CI/SfB

372 (21)

Sep t ember 1986

BRICK CLADDING TO
STEEL FRAMED BUILDINGS

COMMENTARY

PUBLISHED BYTHE BRICK DEVELOPMENTASSOCIATIONAND BRITISHSTEELCORPORATION

BRICKCLADDING

TO

SEPTEMBER 1986

STEEL FRAMED
BUILDINGS

Keens House, Andover

forTSSTrust Company

PUBLISHED JOINTLY BY
THE BRICK DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION
AND
BRITISH STEEL CORPORATION.

Ac knowledgements
A number of Engineers and Architects have contributed to the
development of this technical manual and by commenting on
the final draft. There are too many to acknowledge individually
but their assistance is acknowledged and appreciated.
This manual was prepared under the direction of a Joint
BOAIBSC Steering Committee consisting of the following :P. R. LUMBARD, CEng ., MISt ruc t E. - BOA.

J. MORTON, BSc ., PhD., CEng ., MICE., MlnstM. - BOA.

B. W. J . BOYS, CEng ., FISt ructE. - BSC.
J. ROBINSON, BSC., CEng., MIM., Mlnst M. - BSC .
How to use the Manual
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Read the text .

Study the key location diagrams (Figs. 7.0.1 , 7.0.2., 7.0.3.).
Study appropriate details.
Modify if required.
Refer to text if required.
Refer to references if required.

Text and d rawings prepared by:

R. E. BRADSHAW, MSc ., CEng., MICE., FIStruct E., MConsE.

G. BUCKTON, CEng., FIStruct E., MWeid l., MConsE.
S. W. SOUTHWICK, BTech., CEng., MISt ructE.
BRADSHAW BUCKTON & TONGE

CONTENTS
Page
2

List 01 Tables
List 01 Figures

1.0

Introduction

2.0

Bulidablll ty
2.1 General
2.2 Brickwork
2.3 Steelwork
2.4 Buildability - An Example
Resistance to Rain Penetration
3.1 Brickwork
3.2 Assessing the Exposure
3.3 Design Details, Specification and Workmanship
Durability
4.1 Brickwork
4.2 Cavity Wall Ties and Frame Ties
4.3 Structural Steel Frame
4.4 Bimetallic Corrosion
Accommodation 01 Movement
5.1 General
5.2 Thermal Movement
5.3 Moisture Movement
5.4 Restrained and Unrestrained Movements
5.5 Assessment of Movement in Masonry
5.6 Preferred Locations of Movement Joints
5.7 Sealing Movement Joints
5.8 External Masonry Walls and Steel Framed Buildings
Stability ............
6.t General
6.2 Horizontal and Vertical Lateral Support Conditions
6.3 Cavity Wall Ties
6.4 Frame Ties
6.5 Methods of Fixing Wall Panel Restraint Ties to Steel Frames.
6.6 Masonry Panels Containing Openings

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

13

t7

29

43

Beddington House, Wallington

for Haslemere Estates pic

LIST OFTABLES

I
All Tables can be found within each relevant section and denoted
asfollows:T2 .1 denotes Section 2, Table 1
Olympic House , Woking
for Norwich Union
Assurance pic

T2 .1 Clay brick tolerances in mm (based on BS:3921 Table 3limits of size)

T2 .2 Calcium Silicate (sandnirne , f1intllime) BrickTolerances in mm
(based on BS :187Table 1)
T3 .1 Classi fication of exposure to local wind-driven rain (BS:5628: Part 3:
Table 10)
T3 .2 Mortar mixes (BS :5628 : Part 3 :Table 15)
T4.1 Durability of masonry in finished construction (BS:5628: Part 3 :
Table 13)
T4.2 Anchorages , dowe ls and fixings (BS:5628: Part 3 : Table 1)
T4.3 Protection of metal components (other than wall ties) built into
masonry (BS :5628 : Part3:Table 14)
T4 .4 Risk of additionai corrosion from bimetallic contact
T5 .1 Properties needed to assess changes of size and shape of materials
T5 .2 Examples of service temperature ranges of materials (UK only)
T5.3 Recommended compression movement joint widths
T5.4 Basic properties of suitable joint sealants
T5.5 Theoretical deflections for steel frame members supporting and/or
restraini ng an external masonry cavity wall
T6 .1 Characteristic strengths of wall ties used as panel supports
(BS :5628 : Part 1:Table 8)
T6.2 Selection olties (BS :5628 : Part 3 :Table 9(b))
T6.3 Spacing olties (BS :5628: Part 1:Table 6)
T6.4 Suitability of alternative fixings for wall panel restraint ties to
steel frame.

LI ST OF FIGURES

I
All figures can be found at the end ot each relevant section and denoted
asfollows:F2.1 denotes Sect ion 2 Figure 1.
F2.1 Accommodation of tolerance on brick sizes in short runs of brickwork
F2 .2 Horizontal expansion joi nt for multi-storey buildings outl ining the
fixi"li! of continuous support ang le to steel noo r beam in order to
provide tolerances for vert ical and horizontal variations.
F2.3 Horizontal expansion joint for mull i-stor ey build ings outl ining the
fixinll of cont inuous support ang le to composite floor slab in order to
provide tolerances for vert ical and horizontal variations .
F3.1 The durability and resistance to rain penetration of different
mortar joint profiles .
F4.1 Masonry condition or situation affecting the spec ification
of the bricks and mortar.
F4.2 Designs for minimising bimetallic corrosion.
F5.1 Typical expansion and contraction joint.
F5.2 Preferred locations of movement joints.
F5.3 Preferred location of movement joi nts at column positions .
F5.4 Preferred locations of movement joints at cornercolumns .
F5.5 Typical deflections and sway of single storey portal frame
building.
F5.6 Schematic illustration of differential movement between
external wall and structure.
F5.7 Comparison between external cavity walls in mult i-sto rey
buildings :(a) supported off steel frame
(b) independent of steellrame
F6.1 Details provid ing simple and fixed vertical lateral support.
F6.2 Details provid ing simple and fixed horizontal lateral support.
F6.3 Typical examples of frame ties.
F6.4a Frame tie details to accommodate vertical and/o r horizontal

movement.

F6.4b Frame tie details to accommodate vertical and/or horizontal

movement.
F6.5 Mernative non-standard frame tie des igns for increased
flexibility.
F6.6 Typical spacings of double triangl e and vertical twist cavity wall
ties and panel restra int ties in single storey and med iumlh igh
rise buildings.
F6.7 Methods of fixing fram e ties to the main structur e.

Hills Road , Cambridge

for Caltrust Developments Ltd
and Standard Life Assurance pic

30 Garrard Street , Reading

for Bov is Property Division

SECTION 1

INTRODUCTION
"Tt;e aim of this publication is to provide guidanceto

architects, engineers and technicians with illustrations of

modern practice combining steel frames and brickwork
cladding in non-domestic buildings to achieve stability,
durability, buildability and long-term serviceability.
The use of brickwork with a steel frame is not new it was the most commonly used cladding for framed
bUildings during the 1920's and 1930's. Many of these
buildings continue to give good service and will do so into
the 21 st century. However, the way in which we use these
two materials today has changed.
For example, all structural materials are now designed
to higherstresses than wasthe case 50 yearsago,withthe
aim of reducing the amount of structural material within
buildings. Most modern structures are thus significantly
more slender and lighterthan their predecessors, and
deflections and sways need to be considered more fully.
When combined with an increasing requirement for longer
spans, flexibilityof use and the abilityto accommodate a
rangeof services, itwillbe appreciated that moderndesign
is more complex.
The publication includes a range of acceptable details
in common use. No detail is universal, however, and slight
modification by the designer may be required to suit a
particular application.
The annotation is intended to assist in highlighting the
key factors involved.
The text has been kept to a minimum. For an understanding of the background and principles involved,
reference must be made to the various publications
referred to in the text.
This brochure is not intended to be definitive or
exhaustive and the individual designerwill need to use his
ownjudgementas to whichdetailsand which modifications
are necessaryfor a particular project.
There are clearly many special applications and
situations which are beyond the scope of a publication
of this type.

William Booth H
for Salvation Ar::'~se, Hull

,
SECTION2!

BUILOABILITV
2.1

GENERAL
Tolerances inconstruction andmovement
in all types of cladding and supporting
structures need to be considered in
combination. Both can affect fixings, bearings
and joints and so influence watertightness and
safety. For example, if joints are small as a

result ofinaccuracies andmovements large in

relation to joint width, sealants may becom e
over-strained, leading to rain penetration.
Further movement after the joint has closed
ca n damage fixings and dislodge cladd ing.
Principal factors determ ining the effects of
movements and inaccuracies are:i) Maximum size of external wall panels
between horizontal and vertical movement
joints, and expected change in size due to
moisture content and temperature
changes.
ii) Expected changes to supporting
structures due to moveme ntlthermal
effects together with deflection and creep .
iii) Relative direction of movements l.e,
whether the two elements of a member
move in the same or oppos ite direction.
iv) Size and accuracy of components
manufacturedoff site, suchas windows,
required to fit into pre-forme d openi ngs.

