Classification and

characteristics of soils

Dr. Tushara Chaminda

Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering,

Faculty of Engineering, Uni. of Ruhuna

Classification and
characteristics of soils

Sieve and hydrometer analysis theory and tests,

Particle-size distribution curve,
Atterberg limits and their determinations,
Classification of soils for engineering purposes,
Standard classification systems

Karl von Terzaghi (1883 -1963):

An Austrian civil engineer and
geologist, called the father of soil
mechanics.
He started modern soil mechanics
with his theories of consolidation,
lateral earth pressures, bearing
capacity, and stability

Physical properties of soil

Soil colour
Use to determine nature of soil properties

Soil texture
Proportion of sand, silt and clay sized fractions
As particle become smaller they have different properties
(e.g. influence of surface areas on water holding capacity,
cation exchange capacity and rate of weathering)
Soil structure
Shape size and distinctiveness of soil aggregates
Blocky, spheriodal, platy and prismatic
The finer textured the stronger the structure
Determines soil porosity - effects water and air movement

Index Properties of Soil

The laboratory tests, which provide information on physical
properties of soil, are known as classification tests and
numerical results of such tests are known as index
properties.
Soil materials having similar index properties are likely to exhibit similar
engineering behavior.
The index properties are of a great value to the civil engineer;
provide means in the correlation of construction experience
form a basis for information of the correctness of the field identification of
a given material
If the material is improperly identified, the index properties indicate the
errors and lead to correct classification

Index properties may be divided into two general types:

1. Soil Grain Properties
2. Soil Aggregate Properties

Soil Grain Properties:

Properties of the individual particles of which the soil is
composed of and are independent in the manner of soil
formation. These properties can be determined from
distributed samples. Soil grain properties are commonly
used for soil identification and classification.

Soil Aggregate Properties:

Depend on the structure and the arrangement of the
particles in the soil mass. The soil aggregate properties
have a greater influence on the engineering behavior of soil
mass. The engineering behavior of a soil mass depends on
its strength, compressibility and permeability characteristics.

Soil classification
It is a sort of labeling with different labels. It is more convenient
to study the behavior of groups than that of individual soils

As there is a wide variety of soils covering earth, it is desirable to

systematize or classify the soils into broad groups of similar
behavior.
Soil classification for engineering purpose is necessary to
describe the many type of soil that exist in nature.

Soil classification .
Soil classification divides soils into groups and subgroups based
on common engineering properties such as grain-size
distribution, liquid limit and plastic limit.
Soil classification permits us to solve many problems related to
soils and guide the test programs if the difficulty and importance
of the problem dictates further investigations.

Purpose of soil classification

1. Provides a concise and systematic method for designating
various types of soil
2. Enables useful engineering conclusions to be made about
soil properties
3. Provides a common language
engineering knowledge of soil,
communication

which organizes the

and is a means of

Classifying soils into groups with similar behavior, in terms

of simple indices, can provide geotechnical engineers a
general guidance about engineering properties of the soils
through the accumulated experience.

Communicate
between
engineers

Simple indices
GSD, LL, PI

Classification
system
(Language)

Estimate
engineering
properties

Achieve
engineering
purposes

10

Major Soil Groups

Soils are basically divided into two broad categories
called cohesion-less soils and cohesive soils. The
differences depend on whether the individual particles
are held together only as a result of;
Gravity or external loads (cohesion-less soil)

Inter-particle bonds (cohesive soil)

Major Soil Groups

Granular ( or cohesionless) Soils:

Include gravel, sand, non-plastic silt and combination of them.

Sources of shear strength are the sliding friction and
mechanical interlocking between the particles (compressive
contact forces). Soil particles do not tend to stick together. They
are highly permeable.

