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PART VI

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Geography

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Chapter 1 Resources and Development

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Chapter 2 Forest and Wildlife

Resources

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Chapter 3 Water Resources

Chapter 4 Agriculture Theory

Chapter 5 Manufacturing Industries
Chapter 6 Minerals and Resources
Chapter 7 Lifeline of National Economy

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CHAPTER

Resources and Development

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India is often said to be a continent and not a country. It has a diverse geographical entity, separated from Asia by the Himalayas in the north and bordered by the seas on other sides. It has a
unity of its own, which has been preserved and nurtured in the Indian way of life. It has diverse
geographical conditions, climate, scenery and people. Here lie some of the highest peaks, the
longest plains and the wettest, the hottest and the coldest regions in the world. In the forests
of the country exist various species of rare animals such as the Asian lions, rhinos, Sinewy tigers,
Sambhar, deer, elephants and other mammals. The lands mass of India falls into the three natural regions namely the Himalayas in the north, the Deccan Plateau in the south and the IndoGangetic Plain in the middle.
The historical experience of Indo-China in relation to that of India, you will discover important
differences in the way colonial empires functioned and the anti-imperial movement developed.

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Foundatio
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Resources and Development

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Syllabus

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Resources and its meaning Classification of Resource Resources planning and development Land use
pattern Soil, Formation and characteristics Soil erosion and its causes Causes of land degradation.

20

Introduction
Resources:

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Objects or thins in the environment. That fulfils

the basic needs of man. These are technologically accessible,
economically feasible and culturally acceptable.
Natural Resources: Resources, which are endowments/gifts
of nature like rivers, mountains, forests, etc.
Resource Development: An exercise that makes it possible to
utilize the available natural resources for human satisfaction.
Contour Ploughing: Ploughing along the contour lies instead
of up and down the slope.
Land Use Pattern: Land utilization data available for a country during a given period.
Gully Erosion: Erosion predominant along steps slopes
caused by the action of rain water.
Sheet Erosion: Erosion of the top soil along gentle slopes
caused by rain water.

Badland:

Land consisting of numerous gullies and ravines.

A part of the resource, which can be profitably developed in the near future with the development of
technology.

Reserves:

Resources
Everything available in our environment, which can be used to
satisfy our needs provided, it is technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable can be termed as
Resource.

Are Resources Free Gifts of Nature?

No resources are a function of human activities. Human beings
themselves are essential components of resources. They transform material available in our environment into resources and
use them.

PART VI Geography

Importance of Resources

Non-Renewable Resources They occur over a very long

geological time. These resources take millions of years in their
formation.
For example, metals, fossil fuels etc.

(i)Resources form the backbone of the economy of the

nation.
(ii)Resources form the base for economic strength and
prosperity.
(iii)By utilizing natural resources, humans have created their
own world of living.

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(c) On the Basis of Ownership:

Individual Resources These are also owned privately by
individuals. Plantation, pasture lands, ponds, water in wells, etc.
are some of the examples of resources owned by individuals.

vt.

Characteristics
(i) Resources have utility.
(ii) Resources are normally available in limited quantity.
(iii)Man has to make effort to get utility from the resources.
(iv)Resources provide services and help us to create goods.
(v)Utility of a resource or its usability changes with improvement in science and technology.

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Community-Owned Resources These are resources, which

are accessible to all the members of the community. Village
commons (grazing grounds, burial grounds, village ponds,
etc.) Public parks, picnic spots, playgrounds in urban areas are
accessible to all the people living there.
National Resources Technically all the resources available
in a country belong to that nation are called national resources.
For example, All the minerals water resources, forests, wild
life, land, etc

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Example

Origin

Biotic
Abiotic

Flora and fauna

Minerals, Soil

Exhaustibility

Non-renewable
Individual
Community
National
International

Fossil Fuel, metals

Private land, orchard
Village Pond, Park
River, Mines
International Ocean
Territory starts after 200 km
of national boundary

Potential
resources are yet
to be exploited

Potential wind energy

source in desserts of India
Coal Mines, Oil wells

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Class

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Stage of
Development

International Resources There are international institutions,

which regulate some resources. The oceanic resources beyond
200 km of the Exclusive Economic Zone belong to open
ocean and no individual country can utilize these without the
concurrences of international institutions.

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Basis of
Classification

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Classification of Resources

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Developed Stock Geothermal Power Resource

potential cannot Hydrogen Fuel
be exploited
because of lack
of technology or
capital

(a) On the basis of origin:

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Biotic Resources These are obtained from biosphere and

have life.
For example, human beings, flora and fauna, fisheries, livestock etc.
Abiotic Resources All those things, which are composed of
nonliving things, are called abiotic resources.
For example, rocks and metals.
(b) On the basis of exhaustibility:
Renewable Resources The resources, which can be re-newed
or reproduced by physical, chemical or mechani-cal processes,
are known as renewable or replenishable resources.
For example, solar and wind energy, water, forests and wildlife etc.

(d) On the Basis of the Status of Development:

Potential Resources These resources, which are found in a
region, have not been utilized properly, despite availability of
technology.
For example, Gujarat and Rajasthan have potential for the
development of wind and solar energy, but so far these have not
been developed properly.
Developed Resources Resources, which are surveyed and
their quality and quantity have been determined for utilization,
the development of resources depends on technology and level
of their feasibility.
Stock Materials, which have the potential to satisfy human
needs but human beings do not have the appropriate technology
to access these.
Reserves are the subset of the stock, which can be put into
use with the help of existing technical know-how but their use
has not been started.

Reserves
They can be put into use with the help of existing technical
know-how but their use has not been started.
For example, River water can be used for generating hydroelectric power but presently, it is being utilized only to a limited
extent.

Chapter 1 Resources and Development

Rio De Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992

Interdependent Relationship between

Nature, Technology and Institutions

In June 1992, more than 100 heads of states met in Rio de Janeiro
in Brazil, for the first International Earth Summit. The Summit
was convened for addressing urgent problems of environmental protection and socioeconomic development at the global
level. The assembled leaders signed the Declaration on Global
Climatic Change and Biological Diversity. The Rio Convention
endorsed the global Forest Principles and adopted Agenda 21
for achieving Sustainable Development in the 21st century.

process of transformation of things available in an environment involves an interdependent relationship between

nature, technology and institutions.
Human beings interact in the nature through technology and
create institutions to accelerate their economic development.
Human beings themselves are essential components of
resource. They transform material into resources and use
them.

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The

Agenda 21

Human Society

is the declaration signed by world leaders in 1992 at the

United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED) at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
It aims at achieving global sustainable development and to
combat environmental damage, poverty, disease through
global cooperation on common interests, mutual needs and
shared responsibilities.
Every local government should draw its own local Agenda 21.

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Technology

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Instiution

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Nature

Need of Planning
Planning

is needed for the judicious use of resources.

is important for India, as it has enormous diversity in the
availability of resources.
There are regions, which are rich in certain types of
resources.
There are regions, which are self-sufficient in the availability
of resources.
There are regions, which have acute shortage of some vital
resources.

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For example,
(i)Land has to be cleared of forests or unwanted plants
before agriculture.
(ii)Minerals have to be dug out and smelt before being
converted into machinery.
(iii) Water has to be taken to fields to irrigate lands.

Resource Planning

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It is a necessary exercise for the utilization of resource; it is not

only exploitation but also preservation and reuse.

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Development of Resources

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(a) Points to be kept in mind while using the natural

resources:

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(i)Renewable resources should not be put to wrong use or

polluted.
(ii)Non-renewable resources should be used properly and
should be preserved for the future generation also.

(b) Human beings have used the resources indiscriminately

and this has led to the following major problems:

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(i)Depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of few

individuals.
(ii)Accumulation of resources in few hands, which in turn
divided the society into two segments i.e., haves and
have nots or rich and poor.
(iii)Indiscriminate exploitation of resources has led to
global ecological crises, such as global warming,
ozone layer depletion, environmental pollution and
land degradation.
(c) Sustainable development: Sustainable economic development means development should take place without
damaging the environment, and development in the present should not compromise with the needs of the future
generations.

It

For example,
State of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh are
rich in minerals and coal deposits, but lacks in infrastructural
development.
Arunachal Pradesh has abundance of water resources but
lacks infrastructural development.
Rajasthan is rich in solar and wind energy, but lacks in water
resources.
Ladakh is deficient in water and some vital minerals but rich
in heritage.
This calls for balanced resource planning at the national,
state, regional and local levels.

Resource Planning in India

Resource planning is a complex process, which involves:
1. Identification and inventory of resources across the
regions of the country: This involves surveying, mapping and qualitative and quantitative estimation and measurement of the resources.

PART VI Geography

2. Evolving a planning structure: Its appropriate technology, skill and institutional set up for implementing resource
development plan.
3. Matching the resource development plans: The resource development plan must match with the overall
national development plan.

activities, transport and communication systems. It is important to use the available land for various purposes with careful planning.

Indias Vast and Diverse Size Is the Most

Important Resource

vt.

(i)43 per cent of the total land is plain providing opportunities

for agriculture and comfortable living.
(ii)30 per cent is mountainous, provides forest, wildlife and
Perennial Rivers.
(iii)27 per cent is plateau, providing mineral resources, forests
and arable lands.
(iv)Mountains and plateaus contain river valleys that offer
favourable locations for human habitation.
(v)Monsoonal climate has made our land more valuable from
agriculture and vegetation point of view.

of resource is necessary for the development of

any region.
can contribute to development only when there is
technological development.
Quality of human resources and historical experiences of the
people are also required.
The history of colonization reveals that rich resources in colonies were the main attractions for the foreign invaders.
It was primarily the higher level of technological development of the colonizing countries that helped them to exploit
resources of other regions and establish their supremacy over
the colonies.
Therefore, in India, development, in general and resources
development in particular does not only involves the availability of resources, but also the technology, quality of human
resources and the historical experience of the people.

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Availability

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Indias Efforts for Achieving The Goals

of Resource Planning

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Land resources are used for the following purposes:

1. Forests
2. Land not available for cultivation

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Conservation of Resources

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Need

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Is a judicious and planned use of natural resources?

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(i) Most of the resources are nonrenewable, once they get

exhausted, can never be reused.
(ii) Economic development of a nation depends to a great
extent on the richness, development and management of
the resources.
(iii) In-appropriate and reckless utilization of resources can
deplete them.
(iv) Over-exploitation causes damage to the existing environment.

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Gandhis Views on Conservation of Resources

is enough for everybodys need and not for any bodys
greed.
He placed the greedy and selfish individuals and exploitative
nature of modern technology as the root cause for resource
depletion at the global level.
He was against mass production and wanted to replace it with
the production by the masses.

(a) Barren and waste land

(b) Land put to non-agricultural uses, e.g., buildings, roads,
factories, etc.
3. Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow land)
(a) Permanent pastures and grazing land,
(b) Land under miscellaneous tree crops groves (not
included in net sown area),
(c) Culturable waste land (left uncultivated for more than 5
agricultural years).
4. Fallow lands
(a) Current fallow (left without cultivation for one or less
than one agricultural year).
(b) Other than current fallow (left uncultivated for the past
1 to 5 agricultural years).
5. Net sown area.

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Resource

Land Resources
Importance
Land is a natural resource of utmost importance. It supports natural vegetation, wild life, human life, economic

Land Use Pattern in India

The use of land is determined both by physical factors, such as
topography, climate, soil types as well as human factors, such
as population density, technological capability and culture and
traditions, etc.
Total geographical area of India is 3.28 million sq. km land
use data, however, is available only for 93 per cent of the total
area because the land use reporting for most of the north-east
states except Assam has not been done fully.

Chapter 1 Resources and Development

generate huge quantity of dust in the atmosphere, which settles down on the surface.
In recent years industrial effluents as waste have become a
major source of land and water pollution in many parts of the
country.

Land Resource in India

27%
Plain
Mountains
Plateau

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Ways to Solve the Problems of Land

Degradation

30%

Afforestation

and proper management of grazing

of shelter belts of plants
Control on over-grazing
Stabilization of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes
Proper management of waste land
Control of mining activities
Proper discharge and disposal of industrial effluents and
wastes after treatment

Land Resources

vt.

43%

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Planting

Land Degradation and Conservation

Measures

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Continuous use of land over a long period of time without taking

appropriate measures to conserve and manage it, has resulted in
land degradation.

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Soil Resources

Indias Degraded Land

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is the most important renewable resource.

is the medium of plant growth.
It supports different types of living organisms on the earth.
Soil is a living system.

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Water eroded area

Forestes degraded area
Saline and Alkaline land
Wind eroded area

56 %

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28 %

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present, there are about 130 million hectares degraded

land.
About 28 per cent of it belongs to the category of forest
degraded area.
56 per cent of it is water eroded area.
The rest is affected by saline and alkaline deposits.
Some human activities, such as deforestation, over-grazing
mining and quarrying have also contributed significantly in
land degradation.

Importance of Soil

At

56 %
28 %
6 %
6%

Factors Responsible for Soil Formation

Relief

Parent

rock or bed rock

Climate

Vegetation
Time

and other forms of life

Horlzons 0c
O 2c
A 10c

20

Land Gradation

B
30c
C

sites are abandoned after excavation work is complete

leaving deep scars and traces of over-burdening. For example
in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa.

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Causes of Land Degradation

states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and

Maharashtra over-grazing is one of the main reasons for land
degradation.

In

the states of Punjab, Haryana, Western Utter Pradesh overirrigation is responsible for land degradation due to water logging leading to increase in salinity and alkalinity in the soil.

The

mineral processing like grinding of limestone for cement

industry and calcite and soap stone for ceramic industry

60c
Soil Profile

Various Forms of Nature Responsible

for Soil Formation
Change

in temperature
of running water
Wind and glaciers
Activities of decomposers
Chemical and organic changes
Actions

PART VI Geography

Classification of Soil

The alluvial soil consists of various proportions of sand, silt

and clay. As we move inlands towards the river valleys, soil
particles appear somewhat bigger in size. In the upper Malwa,
Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh and extend in the south east
direction along the Godavari and the Krishna valleys.

On the basis of factors responsible for soil formation colour,

thickness, texture, age, chemical and physical properties, the
soil of India can be classified in different types.

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CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

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Alluvial Soil Black Soil Red and Yellow Soil Laterite Soil Arid Soil

Alluvial Soils
Property: Alluvial soils are very fertile. Mostly these soils contain adequate proportion of potash, phosphoric acid and lime,
which are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheat and
other cereal and pulse crops. Due to its high fertility, regions of
alluvial soils are intensively cultivated and densely populated.
Soils in the drier areas are more alkaline and can be productive
after proper treatment and irrigation.

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Ideal Crop Cotton hence, another name is black cotton soil.

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Red and Yellow Soils

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Property: These soils have red colour due to diffusion of iron

in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow when it is
found in hydrated form.

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Spread in India: These have been deposited by three important Himalayan river systemsthe Indus, the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra. These soils also extend in Rajasthan and Gujarat
through a narrow corridor. Alluvial soil is also found in the eastern coastal plains particularly in the deltas of the Mahanadi, the
Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers.

Black Soil

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Types of Alluvial Soil Reaches of the river valley i.e., near

the place of the break of slope, the soils are coarse. Such soils
are more common in piedmont plains, such as Duars, Chos
and Terai.
Types as per Age of Soil:
Bangar: Old Alluvial Soil Khadar: New Alluvial Soil

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Black Soil (Regur Soil)

Spread: Parts of Orissa, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the

middle Ganga plain and along the piedmont zone of the Western
Ghats.

Laterite Soil
Property: Laterite has been derived from the Latin word later,
which means brick. The laterite soil develops in areas with high
temperature and heavy rainfall. This is the result of intense
leaching due to heavy rain. Humus content of the soil is low
because most of the micro organisms, particularly the decomposers, like bacteria, get destroyed due to high temperature.
Laterite soils are suitable for cultivation with adequate doses of
manures and fertilizers.

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Property: The black soils are made up of extremely fine i.e.,

clayey material. They are well-known for their capacity to hold
moisture. In addition, they are rich in soil nutrients, such as
calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime. These soils
are generally poor in phosphoric contents. They develop deep
cracks during hot weather, which helps in the proper aeration of
the soil. These soils are sticky when wet and difficult to work
on unless tilled immediately after the first shower or during the
pre-monsoon period.

Red and Yellow Soil

Spread: This type of soil is typical of the Deccan trap (Basalt)

region spread over northwest Deccan plateau and is made up of
lava flows. They cover the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra,

Laterite Soil

Spread: Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, and

the hilly areas of Orissa and Assam.

Chapter 1 Resources and Development

Crop: After adopting appropriate soil conservation

techniques particularly in the hilly areas of Karnataka, Kerala
and Tamil Nadu, this soil is very useful for growing tea and
coffee. Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and
Kerala are more suitable for crops like cashew nut.

Causes of Soil Erosion

activities like deforestation, over-grazing, construction and mining.

Defective methods of farming.
Ploughing in a wrong like up and down the slope forms
channels makes way for quick flow of water. This leads to
soil erosion. way etc. disturb this balance. Natural forces
like wind, glacier and water lead to soil erosion.
Sometimes water flows as a sheet over large areas down
a slope. In such cases the top soil is washed away. This is
known as sheet erosion.
Wind blows loose soil off flat or sloping land known as wind
erosion.

range from red to brown in colours.

They are generally sandy in texture and saline in nature.
In some area salt content is so high that common salt is
obtained by evaporating the water.
Due to dry climate, high temperature evaporation is faster and
the soil lacks humus and moisture.

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Soil Erosion

Arid Soils
Features of Arid Soils

Effects

Arid Soil

(i) Makes land unsuitable for cultivation.

(ii) Land so developed is called bad lands, in the Chambal
basin they are known as ravines.

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lower regions soil has Kankar in it because of the increasing calcium content.
It restricts the infiltration of water.
After proper irrigation these soil become cultivable, as it is
done in western Rajasthan.

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The running water cuts through the clayey soils and

makes deep channels called gullies.

Gullies

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Forest Soil
Features of Forest Soil

Various Types of Soil Erosion

soils are found in the hilly areas with rain forests.

texture varies according to the mountain environment.
They are loamy and silty in valley sides.
They are coarse grained in the upper slopes.
In the snow covered areas of Himalayas, they experience
denudation and are acidic with low humus content.

