
an
nouns of the form pars:
'seed'
*qamhum > qemum

g.
when
hear'.
'flour
In Babylonian, a in the proximity of
preceding or following syllables
is
or h often
>
also then assimilated to
e;
a in
e\
> ersetum 'earth'

> erretum 'curse'
sabarwn > Seberum 'to break'
qarabum > qerebwn 'to approach'
(ahum > tehum 'to come near'.
* at datum
arratum
forms whose writing allows us to distinguish

and 15), an / preceding syllable-final r or
OB; the same shift may be presumed where the
In verbal
h.
and
between
h often
>
(see 4e,2
e in
orthography alone does not indicate
i.
ana
clearly:
utammih
> utammeh
'he seized'
>
uterrft 'they
caused to go back'.
utirrii
-ma
it
Addition of a pronominal suffix (including ventive -/rim) or

of a preceding short vowel (ana beli-su >
effects a lengthening
belTsu
'to
otherwise be lost
CAD
but not to
and preserves
'with', ittTsu
<
qibuna *say!\
cf.
(itti
'upon', warki 'after
follows
lord
his
in using the
macron
final
62).
that would
him\ so too eli
length
*ittai-su 'with
The present Introduction
to note retained length (qibuna),
mark secondary lengthening (ana
belisu
is
written, to be
read ana belTsu).

j. In Assyrian, a short vowel a in open post-tonic syllable is
normally assimilated to the vowel of the nominal or verbal ending
(Assyrian vowel harmony):
Bab. naptanum 'meal',
NA naptunu,
Bab. isbaiu 'they seized', Ass. isbutu.
gen. naptene
Appendix
II
NUMBERS, DATING, MEASURES
85.
Numbers
are written:
1.
DiS; AS, DILI
<
10.
*>>* 3600.
60. GiS
GiS+u
600.
SAr
36000.
SArxu
Examples:
T[
2 or 120 (also 2/60)
~\<
70
T?
5 or 300
K7<
670
9 or 540
TTT^
50
Tr-fTv-
2 lim
me = 200
2000
(me and lim are pseudo-logograms from Akkadian me'atum

iTmum '1000'.)
'100*,
OB
by a name given to each

Mari were destroyed' = the
33rd regnal year of Hammurapi. In Assyria each year was named
after a royal official, the year being called 'the limmu (eponymate)
of pn'. In MB and NB texts the year is identified by the formula
mu 3.KAM pn '3rd regnal year of pn'.
86.
Year dates are indicated
in
year; thus 'the year after the walls of
87. Month dates are given in the formula ud 7J.kam

Uu Se.kin.kud '15th day of Addarum'. Month names, like many of
most
The month names are
the measures given below, were subject to local variation; the
standard names and measures are
listed here.
usually written in Sumerian, preceded by the determinative
= warhum
(bAra, gud,
'month'; they are often abbreviated, only the

