DressedinRed,WhiteandBlue:

HowASpanishConquistadorBecameAnAmericanHero

KellyAquilla
History300
ProfessorElizabethGray
December11,2014

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Every October since 1937, government agencies and schools have celebrated Columbus
DaywithlocalgroupscelebratingItalianAmericanheritage.Atthepetitioning oftheKnightsof
Columbus, a Catholic service organization, it was recognized as a national holiday byPresident
Franklin Roosevelt. Christopher Columbus, known from history textbooks as the discoverer of
America, served as a Catholic role model for young people. And why not, as Elsie Singmaster
said He was friendly and gentle and deeply religious only one with faith in God and his
1

mission would have persisted as he persisted in adversity and neglect. Textbooks honored
Columbus as the discoverer of America and placed him amongthefoundingfathers,developing
this sense of the Spanish native as an American hero. This view of Columbus has, in recent
years, changed dramatically. EricKasumfromHuffingtonPostwrotein2010,Columbusreign
of terror, as documented by noted historians, was so bloody, his legacy so unspeakably cruel,
2

that Columbus makes a modern villain like Saddam Hussein look like a pale codfish. If this
statement is true, how did Columbus gain for himself the reputation of a hero and an American
nationalholiday?
To understand Columbus adoption into American society as a hero, one needs to
understand how he plays a part as a historical figure. Born in 1451 in the Republic of Genoa,
Italy, Christopher Columbus became a decorated sailor through multiple expeditions with trade
companies to the African coast and the Mediterranean Sea. Developinganexpeditiontoexplore
a new passage toreachtheIndies,hesoughtthesupportofmultipleEuropeanmonarchiesbefore
receiving funding from the Spanish crown. Disembarking in August 1492, Columbus sailed

Singmaster,Elsie.
TheBookoftheUnitedStates.
NY:GeorgeH.DoranCompany(1926)p.34
Kasum,Eric.ColumbusDay?TrueLegacy:CrueltyandSlavery.HuffingtonPost,October
11,2010.LastupdatedOctober14,2014.
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/erickasum/columbusdayabadidea_b_742708.html
1
2

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across the Atlantic, eventuallyfindinglandinthepresentdayBahamas.Assigningnewnamesto

the four islands and two coastlines he explored, he claimed these lands for the Spanish throne.
No clothes, no arms, no possessions, no iron and no religion not even speech Columbus
3

deemed the native population fit to be servants andcaptives. Creditedwiththeopeningof trade

from the Old World to the New World, he also introduced the native tribes to diseases that
4

decimatedtheirpopulations.
The rise of Columbus from Spanish conquistador to American hero comes not from his
historical achievements but from societal and political necessity. The political and societal
landscape of America has defined and redefined historical events and how society has viewed
them. In researching how American history textbooks have presented the story of Christopher
Columbus from the early nineteenth century through the late twentieth century, the image of
Columbus has undergone adrasticchangefromAmericanheroandfoundertomoneyandpower
driven conquistador. From 1800 until 2000, almost three hundred years after his passing,
Columbus actions and theirconsequenceshavenotchanged,buthisstoryhas.Thedevelopment
of Columbus narrative from hero to human being can be attributed to three major factors:
authorship and the lack of research anddevelopment,cognitivedissonance,andthecreationofa
national identity and history during the lateeighteenthcentury.Textsproducedbyscholars from
the later twentieth century leading into the twentyfirst century, particularly around the
Quincentenary celebration of the first voyage, reveal the truth of Columbus encounters in the

Sale,Kirkpatrick.
ChristopherColumbusandtheConquestof
Paradise.NY:I.B.TaurisandCo
LTD.(2006)p.9
4
Ibid.
3

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Caribbean. This shift in the American narrative of Columbus finds its roots in changes and
movementstowardsamoreequalandmulticulturalsocietyinsearchofitshistoricalidentity.
Historiography is the study of how history has beenwrittenanddefiningthemotivations
of the writer to discover the possible bias engrained within the text. With respect to American
high school history textbooks, historiography has yielded controversial resultsthathavebecome
an important conversation among teachers and historians. Historians who review American
historytextbooks,fromtheircreationasapopulargenreintheearlynineteenthcenturytocurrent
textbooks used inschools,canobserveinteresting changesinthepresentationofinformationand
narratives. Early American histories provide a history that professes the desired values of the
American citizen and is drenched in a thick coat of patriotism. This continued to be the trend
until the 1940s when historiography became a popular field of study and influenced textbook
writers and editors to focus less on the positive image of the United States and the values of
patrioticcitizensandmoreontheUnitedStateswithinaglobalcontext.
By exploring American history textbooks from 1800 through the late 1990s,
distinguishable differences in the depiction of Columbus and his voyage arise throughout new
publications and new editions. One difference is thedecreaseintheamountdedicatedinthetext
to Columbus and his journey another is the alterations and decrease in the amount of
information given and the vocabulary used to describe his first landfall experience and the
nativesheencountered.
One of the first texts to define the American narrative was written by British historian
William Robertson in 1800. Robertson served as the PrincipaloftheUniversityofEdinburghas
well as the historiographer for the royal family on behalf of Scotland. His text gave the longest