Tab le 2.1

Dimensional inaccu racie s can only be

accommodated at the joints and it is
necessary to assess whether the proposed
jointing method can adeq uately cope with
such variations together with any subsequent
movem ent. Guidance on the assessment of
dimens ional accuracy and the select ion of
appropriate jointing methods are given in the
follOWing codes of practice:BS:5606 "Accuracy in BUilding" (Ref. 1).
BS:6093 "Design of Joints and Joi nting in
Building Construction". (Ref. 2).

2.2

BRIC KWORK
When design ing in brickwork it is
desirable to work in multiple s of half brick
lengths (112.5mm co-ordinatinq size) to avoid
cutting and unsightly jointing . BOA Design
Note 3 "Brickwork Dimensions Tables" (Ref. 3)
provides useful tab les.
Clay and Calcium Silicate bricks are
normally produced within the limits of size
stated in BS:3921:1965 (Ref . 4) and BS :167:
1976 (Ref. 27). These are summarised in
Table 2.1 for clay bricks and
Table 2.2 for calcium silicate bricks .

Lim its of s ize of cla y bricks (based on BS 392 1 table 3 )

Work size

215 (lenl1th)
102'5 (Width)
65 (height )

Permitted limits of size

- - -- - - -- Minimum
--Maximum
for 24 bricks

for 24 bricks

5235
2505
1605

5065
2415
1515

Tab le 2.2
Calciu m s ilicate (sandlllme, flint/li me) bric k tole rances In m m
(based on BS 167 ' 1978 Table 1)

Work size
Max. limit of manufacturing size
Min. limit of manufacturing size

Length
215

Wid th
102.5

Hei ght

217

105

65
67

212

101

63

Note: Special shaped bricks to BS 4729 : 1971 usually require longer

delivery periods and are not manufactured to any stated tolerance.
Always consult the manufacturer when incorporating architectural
featuresrequiring bricksto a specifictolerance.

r - - - - - -- - -----,

Kings Meadow, Reading

for Speyhawk Land Estates

The variation in brick sizes can normally be

taken Into account by the.bricklayer adjusting
the width of the mortar JOInts but special care
may need to be taken with short lengths of
brickwork.
Bricks may need to be specially selected
either on site or by arrangement with the
manufacturer to obtain a satisfactory result.
Examples of this include piers formed between
adJacentope",~sor a single soldier course of
bricks on end . FIg 2.1 shows some of the
considerations necessary. Specific
regurrements for accuracy 01 size need to be
wntten Into the specification .

2.3
STEELWORK
Hot-rolled sect ions such as universal
beams, universal columns, joists and
channels etc are produced to the requirements
of BS4 : Part 1; 1980 (Ref. 25). A section is
desiqnated by the serial (nominal) size in
millirnetras and the mass per unit length in
kilograms per metre.
The designer should be aware of the
following points which may affect critical areas
of detaillng:a) The actual dimensions of universal beam
and universal column sections of the same
serial size but of different masses vary.
For example, the 254 x 254 serial size UC
has five different masses ranging from
73 - 167 kg/m . The actual overan
dimensions (in mm) vary from 254 x 254
to 289 .1 x 264.5.
A list of common section sizes available
today can be found in BS4 : Part 1: 1980
(Ref. 25).
b) The British Standard prov ides guidel ines
on dimensional rolling tolerances within
which all hot-rolled sections are

2.4
BUILDABILITY - AN EXAMPLE
A difflCUtIdetail encountered with
masonry cladding to mutli-storey framed
structures is the horizontal support - and the
associated expansion joint. The detail must
accommodate variations both vertically and
honzontally In the position of the continuous
steel supporting angle. Figs . 2.2 and 2.3
Illustrate two possible solutions. The designer
WIllhave to assess and specify with care the
dImensIonal tolerances to which the contractor
must work.
CIRIA Technical Note 113"A sugl;lested
Des iqn Procedure for Accuracy in BUIlding"
(Ref. 5) suggests the followinll procedures:i) Choose details which aVOId conflict
between very accurate components and
relatively inaccu rate surrounding
construction.
ii) Choose details which facilitate the
adjustment of continuous elements e.g.
continuous steel angles supporting the
external leaf of brickwork.
iii) Generally, avoid specifying 'speci al' or
'high' degrees of accuracy, i.e. assume
normal labour, normal construction
methods, normal conditions.
Special accuracy costs more ; it may not be
justifiable.
iv) Carry out check calculations so that effect
of conflict between components and joints

is minimised.
v) Assess and quantify any differential
movement that may occur after
construction and select the most
appropriate type and size of joint.
vi) Communicate all requirements clearly to
the contractor.

manufactured. These tolerances cover

depth and width of section, squareness of
flanges and straightness. For example, for
serial sizes up to and including 305mm the
tolerance on section depth is 3 .2mm and
on flange width +6.4mm or -4.8mm.
c) Information on fabrication and erection
tolerances can be found in BS. 5950 : Part
2: 1985 (Ref. 24) . Specific areas requiring
attention include posrtion in plan of a
column , verticality of a column, position in
plan of beams connected to a column and
the level of the steelwork at any sto rey.

Figure 2.1 ACCOMMODATION OFTOLERANCE ON BRICK SIZES IN SHORT RUNS OF

BRICKWORK
1025 215
1J.10

1025

10-.11

_ 215--'._215 ....

J[

10

II

J[

][

)[

II

440

(a) Theoretical pier si2e - joint width

and aJignmeent.
101

212

101

43 4

(b) UndelSized bricl<s

104

--

218

440

(d) 0ve1Sized bricl<s

PREFERRED METHOD
1. SPEC IFY GAUGED BRICKS
2. ADJUST PERPEND WIDTHS

(e) Piersi2e adjusted

to maintain standa1rJ joint
104

104

218

104

446

(e) Pier size adjusted to

maintain standardjoint

Figure 2.2 HORIZONTAL JOINT FOR MULTISTOREY BUILDINGS.

Detai l outlin ing fixing of continuous support angle to steel floor
support beam in order to provide tolerances for vertical and
horizontal variations.
Construction seq ue nce
1. Build brickwork up to underside of angle . Carefully
check brickwork/steel frame relationship as work
proceeds. Any deviations preferably to be corrected by
adjusting the brickwork.
2. Lay compressible joint filler on top of brickwork.
3. Lower angle onto JOint filler and bolt back to steel edge
beam . Steel shims. full depth of angle, may be required
to accommodate adjustments to lateral setting out of
angle . Angle to be fixed by steelwork contractor.
4. Complete on site painting :Stainless steel angle - erther zinc chromate or
bituminous paint along top edge and at each boll

position.
Gaivan ised mild steel angle - bituminous paint
asabove.
Note! Underside of angle to be coated with bituminous
paint prior to erections. Refer to SSC publication "Steelwork
in cavity walls (Ref. 15).

IMkal toIetanee provided by

sJoned hole inangle.

t()
fnpressible jointniter lor
enIatged delJ3ils 01 movement
joint see Jig. 7.2.8.

High strengt1I friction grip bolts rrwst be ust!d to boltangle to rilanneJ

through sJoned holes. Skilled labour requil8d toensure that rontact
surfaces are clean, load indicatols are correctly 5ned am that bolts are
tightened to the speciliet:f lDIQue.

"kJrsionaJ restJaint beam can

also be utilised as a su{JlJOl1

lortheromposif1J IIoor
construcIion.

10

Figure 2.3 HORIZONTAL JOINT FOR MU LTI-STOREY BUILDINGS.

Detailoutlining fixing of continuous stainless steel
support angle to composrteIIoor slab in O<der to provide
tolerances lor vertical and horizontal variations.

~ slots

01 angle.

in senalEdlJat allow adjustment

Shims 5tted be_ slab andsenalEdlJat. lull

dep/Jl. allow toIeIance for imperfections in aJfICIfite

sulface.

Contmuous channel cast into

lloor slab allows adjustment 01

angle horizontJI/y.

CCmpressibie jointmler. For enlarged

details 01 movement joint see
fig. 7.2.8.
Stainless steelsenalEdlJat welded tobad<
01 angle,
Rxing detail
courtesy 01

Ie to slab

::J:, I.imited.

11

SECTION

31

RESISTANCE
TO RAI N
PENETRATION
3.1
BRICKWORK
The Building Research Establi shment
warns that rain penetration is one of the mo st
commo n buildi ng defects . It is, the refore,
esse ntia l to cons ider how facing brickwork can
resist rain pene tration to the interior of a bUilding
by systematically assessing the degree of
exposure, devising and specifying appropriate
details and materials and ensuring skilled
supervisio n and so und work manship , payi ng
due regard to local experience.