etc.)
being written.
iti,
first
itu
sign
APPENDIX
87
&
Tp
pfg
kfTtef
*%]
= Nisanum
bAra.zag.gar
^T^-
= Ajarum
GUD.si.sA
95
II
= Simanwn
(March-April)
(April-May)
$$d& WTft
SIG4.GA
jjf t^t*
Su.numun = Dumuzi
iP^Êr^
ne.ne.gar
= Ahum
PU >^ ^PT
kin.înnin
du 5 .k:0 =
Ta/esrTtum (Sept.-Oct.)
apin.du 8 .a
= Arahsanma (OB
<Tf
<I*lf
t& Tp
*rj$J
fc^^ÊA&^T
^^
pJ
Tf
PU
88.
JUS
gin
>
**T
jjjL^
(Jan.-Feb.)
= Addarum
(Feb.-March)
Weight measures.
j^-
Se.kin.kud
Kinunuml) (Oct>Nov.)
(Dec-Jan.)
= Sabatum
ziz.a(.an)
>^"
(July-Aug.)
KislTmum (Nov.-Dec.)
= Tebeiam
ab.ba.e
gf
(June-July)
Uliilum (Aug.-Sept.)
gan.GAN.e
(May-June)
uttatwn 'grain'
siqlum 'shekel'
= manum
ma.na
gu^j^^
i^Ff
ca. 1/20
gun =
180 5e
'mina'
gram
ca, 8.3 g.
60 GfN
fe///M/w 'talent'
ca.
500
g. (1 lb.)
60 ma.na
ca.
89. Linear measures.
*f^j*
Su.si
= ubanum
$TI^
ku
^^
gi
gar (= nindanuml
T=F
eS
te[
US
'sixty (gar)'
animation 'cubit
= #amra
'finger'
'reed'
osft/m 'cord'
ca. 1.6
6 kOS
10
6 eS
ca.
j^r danna = berum 'double-hour'
2 Gi
ca.
ca.
50 cm.
m.
ca. 3
gar =
30 Su.si
nindakkurril)
cm.
ca. 6
m.
60 m.
360 m.
30 US
ca.
1 1
km.
30 kg.
APPENDIX
96
90.
Area measures.
sar
musjsarum 'garden'
yfe^
iku
ikum
<(
BOR iku
Hfff
V^XfT
S^>
y^
j^jjfi
X*>
90
II
SAR iku
'field'
burwn =
10 SAR iku
18 iku
6 BOR-gM/n/ iku
SARxu iku =
gar 2 -
100 sar
BUR-gimii Um
4ftt
=*
ca.
ca.
36 m. 2
3600 m. 2
ca. 6.48 hectars
BUR iku
10
ca, 64.8 hectars
km. 2
ca. 3.9
ca. 39
km. 2
91. Solid capacity measures.
sila
y^-
ban
= qum 'quart' =
- sutum 'seah' =
^=
2 BAN,
BANMIN
3 BAN,
BANES
ca.
liter
10 sila
ca. 10
1.
4 BAN, BANLIMMU
BANIA
5 BAN,
paniimjparsiktum
-jv
J"
NIGIDA
3 pciml,
Amounts of
ca.
60
1.
panum, ^ NiMiN
2 pamt, ff nieS
ff nilimmu = 4 panu)
gur = kurrum
^^
6 bAn
'kor'
5 nigida
300
ca.
1.
grain etc. are given (as are numerical notations
from greater units to lesser. The number of gur is

indicated by horizontal wedges without the sign gur, the number of
nigida by vertical wedges without the sign nigida, the number of
sila by standard vertical numbers + the sign sila. The sign gur
frequently appears at the end of the measures, marking them as
measures of solid capacity. Examples:
generally)
5 (gur)
(nigida) 3
2 (gur) 2 (nigida) 5
1
ban
5 sila
ban 4
sila
sila
gur
gur
$T
Hry\~
^ ^
^
>^f
^ ^ ^J
7ft
y^
^f
INDEX OF AKKADIAN VOCABULARY