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Soil

Forest Soil

The

soils are formed in the lower parts of the valley on the

river terraces and alluvial fans are fertile.

Gully Erosion

Lands When the land becomes unfit for cultivation, it

is called Bad Lands. e.g., ravires in Chambal
Sheet Erosion Sometimes water flows as a sheet over large
areas down a slope. In such cases the top soil is washed away.
It is called sheet erosion.
Wind Erosion Wind blows loose soil off flat or sloping land
is called wind erosion.
Bad

Soil Conservation
Ploughing Ploughing along the contour lines can
decelerate the flow of water down the slopes.
Terrace Farming Steps can be cut out on the slopes making terraces to restrict erosion. Western and central Himalayas
have well developed terrace farming.
Contour

Soil Erosion
The denudation of soil cover and subsequent washing down is
described as soil erosion.

PART VI Geography

Cropping Large fields can be divided into strips.

Strips of grass are left to grow between the crops. This breaks
up the force of the wind.
Shelter Belts Planting lines of trees to create shelter also
works in a similar way. Rows of such These shelter belts have
contributed significantly to the stabilization of sand dunes and
in stabilizing the desert in western India.
Strip

Mind-Map

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Features of Resource
Fulfills our need
Limited in supply
Unevenly distributed sources
They are functions of human beings

Summary

vt.

Resource Planning
Inventory of resources
Availability of technology
Action oriented step for its use
Conservation of Resource
For future generation
Judicious use
Dependency on renewable
Development of alternate sources of energy

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1. Resource Planning in India : It involves:

1. Identification and inventory of resources across the
regions of the country.

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2. Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set up far
implementing resource development plans.
3. Matching the resources development plans with over
all national development plans.

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Soils
Valuable natural resource
Black soil
Alluvial soil
Red soil
Laterite soil
Mountain soil

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2. Land use Pattern in India :

Total geographical area of India is 3.28 million sq. km.
Land use data however is available only for 93% of the
total area because the land-use reporting for most of the
North-East States except Assam has not been done fully.
Some areas of Jammu and Kashmir occupied by
Pakistan and China have also not been surveyed.
The land under permanent pasture has also decreased.
Fallow landleft without cultivation far one or less
than one agricultural year.
Net sown area totaltotal area sown in an agricultural
year.
More net sown area in Punjab and Haryana.
Less net sown area in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram,
Manipur and Andaman Nicobar Islands.
National Forest Policy in India in 1952.
Waste land includes rocky, Arid and desert area and
land put to other non agricultural uses includes settlements, roads, railways, industry etc.
Continuous use of land over a long period of time without taking appropriate measures to conserve and manage it.

Land Degradation
Over-grazing
Mining
Deforestation
Industrial waste

Soil Erosion
Deforestation
Overgrazing
Mining activity
Unscientific method of agriculture
How to Check Soil Erosion
Afforestation
Check overgrazing
Pugging of gullies
Shelter beds of plants
Stop shifting of sand dunes

CHAPTER

Forest and Wildlife Resources

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Forest and Wildlife Resources

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We share this planet with millions of other living beings, starting from micro-organisms and bacteria, lichens to banyan trees, elephants
and blue whales. This entire habitat that we live in has immense biodiversity. We humans
along with all living organisms form a complex web of ecological system in which we are only
a part and very much dependent on this system for our own existence.
One sixth of landmass of Tamil Nadu is covered with forests. According to State of forest
report 2003 by the Forest Survey of India, the total forest cover of the State does 22643 km
constitute 17.41% of geographic area. This includes 2440 km of very dense forest, 9567 km
of moderately dense forest and 10636 km of open forest. Tamil Nadu ranks 11th among the
Indian States and Union Territories with reference to total forest cover. The recorded forest area
of the state is 22,877 km constituting 17.59% of the geographic area. Tamil Nadu ranks 13th
among the Indian States and Union Territories with reference to total recorded forest area.

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Syllabus

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Importance of forests, Causes for the loss of bio-diversity, Effects of the loss of bio-diversity, Steps taken to conserve
bio-diversity, Classification of bio-diversity, Role of community in conservation of bio-diversity.

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Important Terms
Bio-diversity:

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Rich and varied plant and animal species that

exist in a particular area.
Ecosystem: Interrelationship between all the plants and animals in a given area.
Vulnerable Species: Species, which are rapidly declining
and are likely to become endangered in the near future. e.g.,
blue sheep, Asiatic elephant.
Endemic Species: Species, which are confined to certain
areas, isolated by natural or geographical barriers.
Extinct Species: Species, which are not found on the earth.
e.g., Asiatic cheetah, pink head duck.
Flora: Natural vegetation cover consisting of forests, grasslands and shrubs.
Fauna: Animals found on the earth in natural environment.
Reserved Forests: Forests meant for conservation of timber
and other forest products.

Protected

Forests: Forest area, which is protected from

depletion.
Unclassed Forests: Forests and wastelands that is common
to government, private individuals and communities.

Importance of Forest for Human Being

Economic Importance
(i) It supports a variety of industries.
(ii) It provide livelihood for many communities.

Ecological Importance
(i) Improve the quality of environment.
(ii) Modify local climate, controls soil erosion.
(iii) Regulate stream flow, provide fertility to the soil.
(iv)Provide environmental stability and maintain ecological
balance.

PART VI Geography

Today, environmental stability and maintenance of ecological balance are more important than the direct economic
benefit.

Endangered Species
These are species, which are in danger of extinction. The survival of such species is difficult if the negative factors that have
led to a decline in their population continue to operate. The
examples of such species are black buck, crocodile, Indian wild
ass, Indian rhino, lion-tailed macaque, sangai (brow anter deer
in Manipur), etc.

Flora and Fauna In India

About 15,000 species

Endangered Wild Flora

About 10%

Endangered Mammals

About 20%

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More than 47,000 species

Indigenous Flowering Plants

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Flora or Plant Life

These are species whose population has declined to levels

from where it is likely to move into the endangered category
in the near future if the negative factors continue to operate.
The examples of such species are blue sheep, Asiatic elephant,
Gangetic dolphin, etc.

More than 81,000 species

Vulnerable Species

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Fauna or Animal Life

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India is one of the worlds richest countries in terms of its

vast array of biological diversity, and has nearly 8 per cent
of the total number of species in the world (estimated to be 1. 6
million). This is possibly twice or thrice the number yet to
be discovered. These diverse flora and fauna are under great
stress mainly due to insensitivity to our environment. At least
10 per cent of Indias recorded wild flora and 20 per cent of its
mammals are on the threatened list. Many of these would now
be categorized as critical that is on the verge of extinction like
the cheetah, pink-headed duck, mountain quail, forest spotted owlet, and plants like madhuca insignis (a wild variety of
mahua) and hubbardia heptaneuron, (a species of grass). Over
81, 000 species of fauna and 47, 000 species of flora are found
in this country so far.

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Rare Species

Vanishing Forests

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The dimensions of deforestation in India are staggering. The forest cover in the country is estimated at 637,293 sq. km, which is
19.39 per cent of the total geographical area (dense forest 11.48
per cent open forest 7.76 per cent and mangrove 0.15 per cent).
According to the State of Forest Report (1999), the dense forest cover has increased by 10,098 sq. km since 1997. However,
this apparent increase in the forest cover is due to plantation by
different agencies. The State of Forest Report does not differentiate between natural forests and plantations. Therefore, these
reports fail to deliver.

Species with small population may move into the endangered or

vulnerable category if the negative factors affecting them continue to operate. The examples of such species are the Himalayan
brown bear, wild Asiatic buffalo, desert fox and hornbill, etc.

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List of Critically Endangered Species

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Cheetah, pink-headed duck, mountain quail, forest spotted owl,

madhucha insignis (wild mahua), hubbardia heptaneuron (a
grass species).

Classification Based on The International

Union For Conservation Of Nature and
Natural Resources (Iucn)
Normal Species
Species whose population levels are considered to be normal for
their survival, such as cattle, sal, pine, rodents, etc.

Endemic Species
These are species, which are only found in some particular areas
usually isolated by natural or geographical barriers. Examples
of such species are the Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman
wild pig, mithun in Arunachal Pradesh.

Chapter 2 Forest and Wildlife Resources

because of the amount they consume than the poorest 25

per cent. The former shares minimum responsibilities for
environmental well being.

Extinct Species
These are species which are not found after searches of known
or likely areas where they may occur. A species may be extinct
from a local area, region, country, continent or the entire earth.
Examples of such species are the Asiatic cheetah, pink head
duck.

Social Effect of Resource Depletion

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In many societies, women bear the major responsibility of

collection of fuel, fodder, water and other basic subsistence
needs. As these resources are depleted, the drudgery of women
increases and sometimes they have to walk for more than 10
km to collect these resources. This causes serious health problems for women and negligence of home and children because
of the increased hours of work, which often has serious social
implications. The indirect impact of degradation, such as severe
drought or deforestation-induced floods, etc. also hits the poor
the hardest. Poverty in these cases is a direct outcome of environmental destruction.
The destruction of forests and wildlife is not just a biological
issue. The biological loss is strongly correlated with the loss of
cultural diversity. Such losses have increasingly marginalized
and impoverished many indigenous and other forest-dependent
communities, who directly depend on various components of
the forest and wildlife for food, drink, medicine, culture, spirituality, etc.

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Number of Endangered Species

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79 species of mammals, 44 of birds, 15 of reptiles, and 3 of

amphibians, 1,500 plant species are considered endangered.

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Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India

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Forest cover 637,293 sq. km, which is 19.39% of the total geographical area.
Dense forest:
11.48%
Open forest:
7.76%
Mangrove:
0.15%

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Causes Of Depletion of Flora and Fauna

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(i) Agricultural Expansion:Between 1951 and 1980, according to the Forest Survey of India, over 26,200 sq. km. of
forest area was converted into agricultural land all over
India. Substantial parts of the tribal belts, especially in the
north-eastern and central India, have been deforested or
degraded by shifting cultivation (jhum), a type of slash and
burn agriculture.
(ii) Enrichment Plantation:Promotion of a few favoured species, in many parts of India, has been carried through the
ironically termed enrichment plantation, in which a single
commercially valuable species was extensively planted and
other species eliminated.
(iii) Development Projects:Large-scale development projects
have also contributed significantly to the loss of forests.
Since 1951, over 5,000 sq. km of forest was cleared for
river valley projects. Clearing of forests is still continuing
with projects like the Narmada Sagar Project in Madhya
Pradesh, which would inundate 40,000 hectares of forest.
(iv) Mining: The Buxa Tiger Reserve in West Bengal is seriously threatened by the ongoing dolomite mining. It has
disturbed the natural habitat of many species and blocked
the migration route of several others, including the great
Indian elephant.
(v) Unequal Access to Resources: The richest five per cent
of Indian society probably cause more ecological damage

Conservation in the background of rapid decline in wildlife

population and forestry has become essential. Conservation
preserves the ecological diversity and our life support systems
water, air and soil. It also preserves the genetic diversity of
plants and animals for better growth of species and breeding.
(i)In the 1960s and 1970s, conservationists demanded a
national wildlife protection programme. The Indian
Wildlife (Protection) Act was implemented in 1972, with
various provisions for protecting habitats. An all India list
of protected species was also published.
(ii)Central and many state governments have established
national parks and wildlife sanctuaries and several projects
for protecting specific animals, the tiger, the one-horned
rhinoceros, the Kashmir stag, hangul, three types of crocodilesfresh water crocodile, saltwater crocodile and the
Gharial, the Asiatic lion and others. Most recently the
Indian elephant, black buck (chinkara), the great Indian
bustard (godawan) and the snow leopard, etc. have been
given full or partial legal protection against hunting and
trade throughout India.
(iii)In the notification under Wildlife Act of 1980 and 1986,
several hundred butterflies, moths, beetles, and one dragonfly have been added to the list of protected species. In
1991, for the first time plants were also added to the list,
starting with six species.
(iv)Project Tiger, one of the well-published wildlife campaigns in the world, was launched in 1973. There are 27
tiger reserves in India covering an area of 37,761 sq. km.

PART VI Geography

Types and Distribution of Forest

In the notification under Wildlife Act of 1980 and 1986, several

hundred butterflies, moths, beetles, and one dragonfly have been
added to the list of protected species. In 1991, for the first time
plants were also added to the list, starting with six species.

Types of Forests in India

(i) Reserved Forests:
Permanently earmarked either to production of timber or
other forest produce, right of grazing and cultivation is
seldom allowed, covers 54.4 per cent of total forest area.
More than half of the total forests are regarded as the most
valuable, as far as the conservation of forest and wildlife
resources are concerned.

Community and Conservation

some areas of India, local communities are struggling
to conserve these habitats along with government officials,
recognising that only this will secure their own long-term
livelihood.
In Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, villagers have fought
against mining by citing the Wildlife Protection Act. In many
areas, villagers themselves are protecting habitats and explicitly rejecting government involvement. The inhabitants of
five villages in the Alwar district of Rajasthan have declared
1,200 hectares of forest as the Bhairodev Dakav Sonchuri,
declaring their own set of rules and regulations which do not
allow hunting, and are protecting the wildlife against any outside encroachments.
Nature worship is an age old tribal belief based on the premise that all creations of nature have to be protected. Such
beliefs have preserved several virgin forests in pristine form
called Sacred Groves (the forests of God and Goddesses).
These patches of forest or parts of large forests have been left
untouched by the local people and any interference with them
is banned. Certain societies reserve a particular tree, which
they have preserved from time immemorial.
The Mundas and the Santhal of Chhota Nagpur region worship mahua (Bassia latifolia) and kadamba (Anthocaphalus
cadamba) trees, and the tribals of Orissa and Bihar worship
the tamarind (Tamarindus indica) and mango (Mangifera
indica) trees during weddings. To many of us, peepal and
banyan trees are considered sacred.
Indian society comprises several cultures, each with its own
set of traditional methods of conserving nature and its creations. Sacred qualities are often ascribed to springs, mountain peaks, plants and animals, which are closely protected.
You will find troops of macaques and langurs around many
temples. They are fed daily and treated as a part of temple
devotees. In and around Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan, herds
of blackbuck (chinkara), nilgai and peacocks can be seen as
an integral part of the community and nobody harms them.
The famous Chipko movement in the Himalayas has not only
successfully resisted deforestation in several areas but has
also shown that community afforestation with indigenous
species can be enormously successful.
Farmers and citizens groups like the Beej Bachao Andolan in
Tehri and Navdanya have shown that adequate levels of diversified crop production without the use of synthetic chemicals
are possible and economically viable.
In India Joint Forest Management (JFM) programme furnishes
a good example for involving local communities in the management and restoration of degraded forests. The programme
has been in formal existence since 1988 when the state of

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(ii) Protected Forests:

Right of grazing and cultivation is allowed, subject to a few
minor restrictions, covers 29 per cent of the total forest area,
almost one third of the total forest area is protected forest
as declared by the Forest Department. This forest land is
protected from any further depletion.

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( iii) Unclassed Forests:

Consists largely of inaccessible forests or unoccupied
wastes, covers 16 per cent of the total forest area, forests
and wastelands belonging to both government and private
individuals and communities.

New Trends in Conservation Policy

Increase Bio-diversity
The conservation projects are now focusing on bio-diversity rather
than on a few of its components. There is now a more intensive
search for different conservation measures. Increasingly, even
insects are beginning to find a place in conservation planning.

Chapter 2 Forest and Wildlife Resources

Orissa passed the first resolution for joint forest management.

JFM depends on the formation of local (village) institutions
that undertake protection activities mostly on degraded forest
land managed by the forest department. In return, the members of these communities are entitled to intermediary benefits like non-timber forest produces and share in the timber
harvested by successful protection.
The clear lesson from the dynamics of both environmental
destruction and reconstruction in India is that local communities everywhere have to be involved in some kind of natural
resource management. But there is still a long way to go before
local communities are at the centre-stage in decision-making.
Accept only those economic or developmental activities that
are people centric, environment-friendly and economically
rewarding.

institutions that undertake protection activities mostly on

degraded forest land managed by the forest department.
In return, the members of these communities are entitled to
intermediary benefits like non-timber forest produces and
share in the timber harvested by successful protection.

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Mind-Map

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Importance of forests
Maintain CO and O balance
2
2
Checks soil erosion
Habitual of wildlife
Modifies climate
Provides valuable produces
Causes of the loss of Bio-diversity
Deforestation
Poaching and hunting
Introduction of new species
Industrial and domestic wastes
Mining activity
Developmental projects
Consequences of loss of Bio-diversity
Ecological imbalances
Lives of tribal people adversely affected
Habitual of wildlife
Drudge of women increased
Cause of poverty especially amongst tribals
It is also zero cultural losses
Steps taken to conserve Bio-diversity
Biosphere reserves stated
Indian Wildlife Protection Act
Introduction of new species implemented in 1972
Many projects started to save wildlife
Hunting and poaching banned
Massive a forestation programme
Classification of species
Normal species
Endangered species
Vulnerable species
Rare species
Endemic species
Extinct species
Role of community in conservation
Villagers have protected Sariska Tiger Reserves
Villagers have protected forests in Alvar district
Tribal people worship trees as sacred groves
Beej Bachao Andolan, Navdanya and Joint Forest
Management have led to conservation of bio-diversity

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Project Tiger

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In 1973, the tiger population had dwindled to 1,827 from an

estimated 55,000 at the turn of the century.

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Threats for Tiger Population

for trade
habitat
Depletion of prey base species
Growing human population, etc.

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Poaching

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Project Tiger, one of the well-publicized wildlife campaigns

in the world, was launched in 1973.

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Shrinking

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4,002
4,334
3,600

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1989
1993

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Success Rate: Tiger Population

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Important Tiger Reserves

Corbett

National Park in Uttaranchal

National Park in West Bengal
Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya Pradesh
Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan
Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam
Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala

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Sunderbans

India Joint Forest Management (JFM) programme furnishes a good example for involving local communities in the
management and restoration of degraded forests.
The programme has been in formal existence since 1988 when
the state of Orissa passed the first resolution for joint forest
management JFM depends on the formation of local (village)

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Joint Forest Management

CHAPTER

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Water Resources
Water Resources

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Water is the most precious natural resource. Earth is known by water in the solar system.
Three-fourth of the earth is covered by water. Thus, it is called a watery planet. Even then
some parts of the earth suffer from scarcity of water. One of the estimates says that by the
year 2025 around 2 billion people will live in scarcity of water. In this chapter, we will read
about causes of water scarcity and ways to conserve water.