Cohesive Soils:
Include clay or other soils with significant clay contents. Interparticle bonding (which is independent of the normal load)
provides the major part of the shear strength. Soil particles tend
to stick together. They are less permeable

Major Soil Groups

Clay:
magnified about 1,600 times

Sand grain:
magnified about 40 times

Source: The Nature and Properties of Soils, 8th edition,

Macmillan Publishing Co

Granular Soils
High shear strength - Large bearing capacity
Small lateral pressure; High permeability (easily drained)
Good backfill materials for retaining walls
Relatively small settlements
Good embankment material
Good foundation materials for supporting roads and
structures
Engineering properties of granular soils are affected by
Grain sizes
Shapes
Grain-size distribution
Compactness

Cohesive Soils
Sticky, plastic, and compressible
Expand when wetted; Shrink when dried
Creep (deform plastically) over time under constant load
(when the shear stress is approaching its shear strength)
Develop large lateral pressure
Not good for retaining wall backfills
Low permeability or Impervious
Good core materials for earthen dams and dikes
Lower shear strength
Generally undesirable engineering properties

Most commonly used soil classification tests;

Most soil classifications employ very simple index-type tests to obtain the
characteristics of the soil needed to place it in a given group. The most
commonly used characteristics are particle size and plasticity. The particle
size distribution and the Atterberg limits are useful index tests inherently
involves disturbance of the soil, they may not give a good indication of the
behavior of the in situ, undisturbed soil.

1) Particle size characteristics

The particle size analysis of a soil sample involves determining
the percentage by mass of particles within the different size
ranges.
2) Liquid limit and plasticity index (Atterberg Limits)
Plasticity is an important characteristic in the case of fine soils,
the term plasticity describing the ability of a soil to undergo
unrecoverable deformation without cracking or crumbling.

Particle size characteristics

Characterization of Soils Based on Particle Size

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

Cohesive
soils
Clay

Granular soils or
Cohesionless soils
Silt

Sand

Gravel

Cobble
Boulder

0.002

0.075

4.75

Grain size (mm)

Fine grain
soils

Coarse grain
soils
18

Comparison of four systems for describing soils based on

particle size

British Standards (BS)

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS),
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) (a modification of the USCS system)

Characterization of Soils Based on Particle

Size
Because of the particulate nature of soil, it is
natural to consider the size of particles for
classification.
This test is performed to determine the percentage
of different grain sizes contained within a soil.
The mechanical or sieve analysis is performed to
determine the distribution of the coarser, largersized particles, and the hydrometer method is used
to determine the distribution of the finer particles.
21

Significance of Particle Size Distribution

(Granular Size Distribution)
This test is conducted to know the relative proportions of different
grain sizes. The particle size distribution is an important factor
influencing the geotechnical characteristics of a coarse grain soil

The distribution of different

engineering properties of soil

grain

sizes

affects

the

Grain size analysis provides the grain size distribution, and it

is required in classifying the soil.

Applications of particle size analysis:

Selection of fill material for embankments and dams (i.e. well graded
for better strength and high compaction)
Selection of aggregate materials (i.e. sand for concrete).

In

exploration for sand and gravel, particle size analysis is the main
criteria.
Selection of materials for road sub-bases
Drainage fillers (grading of material for filler requirements)
Ground water drainage (largely depend on the portion of fine grained
soil)
Grouting and chemical injection

Drainage filter:

24

Selection of materials for road, dams, embankments :

25

Grouting and chemical injection

26

Grain Size Distribution (GSD)

Determination of GSD:
1) In coarse grain soils ... By sieve analysis
2) In fine grain soils

... By hydrometer analysis

stack of sieves
hydrometer

soil/water suspension
Sieve Analysis

Hydrometer Analysis

27

Grain Size Distribution (GSD)

Very often, soils contain both coarse and
fine grains and it is necessary to do both
sieve and hydrometer analyses to obtain
the complete grain size distribution data
Sieve analysis is carried out first, and on
the soil fraction passing 75 m sieve, a
hydrometer analysis is carried out

Sieve Analysis

29

Grain Size Analysis

Sieve Analysis

Sieve Analysis
Sieve analysis is carried out by using a set of standard sieves
A nest of sieves is prepared by stacking sieves one above
the other with the largest opening at the top followed by
sieves of successively smaller openings and a catch pan at
the bottom.
Sieves are made by weaving two sets of wires at right angles
to one another
The square holes thus formed between the wires provide the
limit which determines the size of the particles retained on a
particular sieve
The sieve sizes are given in terms of the number of openings
per inch
The number of openings per inch varies according to different
standards.