(numbers
refer to lessons, s to sign-list in the lesson)
*banium, banum: 2
abbuttum: 6
abilbum: 9
barium: 8
abwn:
2, 2s
baqarum:
A dad:
3s
adv.
erbwn:
11
erebum:
Barsipa: 9
basum:
erresum: 2
3s, 8
ahdzum: 10
be! turn: 2 T 12s
er return:
ahum: 2
belum:
ersetum:
2,
Aja: 6
birum: 12
2, 8s
ajjum: 5
bisum: 2
ajjumma: 1
bitum:
alakum:
alpum:
alum:
3, 10,
12s
6,
amarum: 10
ammatum: 5s
amnnni(m) ana minim: 4
,
am mm:
a/itf:
eserum: 10,
1,
esrum:
Is
lis
ezzum:
dajjdnum: 3
gamalum:
dajjanutum: 8
gigumtm: 6
dakum: 9
dananum: lis
dannum: I lis
gimillum: 4
*darium, ddrum: 2
gullubum: 6
dinum: 2
Anum: Is
anumma: 4
dullum: 1
apalurn: 10
E-abzu: 10
halaqum:
apsum: 10s
E-babbar: 10
hat turn:
ar/u'i:
habalum:
11
hadum: 8
11
hulqum: 2
hurasum: 3s
Is
ekallum:
e/i:
asrum:
Is,
A/: 8
7//7: 7,
9s
k/mwi:
2 t 2s
assatum: 2
Ellihltum: 9
Www:
3s, 12
ass urn:
//i/m: 3s, 12s
//w;
1,
awatum:
awllum:
2, 5s
1,
lis
<?//:
D: 6
7s
ebebum: 10
ormini:
4s
4;
5,
edesum: 10
arkum:
gimrum: 12
git malum: 1
annum: 5
arba'um:
Is
ezebum: 10
dababum:
Dagan: 1
anaku: 4
11
etequm: 5s
lis
12, 12s
4s
esemtum: 2
burum: 9s
akalum: 10
10
7s,
eresum A and B: 10
Eridum: 9
12
ensum:
Is
/mar: 7
immerum:
5s
emim: 12
ia: 1, 8s
Babihtm: 12s
epesum: 10
ihiwi: 2, 2s
bubum: 12s
epistum: 8
inuma: 4
baldtum: 2s, 4; D: 6
eqlum:
issurum: 7s
2, 10s
AKKADIAN VOCABULARY
98
-ma: 4
tier turn:
magdrum: 5
maharum: 7
mahasum: 3
mahrum: 1
nidintum, nidittum: 2
istu: 1, 5s; conj.: 8
ma/a: 7
nuljsum: 3
tfuw: 12
mammon:
isum: 3, 3s
isatum:
1,
IOs
isdum: 6
Istar: 8
/fre;i:
/Hi:
nisu:
*mand'um, manum:
izuszum: lis, 12
(Amorite): 7
jVtfift
kabatum: 1
kabtum; l t 9s
kadrum: 1
mannum:
manum
manum
nffum
(nis qdtim): 12
rtiJw/H
(*nhs): 3
numatum: 12
nunum: 7s
nurum: 12
(noun):
(verb): 8
