Synthesis Reviewed 1

Running head: STERNBERG’S SYNTHESIS REVIEWED

A Review and Analysis of WICS, Robert J. Sternberg’s

Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity Synthesized

Zachary T. Ford

Iowa State University

 Synthesis Reviewed 2

A Review and Analysis of WICS, Robert J. Sternberg’s

Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity Synthesized

In Robert J. Sternberg’s Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity Synthesized (2003), he

presents the reader with exactly what he proposes: a synthesis. After breaking down each of the

three components separately, often through the critique of past theory and the reanalysis of his

own, Sternberg draws an intricate web of connections between the three. His theory, abbreviated

WICS, essentially muddies the water of our perception of intelligence in an even more grandiose

way than his original proposition of “Successful Intelligence,” which Sternberg nonchalantly

mentions “has been referred to from time to time as triarchic” (p. 46). He stops short of offering

a new name for the integration of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom, but suggests that when

considering how the mind operates, a complete analysis is not complete without recognizing the

connections between each of the three and appreciating how each affects the decision-making

process. In subsequent work, Sternberg applies WICS to effective leadership (2005), but in this

publication, he is presenting his synthesis as a new perspective to stand on its own.

The Preparation

Sternberg (2003) dedicates a majority of this book to representing his own theories of

intelligence, creativity, and wisdom, presenting them in a context where he draws connections

between them so that ultimately, he needs only the 12 pages he presents to demonstrate his

synthesis.

Intelligence

The idea of studying “intelligence” is the historical root of the research and synthesis

Sternberg presents (2003). Though his coverage of each is brief, he recalls a gamut of historical

theories and offers his critique of each. He begins by reaching back to Galton’s Theory of
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Psychophysical Processes (1859) and Cattell’s Operationalization of it (1890), then he reviews

the work of Binet and Simon (1916a), who “from the standpoint of modern test constructors…

‘largely got it right’” (p. 15). The tour then continues with psyochmetric models including

Spearman’s two factors, (g) and (s), Thomson’s bonds, Thorndike et al’s connections, and

Thurstone’s primary mental abilities (pp. 16-18), followed by the hierarchical theories of

Holzinger, Burt, Vernon, Cattell, Carroll, Guilford, and Guttman (pp. 19-21). Sternberg critiques

these theories, pointing out, among other concerns, that “deriving a theory of intelligence from

patterns of individual differences has never received fully adequate examination by differential

psychologists” (22).

Sternberg’s (2003) review proceeds to encompass theories of cognitive structures and

processes (including the work of Piaget), as well as biological bases and anthropological theories

before arriving at systems models, including Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences and

Sternberg’s own Theory of Successful Intelligence. Sternberg recognizes that systems models are

“both a blessing and a curse” (p. 39). He concludes his review, by suggesting “perhaps the best

way to achieve a certain coherence in the field is to recognize that “there is no one right ‘model’

or ‘approach’ and that different ones elucidate different aspects of a very complex phenomenon”

(p. 41). This seems to be foreshadowing to the rest of his book, a synthesis of several of his own

theories.

Sternberg (2003) then dedicates an entire chapter to his own Theory of Successful

Intelligence. The theory basically approaches intelligence from a broader perspective, suggesting

that analytical intelligence is merely a piece of the puzzle, and that creative intelligence and

practical intelligence are important factors. He identifies four fallacies that distinguish successful

intelligence from what he calls “conventional intelligence,” including the idea that one who is
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smart is smart forever (stable-trait fallacy), the idea that one who is smart at one thing is smart in

all things (general-ability fallacy), the idea that life success can be determined by test scores

(life-success fallacy), and the idea that being smart makes one “good” (moral-equivalence

fallacy) (p. 46).

After describing four studies that validate his research, Sternberg (2003) also presents

applications for how his perspective on successful intelligence can improve school achievement

(p. 62) and also suggests that analytical, creative, and practical abilities can be improved (p. 65).