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Syllabus

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Sources, distribution and utilization of water Multi-purpose projects and its benefits and limitations Water
scarcity, need for conservation and management of water Rainwater harvesting.

Introduction
Ravine:

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A small, deep, narrow valley with steep sides, larger

than a gully smaller than a canyon.
Check Dam: It is a structure built across a river or estuary in
order to restrain or use water.
Gully: It is a water-made cutting, usually steep-sided with
flattened floor.
River Basin: The total area drained by a river and its
tributaries.
Perennial Canals: Canals that have water all the year
round.
Groundwater: Water which is obtained from a depth of more
than 15 metres.
Surface Water: Water found accumulated on the surface of
the earth in depressions flowing through rivers, streams or
frozen in the form of icecaps and snow fields.
Multi-purpose projects: The project which serves more than
two purposes are called multi-purpose projects.
Water Fall: When in the middle of a river-course water falls
from a great height into lower course.

Potential

Water Resources: The total amount of water

resources which can be developed for useful purposes.
Developed Water Resources: Developed water resources
constitute the portion of the total water resources which have
actually been harnessed or developed.
Water Harvesting: It is a method of collecting rainwater on
rooftops and then channelling it to augment the groundwater
shortage.
Watershed: It is a physiographic unit which is used for integrated development of small natural unit areas.
Wetland: The low lying marshy or waterlogged area.

Water, A Very Important and Critical

Resource of India
(i) In India the total availability of water depends upon monsoon, which is very uncertain.
(ii) Water is used for drinking, domestic and various industrial
purposes.

PART VI Geography
Intensive

Industrialization: Post-independent India witnessed intensive industrialization and urbanization. These

industries not only use water as raw material, but also require
power to run them. Much of this energy comes from hydroelectricity power. Today in India hydro electric power contributes approximately 22% of the total electricity produced.
Urbanization: Rapid increase in population and urban life
style has not only increased the demand for water but have further aggravated the problem. Most of the housing societies have
their own ground water pumping devices to meet their water
needs. Thus, fragile water resources are being over-exploited
and have caused their depletion in several of these cities.
Scarcity due to Pollution: Many times water is available in
sufficient quantity but still people cannot use it due to bad
quality.

(iii) Agriculture has been claiming a greater and greater share of

water day by day.
(iv) Water has become necessary for disposal of ever-growing
municipal sewage and dirt.

Water: Some Facts and Figures

per cent of the total volume of worlds water is estimated
to exist as oceans.
2.5 per cent as freshwater.
70 per cent of this freshwater occurs as ice sheets and glaciers
in Antarctica, Greenland and the mountainous regions of the
world.
Less than 30 per cent is stored as groundwater in the worlds
aquifers.
India receives nearly 4 per cent of the global precipitation
and ranks 133 in the world in terms of water availability per
person per annum.
The total renewable water resources of India are estimated at
1,897 sq. km per annum.
By 2025, it is predicted that large parts of India will join
countries or regions having absolute water scarcity.

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Much of the water is polluted these days by domestic and industrial wastes, chemicals pesticides and fertilizers used in agriculture, thus, making it hazardous for human use.

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Need For Water Conservation and

Management
Over-exploitation:

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Most of the houses and farms have private groundwater pumping devices. This is leading to overexploitation of water resources. This is leading to depletion
of underground water reservoir.
Deteriorating Quality: Pollution by domestic and industrial
waste is harming the quality of potable water. As a result even
areas with abundant water reservoir is facing high concentration of pollutants.
Adverse Effect of Economic Development: Increased business activity is further putting pressure on scarce water
resources. Many industries are exploiting water resources.
Hydroelectric Power: 22 per cent of total electricity produced in India is through hydroelectric power. This creates
additional pressure on water resources.
River Pollution: Indias rivers, especially the smaller ones,
have all turned into toxic streams. And even the big ones like
the Ganga and Yamuna are far from being pure. The assault
on Indias riversfrom population growth, agricultural modernization, urbanization and industrialization is enormous and
growing by the day. This entire life stands threatened.

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dance and it is renewable, still in few regions people have to

travel miles to get water (e.g., Rajasthan). It is because few
regions receive little rainfall and are drought prone. Thus, the
availability of water resource varies over space and time, due
to variation in seasonal and annual precipitation.
Rapid Increase in Population: Rapid increase in population has resulted in greater demand for water and unequal
access to it. A larger population means more water not only
for domestic use but also to produce more good.
Increase in the Demand for food grains: Population explosion has led to increase in the demand for food grain. Hence
to facilitate higher food-grain production, water resources are
being over exploited to expand irrigated areas and dry-season
agriculture.
Increased Use of Tubewells: Most farmers are having their
own tubewells in their farms for irrigation to increase their production. This had led to fall in ground water level, adversely
affecting water availability and food security of the people.

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Unequal distribution of Rainfall: Water is available in abun-

Causes of Scarcity of Water

Need Of Water Conservation

To

safeguard from health hazard

ensure food security
To continue our livelihood
To preserve the ecosystem
To

Multi-Purpose River Projects and

Integrated Water Resources
Management

Water Scarcity

Dams Dams are built not just for irrigation but for electricity generation, water supply for domestic and industrial uses,

Chapter 3 Water Resources

In the semi-arid and arid regions of Rajasthan, particularly in

Bikaner, Phalodi and Barmer, almost all the houses traditionally
had underground tanks or tankas for storing drinking water. The
tanks could be as large as a big room; one household in Phalodi
had a tank that was 6.1 metres deep, 4.27 metres long and 2.44
metres wide. The tankas were part of the well-developed rooftop rainwater harvesting system and were built inside the main
house or the courtyard. They were connected to the sloping
roofs of the houses through a pipe. Rain falling on the rooftops
would travel down the pipe and was stored in these underground
tankas. The first spell of rain was usually not collected as this
would clean the roofs and the pipes. The rainwater from the
subsequent showers was then collected. The rainwater can be
stored in the tankas till the next rainfall making it an extremely
reliable source of drinking water when all other sources are
dried up, particularly in the summers. Rainwater, or palar pani,
as commonly referred to in these parts, is considered the purest
form of natural water.

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flood control, recreation, inland navigation and fish breeding.

Hence, dams are now referred to as multi-purpose projects
where the many uses of the impounded water are integrated
with one another. For example, in the Sutluj-Beas river basin,
the BhakraNangal project water is being used both for hydel
power production and irrigation. Similarly, the Hirakud project in the Mahanadi basin integrates conservation of water with
flood control.

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Structure of Dam A dam is a barrier across flowing water that

obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often creating a reservoir,
lake or impoundment. Dam refers to the reservoir rather than
the structure. Most dams have a section called a spillway or
weir over which or through which it is intended that water will
flow either intermittently or continuously. Dams are classified
according to structure, intended purpose or height. Based on
structure and the materials used, dams are classified as timber
dams, embankment dams or masonry dams, with several subtypes. According to the height, dams can be categorised as large
dams and major dams or alternatively as low dams, medium
height dams and high dams.

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Adverse Effects of Dams Regulating and damming of rivers

affect their natural flow causing poor sediment flow and excessive sedimentation at the bottom of the reservoir, resulting in
rockier stream beds and poorer habitats for the rivers aquatic
life. Dams also fragment rivers making it difficult for aquatic
fauna to migrate, especially for spawning. The reservoirs that
are created on the floodplains also submerge the existing vegetation and soil leading to its decomposition over a period
of time.

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Change in Cropping Pattern Irrigation has also changed the

cropping pattern of many regions with farmers shifting to water
intensive and commercial crops. This has great ecological consequences like salinization of the soil. At the same time, it has
transformed the social landscape i.e., increasing the social gap
between the richer landowners and the landless poor. As we can
see, the dams did create conflicts between people wanting different uses and benefits from the same water resources.

Many houses constructed underground rooms adjoining the

tanka to beat the summer heat as it would keep the room cool.
Rooftop rainwater harvesting is the most common practice in
Shillong, Meghalaya. It is interesting because Cherapunjee
and Mawsynram situated at a distance of 55 km from Shillong
receive the highest rainfall in the world, yet the state capital
Shillong faces acute shortage of water. Nearly every household
in the city has a rooftop rainwater harvesting structure. Nearly
1525 per cent of the total water requirement of the household
comes from rooftop water harvesting.

Rainwater Harvesting
1. Rooftop rainwater is collected using a PVC pipe.
2. Filtered using sand and bricks
3. Underground pipe takes water to sump for immediate
usage.
4. Excess water from the sump is taken to the well.
5. Water from the well recharges the underground.
6. Take water from the well (later).

Bamboo Drip Irrigation System

In Meghalaya, a 200-year-old system of tapping stream and
spring wate by using bamboo pipes, is prevalent. About 18-20

PART VI Geography

litres of water enters the bamboo pipe system, gets transported

over hundreds of metres, and finally reduces to 20-80 drops per
minute ate the site of the plant.

In

Bikaner, Phalodi and Barmer.

tanks could be as large as a big room.
Rooftop rainwater harvesting water can be used as drinking water.
The first spell of rain was usually not collected as this
would clean the roofs and the pipes.
Rainwater is called Palar Pani.
Many houses constructed underground rooms adjoining the
tankas to beat the summer heat as it would keep the room
cool.
Some houses still maintain the tanks since they do not like
the taste of tap water.
In Gendathur, a remote backward village in Mysore,
Karnataka, villagers have installed, in their households
roof top, rainwater harvesting system to meet their water
needs.
The

Summary

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Hydraulic Structure in Ancient India

the first century B.C. Sringaverapura near Allahabad had
sophisticated water harvesting system channelling the flood
water of the river Ganga.
During the time of Chandragupta Mauriya, dams lakes and
irrigation systems were extensively built.
Evidences of sophisticated irrigation works have also been
found in Kalinga, Nagarjuna Konda, Bennur, Kohlapur etc.
In 11th century, Bhopal lake, one of the largest artificial
lakes of its time was built.
In 14th century, the tank of Hauz Khas, Delhi, was constructed by Iltutmish for supplying water of Siri Fort area.

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Uses of Water Resources

Water resources are used mainly for the irrigation purposes.
For domestic purpose.
In industries.
For generating Hydro electricity.

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Rainwater harvesting
The objective is to reduce run off.
To supplement domestic water requirement during
summer.
It uses local technique.

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A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs,

directs or retards the flow, often creating a reservoir, lake or
impoundment.
Classification of dams according to structure, intended purpose or height.
Based on structure or material used, dams are classified as
timber dams, embankment dams or masonry dams, with
several sub-types.
According to the height dams can be categories as large
dams and major dams or alternatively as low dams, medium
height dams and high dams.

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Mind-Map

hill and mountainous regions, people built diversion

channels like the guls or kuls of the western Himalayas
for agriculture.
Rooftop rainwater harvesting was commonly practiced to
store drinking water, in Rajasthan.
In the flood plains of Bengal, people developed inundation
channels to irrigate their fields.
In arid and semi-arid regions, agricultural fields were converted into rain-fed storage structures that allowed the water
to stand and moisten the soil like the khadins in Jaisalmer
and Johads in other parts of Rajasthan.
Tankasunderground tanks or tankas for storing drinking
water.

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Rainwater Harvesting

Advantages of Multi-purpose river Valley Projects

Generates electricity
Provides water for irrigation
Maker river, navigable
A big tourist spot
Multi-purpose river Valley Projects
Damodar Valley Project is a joint venture of Jharkhand and
West Bengal.
BhakraNangal Project is a joint venture of Punjab,
Himachal Pradesh and Haryana.
Indira Gandhi Canal Project is the longest canal of the
world.
Disadvantages of Multi-purpose river Valley Projects
Causes floods down the stream
Large area gets submerged
Creates the problem of rehabilitation
Can cause earth quake

CHAPTER

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Agriculture Theory

Agriculture Theory

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The word agriculture has been derived from latin word Ager which means land and culture which means cultivation. Thus cultivation of land is called Agriculture. But in broader
sense Agriculture includes forestry, fisheries etc. India is an agrarian economy. 70% population of the country finds its livelihood in agriculture and around 35% national income drives
from it.

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Type of farming, cropping seasons of India, major crops and climatic conditions they require. Technological
and Institutional reforms started by the government to improve Indian agriculture.

Agriculture

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Agriculture, also called farming or husbandry, is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fibre,
bio-fuel and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was
the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization,
whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses
that nurtured the development ofcivilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science. Agriculture generally
speaking refers to human activities, although it is also observed
in certain species of ant and termite. The word agriculture is the
English adaptation of Latin agricultra, fromager, a field, and
cultra, cultivation in the strict sense of tillage of the soil.
Thus, a literal reading of the word yields tillage of fields.

Importance of Agriculture in India

(i)Nearly two-third of Indias population is dependent on
agriculture.
(ii) Agriculture has been the backbone of the Indian economy
(iii)Agriculture accounts for 26 per cent of the gross domestic
product.

(iv)Agriculture ensures food security for the millions and raw

materials for Industries.
(v)Agricultures share in providing employments and livelihood to the population continues to be as high as 63 per
cent in 2001.
Factors that Make India a Unique Country from Agricultural
Point of View It has vast expense of level land, rich soil, wide
climatic variations suited for various types of crops, ample
sunshine and a long growing season.

Types of Farming in India

Primitive Subsistence Farming
This type of farming is still practised in few pockets of India.
Primitive subsistence agriculture is practised on small patches
of land with the help of primitive tools like hoe, dao and digging sticks, and family/community labour. This type of farming
depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of the soil and suitability of other environmental conditions to the crops grown.

PART VI Geography

It is slash and burn agriculture. Farmers clear a patch of land

and produce cereals and other food crops to sustain their family.
When the soil fertility decreases, the farmers shift and clear a
fresh patch of land for cultivation. This type of shifting allows
nature to replenish the fertility of the soil through natural processes; land productivity in this type of agriculture is low as
the farmer does not use fertilizers or other modern inputs. It is
known by different names in different parts of the country.

Though the right of inheritance leading to the division of

land among successive generations has rendered land-holding
size uneconomical, the farmers continue to take maximum output
from the limited land in the absence of alternative source of livelihood. Thus, there is enormous pressure on agricultural land.

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Commercial Farming
In

this type of farming, crops are grown for market.

of higher doses of modern inputs, e.g., high-yielding
variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilizers, insecticides and
pesticides.
Degree of commercialization of agriculture varies from one
region to another.
Certain crops are considered commercial in certain areas, for
eg. in Haryana and Punjab rice is a commercial crop but in
Orissa it is a subsistence crop.
Cultivation of cotton in Maharashtra and Gujarat and sugarcane
in Uttar Pradesh are other examples of commercial crops.

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Farmland Value

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is slash and burn agriculture. Farmers clear a patch of land

by cutting and burning and produce cereals and other food
crops to sustain their family.
When the soil fertility decreases, the farmers shift and clear a
fresh patch of land for cultivation.
This type of shifting allows nature to replenish the fertility of
the soil, is low as the farmer does not use fertilizers or other
modern inputs.
It is known as jhumming in north-eastern states like Assam,
Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland. It is known by different
names in difference places.
Local names of shifting agriculture in the world:
Milap

Mexico, Central America
Roca

Brazil
Lading

Indonesia
Ray

Vietnam
Local names of shifting agriculture in India:
Jhumming

North-Eastern states
Dahia

Madhya Pradesh
Podu

Andhra Pradesh
Kumari

Western Ghats
Khil

Himalayan belts

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Farmland Value ($/acre)

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Shifting Agriculture

$5,000

Debt-to-Asset Ratio

Figu1.Average Debt-to-Asset Rato for U.S.Grain Farms and

IL Land Values,1996-2009Source:USDA

Plantation Agriculture
Plantation is also a type of commercial farming. In this type of
farming, a single crop is grown on a large area. The plantation
has an interface of agriculture and industry. Plantations cover
large tracts of land, using capital intensive inputs, with the help of
migrant labourers. All the produce is used as raw material in respective industries. In India, tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, banana, etc.
are important plantation crops. Tea in Assam and North Bengal,
coffee in Karnataka are some of the important plantation crops
grown in these states. Since the production is mainly for market, a
well-developed network of transport and communication connecting the plantation areas, processing industries and markets plays
an important role in the development of plantations.

Intensive Subsistence Farming

This type of farming is practised in areas of high population
pressure on land. It is labour intensive farming, where high
doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used for obtaining higher production.

Debt-to-Asset Ratio

It is known as jhumming in north-eastern states like Assam,

Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland; Pamlou in Manipur,
Dipa in Bastar district of Chattishgarh, and in Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. This primitive form of cultivation is called
Bewar or Dahiya in Madhya Pradesh, Podu or Penda in
Andhra Pradesh, Pama Dabi or Koman or Bringa in Orissa,
Kumari in Western Ghats, Valre or Waltre in South-eastern
Rajasthan, Khil in the Himalayan belt, Kuruwa in Jharkhand,
and Jhumming in the north-eastern region.

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Use

Banana Plantation in Southern Part of India

Chapter 4 Agriculture Theory

Cropping Pattern
India has three cropping seasonsrabi, kharif and zaid.

Rabi crops are sown in winter from October to December and harvested in summer from April to June. Some of the important rabi
crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard. Though, these
crops are grown in large parts of India, states from the north and
north-western parts, such as Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh,
Jammu and Kashmir, Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh are important for the production of wheat and other rabi crops. Availability
of precipitation during winter months due to the western temperate cyclones helps in the success of these crops. However,
the success of the green revolution in Punjab, Haryana, western
Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan has also been an important
factor in the growth of the above mentioned rabi crops.

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Rabi

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Major Cropping Regions

a vast country like India various agricultural regions grow

different crops depending upon types of soil, climate and
agricultural practice.
Major crops grown in India are rice, wheat, millets, pulses,
tea, coffee, sugarcane, oil seeds, cotton and jute, etc.

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It is the staple food crop of a majority of the people in India.