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dedication of time to Columbus narrative out of all the books reviewed and painted Columbus
as a hero who overcame all odds, fighting the Spaniards who wishedtodenyhimhisdiscovery,
and discovering an entirecontinenttowhichhehadthehonorofhavingitnamedafterhimtaken
5

by Amerigo Vespucci. Using an ambassador to Spain andachaplainoftheembassyashisonly

sources, Robertson claims to have accurate descriptions of sealed Spanish documents about the
Americas and Columbustravels. HeactsasColumbusbiographer,discussinghisearlylifeand
navigation experience in detail before discussing the difficulties endured to find support for his
proposal, ending with a description of the journey and his consequent returns. Robertsonmakes
Columbus a man of great intelligence and bravado with religious fervor that drove him to
promote the Glory of God and to exalt the Spanish name above thatofeveryothernation.He
states that Columbus professional skill as well as his personal good qualities, were
thoroughly known and that in whole character the modesty and diffidence of true genius was
6

unitedwithardententhusiasmofaprojector.
Robertsons treatment of the topic of the native population is dismissive and shows
favorable light towards Columbus. When discussing the discovery of natives among the islands
that Columbus stumbled upon, Robertson gives this description of how they responded to a
native woman: His people over took awomanwhowasflyingfromthem,andaftertreatingher
with great gentleness, dismissed her with a present of such toys as they knewweremostvalued
7

in those regions. Robertson goes on to say that the Spaniards offered their protection to the
8

natives they encountered. The only reference made ofdangerpresentedtothenativepopulation

Robertson,William.D.D.
TheHistoryofAmerica.
London:A.Strahan.1800.
Ibid.P.9396
7
Ibid.P.136
8
Ibid.P.143
5
6

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was how Columbus left a colonyofmenuponhisreturntoSpain.Thesemenwhostayedbehind

raped and pillaged the surrounding villages as [s]oon as the powerful re[s]traint which the
pre[s]ence and authority of Columbus impo[s]ed was withdrawn and were murdered by the
9

natives,butColumbusdidnotactinthesetragediesnordidheseekretributionforthemurders.
Robertsons narrative of Columbus was not the first text to be written on Columbus but
was one of the first thatlinkedhim exclusivelywiththestartofhistoryforthenewlyestablished
United States of America. It developed for future generations of writers what would be the
starting point of American history narratives and how important of a character in the national
10

storyColumbuswas.
American history narratives continued to be unpopular literary reads until after the
publication of George Bancrofts
History of the United States, from the Discovery of the
American Continent in the 1830s.Bancroftshistory servedasoneofthemorepopularhistorical
texts of the nineteenth century and focused on American progression and exceptionalism
romanticizing the American hero and life. This text introduced a new focus of the American
11

history textbook, which is one of pride and patriotism. This is a theme that remains
predominantthroughtodaysschooltextbooks.
After Bancrofts text was published and made American history a popular genre, there
was a steady increase in the production and publishing of historical texts. Through the 1800s,
authors closely followed the narrative presented by Robertson but used Bancrofts patriotic

Robertson,William.D.D.
TheHistoryofAmerica
.P.163165
Phillips,CarlaR.andWilliamD.PhillipsJr.TheTextbookColumbus:Examiningthe
Myth.
Humanities12,
no.5:2730.
11
ClassDiscussionon10/29,HistoryofAmericanHistory.GivenbyProfessorElizabethGrayat
TowsonUniversity,MD.
9

10

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undertones to present the importance of Columbus within the American historical identity. M.
Murrays
History of the United States
, written in 1852, used Bancroft as a quoted source and
12

13

writes with a Eurocentric view adopted from Robertson a British author. This Eurocentric
view is also pronounced in Augusta Berards
School History of the United States, published in
1870, observable from the quote on the title page: Westward the course of empire takes its
14

way.
Unlike most texts which used Robertson and Bancroft as influences but not directly,
William Grimshaws
History of the United States
directly plagiarized Robertson. Using
Robertson as its base, Grimshaw paraphrased and quoted wordforwordtheColumbusnarrative
15

without referencing Robertson as a source.