pala/jum: 3
maqdtum: 5s
mardsum: 7
Marduk: 2, 9s
pdnum: 2s
paqddum: 3
marsum:
pasdtum: 3
martum: 4
marum: 2, 2s
kajjdnis: 7
kalbum: 7s
10
pardsum: 3
pesum: 3s
petum: 8, 9s
/ca/um (noun): 2
ma turn:
kalum (verb): 8
kamarum: 6
kanum: 9
kardbum: 5
kaspum: 3, 3s
kasadum: 3, 4s
kT'am: 4
malum: 9
purussum: 3
Atera: 8
pusqum:
2, 9s
Meslam:
minima: 7
kibratum: 11
tfrnc:
misarum: 2
kirum: 4
A'tf:
mu:
&iipi7:
Is,
kit turn:
qatum: 9s
qatum: 2, 3s
qu"um: 12
musum: 4s, 7
mutum: 9
10
kissatum: 9
qabum: 5s, 1
qanum: 8s
qaqqadum: 5
qarnum: lis
qistum: 2
mustdlum: 5
merestum: 6
minima sumsu: 6
minimum: 1
mfnum, minum: 5
pi/w: 3, 5s
raûm
(adj.): 1, Is
raWw
(verb): 8
kunukkum: 2
nabalkutum: 12
kussum: 8
riaddnum: 3
ragdmum: 3
rakdsum: 8s
rapasum: 6
labasum: 5
nadum: 5s, 10
nakadum: 1
nakdrum: 10
nakasum: 3
labirum: 5
namkurum:
rebum:
/awa: 4
napalsuhum: 12
redum: 8
/a: 4s,
labarum: 9s
rdbum: 9
rasum: 8
rdsum: 9
11
lamddum: 3s 6
napistum: 8 s
r<?'ww:
lapdtum: 6s
naplusum: 1
reutum: 2
lequm: 8
narum: 4
ridbum: 9
fe'wi: 12
nasarum:
/foftum: 2, 10s
nasum: 12
limum: 2s
natdlum: 10
rimum A: 1
rimum B: 4
nawdrum:
rittum: 3
/u
...
to 4
riasum: 9
11
AKKADIAN VOCABULARY
*rubaum, rubum: 2
sarrum:
tarddum: 4
Is
sarrutum: 2
termini:
sahdrum: 1
sarum: 7
tiabum: 9
saldmum: 8
sandqum: 6
saphum: 1
sarum: 3s
tit turn:
sasum: 5s
tuppum: 2
sarratum: 12
sa{drum:
u:
sarrum: 6
seberum: 3
m:
senium: 8
u/: 4, 4s,
sat turn:
Sattukkum: 1
3s
4, 8s
*se'um: 6, 8s
Sin: 4, 6s, 8s
50
u//iwi: 5
sinnistum: 4, 6s
sewn: 12
umma: 6
Sipparwn: 9
siamum, samum B: 9
ummum:
sunum: 8s
sibutum: 12
iimum: 3s
sikarum: 6s
urrwn: 1
slmtum: 9
uznum: 2s
sabdtum:
3, 5s
sdbum: 12
sabnum: 4s
Sarpamtwn:
sehrum:
sib turn (*\vsb):
sTruni:
wo 'arum: 9
siqlum: 4, lis
wabdlum: 11, lis