Our country is the second largest producer of rice in the world
after China. It is a kharif crop which requires high temperature,
(above 25C) and high humidity with annual rainfall above 100
cm. In the areas of less rainfall, it grows with the help of irrigation. Rice is grown in the plains of north and north-eastern
India, coastal areas and the deltaic regions.

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Rabi Crop

Kharif

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Kharif crops are grown with the onset of monsoon in different

parts of the country and these are harvested in September-October.
Important crops grown during this season are paddy, maize,
jowar, bajra, tur (arhar), moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and
soyabean. Some of the most important rice-growing regions are
Assam, West Bengal, coastal regions of Orissa, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Maharashtra, particularly the (Konkan
coast) along with Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Recently, paddy has
also become an important crop of Punjab and Haryana. In states
like Assam, West Bengal and Orissa, three crops of paddy are
grown in a year. These are Aus, Aman and Boro.

Rice Cultivation

Development of dense network of canal irrigation and tubewells have made it possible to grow rice in areas of less rainfall,
such as Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh and parts
of Rajasthan.

Wheat
Importance
(i) Second most important food crop
(ii) Second largest producer of wheat
(iii) Grown on about 1/6 th of the cropped area.

Kharif Crop

Zaid
In between the rabi and the kharif seasons, there is a short season
during the summer months known as the Zaid season. Some of
the crops produced during zaid are watermelon, muskmelon,
cucumber, vegetables and fodder crops. Sugarcane takes almost
a year to grow.

Climatic Conditions
(i) Is a Rabi crop
(ii)Ideal temperature at the time of sowing is 1015C, at
harvesting 2025C.
(iii) Rainfall required is 5075 cm annually.
(iv) Requires well-drained fertile soil

PART VI Geography

Production Areas Two important wheat-growing zones: the

GangaSatluj plains and black soil region of the Deccan.

Millets Are known as coarse grain, have a very high nutritional value.

Jowar

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Maize

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Major Producing States Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana,

Rajasthan and Bihar

(i)Third most important food crop.

(ii)Monthly temperature required 1832C, rainfall 3060
cm.
(iii)Major producing states are Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh.

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Pulses India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of

pulses in the world. These are the major source of protein in a vegetarian diet. Arhar, urad, moong, masur, chana and peas are major
pulses of India. Pulses help in restoring soil fertility. That is why
they are produce in rotation with other crops. UP, MP, Rajasthan
and Karnataka are major pulse-producing states in India.

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Bajra
(i) Crop of dry and warm climate.

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(ii)Producing states are Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra,

Gujarat and Haryana.

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Bajra Cultivation

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Ragi

Food Crops other Than Grains

Sugarcane
Sugarcane

belongs to grass family and grown in tropical and

sub-tropical regions of the world.
It is the most irrigated crop of India.

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(i) A rain-fed kharif crop.

(ii)Requires well-drained alluvial loams, red or black sandy
loam.
(iii) Grown in drier parts of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Rabi Crop

Maize It is a crop which is used both as food and fodder. It

is a kharif crop which requires temperature between 21C to
27C and grows well in old alluvial soil. In some states like
Bihar maize is grown in rabi season also. Use of modern inputs,
such as HYV seeds, fertilizers and irrigation have contributed
to the increasing production of maize. Major maize-producing
states are Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and
Madhya Pradesh.

Sugarcane
It

is the sweet juice content, which make it an important

source of food and raw material.
It grows well in hot and humid climate with a temperature of
21C to 27C and an annual rainfall between 75 cm and 100 cm.
Irrigation is required in the region of low rainfall.
It can be grown on a variety of soils and need manual labour
from sowing to harvesting.
India is the second largest producer of sugarcane only after Brazil.
The major sugarcane producing states are Uttar Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,
Punjab and Haryana.

Chapter 4 Agriculture Theory

India is the largest producer of oilseeds in the world. Different

oil seeds are grown covering approximately 12 per cent of the
total cropped area of the country. Main oil-seeds produced in
India are groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum (til), soyabean, castor seeds, cotton seeds, linseed and sunflower. Most of
these are edible and used as cooking mediums. However, some
of these are also used as raw material in the production of soap,
cosmetics and ointments.

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Climatic Conditions

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Oilseeds

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(i) Hot and humid climate

(ii) Temperature between 1528C rainfall required 150200 cm.
Major Producing States Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu

Horticulture Crops

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(i)India is the largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the

world.
(ii) India leads the world in production of mango and banana.
(iii) India is the largest exporter of cashewnut in the world.

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Sunflowers

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Mango Most important fruit, grown in almost all parts of the

country.

Apple Temperate fruit crop, grown in Himachal Pradesh,

Jammu and Kashmir and Uttaranchal.

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Groundnut is a kharif crop and accounts for about half of

the major oilseeds produced in the country. Andhra Pradesh
is the largest producer of groundnut followed by Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Gujarat and Maharashtralinseed and mustard are
rabi crops. Sesamum is a kharif crop in north and rabi crop in
south India. Castor seed is grown both as rabi and kharif crop.

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Importance

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Banana Tropical as well as sub-tropical plant, Tamil Nadu

and Maharashtra are major producers.

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(i) An important beverage crop.

(ii) Classic example of plantation agriculture.
(iii) India is leading producer as well as exporter of tea.

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Climatic Conditions

Grapes A sub-tropical plant, Major producers are Uttaranchal,

Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
Vegetables India produces about 13 per cent of the worlds
vegetables. It is an important producer of pea, cauliflower,
onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal and potato.

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(i)Tropical as well as sub-tropical plant requires hot and

humid climate.
(ii)Temperature required 20C30C, annual rainfall 150300
cm.
(iii) High humidity is good for the crop.
(iv)Grows well in drained soil, requires abundant, cheap and
skilled labour

Orange Produced in Maharashtra, Uttaranchal, West Bengal,

Himachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

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Major Producing States Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu,

Kerala. Apart from these, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal,
Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh and Tripura and also tea-producing
states in the country.

Coffee
Importance
(i) Second most important beverage crop
(ii)Because of good quality is in much demand in the international market
(iii) Brings handsome amount of foreign exchange

FRUIT
CROPS
VEGETABLE
CROPS
SPICE
CROPS
AROMATIC
CROPS
FLOWER
CROPS

Non-Food Crops
Rubber
It is an equatorial crop, but under special conditions, it is also
grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas. It requires moist
and humid climate with rainfall of more than 200 cm. and

PART VI Geography

(b) Institutional Reforms:

temperature above 25C. Rubber is an important industrial raw

material. It is mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka
and Andaman and Nicobar islands and Garo hills of Meghalaya.
India ranks fifth among the worlds natural rubber producers.

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(i)Government abolished the zamindari system followed

with consolidation of small land holdings.
(ii)Widespread use of radio and television for providing
knowledge to formers in new and improved techniques
and special weather bulletins have been introduced.
(iii)Crop insurance to protect the farmers against loses by
natural and man-made calamities.
(iv)Availability of capital or investment through banks and
cooperative societies.
(v)Minimum support price for various crops ensures minimum price for the crop grown by the farmers.
(vi)Kisan Credit Card (KCC) and Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS) are some schemes introduced
by the government for the benefit of farmers.

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(i)Indian farmers are facing a big challenge from international competition.

(ii)Reduction in the public investment in agriculture sector,
particularly in irrigation, power, rural roads, market and
mechanization.
(iii)Subsidy or fertilizers is decreased leading to increase in the
cost of production.
(iv)Reduction in import duties on agricultural products have
proved detrimental to agriculture in the country.
(v)Farmers are withdrawing their investment from agriculture
causing a downfall in the employment in agriculture.

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Jute

Growth Rate in Agriculture is Decelerating

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India is believed to be the original home of the cotton plant.

Cotton is one of the main raw materials for cotton textile industry. India is the third-largest producer of cotton in the world.
Cotton grows well in drier parts of the black cotton soil of the
Deccan plateau. It requires high temperature, light rainfall or
irrigation, 210 frost-free days and bright sunshine for its growth.
It is a kharif crop and requires 6 to 8 months to mature. Major
cotton-producing states are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab,
Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.

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It is known as the golden fibre. Jute grows well on well-drained

fertile soils in the flood plains where soils are renewed every
year. High temperature is required during the time of growth.
West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Orissa and Meghalaya are the
major jute producing states. It is used in making gunny bags,
mats, ropes, yarn, carpets and other artefacts. Due to its high
cost, it is losing market to synthetic fibres and packing materials, particularly the nylon.

Food Security
If any segment of our population does not have this access, that
segment suffers from lack of food security. The number of people who do not have food security is disproportionately large in
some regions of our country, particularly in economically less
developed states with higher incidence of poverty. The remote
areas of the country are more prone to natural disasters and
uncertain food supply. In order to ensure availability of food
to all sections of society, our government carefully designed a
national food security system. It consists of two components:
(a) buffer stock and
(b) public distribution system (PDS)

Public Distribution System

(a) Technological Reforms:

(i)The Persian wheel has now been replaced by the water plough by the tiller and harrow drawn by tractors,
bullock carts by trucks.
(ii)All weather roads and faster means of communications have been introduced.
(iii)Flooding of fields are now been replaced by drip irrigation and use of sprinkles.
(iv)Chemical fertilizers, bio-fertilizers, HYV and early
maturing quality seeds have been developed.

PDS is a programme which provides foodgrains and other

essential commodities at subsidised prices in rural and urban
areas. Indias food security policy has a primary objective to
ensure availability of foodgrains to the common people at an
affordable price. It has enabled the poor to have access to food.
The focus of the policy is on growth in agriculture production
and on fixing the support price for procurement of wheat and
rice, to maintain their stocks. Food Corporation of India (FCI)
is responsible for procuring and stocking foodgrains, whereas
distribution is ensured by public distribution system (PDS).

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Technological and Institutional Reforms

Chapter 4 Agriculture Theory

important producer of rice, cotton, rubber, tea, coffee, jute and

spices our agricultural products are not able to compete with the
developed countries because of the highly subsidised agriculture in those countries.
Change in cropping pattern for example from cereals to highvalue crops will mean that India will have to import food. During
1960s, this would have been seen as a disaster. But if India
imports cereals while exporting high-value commodities, it will
be following successful economies like Italy, Israel and Chile.
These countries exports farm products (fruits, olives, speciality seeds and wine) and import cereals.

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The FCI procures foodgrains from the farmers at the government announced minimum support price (MSP). The government
used to provide subsidies on agriculture inputs, such as fertilizers,
power and water. These subsidies have now reached unsustainable levels and have also led to large scale inefficiencies in the
use of these scarce inputs. Excessive and imprudent use of fertilizers and water has led to waterlogging, salinity and depletion of
essential micronutrients in the soil. The high MSP, subsidies in
input and committed FCI purchases have distorted the cropping
pattern. Wheat and paddy crops are being grown more for the
MSP they get. Punjab and Haryana are foremost examples. This
has also created a serious imbalance in inter-crop parities.

Important Terms

In PDS, consumers are divided into two categories:

Below

poverty line (BPL) and

Above poverty line (APL)

Agriculture:

y(

It is an economic activity related to cultivation

of crops, animal rearing and fishing.
Commercial Farming: Farming in which crops are grown
with the use of modern technology mainly for commercial
purposes to obtain high productivity.
Green Revolution: A package programme to increase the
productivity of foodgrains with the help of HYV seeds,
machines, irrigation and fertilizers, etc.
Horticulture:
Specialized cultivation of fruits and
vegetables
Kharif: An agricultural season where crops are grown with
the onset of rains and harvested by the retreat of the monsoon,
mainly June to September.
Plantation Agriculture: A large scale single crop farming
which resembles factory production. It is both labour intensive and capital intensive.
Primitive Subsistence Farming: A type of farming done on
small fields using primitive tools mainly in the form of shifting agriculture.
White Revolution: A package programme meant for increasing the productivity of milk.
Sericulture: Rearing of silkworms to produce raw silk.
Zaid: It is a short season summer crop where fruits like
watermelon and vegetables like cucumber are grown.

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with the issue price being different for each category.

However, this categorization is not perfect and a number
of deserving poor have been excluded from the BPL category.
Moreover, some of the so called APL slip back to BPL, because
of the failure of even one crop and it is administratively difficult
to accommodate such shifts.

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Each district and block can be made self sufficient in foodgrain

production if government provides proper agricultural infrastructure, credit linkages and also encourages the use of latest techniques. Instead of concentrating only on rice or wheat,
the food crop with a better growth potential in that particular
area must be encouraged. Creation of necessary infrastructure
like irrigation facilities, availability of electricity etc. may also
attract private investments in agriculture.
The focus on increasing foodgrain production which should
be on a sustainable basis and also free trade in grains will create
massive employment and reduce poverty in rural areas.

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Suggestion for Future

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Shifting Agricultural Pattern

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There has been a gradual shift from cultivation of food crops to

cultivation of fruits, vegetables, oilseeds and industrial crops.
This has led to the reduction in net sown area under cereals
and pulses. With the growing population of India, the declining
food production puts a big question mark over the countrys
future food security. The competition for land between non-agricultural uses, such as housing etc. and agriculture has resulted
in reduction in the net sown area. The productivity of land has
started showing a declining trend. Fertilizers, pesticides and
insecticides, which once showed dramatic results, are now
being held responsible for degrading the soils. Periodic scarcity
of water has led to reduction in area under irrigation. Inefficient
water management has led to water logging and salinity.

Impact of Globalization on Agriculture

Under globalization, particularly after 1990, the farmers in
India have been exposed to new challenges. Despite being an

Mind-Map
Importance of Agriculture:
Provides livelihood to almost 60% of population
Provides maximum employment (63%)
Contributes significantly to GDP
Supports agro-based industries
From the export of food grains we earn foreign exchange.
Type of Farming
Primitive subsistence
Yield per hectare is very low.
Shifting agriculture
Practised in hilly area by tribals
Intensive subsistence
Use of more input to get highly yield

PART VI Geography
Commercial

Cropping Seasons
Rabi
Winter season crop
Example: wheat, peas, gram

Cropping Regions
Food crops
Rice (staple food)
Wheat (2nd most staple food)
Millets: Coarse grain
Pulses: molor source of proteins
Cash crops
Sugarcane most irrigated crop
Tea: Beverage crop introduced by Britishers.
Coffee: Bevrage crop.
Rubber: Plantation crop.
Fibre crops
Cotton: crops
Kharif crop grows well in black soil
Jute: concentrated in eastern states, requires well-drained
fertile soil.

Kharif

Production for sale, practised on a very large scale.

Plantation agriculture
Single crop bush or tree farming, requires huge capital.

Monsoon season crops

Example: Rice, maize, jowar

Zaid

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Short growing summer season crop

Example: watermelon, cucumber

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Agricultural Reforms
Abolition of zamindari system
Land ceiling act has been imposed.
Crop insurance policy started.
Minimum support price has been announced.
Special weather bulletin on TV
Irrigation facilities have been provided.
Use of modern tools, HYV seed fertilizers

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CHAPTER

Manufacturing Industries

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Manufacturing Industries

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Today manufacturing industries have become a yardstick to judge the economic prosperities of
a country. Increasing contribution of manufacturing industries to GDP is a sign of development.
Manufacturing industry is a machine based, power driven production unit where processing of raw
material takes place in converting it into a more valuable commodity. Production of goods in bulk
is the hallmark of manufacturing industry.
Efficiency and competitiveness are the two most important factors, which are to be instilled in
our manufacturing industry to stay in the international market with quality products. It is a challenge to our industrial houses in the present day world of globalization.

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Syllabus

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Importance of manufacturing industries, agro based industries, their features and problems Mineral based
industries and their features Factors governing the location of industries Pollution caused by industries.

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Introduction

industries: Industries that process agricultural

raw material, e.g., Cotton textile.
Basic industry: Industry on which several large-scale and
small-scale industries depend, e.g., Iron and steel, chemical.
Consumer industries: Industries, which produce goods like
plastics, utensils for the consumption of people.
Cooperative industries: Industries owned and organized by
members form a cooperative society and pool their resources
for profits and losses.
Heavy industry: These industries use heavy raw materials to
produce heavy goods like heavy engineering.
Joint sector industries: Industries, which are jointly owned
by both the state and some private industrialists or firms.
Large scale industries: Industries using extensive raw materials, capital, labour and power to produce goods on large scale.
Light industry: Industries using light raw materials to produce light goods like paper, cotton textiles.
Manufacturing: An economic activity where raw materials
are converted into finished goods with the help of machines.

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Agro-based

Public

sector industries: An industry in which a state government or its agencies undertakes economic activities and
controls means of production and distribution.
Private sector industries: Industries owned and run by private
individuals like Tata Iron & Steel Company, Reliance Industries.
Small scale industries: The industries employing small number of employees and a capital investment of less than rupees
one crore, e.g., readymade garments.

Manufacturing
Production of goods in large quantities after processing from raw
materials to more valuable products is called manufacturing.

Importance of Manufacturing
Manufacturing

industries not only help in modernising agriculture, which forms the backbone of our economy, they also
reduce the heavy dependence of people on agricultural income
by providing them jobs in secondary and tertiary sectors.

2

PART VI Geography

Industrial

development is a precondition for eradication of

unemployment and poverty from our country.
Export of manufactured goods expands trade and commerce,
and brings in much needed foreign exchange.
Countries that transform their raw materials into a wide variety of furnished goods of higher value are prosperous.

IndustryMarket Linkage

Factory

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Outputs
(products)

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Transport

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Inputs
Raw material and/or
component parts
Factors of Production
Land, labour, capital
entrepreneur, infrastructure

Transport

Money

Market

Manufacturing Industries

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Thus, industrialization and urbanization go hand in hand. Cities

provide markets and also provide services, such as banking,
insurance, transport, labour, consultants and financial advice,
etc. to the industry. Many industries tend to come together to
make use of the advantages offered by the urban centres known
as agglomeration economies. Gradually, a large industrial
agglomeration takes place.

Agriculture and Industry

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Classification of Industries
On the basis of raw material

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and industry go hand in hand and are supplementary to each other in many ways.
Industry provides new tools, and implements as well as other
inputs of agriculture to boost agricultural productivity.
The agro-based industries depend on agriculture for raw
materials and industries sell their products, such as irrigation
pumps, fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, plastic and PVC
pipes, machines and tools, etc. to the farmers.
Thus, development and competitiveness of manufacturing
industry has not only assisted agriculturists in increasing
their production but also made the production processes very
efficient.