Richard Hildreths
TheHistoryoftheUnitedStates
also resembles Robertson, but lacks the information. His narrative is the first to significantly

The Eurocentric view discussed will focus wholly on the treatment of the natives and their
encounter with Columbus within the Columbus narrative. Eurocentrismisreflectedinthewords
anddescriptivechoicesoftheauthor.
13
An example of Eurocentrism that is influenced by Robertson can be found in Murray, M.
History of the United States. Written in Accordance with the Principles of Peace. Boston:
Benjamin B. Mussey & Co. (1852) is thedescriptionoftheUnitedStatesatthe beginningofthe
text in juxtaposition to the world which Columbus had encountered. The country in which we
live, teeming with a thriving population, studded with cities, towns and villages, was, in all
probability, unknown to the ancients and was mostly one vast wilderness, frequented by wild
beasts, andinhabitedonlybytribesofIndians,savageandwarlike,whosubsistedonhuntingand
fishing. It was discovered in 1492. (p.13) There is also a footnote presented by Murray that
claims that other people beat Columbus to the discovery, but because they were unknown to
Columbus at the time, and overall to most of Europe, they lacked in importance in comparison.
See Footnote 7 for clarification on defining parameters of Eurocentrism within this works
context.
14
Berard, Augusta Blanche.
School History of the United States. Philadephia: Cowperthwait &
Co.(1870)
15
Grimshaw, William.
History of the United States, from Their First Settlement as Colonies, to
the Peace with Mexico in 1848.
Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co. (1857) It is important to
note that plagiarism during this time period was not well defined. Citations and respecting the
intellectualworkofotherswasnotimportantorenforceduntilalaterperiod.
12

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shorten the space dedicated to Columbus. Unlike the texts beforehand that thoroughly covered
Columbus life through its end in 1506, Hildreth concludes with Columbus calling the
16

discovered lands the West Indies. The shortening of Columbusbiographywithinthenarrative

17

becomesadefiningfeatureoftextsfrom1880,on.
The Columbus narrative, after the nineteenth century, followed the pattern of the
Columbus biography and was shortened to make room within the growing textbook for new
historical events. An effect of this contraction on the Columbus narrative was removal of
Columbus interactions with the native populations. Edward Channings
A Students History of
the United States
, written in 1900, onlygaveColumbus onepageandsumsuphis voyageinone
sentence: After many adventures,greathardships,andimminentdangers,Columbus returnedto
18

Spain, having lost his largest ship off the coast of Espanola. This text ignores allinteractions
that Columbus had with the native population. This is repeated in other texts throughout the
twentieth century, where the focus is drawn from the interactions of Columbus with the natives
and towards his success at discovering a new continent and his return to Spain. Henry William
Elsons
History of the United States of America,
written in 1906, discusses in detail Columbus
early life and journey totheNewWorldbutendssayingthatColumbussailedaroundtheislands
19

in search of Indias kings there is no discussion of Columbus interactions. Homer Hocketts

Hildreth,Richard.
TheHistoryofTheUnitedStates.
Vol1,RevisedEdition.(1879)
TheshorteningofColumbusnarrativeisseenwithintwobooksreviewedduringtheperiod
between1880and1900.InJoelD.Steeles
ABriefHistoryoftheUnitedStates
,Columbus
earlylifebiographyismovedtothefootnotesandthemaincontentofthenarrativefocuseson
thevoyage.EmeryChilds
AHistoryoftheUnitedStates
drasticallycutsColumbusnarrative,
dedicatingonlyoneparagraphtotheyear1492.
18
Channing,Edward.
AStudentsHistoryoftheUnitedStates.
NY:TheMacMillanCompany
(1900)p.29
19
Elson,HenryWilliam.
HistoryoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica
.NY/London:TheMacMillan
Co(1906)
16
17

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Political and Social History of the United States

, printed in 1931, introduced Columbus and
ended its short narrative with the story of the struggles and triumph of the great discover need
20

not be retold. In 1977,ToddandCurtipresentedasimilarevasionintheirtextbook

Riseofthe
21

AmericanNation
,decidingnottodiscussColumbuslandfallatall.
If texts do discuss Columbus interaction with the native populations, they aredescribed
in a Eurocentric tone andreflectanegativeimageuponthenatives.ElsieSingmasters
TheBook
oftheUnitedStates
(1926)opensherchapteronthediscoverersofAmericawiththispassage:
While the Indians were living in suspicion and ignorance in America, far across the
Atlantic Ocean more advanced races were leading very different lives. Originally these
people were savages but they banded together with their neighbors instead offighting
them and their invention of tools and their mastery of agriculture gave them leisure to
22
cultivatetheirminds.