3.2
ASSESSING THE EXPOSURE
It has long been recogn ised that the
quantity of rain falli ng on a vertical surface
de pends on both the mtensity of rainfall and the

wind speed. Recent computer analysis of

meteorological data has led to improved
methods of assessing the degre e of expos ure
so that designs can be based on the 'worst
expected ' conditions in a spell of bad weather.
A classification of exposure to local wind-driven
rain, measured as a "local spell index " is given
in Table 3.1. Six expo sure categories rang ing
from Very Severe to Very She ltered are given in
place of the three catego ries in CP121 : Part 1:
1973 (Ref. 8).
The "loca l spell index" sho uld be calculated
accordi ng to the method described in DD93
(Ref. 7) whic h assesses the quantity of wind
driven rain per spell at a poi nt on a vertical face
of a wall in Um2 . The calculations take into
account the geographic location , the
'roughness' of the terra in, topographical
features and the heigh t of the wall.

Table 3.1
Classification of exposure to local w ind-driven ra in
(BS:5628: Part 3 : Table 10)

--

Exposure
category

Local spe ll index calculated

as described in DD 93
U m 2 per spell

Expo sure category in

CP 121 : Part 1: 1973
(see note )

Very Severe

98 and over

Severe

68 to 123

Moderate/Severe

46 to 85

Sheltered/Moderate

29 to 58

Sheltered

19 to 37

Very Shelter ed

24 0r less

Severe
Moderate
She ltered

NOTE. CP 121: Part 1: 1973 defined three expos ure categories, namely Severe, Moderate and
Sheltered, correspo nding to values of Lacy's Annua l Mean Driving Rain Index > 7m 2/s, 3m 2/s
to 7m 2/s and < 3m 2/s respec tively (see BRE Report 'Driving Rain Index' 1976") . Development s
since the publ ication of that code, such as the introductio n of insulation into cavity walls and
the advent of improved meteorolog ical data, have made it necessary to increase the number of
expos ure categories.
"Available from the Build ing Research Station, Garston , Watford, Herts WD2 7JR .

13

RESISTANCE
TO RAIN
PENETRATION

3.3
DESIGN DETAILS . SPECIFICATION
AND WORKMANSHIP
The amount of water penetrating an o uter
leaf of facing brickwork will depend on the
amount of rain measured as described above
and on the resistance of the wall to that w ind driven rain.
Th is resistance . in turn . depends on a
nu m ber of other factors which are listed in
cI21.3.1 of B8 :5628: Part 3 and is subsequently
referred to in more delail. These fact ors include:
a. Types of Mortar
Cement: lime : sand mortars are co nsidered
to g ive more intimate contact and hence
better adhesion between mortar and bricks
and consequent resistance to rai n
penetration than cement: sand mortars w ith
plasticisers or those made with masonry
cement (Table 3 .2). Mortar additives. such
as styrene butadiene, can improve the
brick/mortar bond when used in strict
accordance with the ma nufactu rers'
recommendations.

b . Joint Finish and Profile

The tooling of joi nts to prod uce st ruck and
weathe red or bucket-ha nd le prof iles
improves the ir rain resistance while
recessed joints reduce that resistance
(Fig . 3.1).
c. Filling of Joints
All morta r joi nts mu st be filled and go od
contact achieved betw een bricks and mortar
to minimise the tra nsfe r of surface rainwater
to the inne r leaf. "Tipping and tailing" of the
vertical arrises with mortar leaves unfilled
perpendicular joints - a path for rain
penetration. The Code no tes that such poor
workmanship is particularly cri tical where
low absorption bricks are used. resulting in a
rapid shedding of wa ter from the glass-like
surface. However, it also clai ms that the type
of brick is not a factor affect ing rain
pe ne trat ion throu gh walls prope rly built wi th
good wo rkmanship .

Table 3 2

Mortar mixes (B8:5628:Part 3 :Table 15 )

......

........
I...,.."""

Slrenglh
(see note 1)

1........... . ~loty
10 accommodate
movements due
to lemperalure
and rT'lOlslure

.""
"""""'....
....
"'""""

DncOQtl 01 c:hangtI ... ptOpertJeS ,1$

ShOwn by lhe anows

lype 01 mortar (see nole 2 )

Cement1lme:sand
(see note 3j

CemenI:sand with

sand (see nol e 3)

plasbClZet (see noce3 )

ProporllQnS by volume

Proponl()(lSby IIOIume

1:1,;:4104"..,

1:2..;103.,..,

1:1 :5 106
1:2 :8109
1:3 :101012

1 4105
1:5''';10 6 ,....,
1:6'.-'1 107

1 :3 104
1:510 6
1:7t08
1:8

PToportI(ll"lS by YOIume
(seenote4)
(oj
(iI)
(III)
(iv)

AIr-entJa.ned rTll_es (see note 5)

Masonry cemenI:

1 :010 '10:3

IncrNN'lg resistance 10 frOstattack during oonstrucbon

10' .... 0 .... ' In adhesaon and ~ re&lStance 10 rawl penetralJOn

NOTE 1. Where mortar of a glWln COl'TIPl'8SSIve strength is requwed by the desfgner. the
tests klIowIng the ,eex:w'~ndabOnsOl apptN'ldI .. Ad as 5628 . Part 1: 1978

ml..

proportions should be delttmW'led from

NOTE 2 . The llfteter1C types 01 mortar thaI c:ompnee ~ one deslgnallOr'l are apptOlltmalely 8QUlYalent In curnpresswe strength
and ec no! generaly dllTer greatly Wllhelf other propet1JeS , Some generaillfterences between types of mortar are IndICated by
the arrow s alltle bOnOm of Itle l aDle, buI these d,lTerences can be reduced (see 23 .2.1).
NOTE 3 , Ttle range 01 sand contents is 10 allOw lor the ertects 01the dllTerences m grading upon the properties ollhe mortar.
In general. the lower proportlOl"l 01 sand app lies 10 grade G 01as 1200 wh ilst the highe r proportlOf1 applies 10 grade S 01 as 1200
NO TE 4 , The proportIOnS aril based on dry hydraled lome. The proportlOl"l of lome by volume may be tncreased by up 10 50' (VN)
Ofdet 10 obta." wcnat*ty

II'l

NOTE 5, AI the discretIOn at the des9'*. air entr8ll"lll"lQadmlJdurM may be adOed 10 hmesand rrues'to IIT'Ipl'OYe Ihetr eaIfy eost
re5IStance . (Ready mI ..ed llme:1and mI.. 1ISmay cont8ln sud1 admul1ures )

14

RESISTANCE
TO RAIN
PENETRATION

d . Achieving Good Adhe sion

Rapid abs orption of mo isture from the mort ar
immediately after laying is a major ca use of
poer adhesion. Highly absorb ent brick s
should have their initial suct ion rate redu ced
by "docking" , or wetting , not saturating , and
in warm drying conditions newly built
brickwork should be prot ected from rapid
drying.
Furth er advice is given in both the Design
and Workmanship Sections of BS :5628:
Part 3 (Ref. 6).
e. Unfilled Ca vities
Where a clear air space, whether with or
without insulation, is provided to prevent
the passage of wat er from the outer to th e
inner leaf, the cavity width work size should
be specified as a min imum of 50mm. Where
there is a higher risk of rain penetration
considerat ion should be give n to the use of

wider cavities.
The use of part ial cavity insulation with
insu lation board s fixed to the inner leaf
should be subject to restrictions of height,
exposure and construct ion, if the remaining
air space is less than 50mm as described in
the relevant Agrement Cert ificates. However,
users are strongly urged to maintain a
minimum cavity of 50mm as recommended
in BRE Digests 236 and zrt (Ref. 10 & 11 ).
I. Filled Cav itie s
The Code recogn ises that filling the cavity

with thermal insulation mayincrease the fisk

of rain penetration through the wall and
notes that walls in wh ich the cavity is filled
with Type A insulants (e.g. mineral fibre or
polystyrene beads) should not be used in
exposure conditions worse than those
recommended for the equivalent unfilled
cavity wall. When Type B insulants (e.g . urea
form aldehyde foam and granular plastic fill )

are used. various additional restrictions

should apply, as noted in the relevant

Agrement Certificate s.
g. DPC 's and Cavity Trays
The forego ing (a-f) describe means of
minimising the amount of water passing

through the outer leaf and being transferred

across the cavity. It is essential to recognise
that lesser or greater amounts of rain water
will inevitably pen etrate the outer leaf either
as damp or free-running water during spells

of severe driving rain.

