Unit 1 Lecture

Introduction to Chemistry
The Chemical
World
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
What Is Chemistry?
What chemists try to do is discover the
relationships between the particle structure of
matter and the properties of matter we observe.
Chemistry is the science that seeks to
understand what matter does by studying what
atoms and molecules do.
Structure Determines Properties

Everything is made of tiny pieces called atoms
and molecules.
Properties of a substance are determined by the
(1) kinds, (2) numbers, and (3) relationships
between these pieces.
The Scientific Method
A process for trying to understand nature by

observing nature and the way it behaves, and by
conducting experiments to test our ideas.
Key characteristics of the scientific method include
a. Observation, formulation of
b. Hypotheses,
c. Experimentation, and formulation of
d. Laws and Theories.
Why Arent the Philosophers

Considered Scientists
Philosophers:
Observe nature.
Explain the behavior of
nature.
Communicate and
debate ideas with other
philosophers.
Truth is revealed
through logic and
debate.
Scientists:
Observe nature.
Explain the behavior of
nature.
Communicate and
debate ideas with other
scientists.
Truth is revealed
through
experimentation.
Observation
A way of acquiring information about
nature.
Also known as Data.
Some observations are simple
descriptions about the characteristics
or behavior of nature.
The soda pop is a liquid with a brown
color and a sweet taste. Bubbles are seen
floating up through it.
Some observations compare a

characteristic to a standard numerical
scale.
A 240-mL serving of soda pop contains
27 g of sugar.
Hypothesis
A tentative interpretation or explanation of

your observations.
The sweet taste of soda pop is due to the presence
of sugar.
A good hypothesis is one that can be tested to

be proven wrong.
Falsifiable.
One test may invalidate your hypothesis.
Experiments
Test hypotheses, laws, or theories.

Think of a way to test whether the sweet taste of
soda pop is due to the presence of sugar or
something else.
Laws
Summary of observations that combines all
past observations into one general statement.
Law of Conservation of Mass In a chemical
reaction matter is neither created nor destroyed.
Allows you to predict future observations.

So you can test the law with experiments.
Unlike state laws, you cannot choose to

violate a scientific law.
Whats the Difference Between an

Observation and a Law?
An observation tells you what happened in
a single event.
A law summarizes all the observations,
effectively telling you what you will
observe in future events.
Theories
General explanation for the characteristics

and behavior of nature.
Models of nature.
Daltons Atomic Theory
Can be used to predict future observations.

So they can be tested by experiments.
Whats the Difference Between a

Hypothesis and a Theory?
A hypothesis is an explanation of a single

or small number of observations.
A theory is an understanding of the
underlying causes for the way nature is or
behaves.
Whats the Difference Between a

Law and a Theory?
Laws answer the question What will

happen.
Theories answer the question Why does
something happen.
This allows you to predict what will happen!
Scientific Method
A test of a
hypothesis
or theory.
The careful noting

and recording of
natural phenomena.
A tentative explanation of a
single or small number of
natural phenomena.
A general explanation
of natural phenomena.
A generally
observed natural
phenomenon.
Relationships Between Pieces of the

Scientific Method
Applies to single
or small number
of events
Applies to all
events
Describes what
happens
observation
law
Explains why things

happen
hypothesis
theory
An Example
You have probably noticed that soda

pop fizzes when the bottle is opened.
Step 1: State the observation. Why
does soda pop fizz?
Step 2: Gather information.
Examine soda pops properties.
Its color, taste, etc.
It bubbles and fizzes when opened.
Examine sodas composition.
An Example, Continued
Step 3: Organize the information.
All the stuff around you is composed of chemicals.
The three main chemical ingredients of soda pop are water,
sugar, and carbon dioxide
Sugar = sweetness
Water = liquid
Carbon dioxide = gas
Step 4: Look for patterns.

Structure determines properties, so the fizzing of soda must
have something to do with whats in it!
We know that:
If we blow air, a gas, into water, bubbles form.
Bubbles are like soda fizz.
An Example, Continued
Step 5: Propose a hypothesis.
Since the only gas in soda is carbon dioxide,
The reason soda pop fizzes is because the carbon dioxide
is coming out of the soda.
Step 6: Test your hypothesis.