He provides tools and suggestions for educators about how to reach students who are stronger in

different intelligences: “In teaching for successful intelligence, one is helping all students make

the most of their skills by addressing all students at least some of the time” (p. 81). He concludes

the chapter by defending the teaching of successful intelligence in schools: “There is no reason

for a society to waste its most precious resource – its human talent. Teaching for successful

intelligence helps ensure that talent will not go to waste” (p.86).

Creativity

Sternberg (2003) reminds us that creativity is all about novelty, and that it has impacts on

individual, societal, and economical levels (p. 89). He points out that it is a neglected topic in

psychology, and the brevity of his chapter on “Background Work on Creativity” in comparison

to its intelligence counterpart easily verifies this (assuming their comprehensiveness). Over the

course of the chapter, he reviews various approaches, including mystical, pragmatic,

psychodynamic, psychometric, cognitive, social-personality, and evolutionary. He concludes by

discussing confluence approaches, which “hypothesize that multiple components must converge

for creativity to occur” (p. 102). He also takes some time to talk about creative contributions and

how some researchers have recognized that there are different types of creative contributions,
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such as Maslow’s primary (self-actualization) and secondary (creative achievements) creativity

(pp. 104-105).

Perhaps in an attempt to fill in the gaps of a neglected research topic, Sternberg (2003)

presents two of his own theories about Creativity. The first theory, The Investment Theory of

Creativity as a Decision, “concerns the decision to be creative… It is based on the notion that

creative people decide to buy low and sell high in the world of ideas” generating ideas that tend

to “defy the crowd” (p. 106). He identifies six components that must be present and must

coincide in order for creativity to take place: intellectual skills (the three components of

successful intelligence: creative, analytic, and practical), knowledge, thinking styles, personality,

motivation, and environment. Not backing down from the subjective nature of these factors,

Sternberg asserts that “creativity is as much a decision about and an attitude toward life as it is a

matter of ability” (p. 109).

In order to develop creativity as a decision, Sternberg (2003) presents twenty-one

strategies: (a) Redefine problems, (b) Question and Analyze Assumptions, (c) Do not assume

that creative ideas sell themselves: Sell them, (d) Encourage idea generation, (e) Recognize that

knowledge is a double-edged sword and act accordingly, (f) Encourage children to identify and

surmount obstacles, (g) Encourage sensible risk-taking, (h) Encourage tolerance of ambiguity, (i)

Help children build self-efficacy, (j) Help children find what they love to do, (k) Teach children

the importance of delaying gratification, (l) Role-model creativity, (m) Cross-fertilize ideas, (n)

Allow time for creative thinking, (o) Instruct and assess for creativity, (p) Reward creativity, (q)

Allow mistakes, (r) Take responsibility for both successes and failures, (s) Encourage creative

collaboration, (t), Imagine things from others’ points of view, and (u) Maximize person-

environment fit (pp. 110-122). He concludes the chapter by identifying four fallacies that
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uncreative people are susceptible to: (a) belief that “what is, should be” (should-be fallacy), (b)

belief that “what is, must be” (must-be fallacy), (c) belief that “the way things are now is the way

they always will be” (always-will-be fallacy), and (d) belief that “doing what others are doing is

the safe way to life (safety fallacy) (p. 123).

To coincide with his theory about deciding to be creative, Sternberg (2003) presents his

Propulsion Theory of Creative Contributions to describe how creativity is expressed. He asserts

that

a creative contribution represents an attempt to propel a field from wherever it is to

wherever the creator believes the field should go. Thus, creativity is by its nature

propulsion. It moves a field from some point to another. (p. 125)

He presents eight “types of creative contributions.”

The first set consists of “types of creativity that accept current paradigms and attempt to

extend them” (Sternberg 2003, p. 126). Replication attempts to show that the field is in the right

place, visualized as “a wheel that is moving but staying in place” (p. 126). Redefinition attempts

to redefine where the field is. Forward incrementation moves the field in the direction it is

already going, while advance forward incrementation attempts to move the field further than

where others are ready to go (p. 127).

Next are three “types of creativity that reject current paradigms and attempt to replace

them” (Sternberg 2003, p. 127). Redirection attempts to change the direction of the field.