Thi s water must be prevented from reach ing
the interior and other vulnerable places by a
properly designed and built system of dampproof courses, trays and drain holes .
The more common materials used fordampproof courses are specified in the following
British Standards:BS . 3921 : 1985 "Spec ification for Clay
Bricks."
BS . 6398: 1983 "Specification for Bitumen
Damp-Proof Courses for Masonry."
Table 12: BS. 5628 : Part 3 prov ides
information on the performance of individual
materials currently used for damp-proof
courses. All damp-proof courses should
extend through the full thickness of the wall
or leaf, and preferably project beyond the
external face , to prevent the penetration of
water. All damp-proof courses should be
bedded both sides with mortar to ensure a
suitable bond .
Particular attention should be paid to
junctions, steps , angles and stop ends.
Three dimensional drawings will greatly
facilitate the visualisation and fabrication,
whether on or off site , and BS : 5628 : Part 3
(Ref. 6) should be consulted for critical
locations such as parapets, copings, cills,
lintels and floor to wall junctions.
Drain holes or weep holes are usually formed
as open perpend jo ints at not greater than 1
metre intervals in the course of units
immediately above the cavity bay, with not
less than two weep holes over each open ing .
Prop rietary filters are ava ilable for use in
weep holes designed to minimise staining
on the face of the brick and , in areas of

severe exposure. prevent rainwater from

entering the cav ity.

15

Figure 3.1 THE DURABILITY AND RESISTANCE TO RAIN PENETRATION OF DIFFERENT

MORTAR JOINT PROFILES.

8uckt
handle

(/t.e}f!d)

St1lJCk
or weathered

Rush

Jointing

Pointing

16

SECTION 4

DURABILITY
4.1
BRICKWOR K
Saturation is the foremost factor adversely
affecting brickwork durability.
If freezelthaw cycl ing OCcurs when
brickwo rk is saturated it will be liable to frost
failure unless appropriate bricks and mortar are
specified.
If brickwo rk of normal quality fired clay
bricks rema ins continually saturated over a very
long period the mortar may suffer from
sulphation although the risk can be minim ised
by using mortar which is rich iri cement or
contains sulphate-resisting cement.
Such conditions are fortunately rare, for
example where water is constantly in contac t
with and movi ng through brickwork such as in
earth -retain ing walls Without a damp-proof
membrane.
Brickwork should preferab ly be detai led so
that the risk of saturation or near saturation is
minimised by ensuring that water is thrown clear

of the wa lls by copings , sills and roofs wit h

adequate overhangs and drips .
Some arch itect ural features suc h as flush
capp ings and sills can result in the brickwork
being exposed and saturated locally and for
these it is esse ntial to select durab le bricks and
mortar. Inadeq uate or non-existent over hangs
at eaves and verges and large areas of glazing
or cladding can also cause saturation of the
brickwork below.
.
Figure 4.1 highlights vulnerable areas and
Table 4 .1 recommends suitable bricks and
morta rs for various locations and deg rees of
expos ure, base d upon the information give n in
BS 562 8: Part 3, Table 13 (Ref. 6) .
Further information on brickwork durability can
be obtained by referring to BS 3921 : 1985
(Ref. 4), BS 5628: Part 3 (Ref . 6) and BOA
Design Note 7 (Ref. 12).

Table 4.1
Durability of masonry in finished construction
(8S5628: Part 3 : Table 13, To be read in conjunction with Fig. 4.1)
(.4.) Wo r'Kbe low or near ellernal grotlnd level
Masonry co ndition
Of sIt uation
A1 Low risk 01

saluration

Qualit y 0 1 m..onry unite and appro pri ate mort ar d lgn atlona ISH febl. 3.2)

Flred-clay un its

c.lclu m silica te
uni te

Concrete brIc lta

Concrete bloc::lta

FL. FN. ML. Of MN

in (i), (iii Of (iii)

Classes 310 7
in (iii) or (ivl

;a 15 Nlm m'
m(lli)

la) of block density ..

1500 kgIm); or

with or without
Iree zlng

(see remar1ts )

(b) made with dense

aggregate complyi ng with

as882 or as 1047; or

Ie) having a compressive

streng th .. 7 NImm ' ; or

(d) most types 01

autodaved aeraled block
(see remarksi n (iii)

--

A2 High risk 01
sal uratiort
WIthout freeZIng

Fl, FN, ML. or MN

in (i) or (ii)
(see rem arll.sj

Classes 3 to 7
in (ii) or (iii)

.. 15 Nlm m 1
in (ii j or (iii)

As lor A 1 in (iil or (iiil

A3 High risk of
salu ralion WIth freezing

Flor FN in (i)
or (ii)

Cl asses 3 to 7
in (ii)

.. 2O Nlmm1
In (ii) or (iii)

As lorA1 in(ii)

Rem ar ks
Some types 01aUloclaved aer ated conc rete block may no t be suitable . The ma nufactu rer should be consu lted .
II sulphate ground cond itiOns eest. the recommendatlOOs in 22 .4 shou ld be fOllOwed.
Where designatiOn (iv) mortar is used it ISessenn er to ensu re that an masonry units. mort ar and masonry under constructJon are protected tully
lrom satu ratiOn and Ireezing (see clause 30 and clause 35 ).

The mason ry most vuln er able inA2 and A3 is loca ted between 1SOmm above. and 1SOmm be low, li nist'led ground 1ev91. lnthis area ma son ry
will beco me wet and m ay rem ain wet lor long period s of time , part icularly in winter.Wh ere FN or MN fired-cl ay unit s are used in A2 or AJ ,
sulphate-resisting ce me nt sho uld be used (see 22.4 j .

17

(8) D.p.CII

Quality 01 ma.cmry unit' and appropri.te momr deslgn.tlon,

" .lIOnry condition
Of . ltuatlon

81 In buildtnOS

FIrN-clay units

Cllelum $Ilb t.
unit .

0 o"","""""

NoC_

course
' .s
deecribed in

Cone"', bricka

NoC_

BS 3921. In (i)

B2 In.uem.t WClfIls

NoC_

NoC_

NoC_

""""'2 ..

-~
B5 3921, 1"1 (i)

........
Muorwy d_p.cs can,..... riSing damp bul wiI not resist walei' ~nng downwards. "sutphal. ground c:ondrbons exiSt.1t'le
lollowecI. D.p.cs oIlited-day urwtsare unllkety to be ~ lor walts of other masonary unItS , as dJflerenbal

w,,,,

f8COi'
datiOnSin 22.4 should be
mDY8m8nl: may occur (see 20.1I.

(C) U~ .rtetnal w,lI, (ott ..., tMn chimney., CIIppngS. ~ng p.rtlpe!:., , III.)
Matonry condttlon
Of

.ltuation
F1Nd-c:ley un its

e,

.........

low .......

C2 HIgh risk of
saturation

R. FN, ML. or MN
in (i),
(iii

r.) OI'

FL. or FN ... (i)

Ot

(il (see remar1U )

calcium I llat,
unit.

Qaues 2 1Q7

Concret. br1Cka

'" (.) or (iv)

>7
1"1
(iii)"'"""'

ClUMs2 10 7

.. 15N1mm
'
in (ii)

Concret. bkK:1q

My 1'1 (Iii) or (....,

(see remarks)

'CIM remaRs l

in(_)

Nty 1"1(iii)

Rem . rktI
Walls should be ptOl ect ed by roof ovemang and ot her proJeCting te,lures to mini mIZe the fis k 01salurallOO. HoweYtlf, weathenng details
may no! protect walla in conditiOns of very &ever. drivlng ra,n (see 21.3 ). Certa,n archl lectural leatures . e .g. bnckworll belo\N la rge glazed areas
with ftus h sills. increase the fiSk of stUuratlOn (see 22 .5).

WhcWe deSig na tIOn (IV)mortar is used illS essential to ensurelt\lt all masonry UFllts, mortar and masonry under cons trucbon are protected tully
lrom salurallOn and Iree zW'lg (see etauses 30 and 35 ).
Where FN hred-day url1ts are used In deSlOl'\8tlOn (ii) mortar lor C2 . sulptlalereSlSting cement should be used (see 22.4 ).

18

(D) RendeM ...Ierna! walla (othW thain chimney CtIpping.. coPing.. parapM" tills)
Quality of m. .onry unItS and approprtIita mortIir

~Mtkln

....onry condlUo"
eM'altuliUon
Fired-<:Iay unl1a

Clildum allleata

Concrwolabrick.

Conc:nrta blo<:u

.. 7 NImm '

Any In (Ill ) or (iv )

(see remarils)

unh.
Rendered ._ternal

FN or MN tn (i)

walls (other than

chimneys , capping s.
par ape ts. sills)

or (iI) tsee remarll.s)

{)f FL

or ML in (i).

Classes 2 to 7
(ill) or (IV)
(see remark s)

In

In (IIi)

(ii) or (iii)

AttfTWrka

Rendered walls are usually surtable tor most ~ rill" conck1O'lS (see 21.3). Where FN Of MN flrecl-da'l LIl1Its are used , sutphe l&reSl:St'"9cement shol.Hd be used in the mortar and," the base coat at the render (see 22.4 '
Where desogoabOn (iv) mortar is used il lSessential to ensure that . . masonry unrts, mortar and ma sonry under constructJon are ptO(eclecI fuIy
tram saturBI"," and free lll"l9 tsee clauses 30 and 35 1.