Singmasters narrative also states that there were only half a million Indians on the entire
23

continent whom lived in simplestructures,hadcorn,andweresmokingtobacco. HendrickVan

Loons
America (1933) begins the narrative in a similar way, stating the first meetingbetween
white man and coppercolored Indian took place it must have been a strange sight and that
Columbus found nothing but low little islands with palm trees and naked savages andhowling

Hockett,HomerC.
PoliticalandSocialHistoryoftheUnitedStates.
NY:TheMacMillan
Company(1931)
21
Todd,LewisPaulandMerleCurti.
RiseoftheAmericanNation.HeritageEdition.
Harcourt
BraceJovanovich(1977)AnothertextthatevadedthediscussionofColumbuslandfallsand
interactionswiththenativepopulationsisDanielBoorstinandBrooksMatherKelleys
A
HistoryoftheUnitedStates
writtenin1996.Theirmaindescriptivesentenceofthenarrativeis
Inthenextweeksheprovedthathewasthegreatestmarineroftheage.(p.4)AllanKownslar
andDonaldFrizzles
DiscoveringAmericanHistory
(1974)completelyskipsoverColumbus
landfall,discussinghisdesiretosailwestandhowhefoundsupportthenjumpsrighttohis
returntoSpain.Theevasivenessoftheseauthorscouldbecontributedtotheshorteningofall
narrativeswithinAmericanhistorytextbooks,butmostlikelyisareflectionofcognitive
dissonance.
22
Singmaster,Elsie.
TheBookoftheUnitedStates.
p.29
23
Ibid.p.3639
20

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24

children who shrieked their heads off when the gun of the Santa Maria said boommmm!
The native population fared no better in David Muzzeys 1936 textbook,
A History of Our
Country, A Textbook for High School Students
, where Columbus encountered the same naked
25

nativesintheirmiserablehutsateverylandfall.
A change in this negative description of the native populations developed in the 1980s,
when authors took on a more passive voice when discussing them writing that they were a
kind, but simple people. James Davidson and Mark Lytles The United States, A Historyofthe
Republic (1981) wrote that Columbus, convinced that he had reached India, called thefriendly
26

people who greeted him Indians and that these natives were Arawaks who led a simple life.
Joseph Conlin, in his textbook
Our Land, Our Time
(1985), alsorecognizedthatthenativetribe
was the Arawaks anddescribedthemasfriendlypeoplewhogreetedColumbusandincludeda
section called Going to the Source which featured an excerpt of Columbus writings that
27

providedadescriptionofthekindnativesheencountered.
AmericaPastandPresent from1987
displayed Columbus in a negative light while attempting to provide a positive image for the
natives stating, Columbus met friendly, though startled, Native Americans. These people
28

wantedtopleasetheexplorerbutcouldnotcomprehendhislustforgoldandspices.

Loon,HendrickVan.
America
.US:Boni&LiverightInc.(1933)p.38
Muzzey,DavidSaville.
AHistoryofOurCountry,ATextbookforHighSchoolStudents.
Boston:GinnandCompany(1936)p.21
26
Davidson,JamesWestandMarkH.Lytle.
TheUnitedStates,AHistoryoftheRepublic.
TeachersEdition
.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall,Inc.(1981)
27
Conlin,JosephR.
OurLand,OurTime.
CoronadoPublishers,Inc.(1985)MichaelKraus
The
UnitedStatesto1865
(1959)alsousesColumbusjournal,butthisexcerptisitsonlyreferenceto
thenativepopulationandColumbusinteractionwiththem.Noanalysisisprovided.Similar
occurancecanbefoundinLeonCanfieldandHowardWilders
TheMakingofModernAmerica
(1950).
28
Divine,RobertA.,T.H.Breen,GeorgeM.Fredrickson,andR.HalWilliams.
AmericaPast
andPresent.
Illinois:Scott,ForesmanandCompany(1987)p.1315
24
25

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American history textbookshavechangedintheirpresentationofColumbus,servingfirst

as Columbus biographies and slowly adapting his life and voyagetoserveasanintroductionto
the founding of the British colonies in North America. Americanhistorytextbooknarrativesare
predominantly trueaccounts,or presentfactualinformation,butchange overtimetofittheneeds
of society. Gerald Johnson, in his book
American Heroes and HeroWorship
, wrote that
Columbus did discover America in 1492. Independence was declared in 1776. Historians are
perpetually discovering minor errors, but in general the factual content of history texts are
accurate It is not blatant alterations that stand the test of time, it is the small ones made over
time changes in language, point of view, circumstances, shifts of interest that cause large
29

issues.
Columbus, until the late twentieth century was a vehicle for the expression of American
values. Adapted to the needs of the authors, Columbus has been a slaveoftheSpanishcrown,a
religiously devout patriot, a symbol ofManifestDestiny,afounderoftheglobaleconomy,anda
champion of science and innovation his real identity forgotten in favor of literary freedom.
There is a change in the authorship of historical texts used in schools. Mosttextbooksthatwere
examined for this study were written by authors who were history professors from notable
colleges or there was little to no information available about them, most likely meaning they
were not well known or credible sources. WilliamRobertson,whowrotethefirsttextdiscussed,
was a well known historian who served at the UniversityofEdinburghandthegovernment.The
texts after Robertson through the nineteenth century were predominantly authored by writers
withoutdegreesinhistoryorrelatablecredentialsthatwouldmakethemavalidsource.