How would you test it?
How to Succeed in Chemistry
Be curious and use your

imagination.
Explore and investigate.
Quantify and calculate

Even small differences can
be important!
Commitment
Work regularly and
carefully.
The Best Approach to

Learning Chemistry
Learn the vocabulary of chemistry.
Definitions of terms.
How common vocabulary is applied to chemistry.
Memorize important information.

Names, formulas, and charges of polyatomic ions.
Solubility rules.
Learn and practice processes.

Systematic names and formulas.
Dimensional analysis.
Do the questions and exercises in the chapter to

test your understanding and help you learn the
patterns?
Unit 1
Science is a Verb
Numbers in Chemistry Precision

and Accuracy
Numbers are helpful in expressing,
understanding, and applying concepts
Consider the
various contributions
considered in
global warming:

and Accuracy
Two types of numerical quantities:
1. Exact number no uncertainty
The number 7
Having 12 pennies
2. Measurement contains uncertainty
A penny is 2.0 cm

and Accuracy
Aspects of a measurement
Precision how close various sets of
measurements are to one another
Requires multiple measurements
Often reported as an average
Accuracy how close a value is to the true

value
Only requires one measurement
Goal is to be both precise and accurate


and Accuracy

and Accuracy
Two students count the grains of rice in a small
cup. Both students repeat the measurement four
times, with the following results:
Mike: 256, 263, 262, 266
Ike: 250, 242, 270, 278
The actual number of grains is 260. Which student

is more accurate? Which is more precise?

and Accuracy
Two students count the grains of rice in a small
cup. Both students repeat the measurement four
times, with the following results:
Mike: 256, 263, 262, 266
Ike: 250, 242, 270, 278
The actual number of grains is 260. Which student

is more accurate? Which is more precise?
Mike is more precise, but Ike is more accurate.
Numbers in Chemistry Uncertainty

and Significant Figures
Uncertainty
Associated with any
measured value
The value of 2.5 cm is an estimate of where

the line crosses the ruler. Someone else may
say it falls at 2.6 cm.

If present, uncertainty is with the number
only
The uncertainty lies in the last digit written

of the number

What is the uncertainty of the ruler shown
here?
a) 1cm b) 0.1cm c) 0.01cm


What is the uncertainty of the ruler shown
here?
a) 1cm b) 0.1cm c) 0.01cm


With calculations, uncertainty does not
change
Simply round to the correct number of

significant figures
Zeros and Significant Figures

Zeros can complicate finding significant
figures
Leading zeros zeros before first nonzero
digit are not significant
0.06 has one significant figure
Trailing zeros zeros that appear to the right

of the last nonzero digit
If to the right of a decimal point, a trailing zero is
significant
0.001020 has four significant figures

Determine the number of trailing zeros and
significant figures in the following:
Number of
trailing zeros
Number of
significant figures
20.201
20.210
20.0002
20.0
120.

Determine the number of trailing zeros and
significant figures in the following:
Number of
trailing zeros
Number of
significant figures
20.201
20.210
20.0002
20.0
120.

How many interpretations are there for the number
600?
What about the number 600.?

How many interpretations are there for the number
600?
With no decimal points, 600 can be interpreted as
having the uncertainty of 100, 10, and 1.
What about the number 600.?
600. could only have the uncertainty of 1.

If the uncertainty is not with the final digit
shown, underline the digit that contains the
uncertainty
The number would be written as 120 feet

because the uncertainty would be
10 feet.
Scientific Notation
Scientific notation Accepted practice to
unambiguously indicate uncertainty
Written as a number (A), multiplied by 10
raised to an exponent (x)
Scientific Notation
Understanding scientific notation
Exponent is always a whole number
When exponent is positive, decimal moves to
the right
When exponent is negative, decimal moves to
the left
Scientific Notation
Convert the following to standard notation:
a) 4.68 x 10-1
b) 47.3 x 10-2
c) 47.325 x 103
Scientific Notation
a) 4.68 x 10-1
b) 47.3 x 10-2
c) 47.325 x 103
.468
.473
47,325
Scientific Notation
What if the decimal moves beyond the
beginning or end of the number?
For example, 4.6 x 104
Each empty column is filled with a zero