Sieve Designation
Smaller sieves are numbered according to the number of
openings per inch
10 openings per
inch

1-inch

# 10 sieve

33

Two scales that are used to classify particle sizes are the US
Sieve Series and Tyler Standard Sieve Series

Sieving procedure
(1) Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan
to be used in the analysis.
(2) Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.
(3) Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in
the ascending order of sieve numbers (#200 sieve at bottom).
Place the pan below #200 sieve. Carefully pour the soil sample
into the top sieve and place the cap over it.

(4) Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for
10 minutes.
(5) Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh and
record the weight of each sieve with its retained soil. In
addition, remember to weigh and record the weight of the
bottom pan with its retained fine soil.
35

37

Sieve
Shaker
38

Data Analysis:
(1)Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve by
subtracting the weight of the empty sieve from the mass of
the sieve + retained soil, and record this mass as the
weight retained on the data sheet. The sum of these
retained masses should be approximately equals the initial
mass of the soil sample. A loss of more than two percent is
unsatisfactory.
(2)Calculate the percent retained on each sieve by dividing the
weight retained on each sieve by the total sample mass.

(3)Calculate the percent passing (or percent finer) by starting

with 100 percent and subtracting the percent retained on
each sieve as a cumulative procedure.
39

40

Example : Total weight of sample = 600g

Grain size distribution Curve

In science and engineering, a semi-log graph or semi-log

plot is a way of visualizing data that are changing with an
exponential relationship.

One axis is plotted on a logarithmic scale.

This kind of plot is useful when one of the variables being
plotted covers a large range of values and the other has
only a restricted range

The advantage being that it can bring out features in the

data that would not easily be seen if both variables had
been plotted linearly

Grain size distribution Curve

100

% Finer

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

10

100

Particle size (mm)

43

Grading curves
100

% Finer

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

10

100

Particle size (mm)

W

Well graded

44

Grading curves
100

% Finer

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

10

100

Particle size (mm)

W

Well graded

Uniform

45

Grading curves
100

% Finer

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

10

100

Particle size (mm)

W

Well graded

Uniform

Gap graded

Poorly
Graded
46

Well-graded

Uniform-graded

Poorly

Gap-graded

Graded

Well Graded

Uniformly Graded

Gap Graded

x% of the soil has particles smaller than Dx

100

% Finer

80 % 80
60
40
20

10 %
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

D10

0.1

D80

10

100

Particle size (mm)

Dx is the diameter corresponding to x% finer

in the particle-size distribution
49

Particle-Size Distribution Curve

1. Effective Size (D10)

10% Finer

Hydraulic Conductivity

2. Uniformity Coefficient (Cu)

D60
Cu
D10
3. Coefficient of Curvature (Cc)
2
D30
Cc
D60 D10

Particle-Size Distribution Curve

Criteria for Well-Graded Soil (USCS)

1 Cc 3 and Cu 4
(for gravels)
1 Cc 3 and Cu 6
(for sands)

% Finer

What is the Cu for a soil with only one grain size?

Coefficien t of uniformity
D60
Cu
1
D10
Grain size distribution, mm

D
52

Possible Errors in Sieve Analysis

Aggregations of particles not thoroughly broken.
Overloading sieves
Sieves shaken for too short a period or with
inadequate motions
Broken or deformed sieve screens.

Loss of material during the analysis process

Hydrometer analysis
(Sedimentation)

Particle Size Distribution - Sedimentation

For particles 75m (silt and clay fractions)
sedimentation methods based on Stokes law are used
to deduce particle size distribution.