IE) l"terMl walla and Innef ...vu of c.lvlty walla

Quality 01 masonry unlt a and appropriate mortar d. .lgn_tlona

Masonry condition
or situati on

Internal walls

"""..,..-

of cavity walls

Concrete brick.

Concrete b loc ks

Classes2to7

.. 7 NJmm I

'" (iii) Of (IV)

(see remar1l.s)

"' (IV)
(see remar1l.s)

My In (iii' or (iv )
(see rema rllsl

Areck:a.y unlta

CIIk:lum alllCllta
un lt a

Flo FN, ML, MN.

Otor ON... (i).
(ii) , (. ) or (IV)
(see rematil.s l

..........
Where deslgnabon (iv) mortar is used illS essenballo ensure thai aI masorvy unrts. mortar and ma sonry under construe:tJOrtare protected fully
tmm saluratlOn and free lll"lQ (see eiauses 30 and 35 ).

19

IF) Unrendered

~,.pet. (o ltter

t IMn ClIp p ings a nd coping. )

Qualify of masonry units arwt appropriate mortar d lgnatlon.

M. .onry condition

or.ltuatlon

Flred-clay un it.

C11lclum . meate

Concrete brick.

Concrete bkM:k a

.. 20 Nlmm i
in (iii)

(8 ) ct bloc k de nSIty

un it.
Ft Low ri sk 01
saturatlon.

FL, FN, ML, or MN

in (i) . (ii) or (iii)

Classes 310 7
in (iii)

e.g. low parape ts

.. 1500 kglm3 ; or
(b) made With dense

onsomesingle-

aggregate complying with

BS 882 or BS 1047 ; or

storey buildings

Ie) ha VIng a compreSSive

$Irenglh .. 7 Nlmm2; or
(d) mos t type s of autoclaved
aerated block (see remarks )

in (iii)

F2 High risk 01
sahJration.

FL, or FN in (i)
or (ii) (see remar1t.s)

ciesees3 to 7
in (iii)

.. 2ONlmm'
in (iii)

As for Fl in (ii)

e .g. where.
capping only is

...,..,..""

the masonry

R.......

Most parapets sr. likely to be severe ly ell:posed irrespective 01the clima tic expos ure of the build ing as 8 whole . Copi ngs and d.p.cs should be
ptOVidedwheteveJ possible.
Some types of autoclaved aerated co ncre te block may not be suitable . The manufacturer should be cons ulted .

Where FN fired-day urwtsare used in F2, sulphat.resisl ing cement should be used (see 22.4 ).

IG) Randered P8rapels (ot her thlln capplngs snd co pings)

QuaUty of ma sonry un it s and app ro p riat e mortar des ignations
Masonry condItion
01' situ ation

Rendered parapets
(other than capptngs
and copingsl

Flred -elay un its

Calciu m ,lIIcate
units

Concrete bricks

Concrete block,

FN or MN in (i)
or fii} (see remar1(sl
01 FL or ML in (i),
(iiI or (iii)

Classes 3 10 7
ll"I(iii)

... 7 N/mm 2
in (iii)

Any in jiii )

R~arka

Sing le-leal walls shou ld be rendered only on one lace . All parapet s should be provid ed with a coping, Where FN or MN hred -clay uMS are used .
sulphate-resistIng cement ShOuld be used '" the mortar and In !he base coat of the render (see 22.4 ).

20

(H) Chimneys

"'.-

O\gllty of ",..on ry u ntt. and approprillta rnona, r dHlgNtionS

"'MHtry condit ion

Antd -e~y

unh.

H I Unrenderedwith
lOw risk of
saturation

FL, FN, ML 01 MN
in (i). (ii) ot (iii)

H2 Unrendered with
high risk of
saturaoon

FL or FN in Ii) at (ill

CIIlcwm allk:ate
un it.

eoncma brick.

Conc:fWCa bkJc:q

Classe s 3 107

~ 10Nlmm'
In (IIi)

Any tfl (Iii)

In (iii)

Classe s 3 to 7
in (iii)

.. 15 Nlmm 1

(a) of bloc k density

"" (iii )

.. 1500 kglm3; Of
(b) made with dense
aggrega te compIylng with
8 5 882 04' as 1047; or

t\avniI a COf1'lPl'eSSIVe
strength .. 7 NImrn' ; or

(e)

(d) most types of au lodave<l

88fated block. (see remar1l.s)
(II)

In

H3 RendeI'ed

FL Of ML In tn. Iii)

Classes 3 107

.. 7 NJmm'

or (iii) Of FN or MN

in (iii)

1"(111)

AnVll'lliii}

in (I) or (ii)

..........
etnrn"ey $taell.s are notmally the most e..posed masorwy on any building Due to the possb~ty of sulphat e attadl, trom flue gases the use of
sulphat&-resisllng cement in the mortar and in any render is strongly f6COiih l16i lded (see 22.4). Brickwor\( and tile cappmgs cannot be reIte<I
upon 10 keep 0U1 moisture inde finitely. The use ola coping is preferable

Some rypes of au1Cld8Yed aerated concr8le block may not be $UIIable tor use II"l H2. The manufacturer shoUld be consulted

(I) CIIPJNng a, coping. and ama

OuIillty of m..on ry unn, and appropriate mortar dMlgnatlona

"uonry condit ion

or ahu81 10n

Flntd..c lay unit.

calcium sili cate

Concrete brlcka

Cone,.t. block.

~ 30 NJmml
in (iii

(al 01block densrty

~ 1500 kglrn J; or

un".

Clppngs. coplf'IgS
and siMs

FL or FN In (i)

Dasses .1O 7
in (iii

(bl rMde WIth dense

--

~ te~WIth

as 882 or as 1Q.47; or

(el haYing a compressive

strength ~ 7 NImm' ; or
(dl most aUlodaYed &efated
btocks (see remarilJ ) In (iii

Aem.rk.
Some autoclaved aerated concrete blocks may be unsuitable lor use in (i). The manulaClurer ShOuld be con sulted .
Whet e cappings or copings are used

O.p.a

torcappmgs . ~ and

torchimney tem-llnals, the use 01SUlphate-r8SlSIIflQ cement is strongly ieoommended (see 22.4).

Sills 5houId be bedDed in the same monar as the masonry lM'\l1S

21

(J) Freestanding bOundliry end

..

....onry conditIOn

J l With copII'IQ

lie'""" .alls (o t_

F lrwd-day " nit

CIIk:ium ai lka1 .
un its

FN OI' MN In Ii)

Classes 3 107
"'(Ilil

or {ii>Of Fl or Ml
'" til. 1_' or (!til
J2 W lthcappM'lQ

thM1 CIIpptng. and copings)

Quality of rnuonry untt. and 8ppr0pri8te ~r dH'grwtlons

FL 01' FN In IIIor

Classes 3 to 7

(ii) (see re marks)

In (ill)

Concrete bric:u

ConcNte blocks

.. 15Ntmm 2
(NI)

Any 10 (nl)

;ar 20 Ntmm
'
'" l lil)

(a) of block denSIty

In

.. 1500 kglm J ; Of
(b) made with dense

aggregatecomplying with

as882 Of as 1()47 ; or

Ie) haVing ' comptes5IVe

strengl h ill 7 Nlmm
'

(see remar1<.sl . 0.-

ld) most types of

autodaYed aerated tlIC:ioCiI
(see ~s) ll"I (II)
Remllrk s
Masonry In free -standing wa IlS 1$ a.k ely 10 be IfMtrety ex posed, lITespectrve Ofcltma bc condtbons Suc h wans should be pt Ol8C1ed by a eopong
wherever pO$sobIe and d p CSshould be provt()ed undef the copngs and at the base cure ....,aMtsee clause 21)

Where FN or M N 'Ired.-clay uMs are used lor Jl In conditIOnS of sever e dr lVll"lgrain (see clause 21). the use 01su!phalereSlSIItlQ cemenl ls
slro:ngly recommended teee 22.4 '
Wh ere des'9na11On (iii ) mor tar 's used for J2 , the use 01$ulph ate- reSlslIl'lg cemenl ,s strong ly

recowe eeeeo (see 22.4 )

Some typeS of autodawd iMfated concrete bloc k may also be unSUItable The manufactu rer should be consulted

(I<) brt~nlng .all. (other than capping. and coP'ngs ,

..