Giving a final number of 46,000
Scientific Notation
a) 0.400 x 10-6
b) 2.35 x 10-3
c) 6.0 x 103
Scientific Notation
a) 0.400 x 10-6
0.000000400
b) 2.35 x 10-3 0.00235
c) 6.0 x 103
6000
Scientific Notation
Converting standard notation to scientific
First, find the decimal point
Move the decimal to the right of the first nonzero digit
The number of places moved is the exponent
If decimal moved left, exponent is positive
If decimal moved right, exponent is negative
125. converts to 1.25 x 102
Scientific Notation
Convert the following to scientific notation:
a) 123
b) 0.00006
c) 0.000060
d) 1002.0
Scientific Notation
Convert the following to scientific notation:
a) 123
b) 0.00006
c) 0.000060
d) 1002.0
1.23 x 102
6 x 10-5
6.0 x 10-5
1.002 x 103
Scientific Notation
Zeros and significant figures
Any zero placed due to the movement of the
decimal point is not significant
If a significant zero was present before
moving the decimal, it is still significant
Scientific Notation
Scientific notation also provides a
convenient way to write very large and small
numbers
Small numbers
0.000000120 meter is 1.20 x 10-7
Large numbers
600,000,000,000 miles is 6.0000 x 1011
How to Handle Significant Figures

and Scientific Notation When Doing Math
Two rules ensure the correct number of
significant figures:
1. Multiplication and division
Maintain the smallest number of significant figures in
original measurements
2.0 cm 2 sig figs
x 2 cm 1 sig fig
4 cm2 1 sig fig
2.0 cm 2 sig figs

x2.0 cm 2 sig figs
4.0 cm 2 sig figs

2. Addition and subtraction
Result can be no more certain than the least
certain measurements
Maintain the lowest number of decimals from
original measurements

Answer the following with the correct
number of significant figures:
a) 27.5 inches/2.0 hours =
b) 22.0 miles x 2.0 miles =
c) 220 hours x 3 =
(exact number)

Answer the following with the correct
number of significant figures:
a) 27.5 inches/2.0 hours = 14 inches/hour
b) 22.0 miles x 2.0 miles = 44 miles2
c) 220 hours x 3 = 660 hours
(exact number)

Answer the following with the correct number of
a) 1555 inches + 0.001 inch + 0.2 inch =
b) 1555 cm + 0.001 cm + 0.8 cm =
c) 142 cm 0.48 cm =
d) 142.00 cm 0.48 cm =

Answer the following with the correct number of
a) 1555 inches + 0.001 inch + 0.2 inch =
1555 inches
b) 1555 cm + 0.001 cm + 0.8 cm =
1556 cm
c) 142 cm 0.48 cm =
142 cm
d) 142.00 cm 0.48 cm =
141.52 cm

Combining multiplication/division and
addition/subtraction

Follow the rule for each step:
20.5 pounds + 15 pounds = 35.5 pounds or
36 pounds
2.45 feet x 1.00 foot = 2.45 feet2

Its best to save rounding until the end, so
the correct calculation would be:
Which gives a value of 14.48979592 pounds/

foot2
Proper rounding gives a final answer of
14 pounds/foot2
Numbers with a Name Units of Measure

Numbers need units to make sense
Get to the airport in 3.
3 hours
3 minutes
3 gallons of fuel
3 cars
You need both units and numbers

Scientists use the SI system
Standard system of units
Norm in every nation besides the United
States
SI stands for Systme International

Comparing U.S. units with metric units:
Distance
A meter (m) is about 3 1/3 inches longer than

a yard

Mass
The measure of quantity of matter
Standard unit is the kilogram (kg)
1 kg is equal to 2.2046 pounds
Chemistry often uses gram (g)

1 g is equal to 0.001 kg or 1000 g in 1 kg
453.6 g is equal to 1 lb

Derived SI units
Combinations of the base SI units
One example is volume
Standard unit is a cubic meter (m3)
One m3 is equal to 264 gallons
Other examples include pressure, energy,

and electrical charge

Standard units are often much too large or
small, so we adjust using prefixes
Instead of saying
0.0002 m, we
say 0.2 mm
Can also be
applied to
derived units