Soil particles settle in aqueous solution attaining

terminal velocities proportional to their mass and size.
The amount of suspended soil after a given settling
time is used to determine particle size fractions.
The amount of soil in suspension is determined by
either extracting a sample by the pipette method or
from a direct hydrometer reading.

What is a Hydrometer?
Device used to determine directly the
specific gravity of a liquid
Consists of a thin glass tube closed at
both ends
Large bulb contains lead shot to cause
the instrument to float upright in liquid.
Scale is calibrated to indicate the
specific gravity of the liquid.

Required Test Equipment

Measure Sample
Collect 50 g of fine soil, passing through No. 200 (0.075mm)
from mechanical sieving procedure

Dispersion agent
Finer grains of soil carry charges on their surface and hence have a
tendency to form flocs. Thus if the floc formation is not prevented the grain
diameter obtained would be the diameter of flocs and not of the individual
grain. Hence in sedimentation analysis, deflocculating agents are to be
added.

Add sample to 125 ml of 40g/L Sodium Hexometaphosphate

as deflocculating solution. (sodium oxalate or sodium silicate
may also used)
Allow to soak for 12~16 hours

 Mix sample with spatula to dislodge settled particles

Pour sample into mixing cup
Use distilled water to rinse beaker

Sample Preparation

Add distilled water to the soil in mixer

cup to make it about two-thirds full.
Mix using mixer for 2~3 minutes

Sample Preparation
Pour the mix into the standard sedimentation 1000mL
cylinder.
Make sure that all of the soil solids are washed out of the
mixer cup.
Fill the graduated cylinder with distilled water to bring the
water level to 1000 cc mark
The suspension in the cylinder is then shaken for
approximately 1 min by placing the palm of the hand over
the open end and turning the cylinder upside down and
back

Starting the Test

Set the jar on the bench and record the time. This is time (t=0) on
your data sheet.
Take a hydrometer reading and temperature reading at prescribed
intervals (, , 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 minutes, 1hr, 2hr, 4hr, 8hr, 16hr, 24 hr
etc, approximately doubling the previous time interval).
Take frequent temperature measurements of suspension. Hydrometer
readings should be taken in the distilled water with same amount of
dispersion agent at regular time intervals.
After each reading the hydrometer is put into the transparent cylinder

Three forces acting on a spherical particle.

Stokes Law

Gravitaional
Bouyancy

Fb f (4 r 3 3) g

Drag

Buoyancy Force
(weight of displaced liquid)

Buoyancy and drag forces act against the

gravitational force.

Drag Force (exerted by

the surrounding liquid)

Fd 6 r V

Gravitational Force

Fg s (4 r 3 3)g

l....density liquid [kg/m3]

s ...density solid [kg/m3]
r.....radius sphere [m]
g ....acceleration of gravity [m/s2]
V....settling velocity [m/s]

dynamic viscosity [kg/m s]

Fi 0 Fg Fb Fd

Stokes Law :
The three forces acting upon the settling particle quickly equilibrate and the particle
reaches a constant settling velocity
We can solve the force balance equation to obtain the settling velocity

Fi 0 Fg Fb Fd

s f d 2 g
4 r 3
4 r 3
g f
g 6 rV V
0 s
18
3
3
Since the velocity (V) equals length per time we can calculate the time particles of a
certain size need to settle through a distance L,:
2
L s f d g
V
t
18

18 L
t
(s f ) d 2 g

t is the time required for particles of a certain size to settle

below a certain depth L.