waklum: 7s
waladum: 4, 7s, II
wapum: 12
wardum: 1, 2s
sizbum: 2s
-ii/:
subdtum: 6
ja:
siprum: 2
sit tan:
sinnum: 5s
khz/h: 9
2, 2s
sibtwn i*sbt): 5
12
iw: 5
warka: 10
sub turn: 2
H'flr/r/:
suklulum: 6
warqum: 6
warum: 12
saddlum: 6
sulmum:
sadum: 9s
siduhhum: 10
vvdn//7i:
sakdnum: 3
saknum: 2
saldmum: 5
summa:
sumrusum: 9
wasabum:
was turn: 1
solum: 8
suqurum: 2
water: 5
surqum: 8
watdrum:
sursudum: 6
wussurum:
sumum:
salustum: 2
*samdu, samu:
Somas: 3s
sammum:
Is,
&mi/:
Is,
9
4s,
zd'irum: 11
tamhdrum:
tamkdrum:
2
B: 9
zakdrum:
4,
fanvm: 8s, 9
tazzimtum: 8
10s
3, 6s
zamdrum: 1
Zarpamtwn: 5
sapdrum: 4
tebum: 8
zdzum: 9
zerum: 2, 8s
saqdlum: 3
tertum: 6
zerum: 9
sardkum: 3
saraqum: 3
n7/</m: 9
sarrdqum: 4
tdbum:
sarratum: 2
tabum: 9
iwtfdm: 12
2, 6s
5s
samum A and
sanum:
2, 4s
suttum: 10
sainnwn: 6s
I,
99
zik(a)rum:
zittum: 2
7s, 8
I,
9s
ENGLISH-AKKADIAN GLOSSARY
x: x
magarum
accuse pn of
agree:
eli
pn
nudum
garment: subdtum
nidintum, qXstum
gift:
naddnum
angry: ezzum
give:
another: santim
give joy to: i/hz/H
arrive:
kasddum
battle:
tamhdrum
tubbum
alakum
go:
go out: traw/u
god:
be able: le'itm
be estranged from: nakdrum