Adjust to the given units:
a) 24,000,000,000 m 50 in gigameters
b) 4736 m in kilometers
c) 0.025 m in millimeters

Adjust to the given units:
a) 24,000,000,000 m 50 in gigameters
24.0 Gm
b) 4736 m in kilometers
4.736 km
c) 0.025 m in millimeters
25 mm

Common non-SI units
Pressure
SI unit is pascals (Pa)
Other units used include mm of Hg or atmospheres
Temperature
SI unit is Kelvin (K, not K)
Kelvin is called the absolute temperature scale
Other units include Celsius (C) and Fahrenheit (F)

Temperature conversions
Conversion between Celsius and Fahrenheit
Conversion between Celsius and Kelvin

Adjust the number by 273.15
K = C + 273.15
C = K 273.15

Comparisons between the three scales
Measuring Length, Equalities

An equality shows the relationship between two
units that measure the same quantity.
For example, 1 m is the same length as
100 cm. The equality is written as:
1 m = 100 cm
= 1 102 cm
1 m = 1000 mm
= 1 103 mm
1 cm = 10 mm
= 1 101 mm
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Measuring Length, Equalities
The metric length of 1 m is the same length as 10 dm, 100 cm, and 1000 mm.
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Measuring Volume
A volume of 1 L or smaller is common in the
laboratory. When a liter is divided into
10 equal parts, each is called a deciliter (dL).
1 L = 10 dL
= 1 101 dL
1 L = 1000 mL = 1 103 mL
1 dL = 100 mL = 1 102 mL
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Measuring Volume
The cubic centimeter (cm3 or cc) is the volume
of a cube with the dimensions
1 cm 1 cm 1 cm.
A cube measuring 10 cm on each side has a volume of 1000 cm3, or 1 L;

a cube measuring 1 cm on each side has a volume of 1 cm3 1cc2 or 1 mL.
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Measuring Volume
A cubic centimeter has the same volume as a
milliliter.
1 cm3 = 1 cc = 1 mL
A cube measuring 10 cm on each side has a volume of 1000 cm3, or 1 L;

a cube measuring 1 cm on each side has a volume of 1 cm3 1cc2 or 1 mL.
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Measuring Mass, Equalities

Equalities can be written for mass in the metric
(SI) system.
When metric equalities are used, 1 gram is the
same mass as 1000 mg and 0.001 kg.
1 kg = 1000 g
1 g = 1000 mg
1 mg = 0.001 g
1 mg = 1000 g
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Learning Check
Indicate the unit that completes each of the
following equalities:
A. 1000 m = _____
(1) 1 mm
(2) 1 km
(3) 1 dm
B. 0.01 m = _____
(1) 1 mm
(2) 1 cm
(3) 1 dm
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Solution
Indicate the unit that completes each of the
following equalities:
A. 1000 m = _____
(2) 1 km
B. 0.01 m = _____
(2) 1 cm
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Learning Check
Complete each of the following equalities:
A. 1 kg = _____
(1) 10 g
(2) 100 g
B. 1 mm = _____
(1) 0.001 m
(2) 0.01 m
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(3) 1000 g
(3) 0.1 m
Solution
Complete each of the following equalities:
A. 1 kg = _____
(3) 1000 g
B. 1 mm = _____
(1) 0.001 m
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Writing Conversion Factors

Equalities
use different units to describe the same quantity
can be between units of the metric system, or
U.S. units, or between metric and U.S. units
1m
= 1000 mm
1 lb
= 16 oz
2.205 lb = 1 kg
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Equalities
between two metric quantities or two U.S.
system quantities are obtained by definition, and
are not used to determine significant figures
1m
= 1000 mm
1 lb
= 16 oz
1 min = 60 sec
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Equalities
written between metric and U.S. system
quantities contain one number obtained by
measurement and therefore count toward
significant figures
1 lb
= 453.6 g
1 in
= 2.54 cm
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Two Conversion Factors for the Equality
60 min = 1 h
Numerator
Denominator
These conversion factors are read as 60 minutes
per hour and 1 hour per 60 minutes. The per
means divide.
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Metric Conversion Factors