Hydrometer Analysis
Start

All particles are

in suspension

V1

<

V2

After Minutes
After Hours

Only Silt and Clay

particles are
in suspension

Only Clay
particles are
in suspension

Example of Hydrometer
Calibration Curve

67

Corrections should be done for effect of Meniscus

and Dispersion agents
Meniscus correction :

Assumptions used for Hydrometer test

Particles are large enough to be unaffected by the
thermal (Brownian) motion of the fluid molecules
All particles are rigid, spherical, and smooth
All particles have the same density
The suspension is dilute enough that particles do
not interfere with each other

Fluid flow around the particles is laminar. That

means no particle exceeds the critical velocity for
the onset of turbulence
69

Possible Errors in Hydrometer Analysis

Oven drying may cause permanent changes in the particle sizes.
Unequal density of soil particles
Affect from Brownian motion
Soil particles are not truly spherical
Unsatisfactory type or quantity of dispersing agent (may form flocs) .

Insufficient shaking or agitating of suspension in cylinder at start of test.

Too much soil in suspension.
Disturbance of suspension while inserting or removing hydrometer.

Stem of hydrometer not clear.

Dirt or grease on the stem may prevent full development of the meniscus.
Nonsymmetrical heating of suspension.

Excessive variation in temperature of suspension during test.

Loss of material after test.

70

Modern methods for particle size analyses

-Optical Microscopy
-Sieving with digital image processing
- Transmission/Scanning Electron Microscopy
- X-ray attenuation

- Particle counting (Coulter method)

- Light Scattering and Laser Diffraction Methods

71

Soil Consistency

72

Soil Consistency
Soil consistence provides a means of describing the
degree and kind of cohesion and adhesion between the soil
particles as related to the resistance of the soil to deform
or rupture

Soil Behave Like:

SOILD at very low moisture content
LIQUID at very high moisture content

73

Soil Consistency :
Consistency is a term used to indicate the degree of firmness of
cohesive soils. The consistency of natural cohesive soil deposits is
expressed qualitatively by such terms as very soft, soft, stiff, very
stiff and hard
The physical properties of clays greatly differ at different water
contents. A soil which is very soft at a higher percentage of water
content becomes very hard with a decrease in water content
However, it has been found that at the same water content, two
samples of clay of different origins may possess different
consistency. One clay may be relatively soft while the other may be
hard. Further, a decrease in water content may have little effect on
one sample of clay but may transform the other sample from almost
a liquid to a very firm condition
Water content alone, therefore, is not an adequate index of
consistency for engineering and many other purposes.
74

Plasticity property :
Water Content Significantly affects properties of Silty and
Clayey soils. Plasticity property describes the response of a
soil to change in moisture content.
Strength decreases as water content increases
Soils swell-up when water content increases

Fine-grained soils at very high water content possess

properties similar to liquids
As the water content is reduced, the volume of the soil
decreases and the soils become plastic
If the water content is further reduced, the soil becomes

semi-solid when the volume does not change

75

At a very low moisture content, soil behaves more like

a solid. When the moisture content is very high, the
soil and water may flow like a liquid. Hence, on an
arbitrary basis, depending on the moisture content,
the behavior of soil can be divided into 4 basic states:
solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid.

76

Plasticity

Volume

Soils can be in any one of 4 physical states

(based on water content)

Solid

Semisolid

Plastic

Water Content

Liquid

77

Atterberg Limits
Albert Atterberg,
a Swedish scientist,
considered
the
consistency of soils in
1911, and proposed a
series of tests for defining
the properties of cohesive
soils.

78

Introduction of Atterberg Limits to

the
field
of
geotechnical
engineering was due to Karl
Terzaghi, who came to realize its
importance at a relatively early
stage of his research. Terzaghis
assistant,
Arthur
Casagrande,
standardized the tests in his paper
in 1932 and the procedures have
been followed worldwide ever
since.