Johnson,GeraldW.
AmericanHeroesandHeroWorship.
NY:Harper&BrothersPublishing
(1943)P.2,p.4
29

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Leading into the twentieth century, authorship of history texts changes from literary
writers tohistoryprofessors.EdwardChanning,aHistoryProfessoratHarvardUniversity,wrote
A Students HistoryoftheUnitedStatesaswellasthemultivolume
HistoryoftheUnitedStates
.
His texts were popular, with
Students History going throughtwentytwo prints.HomerHockett
was a professor at Ohio State, David Muzzey at Columbia University, Joseph Conlin at
California State, Allan Kownslar at Trinity College, Robert Divine at the University of Texas,
T.H. BreenatNorthwesternUniversityandGeorgeFredricksonatStanford.Whatisimportant to
note is that even though these professors are historians, it does not mean that their texts reflect
accurate accounts of the Columbus narrative. On the contrary, theauthorshipofthetextshowed
littletonoreflectiononthequalityofthenarrativeasanaccurateaccount.
Robertson uses questionable sources that undermine hisauthorityandmakethenarrative
provided unreliable. In the preface of his text, Robertson discusses his sources as being Lord
Grantham, the ambassador to the Court of Madrid, and Mr. Waddilove, who was the acting
chaplain of the embassy. Mr. Waddilove washissourceforsixteenthcenturySpanishbooksand
manuscripts. Robertson makes it clear that he had no access to Spanish records about the
voyages to America and is dependent upon Mr. Waddilove and Lord Grantham for translations
and access. These translations, however, may not have been factual or accurately translated.
Even if the translations were true to what the original text stated, the Spanish government had
sealed the important texts the texts that Robertsons sources were translating were most likely
documents that showed favorable views towards Columbus and theSpanishthatwerewrittenas
30

propaganda.

30

Robertson,WilliamD.D.
TheHistoryofAmerica
Vol1.(1800)

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Henry WilliamElson,ahistorianwho taught atOhioUniversitybeforeservingforeleven

years as President of Thiel College, wrote
History of the United States of America
, a work that
also lacks historical accuracy despite credentials.
His work cites Washington Irvings
Life and
31

Voyages of Columbus
, a controversial source. Overall,histextprovidesinformationthatisless
than factual, removes important information from the main text and places it in the footnotes,
and omits the interaction between Columbus and the native population. He gives an account of
Columbus jumping ship and swimming six miles to save himself in an earlier voyage but in a
footnote says that the incident is doubted by critics. He uses a description of Columbus
appearance and personality provided by a contemporary of Columbus, but in a footnote states
that None of the well known portraits of Columbus are accepted as authentic. Also on page
eight, Elson alludes to correspondence between Toscanelli and Columbus but puts in his
footnotes that this relationship is contested. Elsonspendsnotimediscussingwhat Columbusdid
on the islands once he discovered them, but summarizes by saying that he sailed around the
Caribbean looking for Indias kings and was disappointed not to find them. Elson spent fifteen
pages discussing Columbus in detail and yet ends without discussion of his encounters once
32

landingashore.
Authors like Robertson and Elson were not the only ones to use outdated and unreliable
sources such as Washington Irvings Columbus biography. Edward Channing, Elsie Singmaster
and Homer Hockett also relied on less than credible sources to developtheirnarratives.Edward
Channing cites Washington Irivings biographyasasourceofinformation,aswellasLasCasas

AdiscussionofIrvingssourcesandcriticismscanbereadinJohnHarmonMcElroysThe
IntegrityofIrvingsColumbus.
AmericanLiterature40
,no.1(1978)p.116
32
Elson,HenryWilliam.
HistoryoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica
.(1906)
31

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33

Historia de las Indias and Henry Harrissees

Christophe Colomb
, a criticized source.
Singmaster does not cite Irving as a source of information for the narrative in her text but
suggests readers to seek more information from him. Hockett cites previously writtentextbooks
assourcesforhisnarratives,usingBancroft,Hildreth,andChanning.
Historical professorship, as shown, was not a factor that contributed to the accuracy of
the Columbus narrative. Another factor that contributed to the lack of accuracy in relation to
authorship was plagiarism.Thecreationofatextbookwasoftenamatter oftheauthorcompiling
34

work by other authors. This is exampled in the previous paragraph in thediscussionofHomer

Hocketts
Political and Social History of the United States, where he cites other history
textbooks as sources for his Columbusnarrative. Anotherexampleofplagiarismcanbefoundin
William Grimshaws
History
or in Elsie Singmasters
The Book of the United States. William
Grimshaws
History of the United States paraphrases and quotes word for word William
Robertsons
The History of America, which was printed fifty seven years earlier. Elsie
Singmasterss
TheBookoftheUnitedStatessummarizesandtakespassagesfromJoelSteeles
A
Brief History of the United States
, printed forty one years prior.Themostnotablepassagetaken
from Steeles text is the story of Columbus walking down the street in Spain and children
laughing at him for his white hair, of which a source is not cited in Steeles narrative for this
excerpt.