be
//hwi
rabum
great:
itti
guard: nasdrum
sufjarrurum
silent:
bear, give birth:
walddum
balatum
heal:
bone: esemtum
heart: libbum
break: seberum
heaven: .yaww
erebum S
broaden: rapdsum D
honored: kabtum
bring
in:
brother:
house:
in:
wabalum
carry:
city:
watdrum 5
fl/r//H
country:
malum
destroy:
dakum
lead aright: eserum St
matum
dream: sultum
wasabwn
k/m/h
matum
land:
divide (inheritance):
dwell:
kill:
know:
mar turn
halaqum
judge: dajjdnum
king: sarrum
nakdsum
daughter:
die:
ina
increase:
clothe: labdsum D or
come: alakum + ventivc
construct: epesum
cut:
mu
ahum
zazum
learn:
hunddwn
leave:
ezebum
liar:
life:
like:
sarrum
balatum
/cmia
earth: erst' turn
lord: /j7mi
pasdtum
enemy: zairum
lying:
efface:
entrust:
erase:
father:
abum
isdtum
foundation: isdum
from:
halqum
sarrum
paqddum
pasatum
farmer: erresum
fire:
lost:
istu
make pleasant: tiabum D

make happy: hadum D
maker: bdnium, bdnum
man: awilum
murder: nertum; to murder:
matum
5; to
have a person murdered: dakum 5
ENGLISH GLOSSARY
not; ui la
nothing:
kaspum
silver:
til /la
...
minima
101
since:
istii
wardum
ddkum
slave:
open: pet urn
slay:
small: seljrum
mdrum
palace: ekallum
son:
people:
speak: dababum,
nisCi
perfect (verb): suklulum
haldqum
perish:
strike:
mahdsum
Sakanwn
possession: btsum
tablet:
powerful: da fmum
take:
purify:
saraqum
steal:
place (noun): asrum
place (verb):
qabwn zakdrum
stand by: izuzzwn
ebebum
tuppum
Icqum
take as wife: ahazum
lamadum
teach:
queen: sanation
temple:
/>7r //i>/i
tenant-farmer: erresum
raise (children):
raise a claim:
rabum
thai:
ragdmum
manum
recite:
this:
regular offering: Sdttukkum
renew: cdesum
u//z?m
ii7,
sarrdqum
thief:
annum
throne: kussiim
D
D
reverence:
for: qu"Cim
weigh out: saqdlum
revolt:
what?: nunum,
restore: (ana asrisu)
rise
tarum
palahum
nabalkutwn
wait
which?:
up: tebiim
mannum
who?:
qabwn
say:
scepter:
sec:
whole: gimrwn, kalum, kissaium
why?: amminitn, ana minim
hattum
kunukkum
seal:
with:
natdlum
seize:
send
frf/
withhold: foa/riw
woman:
sabatum
(a person):
minum
o//r//;j
taradum
wood:
sinnistum
whw
share: zittum
word: awatwn
shepherd: re'urn
write:
sapantm, sat drum
INDEX OF SIGNS
(numbers indicate the lesson
H-
*nm
H+
H^?
which the sign
i=3T
^4T
*rr
11
HF
10
t=
11
f~ttt~
T-
tf
tf*
12
j^2
HT
^5
H=T
or
>m
^rrr
h*
$m.
^T
h^
t=
t^r
hh*
12
wT<
10
H=fc
^F
11
v^T
t*f*
W
^
HKT
H>
tei
W
m-
12
HKT^
introduced)
"H&
H^T
is
htfr
in
4
10
mr
ffltr
w
m
mr
HI
12
2
11
11
^r
Mr
^T
UP.
10
t$yr.
6
11
10
B-
INDEX OF SIGNS
<f=U
<tUI H
<W
<tt*
<K
^Y~
#*T
10
103
]S
]M
*-
m
in
m
**
^r
<T*W 6
^r
<HJfI
^~
<Tfc
"fan
*m
10
<W
fc=
6
11
12
10
11
12
<ff
PH
4Hfff
<
ff
A4f
TF
A>-<
10
]X
ff<
<
pj
HIM
<tt=
11
INDEX OF SIGN-VALUES
(numbers without
a:
A:
indicate sign-lists in the lessons)
di:A
*i:8
dib: 5
gid:
***
ab:5
rfiV:
abzu: 10
dim: 8
ad: 2
dingir:
igi:
ih:
ii:
gidri: 7
ijcu:
gin:
it:
il 5 :
90
ag: 6
djS:
85
gIn:
ah:l
at A
am: 3
amar: 9
du:
gin: 9