Reconstruction/redirection attempts to move the field backwards to an earlier point and then

move in a different direction from that point. Reinitiation attempts to move the field to a brand

new starting point and begin in a new direction. Sternberg gives the last type its own category.

Integration is a “type of creativity that merges disparate current paradigms,” (p. 127) thus linking
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diverse ways of thinking together to move

FIGURE 1 – Types of creativity as proposed by
Sternberg’s Propulsion Theory of Creative
Contributions (2003, pp. 128-129).

forward together. See FIGURE 1 for Sternberg’s

own visual representations of these types of

creativity.

Sternberg (2003) admits that this theory has

not yet been quantitatively tested (p. 143) and

even concludes by suggesting “it is unlikely that

there is any one ‘right’ model of types of creative

contributions” (p. 143).

Wisdom

After a brief review of background research on wisdom (the briefest review of the book’s

three main topics), Sternberg (2003) presents his Balance Theory of Wisdom, which relies on

both successful intelligence and creativity:

Wisdom is defined as the application of successful intelligence and creativity as mediated

by values toward the achievement of a common good through a balance among (a)

intrapersonal, (b) interpersonal, and (c) extrapersonal interests, over (a) short and (b) long

terms, in order to achieve a balance among (a) adaptation to existing environments, (b)

shaping of existing environments, and (c) selection of new environments. (p. 152)
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He stresses the importance of seeking a common good in determining wisdom, realizing “that

this common good may be better for some than for others. A terrorist may be academically

intelligent; he may be practically intelligent; he cannot be wise” (pp. 152-153).

Essential to wisdom are the metacomponents of thought, the three components of

successful intelligence, and also tacit knowledge. Despite the somewhat abstract nature of

wisdom, Sternberg (2003) suggests it can be measured and has developed a problem set that

could do just that (p. 159). He also talks about foolishness as the “absence of wisdom” (p. 160)

and four fallacies that foolish people are susceptible to: egocentrism, omniscience, omnipotence,

and invulnerability (pp. 160-161). Not only does wisdom involve balancing interests, it requires

balancing processes of adaptation, shaping, and selection of environments (p. 161).

Sternberg (2003) concludes his section on wisdom by stressing his belief that it should be

included in the school curriculum and suggests tactics for implementing it, including “sixteen

principles of teaching for wisdom derived from the Balance Theory of Wisdom” (p. 164). He

suggests that “there is no easy path to wisdom. There never was, and probably never will be” but

asserts that “wisdom might bring us a world that would seek to better itself and the conditions of

all the people in it” (p. 173). In conclusion, “we need, in short, to value wisdom” (p. 173).

The Synthesis

The relations among Intelligence, Creativity, and Wisdom are the threads that weave

WICS. Sternberg’s (2003) synthesis of the three can easily be compared to his Theory of

Successful Intelligence, but on a macro level.

Successful intelligence, according to Sternberg (2003), is the combination of analytical

intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence. In much the same way, WICS
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recognizes the relationship between conventional intelligence, creativity, and wisdom (p. 182).

In his final summary, Sternberg demonstrates how the components stack up.

Intelligence involves abilities to “adapt to, shape, and select environments,” and

depending on the way in which these abilities are applied, they can be used analytically,

creatively, or practically. Creativity relies upon those intelligences, but also “involves aspects of

knowledge, styles of thinking, personality, and motivation… in interaction with the

environment.” Intelligence alone is not enough to be creative; the personal attributes play a vital

role. Wisdom then applies the skills of successful intelligence and creativity toward “the

common good” in consideration of the other interests presented in the Balance Theory of

Wisdom (Sternberg, 2003, p. 188).

Sternberg concludes by stating that “wisdom is not just a way of thinking about things; it

is a way of doing things.” It is “our choice” whether to act wisely or not (p. 188).

Reactions

I was really excited to be reading what is essentially very new theory, and I thought one

of the most important points about Sternberg’s (2003) theory is that it is essentially n

amalgamation of ideas. Despite his preference towards logical, quantified lists and points, he

ultimately arrives at a synthesis that is actually quite abstract. He acknowledges throughout the

book that one theory rarely tells the whole story and in his reviews of background research, he

often favors open-ended theories that attempt to be broad enough to be considered all-

encompassing. WICS does just that.