Ma.-yconditloft

"

W ith waterproofed
reta,l'llng lace

Ou-lity of masonry unlb and approprial. rnofW deaigNlltons

FlreO-cwy untt.

c.ldum silicat.
units

Concret. bricks

Concret. blocks

Fl. FN . Ml or UN
.n Ii) or 1111

Classes 3 to 7
.n (Ill or (_,

iJc 15Nlmm2
,n l ,til

l a ) at block denSrty

"'" """""

;;It 1500~ J;or

(b) made w,1ttdense

aggregate complying wIth
a s eee or as 1047; or
Ie) hawlg a com pressive
strength ill 7 Nlmm 2; or
Id) mosl typeS of aulodaYed
aerafed block tsee remarlts)
'" (II)

.......-

K2 With ClOP'l"O or

_but...,

FlorFN Il"lh)

ClassM410 7
Il"l (ii)

~ 30 "'"'""

Il"lIi) or (II)

As lor I( 1 but Il"lIi)

or (il) (see remarks)

on retMWlg face

..Because of pOSSIble contammatlOO from the ground and saturatl(l(l by ground waters. Il"ladcllll(l(110 sutlteCtlOl"1lO severe ChmatlCexposure,
masonry Il"lretanng wallS ISPlrtlCU larty prone 10frost and sulphate anack. Careful choice of matenals In relabon 10 the me lhods tor exdu$'Ol'l
of waler '6COi,wnended in clause 21 is essential
It is Slrongly recommended Ihal SUCh wall s be bac kl,lled wllh Ire edral ning m ater ial . The prOVis iOnof an ellectrvecop,ng wIth a d.p .c. (see d ause
21) and wa terproofing of lhe rela inlng face of the wall (see 22 .1.3 ) is deSlrabie .
Where FN or UN flred-clay uMS are used. the use of SU!phate--resi$tlng cement may be necessary (SH 22.4 ).

Some types of autodawed Hfated concrete block are noc surtaIM lor l48 10K 1. The manufaewrer ShOuld be consuned

MosI conc:rele blocks are noI SUItable lor use., K2 . The manufacturer ShOuld be consulted

22

4.2

CAVITY WALL TIES & FRAME TIES

Cav ity wall lies shou ld comply with BS

1243 "MetalTI es for Cav ity Wall Construction"latest amendment Apr il 1981 (Ref. 13). The
mos t freq uently specified ties are either of low
carbon stee l protected with a zinc coating to BS
729 of min imum weight of coa ting 940g/m' ,
(Ref. 14) or austenitic sta inless steel.
Frame ties are not covered by a British
Standard and the de signer should take
particu lar care when specifying galvanized
frame ties to fix external brickwork to a structural
frame. BS 5628: Part 3 (Ref. 6) req uires a high
degree of corrosion resistance for ties
embedded in the outer skin . The required
degree of protection is provided either by a
galvaniZed zinc coating of 940 glm' to BS 729
(Ref. 14), which must be obta ined by the use of

fully killed high silicon steel , or alternatively by

the use of stainless steel ties . Virtually all frame
ties available as standard have a maximum zinc
coating of 460glm' wh ich according to
BS 5628: Part :3 (Ref. 6) is not suff icient when
embedded in the outer leaf of a masonry wall.
In this situation it would seem safer to specify a
sta inless steel frame tie. Generally all frame
ties , fixings etc. embedded in masonry should
be protected against corrosion as outlined in
Tables 4.2 & 4.3.
All bolts, nuts , shot fired nails etc. should
be given a degree of protection compatible with
the components with which they are to be used,
e.g. consideration should be given to the
possibility of electrolytic action between
dissimilar metals. i.e. bimetallic co rrosion .

Table 4.2
Anchorages , dowels and Ilxlngs (BS 5628: Part 3 : Table 1)
Category

Baa. ma la ria l

Form

Gra de and ata ndarel to be co m plied

with
A

Hot..<f,p

5 ree,

galvaniZed
low eertco

B5 298 9 , Zl or Z2. coaling type G 600.

Minimum m ass of coa llf1g
600 gtm' including both SIdes

Protec tive mUI" . to be carr'-c:l oul

after labrlc all on
AUe xternal cu t edges to be protected
USIng. one-pac k che mical- reSiSlant palm
complying with HF1A 10 HF2F In part" of

table "'H of a s 5493: 19n and modlfted

to give adequate adhesion to the ril ing

s teel

852989. Zl orZ2 . coaling type G 275 .

Mtntmum mass of coallr'lg 275 gtm '
1I"lCIudll"IQ bOth $Odes

-,

Coabng to be applied . "er labncabOn 10

!he ell1emaJ aurtaces and c:onSIstlng of
(al blt utTW'lOUt sotubon complying WIth
typeS 1 or 2 of 85 ~ 16 and of nwwnum

thICkness 25 I' m;

'"

(bl a ~ ~sta"' pa.nt

complying WIth HF IA IO H F2 F In part .

01 table . H of
S493 . 19n anet
moddlt 10 gMt adequale adhe$IOtllO

as

lhebng

-=--.

Where lhe ZInC is removed on Inlemal surfaces

dunng labncabon. elil by weidlng. furthet'
prolecbOn IhOuld be appltecIlo these areas

Low cartlon 51ee1

Sinp

85 ' ....9 _P8f1 ' : 1983 (med'la1"llCa1

requH'emem5 In lat)le 11 only )

_.....

Post-galvaNZng complying WIth as 729

Y II'Ilr'r'IUm mass of coabng 460 gtm ' inCfudang

85"360 grade ..3A

23

Table 4.2 continued

Ca i eg Ofy

8 e me le rt al

Form

Grade and standard to be compiled

wit h

Protectlye mea.ures to be
. n., fabrication

Low carbon steer

StriP

a s 1449 Part 1: 1983 (mec hanical

reqUIrements in table 11 on ly)

Post-galvanizlng complying wi th as 729

Minim um mass of coalIng 940 gl m l incl ud ing
bo th sides

Coppe<

e.rr~

out

a s 4360 gra de 43A

85601 7

as 2810

Copper alloy s

1980 . 9raoes Iisled

in table s 8 and 12

Matenal other than phosphor bron ze to be

formed erther :
(a) by bendIng at du ll red heat and
allowing 10 cool in sll il er:

a s 2873 : 1969. grades listed

in tables 4 and 6

'"

BS 2874 : 1968 . grades hsled In

table s 6 . 8 and 9 f1Jecept CA 106

fbI by cold form ing and svbsequenlly

stress ,ellef annealing at 25O"C10
3OO"C lor 30 min 10 1 h.

Enectiveness ct siress rell9YlO9 01colcI

formed components to be tes ted by the
supplier USIng the mercurousnrtrate test
described in Clause 11 01 as 2874: 1969
Au stenitiC
stainless stee l,
minimum 1818
com pos ition and
excluding Iree
mac hirnng

sceeeceucoe

Stnp

BS 1449 : Par'l 2

."
r,be

a s 6323: Par1 8

Wire

a s 1554 as 3111 ; Par12

88 970: Pert t

Rod

Table 4.3
Protection of Metal Components (other than wall ties) buill Into masonry
(655628 : Part 3: Table 14)
l'ype of component

snuallon

Catevory g l~ In Table 4.2 (M.l eri al &

Reeommended Prot ect iv e ..... . u re.).

Anchorages , bondlng nee. s1tp brick lies

and conilnUOUS support angle s

. 11

C", D

Dowels and restraint straps

Internal walls

A, a , C, D

A,a, C.D

JcMst hangers

In con tact With

or embedded ,n
Inner leal

A, a , C. D

A,B, C,D

In conl act With or

embeoded ,n outer
leal or $Ing le leal
walls

Cor D

. 11

As spec ified in
as 59n : Part 2
lo r the appropriate
type 01 hnlel
te. Insta lled
With or WIthout

Nol normally
appliCable. If used,
spec ial ceecec nco e
may be necessary

Three

ReinlOtCement for non -structural use

.torey. or Ie..