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Agriculture

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Contribution of Industries to National Economy

Agro based
Those industries which
depends on agricultural good
for raw material
e.g., Cotton textile,
Jute textile, Jugar

Basic industries
They produces those products
on which other industries are
dependent
e.g., Iron and steel, aluminium

Small scale
Large scale
Capital investment is less
Capital investment is more
than one crore rupee
than one crore rupees
On the basis of ownership

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Industrial locations are complex in nature. These are influenced

by availability of raw material, labour, capital, power and market, etc. It is rarely possible to find all these factors available at
one place. Consequently, manufacturing activity tends to locate
at the most appropriate place where all the factors of industrial location are either available or can be arranged at lower
cost. After an industrial activity starts, urbanization follows.
Sometimes, industries are located in or near the cities.

Consumer goods industries

They produce goods directly
for the consumers
e.g., Sugar, toothpaste

On the basis of investment

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Industrial Location

steel, aluminium

According to main role

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Over the last two decades. The share of manufacturing sector

has stagnated at 17 per cent of GDPout of a total of 27 per cent
for the industry, which includes 10 per cent for mining, quarrying, electricity and gas.
The trend of growth rate in manufacturing over the last
decade has been around 7 per cent per annum. The desired
growth rate over the next decade is 12 per cent. Since 2003,
manufacturing is once again growing at the rate of 9 to 10 per
cent per annum. The National Manufacturing Competitiveness
Council (NMCC) has been set up with this objective.

Mineral based
Which depends on mineral
for raw material
e.g., Cement, iron &

Public sector
Owned by the
government

Private sector
Owned by private
hands

Cooperative sector
Joint sector
Owned by the government Owned by society
member
and private jointly

e.g., Railways,

e.g., Tata, Bajaj,

e.g., Reliance
petrochemical oil
india limited

BHEL,SAIL

Dabur

e.g., Oilndustry
i
in kerla,
Sugar industry in
Maharashtra, Amul

On the basis of weight of raw material and finished products

Heavy Industry
These industries uses bulky
raw material and products are
also bulky
e.g., Iron and Steel, Cement

Light Industry
These industries uses light
raw material are products
are also light
e.g.,Cotton textile, electrical
industry

Chapter 5 Manufacturing Industries

Agro-Based Industries

History of Cotton Textiles in India

In ancient India, cotton textiles were produced with hand spinning and handloom weaving techniques. After the 18th century,
power-looms came into use. Our traditional industries suffered
a setback during the colonial period because they could not
compete with the mill-made cloth from England.
Today, there are nearly 1600 cotton and human made fibre
textile mills in the country. About 80 per cent of these are in the
private sector and the rest in the public and cooperative sectors.
Apart from these, there are several thousand small factories with
four to ten looms. In the early years, the cotton textile industry
was concentrated in the cotton growing belt of Maharashtra and
Gujarat.

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Agro-based industries play a vital role in the development of

Indias rural economy, which has been receiving increasing
attention from the central as well as state government, in view
of its importance to the national reconstruction.
The economic prosperity of a developing country like India
depends largely on the development of agro-based industries,
which in turn leads to the creation of forward and backward
linkages of the development process on large scale by making
mutual complementary of agriculture and industries.
The study of essentially empirical in nature and attempts
to make an economic analysis of agro-based industries in India
and Karnataka in general and HyderabadKarnataka region in
particular for the post liberalization period, i.e., from 199091
to 200405.
Industries, which get their raw material from agricultural
sector, such as sugar, edible oil, silk, jute, woollen textiles, and
cotton textile.

YarnsLabels Industry India

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Cotton textile industry

Agro-based processing industries

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Reasons for Concentration in Gujarat and

Maharashtra

Textile Industries

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Features of Cotton Textile Industry

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Textile industry

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The textile industry occupies unique position in the Indian

economy, because it contributes significantly to industrial production (14 per cent), employment generation (35 million persons directly the second largest after agriculture) and foreign
exchange earnings (about 24.6 per cent). It contributes 4 per
cent towards GDP. It is the only industry in the country, which
is self-reliant and complete in the value chain i.e., from raw
material to the highest value added products.
Fibre
Production

Spinning

Raw fibre

Weaving
Knitting

Yarn

Dyeing and
Finishing

Fabric

cotton textile is a highly localised industry right from the

beginning mainly in the cotton growing belt of Maharashtra
and Gujarat. Localization factors were:
(i) Availability of raw cotton in Gujarat and Maharashtra.
(ii) Traditional labour is available in these states.
(iii) Moist climate in these states also helps in spinning.
(iv) Infrastructure facilities are developed in these states.
(v) Port facilities are located near these states.

Garment
manufacture

Garments

Value addition in the textile industry

is an agro-based industry; thus, a large numbers of farmers

get their living from it.
There are a line of activities from cotton ball pluckers to
workers engaged in weaving, spinning, dyeing, designing,
packaging, tailoring and sewing.
Many other ancillary industries have come up around cotton
mills, such as chemicals and dyes engineering works, packaging
materials and mill store hence it is a labour intensive industry.
Cotton textile industry is an example of centralized and
decentralized industry.
Features like spinning is centralized in Maharashtra, Gujarat
and Tamil Nadu but weaving is highly decentralized for
incorporating traditional skill and designs of weaving in silk,
cotton Zari, embroidery etc.
India has world class production in spinning, but weaving
supplies low quality of fabric as it cannot use much of the
high quality yarn produced in the country.
Weaving is done by handloom, power loom and in mills.

4

PART VI Geography

Jute Ttextiles

The

handspun khadi provides large scale employment to

weavers in their homes as cottage industry.
India has bright future in cotton textile industry and wide
scope in exports.
Exporting countries include Japan, U.S.A., Russia, France,
Singapore, East European countries, African countries, Nepal
and Sri Lanka.
At around 34 million, India stands second largest installed
capacity of spindles in the world after China.
One-fourth of the total trade of cotton yarn comes from India
in the world trade.
However, our trade in garments is only 4 per cent of the
worlds total. Our spinning mills are competitive at the global
level and capable of using all the fibres we produce.

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India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute goods and
stands at second place as an exporter after Bangladesh. There
are about 70 jute mills in India. Most of these are located in
West Bengal, mainly along the banks of the The first jute mill
was set up near Kolkata in 1859 at Rishra. After Partition in
1947, the jute mills remained in India but three-fourth of the
jute producing area went to Bangladesh.

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The

Jute yarn

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Factors Responsible for Localization of Jute industry is

Hugli Basin proximity of the jute producing areas inexpensive
water transport supported by a good network of railways roadways and waterways to facilitate movement of raw material to
the mills abundant water for processing raw jute Cheap labour
from West Bengal and adjoining states of Bihar, Orissa and
Uttar Pradesh.
Kolkata as a large urban centre provides banking, insurance
and port facilities for export of jute goods.

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weaving, knitting and processing units cannot use much

of the high quality yarn that is produced in the country.
There are some large and modern factories in these segments,
but most of the production is fragmented in small units, which
cater to the local market.
This mismatch between the large and small unit is a major
drawback for the industry.
As a result, many of our spinners export cotton yarn while
apparel garment manufactures have to import fabric.

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Problems of Weaving Sector

Cotton weaving

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Problems of Cotton Textile Industry

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(i) Most of the production is in fragmented small units, which

cater to the local market.

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(ii) The weaving knitting and processing units cannot use much
of the high quality yarn that is produced in the country.
(iii) Scarcity of good quality cotton, outdated machinery, erratic
power supply, low productivity of labour and stiff competition with synthetic fibre industry are some other major
problems faced by the industry.
Trade India exports yarn to Japan. Our trade in garments is
only 4 per cent of the worlds total. Readymade garments are
exported to U.S.A., U.K, Russia, France, European countries,
Nepal, Singapore, Sri-Lanka and African countries.

Problems of Jute Industry

(i) Less demand for jute carpets and packing materials.
(ii) High production costs.
(iii) Stiff competition in international market.
(iv) Competition from synthetic substitutes.
However, the internal demand has been increased due to the
Government policy of mandatory use of jute packaging. In
2005, National Jute policy was formulated with the objective
of increasing productivity, improving quality, ensuring good
prices to the Jute farmers and enhancing the yield per hectare.

Steps Taken To Protect Jute Industry

To

stimulate demand, the products need to be diversified.

In 2005, National Jute Policy was formulated with the objective

of increasing productivity, improving quality, ensuring good

prices to the jute farmers and enhancing the yield per hectare.
The main markets are U.S.A., Canada, Russia, United Arab
Republic, U.K. and Australia.
The growing global concern for environment friendly, biodegradable materials had once again opened the opportunity for
jute products.
Trade Exported to U.S.A, Canada, Russia, United Arab
Republic, Australia and U.K.

Chapter 5 Manufacturing Industries

Sugar Industry
Importance India stands second as a world producer of sugar
but occupies the first place in the production of gur and khandsari. The raw material used in this industry is bulky, and in haulage its sucrose content reduces.

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Distribution There are over 460 sugar mills in the country spread over Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat along with Punjab,
Haryana and Madhya Pradesh. Sixty per cent mills are in Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar. This industry is seasonal in nature so, it is ideally suited to the cooperative sector.

Steel plant in Jamshedpur

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Production and consumption of steel is often regarded as the

index of a countrys development. Iron and steel is a heavy
industry because all the raw materials as well as finished goods
are heavy and bulky entailing heavy transportation costs. Iron
ore, coking coal and lime stone are required in the ratio of
approximately 4 : 2 : 1. Some quantities of manganese, are also
required to harden the steel.
Today with 32.8 million tons of steel production, India ranks
ninth among the world crude steel producers. It is the largest
producer of sponge iron. In spite of large quantity of production
of steel, per capita consumption per annum is only 32 kg.
In the 1950s, China and India produced almost the same quantity
of steel. Today, China is the largest producer. China is also the worlds
largest consumer of steel. In 2004, India was the largest exporter of
steel, which accounted for 2.25 per cent of the global steel trade.

Migration of Sugar Industry to South India

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In recent years, there is a tendency for the mills to shift and concentrate in the southern and western states, especially in Maharashtra.
This is because the cane produced here has a higher sucrose content. The cooler climate also ensures a longer crushing season.
Moreover, the cooperatives are more successful in these states.

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Sugar industry

Problems of Sugar Industry

challenges include the seasonal nature of the industry.

Due to which it becomes less profitable.
Old and inefficient methods of production.
Transport delay in reaching cane to factories.
Baggase are not used properly. So there is wastage.

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Major

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Mineral-Based Industries
Iron and Steel Industry

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History and present status

(i) First industry was established at Portonova in Tamil Nadu,

followed by Kulti in West Bengal.

Reason for Concentration of Iron and Steel

Industry in Chotanagpur Plateau
This

industry in concentrated into Chotanagpur plateau

because of the relative advantages this region has for the
development of this industry.
Chotanagpur plateau has rich reserves of Iron ore, coal and
lime stone and they are found very close to each other. This
reduces transportation cost.
Damodar River and its tributaries provide water needed by
this industry.
This region has developed thermal and hydro power plants,
which provide electricity.
Cheap and skilled labour is available.
This region has developed network of railways and roadway.
Kolkata and Haldia ports are very close to this region, which
facilitates export.

Problems of Iron and steel industry

(a) High costs and limited availability of coking coal

(ii) First integrated steel plant came up at Jamshedpur in 1907.

(b) Lower productivity of labour

(iii) Presently there are 10 primary integrated Iron and Steel

plant and around 200 mini steel plants.
Importance The iron and steel Industry is the basic industry
since all the other industriesheavy, medium and light, depend
on it for their machinery. Steel is needed to manufacture a variety
of engineering goods, construction material, defence, medical, telephonic, scientific equipment and a variety of consumer goods.

(c) Irregular supply of energy and

(d) Poor infrastructure.

Aluminium
In 2004, India produced over 600 million tons of aluminium.
Bauxite, the raw material used in the smelters is a very bulky,

6

PART VI Geography

are located near oil refineries or petrochemical plants. The

chemical industry is its own largest consumer. Basic chemicals
undergo processing to further produce other chemicals that are
used for industrial application, agriculture or directly for consumer markets.

Aluminium Smelting

Fertilizer Industry

Aluminium smelting is the second most important metallurgical

industry in India. It is light, resistant to corrosion, a good conductor of heat, malleable and becomes strong when it is mixed
with other metals. It is used to manufacture aircraft, utensils and
wires. It has gained popularity as a substitute of steel, copper,
zinc and lead in a number of industries. There are 8 aluminium
smelting plants in the country located in Orissa (Nalco and
Balco), West Bengal, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh.
Ratio between Ores and Aluminium
4 to 6 tonnes of bauxite 2 tonnes of alumina 1 tonne of
alumnium
Process of manufacturing in Aluminium industry:

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(i) First fertilizer industry plant was established at Ranipet in

Tamil Nadu in 1906, real growth became with the establishment of plant. at Sindri by the Fertilizer Corporation of
India.

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(ii) India is the third largest producer of nitrogenous fertiliser.

There are 57 fertilizer units manufacturing nitrogenous and
complex nitrogenous fertiliser, 29 for urea and 9 for producing ammonium sulphate as a by-product and 68 other
small units produce single super phosphate.

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Factors that Have Helped in the Widespread

Location of Fertilizer Industry in India

Cryolite

Aluminium
smelter

3. Pitch from a colltery

Electricity

(18600 Kwh per ton or ore)

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Chemical Industry

After the Green Revolution the industry expanded to several

other parts of the country. Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh,
Punjab and Kerala contribute towards half the fertilizer production. Other significant producers are Andhra Pradesh, Orissa,
Rajasthan, Bihar, Maharashtra, Assam, West Bengal, Goa,
Delhi, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka.

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Aluminium
smelter

Transport
rail or ship

1. Bulk ore shipped to

site of smelter
2. Calculated petroleum
coke from a refinery

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Aluminium

Bauxite crushed
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and alumina
dissolved out.
Aluminum
refinery

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The raw
material
Bauxite
Quarry

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A molten metal acts as

an electrolyte
Bauxite

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dark reddish coloured rock. The flow chart given below shows
the process of manufacturing aluminium. Regular supply of
electricity and an assured source of raw material at minimum
cost are the two prime factors for location of the industry.

Cement

is raw material as well as a resource in cementing other

industry. So it is called infrastructure core industry. Commercial
activities in recent time have boosted this industry a lot.
Construction of roads, dams, airports, bridges, factories,
housing colonies, multi-storey buildings and now the Malls
has completely transformed this industry.
This industry requires bulky and heavy raw materials like
limestone, silica, alumina and gypsum.
Coal and electric power are needed apart from rail
transportation.

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The chemical industry in India is fast growing and diversifying.

It contributes approximately 3 per cent of the GDP. It is the third
largest in Asia and occupies the twelfth place in the world in
term of its size. It comprises both large and small scale manufacturing units. Rapid growth has been recorded in both inorganic
and organic sectors. Inorganic chemicals include sulphuric acid
(used to manufacture fertilisers, synthetic fibres, plastics, adhesives, paints, dyes stuffs), nitric acid, alkalies, soda ash (used
to make glass, soaps and detergents, paper) and caustic soda.
These industries are widely spread over the country.

Cement Industry

Yanbu cement factory

Petro-chemical industries

Organic chemicals include petrochemicals, which are used for

manufacturing of synthetic fibres, synthetic rubber, plastics,
dye-stuffs, drugs and pharmaceuticals. Organic chemical plants

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these industries should be located near the source of raw

material.
The industry has strategically located in Gujarat that has suitable access to the market in the Gulf countries.

Chapter 5 Manufacturing Industries

The

first cement plant was set up in Chennai in 1904. After

Independence the industry expanded.
Decontrol of price and distribution since 1989 and other policy
reforms led the cement industry to make rapid strides in capacity, process, technology and production.

This

number is expected to increase eight-fold in the next 3

to 4 years. It is encouraging to know that 30 per cent of the
people employed in this sector are women.
This industry has been a major foreign exchange earner in the
last two or three years because of its fast growing Business
Processes Outsourcing (BPO) sector.
The continuing growth in the hardware and software is the
key to the success of IT industry in India.

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Automobile Industry

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Automobiles provide vehicle for quick transport of good services and passengers. Trucks, buses, cars, motor cycles, scooters, three-wheelers and multi-utility vehicles are manufactured
in India at various centres. After the liberalization, the coming
in of new and contemporary models stimulated the demand for
vehicles in the market, which led to the healthy growth of the
industry including passenger cars, two and three-wheelers. This
industry had experienced a quantum jump in less than 15 years.
Foreign Direct Investment brought in new technology and
aligned the industry with global developments. At present, there
are 15 manufacturers of passenger cars and multi-utility vehicles, 9 of commercial vehicles, 14 of the two and three-wheelers.
The industry is located around Delhi, Gurgaon, Mumbai, Pune,
Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow, Indore, Hyderabad, Jamshedpur
and Bangalore.

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Gas turbine rotor on assembly bed at BHEL, Hyderabad

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Industrial Pollution and

Environmental Degradation

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Air Pollution

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Cause Smoke emitted by the industries carries a higher porportion of undesirable gases, materials, consisting of both solid
and liquid particles, which affect human health, animals, plants,
materials and the atmosphere.

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Information Technology and

Electronics Industry

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Indias automobile industry

electronics industry covers a wide range of products from

transistor sets to television, telephones, cellular telecom, pagers telephone exchange, radars, computers and many other
equipments required by the telecommunication industry.

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The

Silicon Valley

Bangalore

has emerged as the electronic capital of India. Other

important centres for electronic goods are Mumbai, Delhi,
Hyderabad, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow and Coimbatore.
18 software technology parks provide single window service
and high data communication facility to software experts.
A major impact of this industry has been on employment generation. Upto 31 March 2005, the IT industry employed over
one million persons.

Air pollution

Remedy Air pollution can be controlled by:

(i) Better fuel selection and utilization, use of oil instead of
coal in the industries.
(ii) Use of equipments like inertial separators, filters, precipitators and scrubbers.

Water Pollution
Causes
(i) Industrial affluent are discharged into rivers, which are both
organic and inorganic.
(ii) Paper pulp, textiles, chemical, petroleum refining, tannery and
electroplating are the major industries creating water pollution.
Remedy Treatment of industrial liquids can be done in three
phases:
(i) Primary treatment by mechanical process.
(ii) Secondary treatment by biological process,
(iii) Tertiary treatment by biological, chemical and physical
process, which includes recycling of waste water.