We can write conversion factors for any metric
relationship.
Both conversion factors represent the same
quantity; one is just the inverse of the other.
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Metric U.S. System Conversion Factors

We can write conversion factors between the
U.S. system and metric quantities.
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Conversion Factors with Powers

Sometimes we can use a conversion factor that is
squared or cubed.
Distance = length
Area
= length length = length2
Volume = length length length = length3
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To square the equality 1 m = 100 cm, we square
both the number and the unit on each side.
Equality: 1 m = 100 cm
Area: (1 m)2 = (100 cm)2 or 1 m2 = (100)2 cm2
Conversion factors:
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Both the number and the unit must be squared.
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Learning Check
Write conversion factors for each pair of units:
A. liters and milliliters
B. meters and kilometers
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Solution
Write conversion factors for each pair of units:
A. liters and milliliters (1 L = 1000 mL)
B. meters and kilometers (1 km = 1000 m)
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Learning Check
Write the equality and conversion factors for the
relationships between the following units:
A. grams milligrams
B. square inches square centimeters
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Solution
Write the equality and conversion factors for the
relationships between the following units:
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Equalities, Conversion Factors in Problems

An equality may also be stated within a problem
that only applies to that problem.
1. The car travels at 85 km/h
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Equalities, Conversion Factors in Problems

2. The tablet contains 500 mg Vitamin C.
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Conversion Factors, Percentage Ppm

and Ppb
A percent (%) is written as a conversion factor
by choosing a unit and expressing the numerical
relationship of the parts of this unit to 100 parts
of the whole.
For example, a person has 18% body fat
by mass.
Equality: 18 mass units of fat per
100 mass units of body mass
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and Ppb
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and Ppb
When scientists represent very small quantities,
they use ppm and ppb.
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and Ppb
For example, the maximum amount of lead
allowed by the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) in glazed pottery is 2 ppm.
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Learning Check
Write the equality and conversion factors for each
of the following:
A. jewelry that contains 18% gold
B. a water sample with 55 ppb of chromium (Cr)
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Solution
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Density: A Useful Physical Property

of Matter
Density
Compactness of matter
Defined as mass per unit volume
Expressed as g/mL or g/cm3


of Matter

of Matter
Which arrangement of identical atoms
would be more dense and why?

of Matter
Intensive property
A property that does not depend on the
amount of material present
Density is a prime example
Extensive property
A property that depends on the amount of
material present
Examples include mass and volume

of Matter
Determining density
Mass is measured with a balance
Volume
For regular shaped objects (cube),
volume is measured with a ruler
For irregular shaped objects,
measurement is done
by displacement
Measures the volume of
liquid displaced when
object is submerged

of Matter
What is the density of the following?
a) A cube that is 10.0 mm x 10.0 mm x
10.0 mm and has a mass of 4.70 g
b) A small statue that has a mass of 500.0 g and
displaces 150.5 mL of water

of Matter
What is the density of the following?
a) A cube that is 10.0 mm x 10.0 mm x
10.0 mm and has a mass of 4.70 g
0.047 g/cm3
b) A small statue that has a mass of 500.0 g and
displaces 150.5 mL of water
3.322 g/mL
Doing Calculations in Chemistry

Unit Analysis
Unit analysis
General strategy for solving numerical problems
Process:
1. Write down the given measurements including
unit
2. Find the conversion factor between the unit you
have and the unit you are looking for
3. Multiply the given by the conversion factor,
canceling out the old unit and leaving the desired
unit

Unit Analysis
How many minutes are in 4 hours?
1. The given information is 4 hours
2. The conversion factor between hours and
minutes is there are 60 minutes in 1 hour
3. Multiply them together so the old unit cancels
4 hours
60 minutes = 240 minutes

1 hour

Unit Analysis
Which of the following can be thought of as
conversion factors?
a) 49.3 kg
b) 350 miles per hour
c) 1 dozen grams
d) 4.184 J/C
e) 12 eggs per dozen

Unit Analysis
Which of the following can be thought of as
conversion factors?
a) 49.3 kg
b) 350 miles per hour
c) 1 dozen grams
d) 4.184 J/C
e) 12 eggs per dozen

Unit Analysis
Write the two different conversion factors
expressing that there are 24 hours in a day.