SourcesforChanningcanbefoundafterhischapterTheDiscoveryoftheNewWorld.
HarrisseeasacriticizedsourcecanbereferencedinPhillips,CarlaR.,andWilliamD.Phillips.
TheTextbookColumbus:ExaminingtheMyth.p.2730
34
Elson,RuthMiller.
GuardiansofTraditionAmericanSchoolbooksoftheNineteenth
Century.
(1964)
33

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Plagiarism is a staple of textbook writing, though not always as blatant as the copying
and pasting of the examples already mentioned. In Ruth Miller Elsons
Guardians ofTradition,
she notes that neweditionsoftextswereprintedalmostidenticaltooldeditionswiththeupdated
information added to the back of the text. This was done soteacherswitholdeditionscoulduse
them in conjunction with new editions. This process of addition made textbooks resistant to
35

change, keeping the information the same without substantialrevision. Lackofchange,orlack

of substantial research in the primary narrative, was a problem of new editions of old texts but
wasalsoaprobleminpublicationofnewtextswithinthefloodedgenreofhistoricalnarratives.
American history textbooks areculpritsofstagnationandresistancetochangeduetothe
lack of additional research authors are willing todowhenwritingalargehistorytext.Whethera
history professor or an amateur, textbooks are a host to a multitudeofeventsandoneperson,or
even a small team, could not have the expertise required in every event or person discussed to
give a perfectly accurate account. In mostcases,authorsarenotexpertsinthelifeandvoyageof
36

Christopher Columbus, nor are they reading the best material available. DavidsonandLytlein
After the Fact: The Art of Historical Detection
, emphasize the importance of constantly
reviewing andrewritinghistory,sayingthatthefurtherbackintimehistoriansreach,thegreater
the need for regular assessment. Nowhere isthisneedmoreapparentthaninthestoryofthefirst
37

encountersbetweencivilizationsofthewesternandeasternhemispheres.

Ibid.
Axtell,James.Europeans,Indians,andtheAgeofDiscoveryinAmericanHistory
Textbooks.
TheAmericanHistoricalReviewVol.92
,No.3(1987)p.631
37
Davidson, James W. and Mark H. Lytle.
After the Fact: The Art of Historical Detection,
VolumeI.
NY:McGrawHill(2010)p.5
35
36

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Davidson and Lytles textbook,

TheUnitedStates, AHistoryoftheRepublic
,however,is
an example of a lack of return to research and of copyingprevioustextbooks.Theirtextaccepts
the Columbus narrative that has been developed since its introduction by Robertson in 1800,
adding cultural facts but not addressing major issues. Theirtextdoesnotdiscusstheinteractions
with the native population, but brushes the topic off by saying Columbus sailed around the
Caribbean for threemonths andreturnedtoSpain.Theyattempttoaddresstheissueofthe native
population in a preceding section called The Fate ofColumbus,whereColumbuswashauled
home in chains by the Spanish authorities. Some Spaniards who had come to the Americas had
begun to enslave and kill the original Americans. Authorities in Spain held Columbus
38

responsible for these atrocities. There is a contradiction in theory and practice on the part of
Davidson and Lytle. They want historians to constantly revisit and edit their workandthework
of other historians and yet they omit important information and the relationship between
Columbus and the native population,andthentheydismissColumbusasbeingoneofthefirstto
mistreat them all characteristics of previous narratives. Historians, even withthe convictionto
presentanaccuratehistory,canbeconduitsofstagnation.
The importance ofrevisitingandrevisingnarrativesisimportanttothespreadofaccurate
39

history. The narrative of Columbus has been significantly changed in its presentation in

Davidson, James W. and Mark H. Lytle.

The United States, A History of the Republic.
TeachersEdition.(1981)p.36
39
Informationthatispresentedintextbooksthatisoftenwronginclude:Columbus,byhis
secondandthirdvoyage,hadrealizedhehadfoundanewcontinenthisshipswerestorm
batteredColumbuswrotethattheseaswerecallthetriponlytookonemonthThetriptook
twomonthsbecauseofastopintheCanaryIslandshisshipswereinefficientandtinyTheir
threevesselswerefullysuitedtohispurpose(navalauthorPietroBarozzi)sailorsontheship
werenearmutinybutColumbuscalmedthemthecrewwasjustgrumbling,asmostpeople
wouldwhentrappedinasmallspacefortwomonths.Informationgatheredandpresentedin
Loewen,JamesW.ColumbusinHistoryandHighSchool.
Akwe:KonJournal9,
no.1(1992)
38