79

Atterberg Limits
The presence of water in fine-grained soils can significantly affect
associated engineering behavior, so we need a reference index to
clarify the effects

80

Soil Consistency - Atterberg Limits

Depending on Moisture Content soil can be divided into:

Moisture Content (w)

1. Solid
Shrinkage Limit (SL)

2. Semi-Solid
Plastic Limit (PL)

3. Plastic

Plasticity Index
(PI) = PL - LL
Liquid Limit (LL)

4. Liquid
81

Atterberg limits are the points at which the soil

changes phase. Atterberg limits also depend on
the type of predominant mineral in the soil

Volume

Liquid
Limit

Plastic
Limit
Shrinkage
Limit

SemiSolid solid
SL

Plastic

Liquid

Plasticity Index
PI

PL
Water Content

LL

82

Atterberg limits are the points at which the

soil changes phase
The liquid limit: is the moisture content that defines where the
soil changes from a plastic to a viscous fluid state and begins
to flow.
The plastic limit: is the moisture content that defines where the
soil changes from a semi-solid to a plastic (flexible) state.
Shrinkage Limit (SL) is defined as the moisture content at
which no further volume change occurs with further reduction in
moisture content
Plasticity Index (PI) is the difference between the liquid limit
and plastic limit of a soil
PI = LL PL

83

Source: Budhu, 2010

84

Liquid Limit-LL

Casagrande Method
(ASTM D4318)
Professor Casagrande standardized the test and developed the liquid limit
device.

Cone Penetrometer Method

(BS 1377)
This method is developed by the Transport and Road Research
Laboratory, UK.
85

Casagrande
Method for LL
(ASTM D4318)

86

LL is defined as the moisture content (%) required to

close a 2-mm wide groove in a soil pat a distance of
12.7 mm along the bottom of the groove after 25 blows

87

 The liquid limit is determined from an apparatus that consists of a

semispherical brass cup that is repeatedly dropped on to a hard rubber base
from a height of 10 mm by a cam operated mechanism
A dry powder of the soil (100g, passing through No:40) is mixed with distilled
water into a paste and placed in the cup to a thickness of about 12.7 mm (1/2
inch). The soil surface is smoothed and a groove is cut into the soil using a
standard grooving tool
The crank operating the cam is turned at a rate of 2 revolutions per second,
and the number of blows required to close the groove over a length of 12.7 mm
(1/2 inch) is counted and recorded.
A specimen of soil within the closed portion is extracted for determination of
the water content.
The liquid limit is defined as the water content at which the groove cut into the
soil will close over a distance of 12.7 mm (1/2 inch) following 25 blows.
This is difficult to achieve in a single test. Four or more tests at different water
contents are usually required for terminal blows (number of blows to close the
groove over a distance of 12.7 mm) ranging from 10 to 50.
88

CASAGRANDE METHOD

89

90

Liquid Limit - Measurement

Flow Index = If = Slope of the flow curve (flow curve in the plot of water content vs
number of blows in log scale)

Liquid Limit (LL) at N = 25

91

Second Method
Liquid Limit - Measurement
Fall Cone Method BS1377

92

Liquid Limit - Measurement

Fall Cone Method BS1377

Liquid Limit (LL) at d = 20 mm

93

Plastic Limit
The minimum water content at which a soil will just begin
to crumble when it is rolled into a thread of approximately
3 mm in diameter.

94

Plastic Limit w% procedure

Take 15~20g of soil used for LL test

Prepare several ellipsoidal-shaped soil masses by quizzing

the soil with your hand.
Put the soil in rolling device, and roll the soil until the thread
reaches 3.0~3.2mm.
Continue rolling until the thread crumbles into several pieces.

Determine the moisture content of about 6g of the crumbled

soil (obtain 3 data and take the average).