Unit Analysis
Write the two different conversion factors
expressing that there are 24 hours in a day.
24 hours
1 day
1 day
24 hours

Unit Analysis
You can perform this process multiple times to
reach the final answer including unit desired.
Just remember to arrange the conversions so

the correct units cancel each other out

Unit Analysis
How many seconds are in 3.5 weeks?
Conversions: 60 seconds = 1 minute
60 minutes = 1 hour
24 hours = 1 day
7 days = 1 week

Unit Analysis
Unit Analysis Review

Unit Analysis
The density of air is 0.00130 g/mL. What is the
mass in 500.0 L of air? What is it in kilograms?

Unit Analysis
The density of air is 0.00130 g/mL. What is the
mass in 500.0 L of air? What is it in kilograms?
500,000 mL air
0.00130 g of air
1 mL of air
= 650 g of air
650 g of air
1 kilogram
1000 g of air
= 0.0650 kg of air
Rearranging Equations Algebraic

Manipulations with Density
Algebraic manipulation (algebra)
Rearranging of an equation
Doesnt change the meaning, simply the look
Multiply both sides of the equation by a value
to move it
Rearranging Equations Algebraic

Manipulations with Density
Rearranging density equation (d = m/V)
Solving for mass:
Solving for volume:
Quantifying Energy
Every change that matter undergoes involves
energy
Physical changeice melting
Energy must be added to melt the ice
Chemical change burning of gasoline

Energy is released as heat and light
Quantifying Energy
Energy is defined as the ability to do work
The more energy there is, the more work that
can be done
Two forms considered in the text:
Heat
Light
Quantifying Energy
calorie (cal) is a well-known unit of energy
Not an SI unit (joule is the SI unit)
Two calorie types one with small c and one
with large c
1 Calorie = 1000 calories
1 Cal = 4.184 kJ
1 cal heats 1 g of water from 25 C to 26 C
Quantifying Energy
Specific heat amount of heat energy needed
to warm 1 g of substance by 1 C
Quantifying Energy
Calorimeter instrument used to
measure the energy release of a material
Quantifying Energy
What is the energy released (cal) from a
burning Twinkie if it heated 1.00 x 104 g of
water from 25.0 C to 45.0 C?
Quantifying Energy
What is the energy released (cal) from a
burning Twinkie if it heated 1.00 x 104 g of
water from 25.0 C to 45.0 C?

Unit 1 Lecture

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Unit 1 Lecture

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Introduction to Chemistry

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Structure Determines Properties

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Scientific Method

A process for trying to understand nature by

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Why Arent the Philosophers

Some observations compare a

A tentative interpretation or explanation of

A good hypothesis is one that can be tested to

Test hypotheses, laws, or theories.

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Allows you to predict future observations.

Unlike state laws, you cannot choose to

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Whats the Difference Between an

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General explanation for the characteristics

Can be used to predict future observations.

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Whats the Difference Between a

A hypothesis is an explanation of a single

Whats the Difference Between a

Laws answer the question What will

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The careful noting

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Relationships Between Pieces of the

Explains why things

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You have probably noticed that soda

Examine sodas composition.

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Step 4: Look for patterns.

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Step 6: Test your hypothesis.

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How to Succeed in Chemistry

Be curious and use your

Quantify and calculate

The Best Approach to

Memorize important information.

Learn and practice processes.

Do the questions and exercises in the chapter to

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Numbers in Chemistry Precision

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Numbers in Chemistry Precision

2. Measurement contains uncertainty

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Numbers in Chemistry Precision

Accuracy how close a value is to the true

Goal is to be both precise and accurate

Numbers in Chemistry Precision

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Numbers in Chemistry Precision

Ike: 250, 242, 270, 278

The actual number of grains is 260. Which student

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Numbers in Chemistry Precision