8

PART VI Geography

(i) Minimising use water for processing by reusing and recycling it in two or more successive stages

Noise Pollution
Noise pollution not only results in irritation and anger, it can
also cause hearing impairment, increased heart rate and blood
pressure among other physiological effects. Unwanted sound
is an irritant and a source of stress. Industrial and construction
activities, machinery, factory equipment, generators, saws and
pneumatic and electric drills also make a lot of noise.

(ii) Harvesting of rainwater to meet water requirements

(iii) Treating hot water and effluents before releasing them in
rivers and ponds.
Treatment of industrial effluents can be done in three phases

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(a) Primary treatment by mechanical means. This involves

screening, grinding, flocculation and sedimentation.

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(b) Secondary treatment by biological process.

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(c) Tertiary treatment by biological, chemical and physical

processes. This involves recycling of wastewater.
Overdrawing of ground water reserves by industry where
there is a threat to ground water resources also needs to
be regulated legally. Particulate matter in the air can be
reduced by fitting smoke stacks to factories with electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, scrubbers and inertial separators. Smoke can be reduced by using oil or gas instead
of coal in factories. Machinery and equipment can be used
and generators should be fitted with silencers. Almost all
machinery can be redesigned to increase energy efficiency
and reduce noise. Noise absorbing material may be used
apart from personal use of earplugs and earphones.

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NOISE POLLUTION

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Few measures to control land and soil pollution.

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(i) Collection of wastes from different places.

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(ii) Dumping and disposing the waste by land filling.

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(iii) Recycling of the wastes for further use.

pollution of water occurs when hot water from factories and thermal plants is drained into rivers and ponds before
cooling.
Wastes from nuclear power plants, nuclear and weapon production facilities cause cancers, birth defects and miscarriages.
Soil and water pollution are closely related. Dumping of
wastes, specially glass, harmful chemicals, industrial effluents, packaging, salts and garbage renders the soil useless.
Rain water percolates to the soil carrying the pollutants to the
ground and the ground water also gets contaminated.

EXAMPLE OF NTPC
NTPC is a major power providing corporation in India. It has
ISO certification for EMS (Environment Management System)
14001. The corporation has a pro-active approach for preserving the natural environment and resources like water, oil and
gas and fuels in places where it is setting up power plants.
This has been possible through
(a) Optimum utilization of equipment adopting latest techniques and upgrading existing equipment.
(b) Minimising waste generation by maximising ash utilization.
(c) Providing green belts for nurturing ecological balance and
addressing the question of special purpose vehicles for
afforestation.
(d) Reducing environmental pollution through ash pond management, ash water recycling system and liquid waste
management.
(e) Ecological monitoring, reviews and online database management for all its power stations.

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Thermal

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Thermal Pollution

Nuclear Power Plant

Control of Environmental Degradation

Every litre of waste water discharged by our industry pollutes
eight times the quantity of freshwater. How can the industrial
pollution of fresh water be reduced? Some suggestions are

The Ramagundam power plant

Chapter 5 Manufacturing Industries

Summary

(iii) Treatment of hot water and effluents before releasing in

ponds and rivers, involves three steps

Manufacturing sector is considered the backbone of development in general and economic development.

(a) Primary treatment by mechanical means

I. Importance of Manufacturing

(c) Tertiary treatment by biological chemical and physical processes

(b) Secondary treatment by biological process

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(i)Manufacturing industries helps in modernising

agriculture.

(ii)It reduce the heavy dependence of people on agriculture income by providing them jobs.
(iii) Helps in eradication of unemployment and poverty.
(iv) Helps in bringing down regional disparities.

(v)Exports of manufactured goods expand trade and
commerce.

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Mind-Map

Importance of Manufacturing Industry

Reduces population pressure on agriculture
Creates employment opportunities
It earns significant amount of foreign exchange.
Produces tool and machines used by other sectors
Modernization of agriculture depends on them

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(a)High costs and limited availability of coking coal.

(b) Lower productivity of labour.
(c) Irregular supply of energy.
(d) Poor infrastructure.

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Classification of Industries
On the basis of source of raw material: Agro-based and
mineral-based
According to main role: Basic and consumer industries
On the basis of investment: small scale and large scale
On the basis of ownership: Private, Public, Joint and cooperative sector
On the basis of weight of raw material: Heavy and light
industries

Do

(i)Iron and steel industry is the basic industry steel is

needed to manufacture a variety of engineering goods,
construction material, defence, medical, telephonic,
scientific equipment and variety of consumer goods.

(ii)Iron and steel industry is a heavy industry because all
raw material as well as finished goods are heavy and
bulky entailing heavy transportation costs. Iron ore,
coking coal and lime stone are required in 4:2:1
(iii)India is an important iron and steel producing country in the world yet we lag behind because.

y(

II. Iron and Steel Industry

FOUR TYPES OF POLLUTION

14

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I II. Industrial Pollution and Environmental Degradation :

Industries contribute significantly to Indias economic
growth and development but increase in pollution results
in degradation of environment.

20

(a) Air: caused by undesirable gases, such as sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide, air borne particles, such as
dust, sprays, mist and smoke.

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(b) Water Pollution: Caused by organic and inorganic

industrial wastes, such as release of lead, mercury pesticides, fertilizers, synthetic chemical, plastics, rubber, fly
ash, phospho-gypsum etc.
(c) Thermal Pollution: Caused by nuclear power plants
nuclear and weapon production cause cancers, birth
defects and miscarriages.
(d) Noise Pollution: Cause hearing impairment, increased
heart rate and blood pressure by making unwanted noise.
IV. Control of Environment Degradation:
(i) Minimising the use of water by reusing recycling.
(ii) Harvesting rainwater to meet water requirement.

Agro-based Industries
Cotton textile
Provides maximum employment after agriculture. It is centralized as well as decentralized.
Jute Textiles
Called the golden fibre.
Concentrated in Hugli Basin
Sugar industry
Ideally suitable for cooperative sectors
Recently migrating to south India
Mineral-based Industries
Iron and steel
Basic industry, concentrated in Chotanagpur plateau
User bulky raw material
Aluminium smelting
Chemical Industry
Contributes 3% to our GDP
Fertilizer industry
Expanded after Green Revolution
Cement industry
Automobile industry
Witnessed growth after liberalization
Industrial Pollution
Air pollution

10

PART VI Geography

Control of Industrial Pollution

Minimum use of water for processing
Rainwater harvesting
Primary, secondary and tertiary treatment of industrial
waste before disposal
Control of mining activity
Use of new technology to reduce pollution
Using oil instead of coal
Silencers should be used to reduce noise, pollution.

Caused by gases like. CO2, CO, SO2, NO2

pollution
Caused by industrial waste from, chemical and leather
factories
Thermal pollution
Wastes from nuclear power, thermal power plants
Noise pollution
Industrial and construction activity, generators causes lot
of noise

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14

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Water

CHAPTER

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Minerals and Resources

Minerals and Resources

Closure

y(

er

Environment
Assessment
& Approval

Ongoing stakeho
consultations

A mineral resource is a concentration or occurrence of material of intrinsic economic interest

in or on the earths crust in such form, quality and quantity that there are reasonable prospects
for eventual economic extraction. Mineral Resources are further sub-divided, in order of increasing geological confidence, into inferred, indicated and measured categories.

1-2 years

Construction

Operating

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resources that are potentially valuable, and for which reasonable prospects exist for
eventual economic extraction.
Mineral reserves or ore reserves are valuable and legally and economically and technically
feasible to extract.

8-10+year

Mineral
Resources
Development
Cycle

Ki

5 years -'

Mineral

Exploration

1-4 years

Monitoring

nd

Reclamation

Mineral resource classification is the classification of mineral deposits based on their geologic certainty and economic value. Mineral deposits can be classified as:

Available
land
resources

1-3 years

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10-30 years

by

Syllabus

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Types of minerals, distribution, use and economic importance of minerals, conservation Types of power
resources conventional and non-conventional, distribution and utilization, and conservation.

Pu

Introduction
Alloys:

Mineral are homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a

definable internal structure. Minerals are found in varied forms
in nature, ranging from the hardest diamond to the softest talc.
You have already learnt about rocks.

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14

These are those metals, which are mixed with iron

as base.
Biogas: Energy produced by using shrubs, form waste, animal and human wastes.
Conventional Sources of Energy: Traditional sources of
energy like coal, petroleum, natural gas.
Minerals: Naturally occurring substances on the earths surfaces having a definite chemical composition.
Non-conventional sources of energy: Renewable sources of
energy, which are recently developed like solar, wind tidal, etc.
Open cast mining: A method of mining by removing the overlying materials to extract the minerals from shallow depth.
Mining: An economic activity, which deals with profitable
extraction of minerals.
Placer deposits: Minerals which occur as alluvial deposits
brought down by the rivers, such as gold, silver, tin, etc.
Rocks: Natural substances, which consists of one or more
minerals.
Shaft mining: A method of mining where vertical and horizontal
shafts are made to extract the minerals from deep under the earth.

Minerals

A particular mineral that will be formed from a certain combination of elements depends upon the physical and chemical
conditions under which the material forms. This, in turn, results
in a wide range of colours, hardness, crystal forms, lustre and
density that a particular mineral possesses. Geologists use these
properties to classify the minerals.

PART VI Geography

(iii)Another mode of formation involves the decomposition

of surface rocks, and the removal of soluble constituents,
leaving a residual mass of weathered material containing
ores. Bauxite is formed this way.
(iv)Certain minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in sands of
valley floors and the base of hills. These deposits are called
placer deposits and generally contain minerals, which
are not corroded by water. Gold, silver, tin and platinum
are most important among such minerals.
(v)The ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals, but
most of these are too widely diffused to be of economic
significance. However, common salt, magnesium and bromine are largely derived from ocean waters. The ocean
beds, too, are rich in manganese nodules.

Importance of Minerals for a Country

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(i)Minerals are an indispensable part of our lives. Almost

everything we use are made up of minerals.
(ii)Car, buses, trains, aeroplanes are manufactured from minerals and run on power resources derived from the earth.
(iii) Even the food that we eat contains minerals.
(iv)In all stages of development, human beings have used minerals for their livelihood, decoration, festivities, religious
and ceremonial rites.

Classification of Minerals
Classificafication Of Minerals
Minerals

Non Metallic

e.g., mica, salt,

potash, sulphur,
granite, limestone,
marbale, sandstone, etc.

Precious
e.g., gold, sliver,
platinum, etc.

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Ferrous Minerals

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Ferrous (containg iron) Non Ferrous

e.g., iron ore, nickel,
e.g., copper, lead,
manganese, cobalt, etc. tin, bauxite, etc.

Energy Minerals

Coal
Petroleum
Natural gas

Ferrous minerals are iron-rich minerals that tend to be dark and

heavy and generally crystallize at the highest temperatures and
pressures (farther from the Earths crust), causing them to contain less stable crystal structures and be more prone to rapid
decomposition than non-ferrous minerals.

er

Metallic

Ki

Are solid in nature

Example: Iron, Copper,
Manganese etc.

Can be semi-solid, liquid or

even in Gaseous form
Example: Coal, Petroleum,
Natural gas etc

Iron Ore

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Does not consist any metal

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Non-Metaillc

Minerals consist metal

sh

Mode of Occurrence of Minerals

Importance

Do

Metaillc

nd

Geologists classify minerals according to their chemical composition and crystalline structure. Some minerais consist of only
one element while others of two or more elements.

(i) Backbone of modern civilization.

(ii) Metal of universal use.
(iii)Used for manufacturing of machines, agricultural implements and items of general use.
Major iron Ore Areas
%

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Minerals are usually found in ores. The term ore is used to

describe an accumulation of any mineral mixed with other elements. The mineral content of the ore must be in sufficient concentration to make its extraction commercially viable. The type of
formation or structure in which they are found determines the relative ease with which mineral ores may be mined. This also determines the cost of extraction. It is, therefore, important for us to
understand the main types of formations in which minerals occur.

20

14

Orissa
Chattisgarh
Goa
Jahrkhand
Others

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(i) In igneous and metamorphic rocks minerals may occur

in the cracks, crevices, faults or joints. The smaller occurrences are called veins and the larger are called lodes. In
most cases, they are formed when minerals in liquid/ molten and gaseous forms are forced upward through cavities
towards the earths surface. They cool and solidify as they
rise. Major metallic minerals like tin, copper, zinc and lead
etc. are obtained from veins and lodes.
(ii) In sedimentary rocks a number of minerals occur in
beds or layers. They have been formed as a result of
deposition, accumulation and concentration in horizontal
strata. Another group of sedimentary minerals include
gypsum, potash salt and sodium salt. These are formed as a
result of evaporation especially in arid regions.

Varieties
(i) Magnetite: The finest iron ore with a very high content of
iron up to 70 percent. It has excellent magnetic qualities,
especially valuable in the electrical industry.
(ii) Hematite: The most important industrial iron ore in terms
of the quantity used, but has a slightly lower iron content
than magnetite. (5060 percent).
Major Iron Ore Belts in India
OrissaJharkhand belt: In Orissa high grade hematite ore is
found in Badampahar mines in the Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar
districts. In the adjoining Singbhum district of Jharkhand haematite iron ore is mined in Gua and Noamundi.

Chapter 6 Minerals and Resources

Non-Ferrous Minerals

Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur

belt lies in Chhattisgarh and

Maharashtra. Very high grade hematites are found in the
famous Bailadila range of hills in the Bastar district of
Chattisgarh. The range of hills comprises 14 deposits of super
high grade hematite iron ore. It has the best physical properties needed for steel making. Iron ore from these mines is
exported to Japan and South Korea via Vishakapatnam port.
Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur-Tumkur
belt
in
Karnataka has large reserves of iron ore. The Kudermukh
mines located in the Western Ghats of Karnataka are a 100
per cent export unit. Kudremukh deposits are known to be
one of the largest in the world. The ore is transported as slurry
through a pipeline to a port near Mangalore.
MaharashtraGoa belt includes the state of Goa and
Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. Though, the ores are not of
very high quality, yet they are efficiently exploited. Iron ore
is exported through Marmagao port.

Indias

reserves of non-ferrous minerals are not satisfactory.

minerals are very important for metallurgical, electrical industries, engineering industry.

These

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Copper

is a good conductor of electricity and has other physical/ chemical properties like malleable, ductile make it one of
the most important mineral mainly for electronic, electrical
cables, chemical industry.
India is deficient in the reserve of copper.
The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh produce 52 per cent
of Indias copper.
The Singbhum district of Jharkhand is also a leading producer
of copper.
The Khetri mines in Rajasthan are also famous for copper
production.

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Rajasthan
42%

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Iron ore

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Manganese Ore
Importance

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(i) Used for making Iron and Steel and preparing ferromanganese alloys.
(ii) Used for manufacturing bleaching powder, insecticides,
paints and batteries.
Orissa is the largest producer of manganese ore in India. It
accounted for one-third of the countrys total production in
200001.

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Others
30%

Karnataka
15%

Orissa
33%

Madhya Pradesh
22%

Production of Manganese showing state-wise share in percent 200304

Madhya Pradesh
58%

Production of Copper showing state-wise share in percent 200304

Bauxite
Though, several ores contain aluminium, it is from bauxite, a clay-like substance that alumina and later aluminium is
obtained. Bauxite deposits are formed by the decomposition of
a wide variety of rocks rich in aluminium silicates. Aluminium
is an important metal because it combines the strength of metals, such as iron, with extreme lightness and also with good conductivity and great malleability.
Indias bauxite deposits are mainly found in the Amarkantak
plateau, Maikal hills and the plateau region of Bilaspur- Katni.
Orissa is the largest bauxite producing state in India with 45 per
cent of the countrys total production in 200001. Panchpatmali
deposits in Koraput district are the most important bauxite
deposits in the state.
Bauxite Production in india
%
Jharkhand
Gujarat
Maharashtra
Others

PART VI Geography

Non-Metallic Minerals
Mica

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(i)Due to its excellent di-electric strength, low power loss

factor, insulating properties and resistance to high voltage,
mica is one of the most indispensable minerals used in
electric and electronic industries.
(ii) It is a mineral made up of a series of plates or leaves.
(iii) Mica can be clear, black, green, red, yellow or brown.
(iv)Mica deposits are found in the northern edge of the
Chota Nagpur plateau. Koderma-Gaya-Hajaribagh belt of
Jharkhand is the leading producer.
(v)In Rajasthan, the major mica producing area is around
Ajmer. Nellore mica belt of Andhra Pradesh is also an
important producer in the country.

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miners. The water sources in the region get contaminated due

to mining. Dumping of waste and slurry leads to degradation of
land, soil, and increase in stream and river pollution.

role of minerals in an economy and in daily life is appreciable in the sense that the substance and items manufactured
from them has become part and parcel of human life.
Industry and agriculture also heavily depends upon minerals
directly or indirectly.

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The

nd

Conservation of Minerals

Do

Mica Mineral

by

Rock Minerals

limestone can be white or pale grey. It is found in association with calcium carbonates or magnesium carbonate.
It is found in sedimentary rock. Limestone is the basic raw
material for the cement industry and essential for smelting
iron ore in the blast furnace.

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Pure

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Andhra Pradesh
16%

yr

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20

Others
34%

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Tamil Nadu
9%

Gujarat
11%

Madhya
Pradesh
15%

Why to Conserve Minerals

Nature

of minerals, their availability and growing demand

is forcing human society to find ways to conserve minerals.
They are non-renewable and unevenly distributed.
The total volume of mineral deposits available to us is very
less. It is only one percent of the earths crust.
Minerals are non-renewable and we are rapidly consuming
minerals. If it gets exhausted it may take millions of years for
formation or it may never be reformed.
Continued extraction of ores leads to increasing cost as they
are extracted from greater depths and as extraction continues
their quality decreases.

Ways to Conserve Minerals

A continual

Rajasthan
15%

Production of Limestone showing state-wise share in percent

200304

and concerted effort is to make use of our limited

exhaustible mineral resources in a planned and sustainable
manner in safeguarding our future.
Improved technologies need to be constantly evolved to allow
use of low grade ores at low costs.
Recycling of metals, using scrap metals and other substitutes
are steps in conserving our mineral resources for the future.