95

96

Plasticity index (PI)

The plasticity index (PI) is the difference between the liquid
limit and the plastic limit of a soil: PI = LL-PL

Plasticity index indicates the degree of plasticity of a soil

The greater the difference between liquid and plastic limits,
the greater is the plasticity of the soil
A cohesion-less soil has zero plasticity index. Such soils are
termed non-plastic.
Fat clays are highly plastic and possess a high plasticity
index.
The plasticity index is important in classifying fine-grained
soils. It is fundamental to the Casagrande plasticity chart,
which is currently the basis for the Unified Soil Classification
System
97

Plasticity index (PI)

98

Prof. Donald M.Burmister (1949) classified the

plasticity index in a qualitative manner as follows

99

Important consistency relationships :

1) Plasticity Index (PI), =Ip = LL - PL

PL
2) Liquidity Index (LI) LI
LL PL
The relative consistency of a cohesive soil in the natural state
can be defined by liquidity index (LI). w in situ moisture
content of soil. The in situ moisture content for a sensitive clay
may be greater than the liquid limit. In this case: LI < 1
Soil deposits that are heavily over consolidated may have a
natural moisture content less than the plastic limit.
In this case: LI > 1
100

3) Consistency Index (CI)

CI

LL
LL PL

If w = LL, the CI= 0 and if w = PI, then CI = 1

4) Flow Index = If = Slope of the flow curve

(flow curve in the plot of water content vs number of blows in
log scale)

101

Plasticity Chart (USCS)

Casagrande (1932) studied the relationship of the plasticity
index to the liquid limit of a wide variety of natural soils and
proposed a plasticity chart
Intermediate plasticity

Low
plasticity

Liquid Limit

60

High
plasticity

40

Clays
Silts

20

0
0

20

35

50

Liquid Limit

100
102

PI, %

LL Values < 16 % not realistic

16

Liquid Limit, %
103

PI, %

LL Values > 50 - HIGH

Liquid Limit, %

50
104

PI, %

LL Values < 50 - LOW

Liquid Limit, %

50
105

Plasticity Chart
L

The A-line generally

separates the more
claylike
materials
from silty materials,
and the organics
from the inorganics.

PI

The U-line indicates

the upper bound for
general soils.
LL

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

Note:
If the measured limits of soils are on the left of U-line, they should be rechecked.
106

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

Origin of USCS:
This system was first developed by Professor A. Casagrande (1948) for the
purpose of airfield construction during World War II. Afterwards, it was
modified by Professor Casagrande, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, and
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to enable the system to be applicable to
dams, foundations, and other construction (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981).
Soil classification determined base on the soil parameter;
Diameter of soil particle
Gravel : pass sieve no.3 but retained at sieve no. 4
Sand : pass sieve no. 4 but retained at sieve no. 200
Silt and Clay : pass sieve no. 200

Coefficient of soil uniform (Cu, Cc)

Atterberg Limits
107

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS

Symbols:
Soil symbols:
G: Gravel
S: Sand
M: Silt
C: Clay
O: Organic
Pt: Peat
Example: SW, Well-graded sand
SC, Clayey sand
SM, Silty sand,
MH, Elastic silt

Liquid limit symbols:

H: High LL (LL>50)
L: Low LL (LL<50)
Gradation symbols:
W: Well-graded
P: Poorly-graded
Well graded soil
1 C c 3 and C u 4
(for gravels )
1 C c 3 and C u 6
(for sands)
109

USCS-Summary

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

110

THE FLOW CHART OF USCS METHOD

Make visual examination of soil to determine

whether it is HIGHLY ORGANIC, COARSE
GRAINED, or FINE GRAINED, ini borderline
cases determine amount passing No. 200 sieve

HIGHLY ORGANIC SOIL (Pt)

Fibrous texture, color, odor, very high
moisture content, particle of vegetable
matter (sticks, leaves, etc.)