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textbooks since its publication in Robertsons text in 1800, and yet the sources used by authors
40

have not changed or been updated. It is important for authors of textbooks to not resort to
compilation and relying on oldsourcesandoldeditions fornewpublicationsandtobewillingto
reexamine the history they are writing about. Heavily relying on or recopying information
without previousknowledgeonColumbuscanleadawritertopresentinformationthatisfalseor
out of date, and without a mature foundation of knowledge about the man and his times, it is
41

possibletobelievenearlyanything.
Compilation and using old sources are a result of textbooks only presenting information
that is certain versus information that is currently being studied or evidence that is part of a
42

theory. Textbooks tend to present the narrative of Columbus with information that can be
supported and proved, avoiding issues of questions and debates. An example of this would be
that Columbusdidsailtheoceanbluein1492,so textbookswillreferencethisandemphasizehis
journey, however, they will avoid discussion of landfall and consequences because there is
discussion, debate, and questioning that follow. Columbus narrative is focused exclusively
within American history textbook discovery and discoverer sections up until the late 1900s
because preColumbian contact was known but there was little evidence available that was
infallible this area ofstudyisstillbeingexploredtoday.Textbooksdenyreaderstheopportunity
to realize that historians do not know all the answers but try to present history in a black and
white fashion where there is no room for analysis or interpretation. Presenting history in

WashingtonIrvings
TheLifeandVoyagesofChristopherColumbus
Phillips,CarlaR.andWilliamD.PhillipsJr.TheTextbookColumbus:ExaminingtheMyth.
P.30
42
Loewen,JamesW.ColumbusinHistoryandHighSchool.(1992)p.29

40
41

AQUILLA17

greyscale goes against the classical way of teaching history which is to memorize facts and
43

repeatthemverbatim.
Eurocentrism also acted as aforcebehindtextbookwriterslackofreturn toresearchand
use of old sources. Societal racism and the domination of white, European males within the
industry skewed historical research and writing in a way that denied entrance of minority
cultures intotheAmericanhistorytextbook.TheintroductionofBancroftsHistoryoftheUnited
States
and its patriotic undertones, presented with a Eurocentric view, setthestandardbywhich
authors wrote their textbooks and presented the American historical identity. This Eurocentric
view influenced the image presented of the native population that went unchanged through the
1980s, which resulted in little discussion of preColumbian contact.By 1990, therewereatleast
fourteen possible expeditions to the Americas that were under study. None of these possible
44

contacts are discussed in any textbooks. In astudybyPaulBennett,aCanadianhistoryteacher

associated with Upper Canada College, he presented American history textbooks written by
American authors to his Canadian students and noted that they said the texts were flagrant
patriotism and hype. The difference between Canadian author excerpts and Americanauthor
excerpts of American history is the discussion of Native Americans and the sanitized
45

presentation of Columbus.
Authors and editors triedtomaketheColumbianexplorationandthe
consequent European colonies an experience of white Europeans discovering nonwhite
46

Americannativesinsteadofamulticulturalencounter.

Ibid.p.31
Loewen,JamesW.ColumbusinHistoryandHighSchool.(1992)p.30
45
Bennett,Paul.BeneaththeGloss&Floss:TeachingAmericanHistoryinTheGreatWhite
North.
TheHistoryTeacher23
,no.4(1990)
46
Loewen,JamesW.ColumbusinHistoryandHighSchool.(1992)p.34
43
44

AQUILLA18

The patriotism that Paul Bennett cited is a maincontributingfactorinthepresentationof

Columbus, and consequently other historical figures. Patriotism and nationalism were driving
th
forces inthecreationoftheAmericanhistorytextbook.Intheearly19
century,nationalismwas

an engine of political andsocialreformthatwascultivatedbyanationshistory. Americahadno

national history, so one had to be invented to dilute the individual ethnic and religious ties that
47

divided the country. This invented national history, and the patriotic characteristics it was
meant to impress, needed to be spread unilaterally because any institution that isgoingtokeep
its shape needs to control the memory of its members [these members need] to forget
48

experiencesincompatiblewithitsrighteousimage.
49

The purpose of the schoolbook was to diffuse the principles ofvirtueandpatriotism.