Hazards of Mining

Energy Resources

The dust and noxious fumes inhaled by miners make them

vulnerable to pulmonary diseases. The risk of collapsing mine
roofs, inundation and fires in coalmines are a constant threat to

Energy can be generated from fuel minerals like coal, petroleum,

natural gas, uranium and from electricity. Energy resources can
be classified as conventional and nonconventional sources.

Chapter 6 Minerals and Resources

Conventional Sources

Types of Coal

Firewood, cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas and

electricity (both hydel and thermal).

Lignite Lignite is a low grade brown coal, which is soft with

high moisture content. The principal lignite reserves are in
Neyveli in Tamil Nadu and are used for generation of electricity.

Non-Conventional Sources

vt.
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Bituminous Coal Coal that has been buried deep and subjected
to increased temperatures is bituminous coal. It is the most popular
coal in commercial use. Metallurgical coal is high grade bituminous
coal, which has a special value for smelting iron in blast furnaces.

Non-Conventional

New sources of energy

Mostly non-renewable

Mainly renewable

Creates pollution

Mainly pollution-free form of

energy

By using conventional
sources, energy can be produced anywhere.

Production of energy depends

upon physical location and
climatic condition.

E.g., Coal, Petroleum,

Natural Gas etc.

E.g., Solar, Wind, Tidal,

Geothermal etc.

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Anthracite Anthracite is the highest quality hard coal.

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Commercial

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Have been in use for quite

some time

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Conventional

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Solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic energy.

Firewood and cattle dung cake are most common in rural India.
According to one estimate more than 70 per cent energy requirement in rural households is met by these two ; continuation of
these is increasingly becoming difficult due to decreasing forest area. Moreover, using dung cake too is being discouraged
because it consumes most valuable manure, which could be
used in agriculture.

NonCommercial

Non-continuous source of
energy

Can be used for commercial

purpose, such as industires

Only can be used for

noncommercial purpose, such as
domestic use, street lightning etc.

14

Coal

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Conventional Resources

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Are the continuous source of

energy

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Importance In India, coal is the most abundantly available

fossil fuel. It provides a substantial part of the nations energy
needs. It is used for power generation, to supply energy to
industry as well as for domestic needs.
Coal is formed due the compression of plant material over
millions of years. Coal, therefore, is found in a variety of forms
depending on the degrees of compression and the depth and
time of burial. Decaying plants in swamps produce peat, which
has a low carbon and high moisture contents and low heating
capacity.

In India coal occurs in rock series of two main geological ages,

namely Gondwana, a little over 200 million years in age and
in tertiary deposits, which are only about 55 million years old.
The major resources of Gondwana coal, which are metallurgical
coal, are located in Damodar valley (West Bengal-Jharkhand).
Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro are important coalfields. The Godavari,
Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys also contain coal deposits.
Tertiary coals occur in the north eastern states of Meghalaya,
Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.

Petroleum
Importance
Petroleum or mineral oil is the next major energy source in
India after coal. It provides fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants
for machinery and raw materials for a number of manufacturing
industries. Petroleum refineries act as a nodal industry for synthetic textile, fertiliser and numerous chemical industries.

Occurrence
Coal mine

Most of the petroleum occurrences in India are associated with

anticlines and fault traps in the rock formations of the tertiary
age. In regions of folding, anticlines or domes, it occurs where

PART VI Geography

oil is trapped in the crest of the upfold. The oil bearing layer is
a porous limestone or sandstone through which oil may flow.
The oil is prevented from rising or sinking by intervening nonporous layers.
Petroleum is also found in fault traps between porous and nonporous rocks. Gas, being lighter usually occurs above the oil.
About 63 per cent of Indias petroleum production is from Mumbai
High, 18 per cent from Gujarat and 16 per cent from Assam.

(a) Thermal Electricity:

Natural Gas

(b) Hydroelectricity:

Derived from fast flowing

stream of water.

Non-renewable

Renewable

Creats pollution

Pollution-free, also known as

White electricity

Can be installed anywhere.

Installation depends upon

physical properties of land
(only applicable in mountainous areas)

Per Unit Cost is high

Requires only one time

investment

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Derived from coal, petroleum,

natural gas

Electricity

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Electricity is generated mainly in two ways: by running water,

which drives hydro turbines to generate hydro electricity; and
by burning other fuels, such as coal, petroleum and natural gas
to drive turbines to produce thermal power. Once generated the
electricity is exactly the same.

Tehri dam

Hydro Electricity

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Thermal Electricity

by

20

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The 1700 km long Hazira-Bijaipur-Jagdishpur cross country

gas pipeline links Mumbai High and Bassien with the fertilizer,
power and industrial complexes in western and northern India.
This artery has provided an impetus to Indias gas production.
The power and fertilizer industries are the key users of natural gas. Use of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) for vehicles to
replace liquid fuels is gaining wide popularity in the country

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Difference between Thermal Electricity

and Hydroelectrocity

ed

Hbj Pipeline

vt.

(i) Are renewable resources of energy.

(ii)Accounts for 25% of the total electricity produced in
India.
(iii) Hydel power potential is 150000 MW
(iv) Total installed capacity of 23488 MW.
(v)Important Hydel power producing states Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka.

Natural

Do

gas is the most eco-friendly fuel found in association

with petroleum.
It has low carbon dioxide emissions thus seen as a fuel of the
present century.
It is not only a source of energy but also industrial raw material of petro chemical industry.
Large reserves of natural gas have been discovered in the
Krishna-Godavari basin.
Along the west coast the reserves of the Mumbai High
and allied fields are supplemented by finds in the Gulf of
Cambay.
The 1700 km long Hazira-Bijaipur-jagdishpur cross country
gas pipeline links Mumbai High and Bassien with the fertilizer, power and industrial complexes in western and northern
India.
This artery has provided an impetus to Indias gas production.
Use of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) for vehicles to replace
liquid fuels is gaining wide popularity in the country.

(i) Obtained by using Coal, Petroleum and Natural Gas.

(ii)Out of the total production, share of thermal electricity
is about 70%.
(iii)Over 310 thermal power plants distributed in Assam,
Jharkhand, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh,
Uttar Pradesh, West Bengl, Punjab and Haryana,
Rajasthan, Karnataka, Orissa and Delhi.

Nuclear Energy
Nuclear or Atomic Energy is obtained by altering the structure
of atoms. When such an alteration is made, much energy is
released in the form of heat and this is used to generate electric
power. Uranium and thorium, which are available in Jharkhand
and the Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan are used for generating
atomic or nuclear power. The Monazite sands of Kerala is also
rich in thorium. Locate the 6 nuclear power stations and find out
the state in which they are located.

Chapter 6 Minerals and Resources

Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

(iii)Energy produced can be used for cooking and lighting and

the residual can be used as manure.

India is very rich as far as non-conventional sources of

energy are concerned.

Solar Energy has a greater potential as:

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(i) Rajasthan is a hot and dry region.

(ii) It has clear skies for a considerable part of the year.
(iii) Abundant insolation.
(iv) Cheaper installation, easier management.
(v)Renewable, pollution-free and residue-free source of
energy.
Biogas has a greater potential in plains as:

Methane
burned

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sh

Solar Energy

for cooking

or heating

Anaerobic
decomposition
releases methane

Manure

Biogas Generator

Oceanic tides can be used to generate electricity. Floodgate dams

are built across inlets. During high tide water flows into the inlet
and gets trapped when the gate is closed. After the tide falls outside
the flood gate, the water retained by the floodgate flows back to the
sea via a pipe that carries it through a power-generating turbine.

now ranks as a winds super power in the world.

has a very long coast line so there is huge potential to
develop wind energy.
The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from
Nagarcoil to Madurai.
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra
and Lakshadweep have important wind farms.

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igh

Wind Power

Biogas
(i)Energy derived from shrubs, farm wastes, animal and
human wastes.
(ii)Has higher thermal efficiency in comparison to Kerosene,
Dung cake and Charcoal.

Carbon dioxide
absorbed by
plants through
Photosynthesis

Tidal Energy

20

14

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Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight directly into electricity. Solar energy is fast becoming popular in rural and remote
areas. The largest solar plant of India is located at Madhapur,
near Bhuj, where solar energy is used to sterilise milk cans. It
is expected that use of solar energy will be able to minimise the
dependence of rural households on firewood and dung cakes,
which in turn will contribute to environmental conservation and
adequate supply of manure in agriculture.

Carbon dioxide released

to the atmosphere

Ki

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(i) Dense vegetation.

(ii) Large number of cattle and livestock.
(iii) High density of population, and hence huge decay and
human waste material.

Do

(i)Wind energy is used for pumping water, irrigating

farms and generating electricity. The states of Gujarat,
Tamilnadu, Orrisa and Maharashtra are in better position
to produce and use such an energy.
(ii)The gulf of Kuchch and Cambay are suitable for the development of tidal energy.
(iii)Geothermal energy is prouuced from hot springs in
Himachal Pradesh. It is used for running cold storage
plaints.
(iv)Every effort is being made to make use of biomass comprising energy plantation, urban waste, farm waste, human
waste etc. to generate power.
(v)Energy plantations like fast-growing shrubs and trees with
high calorific value are being grown on waste and denuded
lands.
(vi)Urban or municipal wastes and sewages in cities are also
used for generating gas and electricity.
(vii)Electricity can also be oroduced from farm wastes like
rice husk and bagasse (sugarcane waste).
(viii)Animal and poultry wastes, and human excreta etc. have
also been used in bio-gas plants to provide power in rural
areas for different purposes.
(ix)The sun provides abundant and inexhaustible amount of
energy. It has a huge potential and is a universal source of
energy.

Solar Energy in Rajasthan and Biogas in the plains and

hills of North India have greater potential as non-conventional source of energy.

Tide Coming IN

This tidal electricity generation

works as the tide comes in
and again when it goes out.
The turbines are driven by
the power of the sea in both
directions.

Tide Going Out

PART VI Geography

In India, the Gulf of Kuchchh, provides ideal conditions for

utilising tidal energy. A 900 mw tidal energy power plant is set
up here by the National Hydropower Corporation.

Summary
Mode of Occurrence of Mineral:
Where are these minerals found.
Minerals are usually found in Ores. The term ore is described
as accumulation of any mineral mixed with other elements, it
should have sufficient concentration to make its extraction viable. The type of formation or structure in which they are found
determines their relative ease of mining and cost of extraction.
Minerals Generally Occur in these forms:

Geothermal Energy

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Geothermal energy refers to the heat and electricity produced

by using the heat from the interior of the Earth. Geothermal
energy exists because, the Earth grows progressively hotter
with increasing depth. Where the geothermal gradient is high,
high temperatures are found at shallow depths. Groundwater in
such areas absorbs heat from the rocks and becomes hot. It is so
hot that when it rises to the earths surface, it turns into steam.
This steam is used to drive turbines and generate electricity.

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(i) In igneous and metamorphic rocks minerals may occur in

the cracks, crevices, faults or joints. The smaller occurrences are called vein and the larger are called lodes.
They are formed when minerals in liquid/molten and gaseous forms are forced upwards through cavities towards
earths surface. They cool and solidify as they rise. They
include tin, copper, Zinc, lead etc.
(ii) Sedimentary Rocks: Number of minerals occur in beds
and layers. They have been formed as a result of deposition, accumulation and concentration of horizontal strata
e.g., Gypsum, potash salt and sodium salt. They are
formed as a result of evaporation in arid region.
(iii) Decomposition of Surface Rocks : Involves the removal
of soluble constituents, leaving a residual mass of weathered material containing ores e.g., Bauxite.
(iv) Alluvial Deposits: Occur in sands of valley floors and
the base of hills. These are called Placer deposits and
are not corroded by water. e.g., gold, silver, tin platinum.
(v) Ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals but most
of these are too widely diffused to be of economic significance, however common salt, magnesium and bromine
are largely derived.

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There are several hundred hot springs in India, which could

be used to generate electricity.
Two experimental projects have been set up in India to harness geothermal energy. One is located in the Parvati Valley
near Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and the other is located in
the Puga Valley, Ladakh.

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Injection well

Production well

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Conservation of Energy Resources

wheel of an economy is being driven by the use of energy

resource.
Some of the sources of energy production are limited and
exhaustible but consumption of energy in all forms has been
steadily rising all over the country.
Every sector of the economy whether industry, agriculture,
transport system, domestic use or commercial use in the malls
and call centres needs a heavy input of energy.
In this background, there is an urgent need to develop a sustainable path of energy development.
Promotion of energy conservation and increased use of
renewable energy sources are the twin planks of sustainable
energy.
India is presently one of the least energy efficient countries
in the world.
We have to adopt a cautious approach for the judicious use of
our limited energy resources.
We can do our bit by using public transport systems instead of
individual vehicles; switching off electricity when not in use.
Using power-saving devices and using non-conventional
sources, of energy. After all, energy saved is energy
produced.

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The

Major Iron Ore Belts in India:

1. OrissaJharkand Belt : In Orissa high grade hematite
ore is found in Badampahar mines in the Mayurbhanj and
Kendujhar. In Jharkand haematite iron ore is mined in
Gua and Noamundi.
2. Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt: Lies in Chhattisgarh
and Maharashtra high grade hematitis are found in
Bailadila range of hills in Chatisgarh.
3. Bellavy-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur-Tumkur Belt: In
Karnataka has large reserves of iron ore. Kudermuch
mines located in Western Ghats of Karnataka and known
to be one of the largest.
4. MaharashtraGoa Belt: Includes state of Goa and
Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. Although ores are not
of very high quality yet they are efficiently exploited.
Conservation of Energy Resources:
Energy is a basic requirement for economic development. Every
sector of national economy agriculture, industry, transport, commercial and domestic needs inputs of energy. There is an urgent
need to develop a sustainable path of energy development. India

Chapter 6 Minerals and Resources

Petroleum

vt.

Manufacturing Industries

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Metallic Minerals
Ferrous minerals
Iron orebackbone of modern civilization
Leading producers are Orissa, Jharkhand
Manganeseuse in making alloys of iron Orissa is the
largest producer
minerals
CopperImportant mineral for electric industry. M.P. is the
largest producer
Bauxitealuminium is extracted from it. Orissa is the largest producer
MicaChotanagapur has the largest reserve

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Conventional energy sources

Coal
Most important fossil fuel
Anthracite is the best type
West Bengal, Jharkhand are the leading producer

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Non-ferrous

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Acts as a nodal industry

Important energy resource
Found in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Assam
Natural Gas
Most eco-friendly fuel
Acts an Industrial raw material
Mumbai High, Gulf of Cambay, Andaman and Nicobar
Island has huge reserve
Non-conventional energy sources
Solar energy
North-western India has huge potential
Wind Energy
Coastal area and North-western India has huge potential
Biogas
Derived from plants and animal waste
Tidal energy
High and low tide is used to generate electricity
Geo-thermal energy
Heal from the interior of the earth is used to generate energy
Conservation of Energy
Judicious use of energy
More dependency on renewable sources
Development of alternative source of energy
Use of power saving devices
Switch off electricity when not in use
More use of public transport system than individual vehicle.

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is presently one of the least energy efficient countries in the

world. We have to adopt a caution approach for judicious use.
Using public transport instead of individual
Switching of electricity when not in use
Using power saving devices
Using non-conventional sources of power

CHAPTER

Lifeline of National Economy

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Lifeline of National Economy

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We use different materials and services in our daily life. Some of these are available in our immediate surroundings, while other requirements are met by bringing things from other places. Goods and services do not move from supply locales to demand locales on
their own. The movement of these goods and services from their supply locations to
demand locations necessitates the need for transport. Some people are engaged in
facilitating these movements. These are known to be traders who make the products
come to the consumers by transportation. Thus, the pace of development of a country
depends upon the production of goods and services as well as their movement over
space. Therefore, efficient means of transport are pre-requisites for fast development.
In this chapter, you will see how modern means of transport and communication
serve as life lines of our nation and its modern economy. It is thus, evident that a dense
and efficient network of transport and communication is a pre-requisite for local, national and global trade of today.

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Syllabus

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Importance of transport and communication Types of Roadways and the problems of Indian roadways Railways
and their problems Advantages of pipeline transportation Advantages of waterways Communication and its
importance International trade and their significance How tourism is like a trade?

Introduction

of trade: It is the difference between the total value

of exports and imports of goods of a nation.
Border roads: These are roads constructed along the international frontier for maintaining the defence of the country.
Communication: Exchange of ideas, emotions, messages,
either written or oral, from one place to another all over the
world.
Exports: Goods dispatched/sent from one country to
another.
Golden quadrilateral superways: Roads built for fast and
uninterrupted traffic having four to six lanes connecting the
four metropolitan cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and
Kolkata.
Hinterland: An area served by a port.

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Balance

International

trade: Trade carried on between countries.

Mass communication: The means of communication through

which one can communicate with several people at the same

time.
Pipelines: A new means of transport for carrying oil and natural gas from the oilfields and refineries to far off places.
Personal communication: Communication between two or
more persons at personal level.
Port: A commercial part of a harbour where loading and
unloading of goods takes place in ships.
Trade: Exchange of goods and commodities between or
among countries or within the country.
Transport: A system by which goods and passengers are carried from one place to another.
The means of transport and communication are called the
lifelines of a country and its economy

PART VI Geography

Lifelines of a human being are his veins, which carry blood

to all parts of the body and provide them energy. Same way
means of transport and communication bring all the regions of
a country closer and develop them equally. A country can make
tremendous progress only on the basis of its developed means
of transport and communication.

Golden Quadrilateral
The government has launched a major road development project
linking Delhi-Kolkata-Chennai-Mumbai and Delhi by six-lane
Super Highways. The North-South corridors linking Srinagar
(Jammu and Kashmir) and Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu), and
EastWest Corridor connecting Silchar (Assam) and Porbander
(Gujarat) are part of this project. The major objective of these
Super Highways is to reduce the time and distance between the
mega cities of India. These highway projects are being implemented by the National Highway Authority of India (NHAI).

vt.