COARSED GRAINED
50% or less pass No.200 sieve

FINE GRAINED
More than 50% pass No.200 sieve

111

FLOWCHART OF USCS METHOD (CONTINUED)

COARSED GRAINED
50% or less pass No.200 sieve

Run sieve analysis

GRAVEL (G)
Greater percentage of coarse
fraction retained on No. 4 sieve

Less than 5%
pass No. 200
sieve *

Examine grain size

curve

Between 5% and 12%

pass No. 200 sieve

Borderline. to have double

symbol appropriate to grading
and plasticity characteristic,
e.g. GW-GM

SAND (S)
Greater percentage of coarse
fraction pass on No. 4 sieve

more than 12%

pass No. 200
sieve

Less than 5%
pass No. 200
sieve *

Run LL and PL on
minus No. 40
sieve fraction

Examine grain size

curve

Between 5% and 12%

pass No. 200 sieve

Borderline. to have double

symbol appropriate to grading
and plasticity characteristic,
e.g. GW-GM

more than 12%

pass No. 200
sieve

Run LL and PL on
minus No. 40
sieve fraction

Well
Graded

Poorly
Graded

Below A line and

hatched zone on
plasticity chart

Limits plot in
hatched zone on
plasticity chart

Above A line and

hatched zone on
plasticity chart

Well
Graded

Poorly
Graded

Below A line and

hatched zone on
plasticity chart

Limits plot in
hatched zone on
plasticity chart

Above A line and

hatched zone on
plasticity chart

GW

GP

GM

GM-GC

GC

SW

SP

SM

SM-SC

SC

112

Between 5% and 12%?

(passing sieve No:200)

113

FLOWCHART USCS METHOD (CONTINUED)

FINE GRAINED
More than 50% pass
No.200 sieve

Run LL and PL on minus No.40

sieve material

L
Liquid Limit
less than 50

Below A line and hatched

zone on plasticity chart

Limits plot in hatched

zone on plasticity
chart

H
Liquid Limit
more than 50

Above A line and hatched

zone on plasticity chart

Color, odor, possibly LL

and PL on oven dry soil

Organic

Inorganic

OL

ML

Below A line on
plasticity chart

Above A line on
plasticity chart

Color, odor, possibly LL

and PL on oven dry soil

ML-CL

CL

Inorganic

Organic

MH

OH

CH

114

British Soil Classification System

Soil group
Coarse soils
G
G-F
GRAVEL
GF
S
SAND

S-F
SF

Fine soils
SILT

Symbol
<35% fines
GW
GPu/GPg
GWM/GWC
GPM/GPC

Fines %
0-5
0-5
5 - 15
5 - 15

Recommended name
Well-graded GRAVEL
Uniform/poorly-graded GRAVEL
Well-graded silty/clayey GRAVEL
Poorly graded silty/clayey GRAVEL

GML, GMI...

15 - 35

Very silty GRAVEL [plasticity sub-group...]

GCL, GCI...

15 - 35

Very clayey GRAVEL [..symbols as below]

SW
SPu/SPg
SWM/SWC
GPM/GPC
SML, SMI...
SCL, SCI...

0-5
0-5
5 - 15
5 - 15
15 - 35
15 - 35

Well-graded SAND
Uniform/poorly-graded SAND
Well-graded silty/clayey SAND
Poorly graded silty/clayey SAND
Very silty SAND [plasticity sub-group...]
Very clayey SAND [..symbols as below]

>35% fines
MG
MS
ML, MI...
CG
CS
CL
CI
CH
CV
CE

Liquid limit%

<35
35 - 50
50 - 70
70 - 90
>90

Gravelly SILT
Sandy SILT
[Plasticity subdivisions as for CLAY]
Gravelly CLAY
Sandy CLAY
CLAY of low plasticity
CLAY of intermediate plasticity
CLAY of high plasticity
CLAY of very high plasticity
CLAY of extremely high plasticity

CLAY

Organic soils

[Add letter 'O' to group symbol]

Peat

Pt

[Soil predominantly fibrous and organic]

115

Example :
A sample of soil was tested in the laboratory with the
following results:
Liquid limit = 30%
Plastic limit = 12%
Sieve analysis data:
U.S. Sieve Size

Percentage Passing

3/8 in.

100.0

No. 4

76.5

No. 10

60.0

No. 40

39.7

No. 200

15.2

Classify the soil by the Unified Soil Classification System

Example Soil A