im\ 3
in:
an:
</wr:
gis: 3
els:
dumu: 2
gIS+u: 85
inim: 5
giz: 3
in 9
gu: 88
/>:
g0: 5
/n: 12
ar: 6
as: 8
e:
az: 9
H:
ba: 3
efc8
ed:2
uabbar: 3
eg: 3
bad: 9
fl
iSkur: 3
gun: 88
gur: 91
m: 87
eh:l
jii:
eh 12
guSkin: 3
ir:
be: 6
lt:
eri:
bid:
e: 6
Wrf:
es:
*//:
10
e~:l
bu:
had: 1
hal:
12
he: 1
hi:
89
hir: 8
A:dr:
A*oi:
ke:A
keSda: 8
/i 4 :
gar: 89
ia:
dal:A
gar: 10
ia$:
dam: 10
gas: 6
ib:
rffl:
g<?:8
id:
danna: 89
ge 6 4
idim: 9
dar: 8
gme:
de:A
GfifiTu:
fe:
kam: 10
kar: 10
i:6
kalag:
gal: 3
rffl/j:
hi/:
gam: 10
rfa:4
kA: 12
his:
/:
ka: 5
/in:
ga: 2
gal:
10
izi:
W: 10
ha: 1
er:2
90
gid: 8
i: 8
bur: 90
/i:
tf8 : 8
em:
KtiR-gunii:
/Via:
gud: 12
ban: 91
85
fc
fe9
6/:
10
dug: 7
dug 4 5
:
\2
2
6
/g:3
ki:
kid: 9
kin: 9
ku: A
kO: 3
ku 4 7
ku 6 7
:
fritf
SIGN-VALUES
105
km: 9
njmin: 91
sal:
kus: 5
nin: 12
sar: 8
la:
lab:
lah: 3
lam:
li:
se:
*?: 8
tab:
mi: 5
si:
fag: 6
jri:
/a:
tab 4
/am: 3
sib:
87
sio,:
nita: 9
!e:5.
/dr:
pa: 1
j/ft:
pag: 1
sikil: 12
/e:
//:2
/a.v:
par: 3
sIla: 91
lib:
11
pe: 2
silim:
lib:
10
pe: 6
sin:
n>?i:
pi:
sin
tis:
pi:
su: 3
//:6
/fe:7
////: 3
///:
/iw: 2
In:
LO: 11
r/7:
7
7
fa:
pid: 9
jw/i 4 :
/m:3
pit 10
sum:
11
tOm:
pir: 3
pu:
sumun: 9
jm/i: 9
<7î:
m:
tur:
tus:
/r,:
lugal:
him: 2
qad: 3
.ya/:
r/fl/:
se:
12
(a:
/a:
flaw: 10
*?: 8
qar: 10
*/:
12
/<?:
nmr: 10
ffe:
si:
/e:
me: 6
qi:
we: 4
mes:
//:
4
4
<7/Y/:
4'i/:
aM:
sit:
qu:
?wo: 11
mid: 9
qui: 8
mil: 6
<yiir:
mim: 6
munus: 6
rag: 6
muSen: 7
re:
re:
1
nad: 9
r/:4
r/:
12
10
rib:
/ie:
ru: 5
ru: 8
fa/:
jam: 5
12
;ie:
nid:
10
ia^: 9
ra:
n/w:
nibs: 91
.far:
/:
?a:
11
u:85
5
w:
w:7
w4 3
:
urt 3
SAr: 85
udu: 5
sar: 11
m#9
SArku: 85
ugula: 7
se: 8
w/;:7
si:
(i7:
3a:
ffi:
mi/: 6
10
f/:2
1
si/r:
fa: 9
(i:4
sum:
Ml: 6
/io:
/a/h: 10
.w7:
tat:
ma: 4
mad: 9
ni:
jm/h:
wm: 4
m/m: 5
numun:
lad: 9
a/:
sib:
am:
j/r:
Mr: 7
sir.
lin 8
njgida: 91
sA:
nilimmu: 91
sa: 3
jm: 3
uru: 12
nim: 5
jg/k 9
sub: 5
us:
SIGN-VALUES
106
us:
we: 2
uv:
us:
wi:
utu: 3
wit:
uz: 10
h'g:
ze: 8
ze:
12
zi: 8
z/:8
s /:
z/:
12
za:3
nr: 8
zal:6
ziz:
zlz:
87
zu: 3
zu: 5
rwwi: 11
sw: 9
ADDITIONS
p.
Pronominal
33, 35.
tomarily used with
suffixes. Since ventive
1st sing,
accusative and
endings (see 36) are cus-
all
dative suffixes except 1st
following forms result (with iplah 'he feared', taplahl
sing., the
you
(F.)
feared', iplahu 'they feared', isruk lie presented', tasrukT 'you (F.) present-
ed
5
,
isniktt 'they presented'):
Accusative
Sing.
lc.
iplah-anni
Dative
< *-am-ni
2m. iplah-ka
iplalhki
imtk-akkim
3m. iplah-su
isruk-assum
2f.
3f.
iplah -si
lc.
ipiah-nidti
isruk-aimiasim
iplah-kiunlti
isruk-akh musiw
2f.
iplah-kindti
imtk-akkincishn
3m.
iplah-sumlti
isruk-assumtsin
3f.
iplah-smati
isruk-asSindsim
lc.
taplahinni
<
*tapIaljT-m-ni
lc.
iplahintinni
< * fum-ni
Sing.
3c.
ventive.
*ta$ruk1-m
< *tasntkT-m-him
isntkiHiim
isrukfi-nikkum
isvukiHiissiun
< *-nim-kum
< *-nim-sum
etc.
etc.
The
<
etc.
2m. iplah fhlca