Textbooks were meant to define andguardnationalideals,creatingpatrioticcitizenswhoadhere
to the desired traits of the successful male white Protestant, whose features were turned into
50

ideals for the entire human race. This shared set of ideals and characteristics were meant to
51

createacohesivecitizenshipthatlackedotherformsofnationalties.
Christopher Columbus was adopted into the national history andusedtoexemplifythese
desired traits because to present to the child striking instances of virtue, enterprise, courage,
generosity, patriotism, and, by a natural principle of emulation, incite[s] [them] to copy such

Appleby,JoyceLynnHuntandMargaretJacob.
TellingtheTruthAboutHistory.
NY:WW
Norton&Company(1994)
48
Douglas,Mary.
HowInstitutionsThink
.Syracuse,NY(1982)p.112
49
AsreferencedinRuthMillerElsons
GuardiansofTradition
(1964)ChapterOne:The
SchoolbookandTheSchool
50
Elson,RuthMiller.
GuardiansofTradition
(1964)p.285andAppleby,JoyceLynnHuntand
MargaretJacob.
TellingtheTruthAboutHistory.
(1994)p.135
51
Lerner,Robert,AltheaK.NagaiandStanleyRothman.
MoldingtheGoodCitizen:ThePolitics
ofHighSchoolHistoryTexts.
Westport,CT:PraegerPublishers(1995)p.1
47

AQUILLA19

52

noble examples. With no real American heroes to present and emulate in the early
nineteenth century, nonAmerican historical figures were adoptedandfashionedwiththevirtues
that authors desired to see impressed upon the future citizens of the United States. If Columbus
was to serve as an example and be counted among one of the nations founders, he must be
53

presented as [a person] with a mission, animated by enlightened intentions. M. Murrays

History of the United States
of America
(1852)labeledColumbusanavigatorofgreatskill,and
a man of a bold, enterprising and preserving spirit while Canfield and Wilders
The Makingof
Modern America
(1950) wrote that his courage, in the face of such difficulties, marks the
54

beginning ofthevisionandsacrificeoutofwhichAmericahasgrown. ChristopherColumbus

identity as a historical figurefallssecondtohisserviceasaportraitofgoodAmericanvalueshe
isstrippedofanythingthatfallsshortanddressedinred,whiteandblue.
The adoption of Columbus as an American hero was not only fueled by the need for
persons to emulate, but was selected for the purpose of justifying colonization and imperialism.
Columbus served to soothe the conscience of the American who suffered from cognitive
dissonance. Withtheusageof theColumbusnarrativeandtheadoptionofhisexperienceinto the
American identity, European immigrants inherited the Columbus legacy to feel right by
55

imagining right. White, Protestant males could justify their dominance over other ethnicities
and races because of their fabricated inheritance to the Columbus legacy and by the imagined

Elson,RuthMiller.
GuardiansofTradition
.P.186
Appleby,JoyceLynnHuntandMargaretJacob.
TellingtheTruthAboutHistory.
(1994)p.106
54
Murray,M.
HistoryoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica.WritteninAccordancewiththePrinciples
ofPeace.
(1852)p.14andCanfield,LeonHardyandHowardB.Wilder.
TheMakingofModern
America
.HoughtonMifflinCompany(1950)
55
Heil,Jenny.ImperialPedagogy:SusannaRowsonsColumbusforYoungLadies.
Early
AmericanLiterature47,
no.3:624
52
53

AQUILLA20

rightness that made them feel confident to do so. This view of Columbus and its continuous
adoption is unavoidable because textbook authors cannot say something bad about Columbus
without saying something bad about United States agenda, such as Manifest Destiny and the
56

periodofimperialism.
Societal expectations and political motives shaped American history textbooks and the
presentation of the American story. Over the last two hundred years, those expectations and
motives have changed, and so has how American history has been presented to the public.
Columbus has undergonethesechanges,servingthepurposeoftheauthor,becomingareflection
of the time. Up until the late twentieth century, Columbus, as well as other historical figures
selected to be American heroes, servedtheinterestofthetextbookauthorandhistoryprofessor
the white male. Todays society now questions, Whose history, whosescience,whoseinterests
57

areservedbythoseideasandthosestories?
The topic of Christopher Columbus narrative over time is limiting, but its larger
application to the study of historiography and how other characters and events within history
have been adapted give readers of history something new to think about. As saidbyKyleWard
in
History in the Making
, What we find in our textbooks today often tells us more about the
58

time in which they were written than the historical events that they are trying to portray.
Studying textbooks not so much forwhattheysaydirectlyaboutahistoricalpersonorevent,but
moreforthesubtlebiasandthethingstheeditororauthoromitsorsubmitsforpublishing,reveal
their own history. Studying the development of the Columbus narratives allows historians to

Loewen,JamesW.ColumbusinHistoryandHighSchool.

P.2836
Appleby,JoyceLynnHuntandMargaretJacob.
TellingtheTruthAboutHistory.
(1994)p.3
58
Ward,Kyle.
HistoryintheMaking:AnAbsorbingLookAtHowAmericanHistoryHas
ChangedInTheTellingOverTheLast200Years
.NY:TheNewPress(2006)p.xiv
56
57

AQUILLA21

understand how historians from a different age viewed history andhowtheyshapeditforfuture

generations.

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