TRUCK

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MEANS OF TRANSPORT

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CAR
AROPLANE
CYCLE

SHIP

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DelhiJaipur Highway

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National Highways

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National Highways link extreme parts of the country. These are the
primary road systems and are laid and maintained by the Central
Public Works Department (CPWD). A number of major National
Highways run in NorthSouth and EastWest directions.

Do

Earlier people used to move on foot, the means of transportation were not at all developed, going from one place to another
was considered as a burden, but now a days no place in the
world is far away. With the present means of transportation,
one can reach to any part of the world within hours. Earlier
the means of communication also were not developed. It took
a long time to send message from one place to another. In the
present world with the means like telephone, television and
most importantly internet, none of the countries or any part of
world is far away.

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Various Means of Transport and Communication have Reduced

Distances

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Roadways

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India has one of the largest road networks in the world, aggregating to about 2.3 million km at present. In India, roadways
have preceded railways. They still have an edge over railways in view of the ease with which they can be built and
maintained.

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Importance of Road Transport Vis-A-Vis

Rail Transport

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(a) Construction cost of roads is much lower than that of railway lines.
(b) Roads can traverse comparatively more dissected and undulating topography.
(c) Roads can negotiate higher gradients of slopes and as such
can traverse mountains, such as the Himalayas.
(d) Road transport is economical in transportation of few persons and relatively smaller amount of goods over short
distances]
(e) It also provides door-to-door service, thus the cost of loading and unloading is much lower.
(f) Road transport is also used as a feeder to other modes of
transport, such as they provide a link between railway stations, air and sea ports.
In India, roads are classified in the following six classes
according to their capacity.

State Highways
Roads linking a state capital with different district headquarters
are known as state highways. These roads are constructed and
maintained by the State Public Works Department (PWD) in
State and Union Territories.

District Roads
These roads connect the district headquarters with other places of
the district. These roads are maintained by the Zila Parishad.

Village Roads
Rural

roads, which link rural areas and villages with towns,

are classified under this category.
These roads received specials impetus under the Pradhan
Mantri Grameen Sadak Yojana.
Under this scheme special provisions are made so that every
village in the country is linked to a major town in the country
by an all season motorable road.
These roads open the rural economy for the urban economy.
These roads connect one village to another.

Chapter 7 Lifeline of National Economy

Railways

Border Roads
Border Roads Organization, a Government of India undertaking, constrructs and maintains roads in the bordering areas of
the country. This organization was established in 1960 for the
development of roads of strategic importance in the northern
and north-eastern border areas. These roads have improved
accessibility in areas of difficult terrain and have helped in the
economic development of these areas.
The another classification can be done on the basis of type of
material used for building roads.
Unsurfaced road

1.

Metalled roads built of

coal tar, cement and stone

Unmetalled roads made of

loose soils and stone

2.

Smooth and polished roads Rugged and dusty roads.

3.

All weather roads

Seasonal roads, which

turn into mud during the
rainy season.

4.

Constructed and maintained by state and central

government

Constructed and maintained by local authourities village panchayats

etc.

53% of the total road

network

47% of the total road

network.

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vt.
Indian Railways

Apart from an important means of transport the Indian Railways

have been a great integrating force for more than 150 years.
Railways in India bind the economic life of the country as well
as accelerate the development of the industry and agriculture.

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Rail Network

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The Indian Railways has a network of 7, 031 stations spread

over a route length of 63,221 km. with a fleet of 7817 locomotives, 5321 passenger service vehicles, 4904 other coach vehicles and 228,170 wagons as on 31.

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Surfaced road

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S. No.

Railways are the principal mode of transportation for freight and

passengers in India. Railways also make it possible to conduct
multifarious activities like business, sightseeing and pilgrimage
along with transportation of goods over longer distances.

Rail Gauge and Length of Routes in India

Road Density

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The length of road per 100 sq. km of area is known as density of

roads. Distribution of road is not uniform in the country. Density
of all roads varies from only 10 km in Jammu and Kashmir to
375 km in Kerala with the national average of 75 km (199697).

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Road Density (km/km2)

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Caribou Density (no/km2)

Problems Of Road Transport

(i) The road network is inadequate.
(ii) Half of the roads are unsurfaced, which become muddy
during the rainy season.
(iii) National highways are inadequate, highly congested in
cities, their bridges and culverts are narrow.
(iv) Road side amenities like telephone booths, books, emergency with services and police protection are poor, needs
improvement.

Gauge in Metres
Broad Gauge
1.676

Route (km)
46807

Running
Track (km)
66754

Total Track
(km)
88547

Metre Gauge 1

13,209

13,976

16,489

Narrow Gauge
0.762 and 0.610

3124

3129

3450

Development of Railways
The Indian Railways is now reorganized into 16 zones. The distribution pattern of the Railway network in the country has been largely
influenced by physiographic, economic and administrative factors.
The northern plains with their vast level land, high population density and rich agricultural resources provided the most
favourable condition for their growth. However, a large number of rivers requiring construction of bridges across their wide
beds posed some obstacles. In the hilly terrains of the peninsular
region, railway tracts are laid through low hills, gaps or tunnels.
The Himalayan mountainous regions too are unfavourable for
the construction of railway lines due to high relief, sparse population and lack of economic opportunities. Likewise, it was difficult to lay railway lines on the sandy plain of western Rajasthan,
swamps of Gujarat, forested tracks of Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Jharkhand. The contiguous stretch of
Sahyadri could be crossed only through gaps or passes (Ghats).
In recent times, the development of the Konkan Railways along
the west coast has facilitated the movement of passengers and
goods in this most important economic region of India.

PART VI Geography

Problems of Indian Railways

Waterways

Today, the railways have become more important in our national

economy than all other means of transport put together.

rail transport suffers from certain problems as will.
Many passengers travel without tickets. Thefts and damaging
of railway property has not yet stopped completely.
People stop the trains, pull the chain unnecessarily and this
causes heavy damage to the railway.
However,

Sea borne

Pipelines

Deep sea

is a fuel-efficient and environment friendly mode of transport.

has inland navigation waterways of 14,500 km in length.
Out of these only 3,700 km are navigable by mechanized boats.

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It

Coastal

vt.

Lakes

Rivers

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Inland

India

Importance
(i) A convenient mode of transport for mineral oil and natural gas.
(ii) Can be constructed over land as well as in water.
(iii)Initial cost of laying pipelines is more but subsequent running costs are minimum.
(iv)Pipeline transport rules out transshipment losses or delays.
(v) The transportation cost is also very low.

y(

National Waterways

Ganga river between Allahabad and Haldia (1620 km)N.W. No. 1.

The West coast Canal in Kerala (KottapurmaKomman,
Udyogamandal and Champakkara canals205 km)N.W. No.
3. The other viable inland waterways include the Godavari,
Krishna, Barak, Sunderbans, Buckingham Canal, Brahmani,
EastWest Canal and Damodar Valley Corporation Canal.

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Waterways in Kerala
Apart

from these, Indias trade with foreign countries is carried from the ports located along the coast.
95 per cent of the countrys trade volume (68 per cent in terms
of value) is moved by sea.

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(i)From oil fields in upper Assam to Kanpur via Guwhati,

Barauni and Allahabad.
(ii)From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandher in Punjab via Virangam,
Mathura, Delhi and Panipat.
(iii)Gas pipeline from Hazira in Gujarat to Jagdishpur in U.P.
via Bijaipur in M.P.
(iv)Pipelines between Mumbai high and Mumbai, Mumbai
and Pune.

Ki

Important Networks Of Pipeline

Transportation

Pipeline Operation in India

igh

Advantages of Pipleline Transportation

initial cost of laying pipelines is high, the subsequent running and maintenance cost is low.
It is ideal for the transportation of oil and gas.
It reduces trans-shipment losses.
It can be built on land, below the surface and even under water.

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Although

Waterways
Since

time immemorial, India was one of the sea-faring

countries.
Its waterways are the cheapest means of transport.
They are most suitable for carrying heavy and bulky goods.

The Waterways in Kerala

India is dotted with 12 major and 181 medium and minor ports.

These major ports handle 95 per cent of Indias foreign trade.

in Kuchcha was the first port developed soon after
Independence to ease the volume of trade on the Mumbai port, in
the wake of loss of Karachi port to Pakistan after the Partition.
Kandla is a tidal port. It caters to the convenient handling of
exports and imports of highly productive granary and industrial belt stretching across the states of Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Mumbai is the biggest port with a spacious natural and wellsheltered harbour.
Kandla

Chapter 7 Lifeline of National Economy

Personal communication and mass communication including

television, radio, press, films, etc. are the major means of communication in the country.

Indian Post

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The Indian postal network is the largest in the world. It handles

parcels as well as personal written communications. Cards and
envelopes are considered first class mail and are airlifted between
stations covering both land and air. The second class mail includes
book packets, registered newspapers and periodicals. They are
carried by surface mail, covering land and water transport. To
facilitate quick delivery of mails in large towns and cities, six
mail channels have been introduced recently. They are called
Rajdhani Channel, Metro Channel, Green Channel, Business
Channel, Bulk Mail Channel and Periodical Channel.

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Telephone
India has one of the largest telephone networks in Asia. In order
to strengthen the flow of information from the grassroot to the
higher level, the government has made special provision to
extend 24 hours STD facility to every village in the country.
There is a uniform rate of STD facilities all over India. It has
been made possible by integrating the development in space
technology with communication technology.

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Jawaharla Nehru port was planned with a view to

decongest the Mumbai port and serve as a hub port for this
region.
Marmagao port (Goa) is the premier iron ore exporting port
of the country.
This port accounts for about 50 per cent of Indias iron ore
export.
New Mangalore port, located in Karnataka caters to the
export of iron ore concentrates from Kudremukh port, located
at the entrance of a lagoon with a natural harbour.
Tuticorin port on the east coast in you port of this port has a
natural harbour and rich hinterland.
Thus, it has a flourishing trade handling of a large variety of
cargoes to even our neighbouring countries like Sri Lanka,
Maldives, etc. and the coastal regions of India.
Chennai is one of the oldest artificial ports of the country.
It is ranked next to Mumbai in terms of the volume of trade
and cargo.
Vishakhapatnam is the deepest landlocked and well-protected port.
This port was, originally, conceived as an outlet for iron ore
exports.
Paradip port located in Orissa, specializes in the export of
iron ore.
Kolkata is an inland riverine export. This port serves a very
large and rich hinterland of GangaBrahmaputra basin. Being
a tidal port, it requires constant dredging of Hoogly.
Haldia port was developed as a subsidiary port, in order to
relieve growing pressure on the Kolkata port.

Communication

The

sh

Airways

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The air transport was nationalized in 1953. On the operational

side, Indian Airlines, Alliance Air (subsidiary of Indian Airlines),
private scheduled airlines and non- scheduled operators provide
domestic air services. Air India provides international air services. Pawanhans Helicopters Ltd. Provides helicopter services
to Oil and Natural Gas Corporation in its off-shore operations,
to inaccessible areas and difficult terrains like the north-eastern
states and the interior parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh and Uttaranchal. Indian Airlines operations also extend
to the neighbouring countries of South and south-east Asia and
the Middle-east.
It can cover very difficult terrains like high mountains,
dreary deserts, dense forests and also long oceanic stretches
with great ease.

Mobile Telephones
India is one of the fastest growing mobile network in the world.
Mobile phones have changed the way Indians conducted business. Now even low income group people like vegetable vendors, plumbers and carpenters get better business because they
are connected through mobile phones.

Mass Comunication
Jet Airways of India

Mass communication provides entertainment and creates awareness among people about various national programmes and

PART VI Geography

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policies. It includes radio, television, newspapers, magazines,

books and films. All India Radio (Akashwani) broadcasts a variety of programmes in national, regional and local languages for
various categories of people, spread over different parts of the
country. Doordarshan, the national television channel of India,
is one of the largest terrestrial networks in the world. It broadcasts a variety of programmes from entertainment, educational
to sports, etc. for people of different age groups.

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International Trade

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Components of International Trade

Export

and import are the components of trade.

balance of trade of a country is the difference between its
export and import.
When the value of export exceeds the value of imports, it is called
a favourable balance of trade.
On the contrary, if the value of imports exceeds then the value
of exports, it is termed as an unfavourable balance of trade.

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Balance of Trade

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The difference between exports and imports is known as the

balance of trade. If value of exports is more than the value of
imports it is called favourable balance of trade and if value of
import is move than the value of export it is called unfavourable balance of trade. In 200001, India had a foreign trade
of ` 43 lakh crore. Import constituted 53 per cent and export
47 per cent so it is unfavourable balance. India has trade relations with all the trading blocks of the world, most of the commodities exported from India consist of both raw material and
manufactured goods, which fetches less income. Commodities
imported are mostly petroleum, gold, chemicals, etc., which are
more costly. Thus, the overall balance of trade is unfavourable.
International trade has undergone a sea change in the last 15
years. Exchange of commodities and goods have been superseded by the exchange of information and knowledge. India has
emerged as a software giant at the international level and it is
earning large foreign exchange through the export of information technology.

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India publishes a large number of newspapers and periodicals

annually. They are of different types depending upon their periodicity. Newspapers are published in about 100 languages and
dialects. Largest number of newspapers published in the country is in Hindi, followed by English and Urdu.

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Films

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India is the largest producer of feature films in the world. It

produces short films; video feature films and video short films.
The Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC) is the authority
to certify both Indian and foreign films.

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International Trade

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Importance of Trade

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Modern life is so complex that one has to depend on others. No

country today can prosper without the cooperation and assistance
of others. In the present world, Trade has become a necessity as
(i)No country is self reliant, each country lacks in one resource
or the other. On the other hand some resources are in excess.
Requirements can be fulfilled only through trade.
(ii)In times of calamities, trade relations are very useful as
help can be received through the friendly countries.
(iii)Trade relations are a guarantee of peace. It is generally
believed that the trading countries are not going to fight
with each other as they are interdependent.

Tourism as a Trade
Tourism

in India has grown substantially over the last three

decades.
Foreign tourists arrivals in the country witnessed an increase
of 23.5 per cent during the year 2004 as against the year 2003,
thus contributing Rs 21,828 crore of foreign exchange.
Over 2.6 million foreign tourists visit India every year.

Tourism in India

Chapter 7 Lifeline of National Economy

Indian

is ranked worlds 4th best holiday haven.

than 15 million people are directly engaged in the tourism industry.
Tourism also promotes national integration, provides support
to local handicrafts and cultural pursuits.
It also helps in the development of international understanding about our culture and heritage.
Foreign tourists visit India for heritage tourism, eco tourism,
adventure tourism, cultural tourism, medical tourism and
business tourism.
Rajasthan, Goa, Jammu and Kashmir and temple towns of
south India are important destinations of foreign tourists in
India. There is vast potential of tourism development in the
north-eastern states and the interior parts of Himalayas, but due
to strategic reasons these have not been encouraged so far.

Three Important Networks:

1. Oil field in Assam to Kanpur (U.P.), via Guwahati, Barauni
and Allahabad.
2. From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar, in Punjab via
Viramgam, Mathura, Delhi and Panipat.
3. Gas pipelines from Hazira in Gujarat connects Jagdishpur
in UP via Vijaypur in Madhya Pradesh.

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International Trade:
The exchange of goods among people; states and countries
is referred to as trade. Trade between two countries is called
international trade.
Exports and imports are the components of trade. The balance of a trade of a country is the difference b/w its export
and import.
When the value of exports exceeds the value of imports, it
is called favourable balance of trades.

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Roadways
India has one of the largest road networks in the world. Its
importance can be viewed.
(i) Construction cost of roads is much lower.
(ii)Roads can traverse comparatively more dissected and
undulating topography.
(iii)Roads can negotiate higher gradients of slope and as
such can traverse mountains.
(iv) It is economical.
(v) It provides door to door services.
(vi) It is used as feeder to other modes of transport.

Tourism as a Trade:
Tourism has proved itself as one of the most important aspect
of trade. Tourism in India has grown substantially. It helps as
Promotion of National Integration
Provide support to local handicrafts
Provides support to cultural pursuits
Development of international understanding about our culture and heritage

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Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways:

The Govt. has launched a major road development project linking DelhiKolkataChennaiMumbai and Delhi by
six-lane super highways.
The NorthSouth corridors linking Srinagar (Jammu and
Kashmir) and Kanyakumari (T.N.) and EastWest Corridor
connecting Silchar (Assam) and Porbander (Gujarat). The
major objective of these super highways is to reduce time
and distance.

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Railways:
The distribution pattern of the railway network in the country has been largely influence by physiographic, economic
and administrative factors.
The Himalayan mountains regions are unfavourable for the
construction of railway lines due to high relief sparse population and each of economic opportunities.
The northern plains provide most favourable condition
having high population density.
Rivers also create problem for lay down of railway tracts.
Pipelines:
Pipelines transport network is a new arrival on the transportation map of India. Its initial cost is high but subsequent running costs are minimal. It is used for transporting crude oil,
petroleum product and natural gas.

Mind-Map

Land Transport
Roadways
Provides door to door service
Provides a link between other transport
Railways
Main artery of nation
Carries maximum volume of traffic
Pipeline

Ideal offer oil and Natural gas.

Transshipment loss is very less.

Water Transport
Inland waterways
Navigation is done through rivers and man-made canals.
Can be used within a country
A cheap but slow made of transportation
International

waterways
Navigation is done through oceans.
Ideal for bulky goods.
Maximum volume of goods carried through them.
Cheapest but slow mode.

Communication
Person communication
It takes place between two people.
Post, telegraph, telephone are some example.

PART VI Geography
Mass

Communication
It can reach to millions of people at one time.
It unites people and creates awareness.

More

than 15 million people are engaged in tourism

industry.
It promotes national integration.
Tourists visits for heritage, cultural, medical and business
tourism
It encourages local handicraft industry.

Radio, TV, News peoples are some example.

Air Transport
Domestic Airways
Very fast mode of transportation.
Caters to passengers within the country.
Nationalized in 1953.
International Airways
Operator between different countries
A very fast mode of transport but very costly.
Topography is not a constrain.
Tourism as a Trade
It brought Rs. 21,828 crore as foreign exchange.

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Export

vt.

Main items of export are gems and Jewellery, Readymade

garment, Agricultural products etc.

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We earn significant amount of foreign exchange.

Import

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Main items of import are petroleum products, inorganic

chemicals etc.
We can substitute goods in which we are deficient.