3m. iplahu-su
36.
tasrukim
tasrukisSum
etc.
p. 33,
< *-am-sum
isruk-assim
3m. taplahi-su
Sing.
< *-am-kum
2m.
Plur.
Sing.
imtk-am
isruk-akkum
Examples from alakum
illik-am 'he/she
2m. tallik-am
came'
Plur.
to go':
3m.
iUikiHiim
3f.
illikd-nim
tallikd-nim
2f.
tailiki-m
2c.
lc.
allik-am
lc.
it
illik-am
ADDITIONS
108
p.
52, 57.
The
tn~stems.
Sometimes the meaning
is
distributive:
imuljljarft 'they receive', imtana/j/jaru 'they receive,
The Gtn and Ntn of verbs of motion may

hither
and
allak
p.
each his share'.
express the idea of 'to and fro,
thither':
go', attanallak
'I
go
to
and
fro, I
walk about'.
57, 62, Verbs third weak.
N
Pres.
ibbanni
ippette
*immcumu
ikkalla
PreL
ibbani
ippeti
human i
ikkali
Perf.
ittabni
iitepte
*ittamnu
itiakla
Paradigm of Strong Verb

Pres.
Pret.
Perf.
Ptc.
Imp.
Inf.
V.Adj.
Stat.
iparras
iprus
iptaras
parisum
pur us
parasum
parsum
paris
isabbat
isbat
issabat
sab iturn
sabat
sabatum
sabtum
sabit
irappud
irpud
irtapud
rapidum
rupud
rapadum
paqdum
paqid
Gfl/M
ipaqqid
ipqid
iptaqid
paqidum
piqid
paqadum
aju, a
ip tanas
iptaras
iptatras
muptarsum
pitras
pitrusum
irtaggum
irtagum
irtalgum
murtagmum
ritgum
ritgumum
ritgum
iptaqqid
iptaqid
iptatqid
muptaqdum
pitqid
pitqudum
pitqud
pitarrus
Gt
Gtn
pitrus
iptanarras
iptarras
iptatarras
muptarrisum
pitarras
pitarrusum
irtanappud
irtappud
irtatappud
murtappidiim
ritappud
ritappudum
ritappud
iptanaqqid
iptaqqid
iptataqqid
muptaqqidum
pitaqqid
pitaqqudum
pitaqqud
uparras
uparris
up t arris
muparrisum
purris
purrusum
Dt
up tanas
upiarris
up t a tar r is
muptarrisum
pit tan is
putarrusum
Dtn
uptanarras
up t arris
uptatarris
muptarrisum
putarris
putarrusum
usapras
usapris
ustapris
musaprisum
supris
suprusum
suprusum
suprus
St,
ustapras
ustapris
ustatapris
mustaprisum
sutapris
sutaprusum
sutaprusum
sutaprus
st2
ustaparras
ustapris
ustatapris
mustaprisum
sutapris
sutaprusum
ustanapras
aju,
Stn
aju, a,
Ntn
3d
purrusum
purrus
putarrus
ustapris
ustatapris
mustaprisum
sutapris
sutaprusum
ipparras
ipparis
ittapras
mupparsum
napris
naprusum
naprusum
naprus
ippaqqid
ippaqid
ittapqid
muppaqdum
napqid
napqudum
napqudum
napqud
aju, a, u
ittanapras
ittapras
*ittatapras
muttaprisum
itapras
itaprusum
itaprus
iiianapqid
ittapqid
*ittatapqid
muttapqidum
itapqid
itapqudum
itapqud
uspanas
uspanis
musparrisum
suparris
supanusum

Introduction To Akkadian Text

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Introduction To Akkadian Text

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STUDIA POHL: SERIES MAIOR

DISSERTATIONES SCIENTIFICAE DE REBUS ORIENTIS ANTIQUr

E PONTIFICIO INSTITUTO BIBLICO

EDITRICE PONTIFICIO ISTITUTO BIBLICO

Pontifical Biblical Institute dedicates this series to the memory of

EDITRICE PONTIHCIO IST1TUTO BiBLICO

Piazza della Pilotta 35 - 00187 Roma,

Geography and Language

Inflection, Status Rectus

Learning Cuneiform Signs

Absolute and Construct State.

17. Absolute State

18. Construct State

19. Periphrasis with sa

20. Possessive Suffixes

Vocabulary, Cuneiform Signs, Exercise

The Verb: General

Word Order in Verbal Sentences

G-Stem of Strong Verb

Verbal Suffixes. Ventive.

Pronominal Suffixes of Verb

40. Conjunctions (Coordinating)

Vocabulary, Cuneiform Signs, Exercise

Gt-Stem. Modals. Demonstratives and Interrogatives

Dt, St-Stems. Independent Pronouns

and -Stems and Their

The D-Stem and Dt-Stem

Vocabulary, Cuneiform Signs, Exercise

D-Stems. Indefinite Pronouns

Review of Vocalization in the Strong Verb

Vocabulary, Cuneiform Signs, Exercise

Weak. Nominal Typology

Verbs, izuzzum. Doubly

The Irregular Verb izuzzum

Vocabulary, Cuneiform Signs, Exercise

General Phonetics of Akkadian

Akkadian Historical Phonetics

84. Patterns of Vocalic Structure

Numbers, Dating, Measures

Index of Akkadian Vocabulary

English- Akkadian Glossary

Index of Sign- Values

Paradigm of Strong Verb

MB: Middle Babylonian

OAkk.: Old Akkadian

PN: person's name

oblique case (gen.-acc.)

SB: Standard Babylonian

LB: Late Babylonian

Akkadian was first published in 1980, and

reissued in slightly revised

before, the Introduction

intended as a tool in offering a

twelve-lesson or one semester course in essential

The reading exercises in transliteration and in cuneiform are designed

common vocabulary and basic cuneiform

later periods are also given, in parentheses. In

addition to the twelve lessons there are appendices dealing with

Akkadian phonetics and metrology,

and a paradigm of the

The standard dictionaries are W. von Soden, Akkadisches

For syllabic values of cuneiform signs the classic listing is F.

Testament 33 and Ergcinzwigsheft, 33A). A listing of logographic