More th.n th ree . torey.

e.c.e.
CavIty Irays

. 11

As ececnee ,n
lor I,nl els
ins tall ed WithOut

AS Spec ,lred In
as 59n : Part 2
for nnters
,nstalled wrthoul

e.p.c

e.c.c.

as 59n : Part 2

24

4.3

STRUCTURAL STEELFRAME
The Br itish Stee l Corporation has recen try

published a new advisory document (Ref. 15)

dealing with the corrosion protection of
steelwork encased or clad with masonry cavity
walling.
Briefly the document recommends that
wherever poss ib le a 4Qmm minimum air gap
should be maintained between the steel frame
and the external brickwork. Under these
circ umstances the protection required for stee l

frames in cavity walls is minimal and usually

only involves simple coaling systems.
An obvious exception 10 this is the use of a
con tinuous angle 10 support the external

brickwork at horizontal movementsjoints in

mult i-storey bu ildi ngs . In such instances the

corrosion protection 01 the angles should
comply with Tables 1 & 14, as 5628 : Part 3
(Ref, 6). It is also recommended that wherever
possible care sho uld be exerc ised to avoid ties
directly between the external brickwork and the
stee l frame , the ma in reason be ing to prevent
any water wh ich penetrates the exte rnal facing
br ickwork from comi ng into contact w ith the
stee l frame via mortar droppings on t he ties
bridging the cav ity or badly installed, downward
slop ing frame ties.
Assuming co ld bridges are avo ided,
surface condensation is usually not a problem
during per iods of occupation in new
constructions having insulation meeting current
u-vatces prov ided they are adequately heated
and vent ilated. To ach ieve current If-valu es
almost always req uires multi-layer construct ion ,
with one layer be ing a specific insulating
material. As the vast majority of building
ma ter ials and lnsulants are vapour permeable,
interstitial condensation - with in the structuremay occur, If this is considered likely it is
desirable to venti late cavities/velds or provide
additional protection to structural steelwork
with in the cav ity.
Further information to enable an
ass essment of the condensation risk to be

made can be obtained fro m the following Brit ish

Standards:as 5250: 197 5 - "C ode of Basic Data for
the Design of Buildings : The Control of
Condensation in Dwellings."
BS 6229: 1982 - "Cod e of Practice for Flat
Roofs with Continuously Supported Covennq "
as 5628: Part 1 "Structural Use of
Unreinforced Masonry " (Ref. 6) pe rmits loads to
be transmitted from a masonry panel to its
supports by frame ties attached to the inner leaf
provided that there is adequate connection
between the inner and out er leaves, particularly
at the edg es of the panel. How ev er, it is
recognised tha t in some instances frame ties
directly linking external brickwork and steelwork
may be unavoidable . In such a sit uation, the
designer must assess all aspects of durability,
lateral stability, specification and quality control
of workmanship on site ,
Further inform ation can be obtained from
the BSC document "Steelwork in Cavity Walls"
(Ref. 15) including guidance on al ternative paint
protection systems for various locations of
exposure.

4.4

BIM ETALLIC CORR OS ION

When two different metals are in electrica l

contact and are also bridged by water containing
an electrolyte, current flo ws between the anodic
or base r metal and the cathodic or nobler metal.
As a result , the nobler metal tends to be
protected, but the baser metal may suffer from
co rrosion.
Bimetallic corrosion requires:(i) An electrolyte bridging the tw o metals.
(ii) Electrica l connection betw een the m eters .
usually involving direct physical contact.
(iii) A suff icient diff erence in potential between
the two me tals to provide a significant
galvanic current.

25

Table 4.4 gives a quick. broad qualitative

indication of the likely corrosion behaviour of
bimetallic coup les in natural aqueous
environments. The further apart the meters are
in the ga lvanic series . the greater me risk .
In atmospheric conditions. the severity of
bimetallic corrosion is influenced by the length
of time that the contact remain s wet.
Hence cavities should be ventilated whenever
possible. particu larly around steel col umns and
perimeter floor beams .

The degree of bimetallic co rrosion is also

affected by the relative volumes of the anod ic
and cathod ic metals , For example. mild st eer
tens in a stainless steel brick support angle will
be at much greater risk than a mild steel ang le
which is in contact with stainless steel bolts.
Wh ilst the composition and COnductivity of the
environment affects the severity 01 corrosion. in
practice it is not uncommon for dissimilar metals
to be in contact under conditions of occasional
condensation or dampness without adverse
effect.

Table 4.4 Bimet allic Co rro s ion

Magnesium & alloys
Zinc & alloys
Alum inium & alloys
Cadmium

Tendency to inhibit
COI"I'O$iOIl of structural
sleel

Struct ural steers

Cast Irons
Stainless Steels
Lead
Brasses

Tendency to acce lerat e

corrosi on of structural
steel

Co pper
Bronz es
Inform ation on ts-rretauc COlTOSiOn in atmosph enc conditions is sparse. By and large materials higher in the table
wincorrode in preference (and thu s tend to protect ) materi als lower in the table. The relative surf ace area of the fWO
meta lS in contaeI wi. have an effect . For example if equ al area s of stainless and milct steel are in contact the
conosiOnrate of the mild sl eel winbe m eased . How ever the conosion rate winnot be so high if the area of stainle ss
is much less than the area 01mild st eel.

In atmospheric conditions. the more

important design considerations would be to
minimise the accumu lation of ra inwater and
condensation at the joi nts between dissimilar
meta ls. te. maintain good cavity dra inage and
ventilation.
Methods of preventing or m inimising
bimeta llic corro sion are based upon :
(i) Insulating the dissimilar metals from each
other. or
(ii) Preventing the formation of a continuous
bridge of electrol yte solution betwee n the
two metals. i.e. exclude water from the joint.
Insulation can be achieved using bushes
and washers made out of non-conductive
material. e.g. neoprene, pofvtet raf1uoroetheylene (P.T.F. E.), or nylon.

Imperv ious gaskets out ot similar materials may

also be considered for larger contact areas , for
example, stainless steel angles in contact with
mild steel bea ms.
Excluding water from the joint can be
achieved by applying a continuous film of pa int
to the assembled taint. This cou ld be further
improved by incorporating an effective coating
applied to the conta ct surfaces . Fig. 4.2
indicates som e artemenve method s for
minimising bimetallic cor rosion. However the
designer must assess each individual building
and assoc iated environment on its own merit.
For further informat ion refer to PO 6484 :
1979 "Commentary on Corrosion at Bimetall ic
Contact s and its Alleviation" (Ref. 16) or consult
the Nationa l Physics l aboratory.

Figure 4.1 MASONRY CONDmON OR SITUATION AFFECTING THE SPECIFICATION OF THE

BRICKS AND MORTAR.
(Read in conjunction with Table 4.1 )

C2

Cl

Cl

1IIl/dJ stJjning
of brickwork

C2
L

Reintorred
brick
retaining

ci >

C2

Kl

C2

BrickDPC

A3....
A2

A2

A2

Detailsprovide some
protection

waIl

Details do not provide

protection

27

Figure 4.2 DESIGNS FOR MINIMISING BIMETALLIC CORROSION

Continuous paint film

compatible with overall
ronnsion prorection scheme

tor main frame.

Suitable paints bituminous or

zinc rflmrnate (Ref. 15).

(a) Continuous Paint film

I--------: ~~-:;;",..e:.----

Mild steel member

Stainless
steel nut
&1Jo/I

Neoprene. P.lF.E. ornylon

washer

(b) IflSlJlated Joint

Not suitable when using

HSFG bolts inskJtted
holes.

28

SECTIONS

ACCOMMODATION
OF MOVEMENT
5.1

GENERAL

5.2
THERMAL MOVEMENT

Few part s of any build ing are immune from

small dimensional changes. These may be
caused by one or more of the following factors:a. Change in temperature.
b. Change in moisture content i.e. wetting
and/or absorption.
c. Chemical action (refer to BOA design note 7
'Brickwork Durability'). (Aef. 12).
d. Deflection of the supporting structure under
vertical and /or horizontal loads.
e. Differential foundation settlement between
the more heavily loaded pad base supporting
the steel frame and the lightly loaded
foundations supporting the external
masonry cladding.
It is essential to recognise where inherent
discontinuities are likely to occur and to
determine their effects so that adequate
provision can be made for them in design.
This is particularly important when assessing
the laterai stability of external masonry panels
since the disposition of both vertical and /or
horizontal movement joints will affect the
assumed edge cond itions along the edge of the
panel.

The unrestrained thermal movement of

a wall can be estimated from A = L cc t where:
A, is the amount of movement
0:: , is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion
of brickworkf'C
L, is the length of wall considered
t, is the change in mean wall temperature.
Typical values of the coefficient of linear
thermal movement for various masonry units
can be found in Table 5.1. However, it is
advisable to obtain the actual values for the
particular materials being used . Examples of
the service temperature range of materials can
be found in Table 5.2.
Vertical thermal movements within a wall
are generally reversible. Horizontal thermal
expansion, however, is unlikely to be fUlly'
reversible. Often the partial restraint available,
part icularly near the base of a wall , prevents the
masonry from completely returning to its original
length. Any contraction which is restrained may
generate tensile stresses greater than the
tensile resistance of the wall and so result in
cracking. Design for thermal movement should
therefore recognise the effect of restraints.