One of the remarkable aspects of Sternberg’s (2003) presentation is that he really

challenges the reader to think outside of the normal paradigms of thought. In fact, his theories

depend upon it. There almost seems to be a certain paradoxical irony in that one must have a
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certain capability of the qualities Sternberg is discussing to actually appreciate or understand

what it is he is actually suggesting. To understand successful intelligence, one must be able to

think about intelligence as greater than just a measurement of analytical ability. To consider

creativity, one must have a certain amount of the factors of creativity to appreciate deciding to be

creative or considering how to be creative. To consider wisdom and the ambiguous notion of

taking action toward the common good, one must have an appreciation of the very concept of a

common good and must consider the values required to achieve the wisdom that Sternberg

presents.

This seemed to be one of the greatest strengths and potentially greatest weaknesses

simultaneously. That is, does Sternberg (2003) stray too far from the realm of objective science

by presenting seemingly objective theory that is built upon very subjective components such as

personality and motivation (creativity) and values (wisdom)? I thought that this sort of

applicability made his theories very approachable, but as he himself admits, as systems models

become more complex, they become harder to measure (p. 39). Given the variety of abstract

components Sternberg weaves together, it seems unrealistic that we are anywhere close to

verifying what he has proposed. Yet, one can read this book and make sense of it all. It clicks.

Surely, by scientific standards, that is not enough.

Still, the approachability of his ideas is profound on its own. My favorite feature of this

book is the real-world examples which Sternberg (2003) uses to illustrate his points. For

example, he demonstrates how some creative work will “withstand the judgments of the field

over time (such as that of Mozart)” and others “will not (such as that of Salieri)” (p. 104). In fact,

for each of his eight types of creative contributions, Sternberg offers a variety of examples from

the annals of science, literature, art, and music (pp. 129-140). In his discussion of wisdom, he
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even makes a somewhat-daring example using past presidents: “Although both Richard Nixon

and Bill Clinton, as presidents, were rather self-absorbed, neither was wise” (p. 154). His

examples seem to occasionally betray his objectivity, but at the same time seem to suggest his

own wisdom. I believe he presents his ideas in a socially applicable way as his contribution to

the common good, and that he may even have designed his theories to promote the common

good in practice. Why else study wisdom than to make sense of it so that it can be promoted,

encouraged, and utilized?

One of the downfalls I thought was in the lack of depth of the synthesis. It was the one

part of the book that seemed to be lacking fruitful examples or applications. The fact that

Sternberg (2003) did not classify his synthesis with new nomenclature seems to even suggest he

is (or at least was) not entirely sure where to go with this the conclusions at which he arrived. In

subsequent research (Sternberg 2005), he has adapted this synthesis into a model for leadership,

which seems to reinforce his own inherent orientation action towards a common good. Though

his more recent models are outside the scope of this review, it will be interesting to see how

exactly the concept of leadership fits into the WICS theory.

Concluding Thoughts

I believe that ultimately, Sternberg (2003) accomplished his goal in Wisdom, Intelligence

and Creativity Synthesized. It provides a unique new “meta” perspective to learning, growth,

development, and accomplishment. If educators and researchers begin to adapt this almost

philosophical perspective, it could revolutionize methods of assessment, aspects of curriculum,

and even how we evaluate leaders in our society.

There is a certain irony (which could be amusing or frustrating) in the way that the

human mind is unable to comprehend itself. This book, though designed to present new theory,
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also reflects comprehensively on the history of research of thought (though from a mostly-

Western perspective). Despite all that we have learned over the past 150 years, the human mind

is still an enigma that we might never fully understand. Nonetheless, we can still use what we

have learned to make better decisions and to help promote the prosperity of our society through

the intelligence, creativity, and wisdom of its people.

Reference

Sternberg, R. J. (2003). Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity Synthesized. New York:

Cambridge University Press.

Sternberg, R.J. (2005). WICS: A Model of Leadership. [Abstract] The Psychological – Manager
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Journal, 8(No. 1), 29.