Table 5.1
Properties needed to assess changes of size and shape of materials. (BRE Digest 228)
Note: Unless more specif ic data are available, design should be based on the higher value where a
range is shown.
(1)
Mal erial

(2 )

(3)

CoeffiCient of

ReverSible
moisture movement

linear thermal

movement

(5)
Modulesol
elasliCityE

(+ l expanSiOfl
(- ) shrinkage
%

k.Nlm rrr

0.02 -0.04
0.03 - 0.06

0,02- 0,06 (- )

10 -25

0.02-0.03
0.Q1- 0.05
0 ,02

0.05 - 0,09 - )
0.01- 0.04( -)
0.O2 - 0,10 (+ }

expansIOn
x

PtJroClI.10 8

Br lckwor1l.. blockwor1l .nd tUlng

Concrete bnckwork and blockwork :
Dense aggregate
Lightwe~ ht a~regate (auloclaved)
Aerated aul ae aved)

Calcium sacate bnckwork

Cla y or sha le bnck work or blockwor1l.
Clay lili ng

6- 12
8 - 12
8
8 - 14
5 -8
4- 6

Ple in cerbon Sleel

12

Auelenilic sl elnl... sl . .1

18

(4)
Irreversible moi sture

0,02 -0.06

1-)

4 - 16

3-8
14- 18
4 - 28

t
205
200

t No data available

29

Table 5.2
Examples 01service temperature ranges 01materials (valid lor UK only) (BRE Digest 228)
Min

Max

'C

'C

Range
'C

External

Cladding, walling, roofing

Heavyweight
Lightcolour
- 20
Dar1<colour
-20
Lightweight, overinsulation
Lightcolour
-25
Darkcolour
- 25
Glass
Co~ured orsolarcontrol
- 25
Clear
- 25
Freestanding structures or fully exposed structural members
Concrete
Lightcolour
- 20
Darkcolour
-20
Metal
Ugh! colour
- 25
Darkcolour
- 25
Internal
Norma/use
10
Empty/outof use
- 5
The following situations are not included in theaboveexamples andmaygive
rise to temperature extremes moreseverethan thoselisted :
Dark surfaces underglass, e.g. solar collectors.
Materials used in cold rooms or refrigerated stores.
Materials used for orinproximity to, heating. cookingandwashing appliances,
or flues and heat distribution networks.

50

70

65

85

60

85
105

80
40

115
65

45
60

80

90

65

50
65

75

30
35

20
40

90

5.3
MOISTURE MOVEMENT
a. Clay bricks expand and contract with
changes in moisture content. The typical

range of unrestrained movement is

negligib le, generally less than 0.02%. There
is also an irreversible long term expan sion
which occurs as a result of the absorption of
moisture from the atmosphere. The rate of
this long term expansion decreases with
time. It is at its l/reatest as the clay bricks are
cooled in the kiln. Atter leaving the kiln a
minimum curing period of 14 days should
elapse before the bricks can be used in
construction. The amount of expansion
depends on the type of clay and the degree
of firing .

b. Calcium silicate bricks and concrete

blockwork tend to dry out and shrink atter
manufacture. If wetted the units will expand
again but only part of the initial drying
shrinkage is reversible . It is for this reason
that good specification will insist that the
units be protected on site and must never
be allowed to become saturated,
Table 5.1 contains typical percentage
figures for both reversible and irreversible
unrestra ined moisture movements of typical
masonry materials. Any estimate of the
moisture movement within a wall should be
modified to take into account the effect of wall
restraint discussed above . Because of the small
shrinkage associated with calcium silicate
bricks and concrete blockwork, movement joint
centres are usually closer together than for clay
masonry.

30

5.4
THE EFFECTS OF RESTRAINT

Small changes in length can result in either

actual movement or, if the wall is restra ined from
expanding, in the generation of compressive
stresses. Such stresses can be high and it is
normal design procedure to accommodate
movement rather than to attempt to resist it.

In practice. some movement and some

restraint will result. Thus small compressive or
tensile stress may develop. The risk of cracking ,
normally associated with shrinking materials, is
increased where there are stress
concentrations, for example , at the corners of
openings or at changes in height, thickness

or direction. To assess the likely movement. it is

impcrtant to try to assess the degree of
restraint.

5.5
ASSESSMENT OF MOVEMENT
IN MASONRY
a. BS.5628: Part 3 : 1985 suggests the following
simple rule of thumb for clay brickwork.
... In !;leneral, unrestrained or lightly
restrained plain masonry walls. e.g. parapets
and non- loaded spandrels built off
membrane type dpc's will expand 1mm/m
during the life of the building due to thermal
and mo isture movement chanqes ..."
It is recommended thalthe desiqner consults
the manufacturer for further information on
the movement characteristics of any
particular clay brick . Expansion of normal
storey height walls is \lenerally less than
1mm/m sinceexpansion reduces with
increasing restraint. However, the spacing
between movement joints should never

exceed 15m in order to avoid cracking due to

thermal contraction. Vertical movement of
walls is of the same order as horizontal
movement. The thickness of movement
joints is governed by the spacinq between
joints. the allowable compressibility of fillers
and the performance of the sealant.
BS.5628: Part 3 : 1985 (Ref . 6) recommends
that the width of the joint in millimetres
should be about 30% more than the
predicted movement. At 1 mm/m this is 30%
more than the distance between the joints
expressed in metres. Table 5.3 gives
recommended widths of expansion joints for
various joint spacings for normal storey
height walls.
b. Calcium silicate masonry should be
designed as a series of panels with the
ratio of length to height not greater than 3 :t
Generally, 10mm wide vertical joints to
accommodate horizontal movement should
be provided at intervals between 7.5m
and 9m.
c. In calcium silicate brickwork and concrete
blockwork external walls containing
openinqs, the movement joints may need to
be provided at more frequent intervals or the
masonry above and below the opening
reinforced to restrain the movement.
The reinforcement should be of sufficient
length to distribute the stress to a position
where the vertical cross-sectional area is
able to accommodate it.
Typical expansion and contraction joints are
shown in Fig. s.t ,
Further information contained in the BOA
Design Guide. 'Oesigning for Brickwork
Movement" (Ref 28) .

-31

Table 5.3
Recommended w idths 01 movement Joi nts lor storey he ight panels.
Joint spacIng
1m)

Recommended joint
widths

Upco7

10 - 12mm

7-11

15nvn

11-15

15-2Omm

No'"

1. Maximum joint spadng specified in csause 20.3.2.2 ot par13 as 5628 : 1985 .

2. A Shear joint should be a minimum 01 l Omm wide . the width of the sealant
being equal to Of greater lhan its dept h.

5.6

PRE FERRED LOCATIONS

OF MOVEMENT JOINTS

The location of movement joints requires

careful consideration to make sure that ,
in addi tion to accommodating the movements,
the stability of the wall is not Impaired.
Certain building featu res should also be
considered when determining joint positions in
masonry, for example:a. Intersecting walls , piers , floors etc.
b. Short returns, less than 1 metre in length.
c. External and/or internal corners.
d. Window and door openings .
e. Changes in he ight or th ickness of the wall.
f. Chases in the wall .
g . Movement joints in the bu ilding .
No single recommendation regard ing the
size , pos itioni ng and spacing of movement
joints can be applicable to all structures.
Each building design should be assessed on its
own merit; Figs. 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4 show some
examples.

5.7

WEATHERPROO FING
MOVEMENT JOINTS

a. Amount of movem ent likely to occ ur at the

joint.
b. Type of substrate to wh ich the sealant is
applied, and to which bonding is intended
l.e, clay or ca lcium silicate bricks.
c. Accessibility for application/maintenance.
d. Economic considerations, inc luding both
initial cost and costs in use , i.e. maintenance
over 60 years period.
The sealant should be applied against a
firm backing so that it is forced aga inst the sides
of the joint under pressure to ensure good
adhesion. The joint filler material must not react
with the sealant and must be highly
compressible . Flex ible cellular polyethylene
and cell ular pol yurethane are the most
satisfactory materials for joi nt fillers. Fibre
boa rd, cork and similar materials should not be
used in ex pa nsion joints in cl ay brickwork.
Further information on the sel ection and use of
seala nts is given in 85.6213: 1982 "Selection of
Constructiona l Sealant s" (Ref. 17). Table 5.4
lists the basic pro perties of suitabl e se alants for
use in masonry movement join ts .

In external walls all movement joints shou ld

be sealed or protected to prevent water
penetration. The followin\l factors must be
considered before selectIng a sealant for a
particular application:-

32

Table 5.4 Basic properties of suitable sealants.

Joi nt geometry
widthldeplh

Sealant

Chemical type

Character

Gun applied
1 part chemically
cu"",,

Potysulphide
Polyurethane
SiliCOne

Elasto-p1astic
Elastic
Ela stiC

ure

Movement accommodation

8ltpectancy

2 :1 to 1:1

10 - 20%

2 :1

Upto20yrs.
Upto20yrs.
Upto 20 yrs.

2 :1 101;1

Upto 20 yrs.

25"

50%

50

2 :1

UplO20 yrs .

25"

50%

25

2:1

20%
50%

(low modul us)

Gun applied
2 part chemically
curing

PoIysulphide

Elasto-plaSlic

Polyurethane

Ela stiC

Max . joint
width (mm )

ratio

But1join ts

Shear joints

20- 40%

,"""

20
20
25

Notes
1. Ela sto-plastic materiels have pred om inant ly elas tic properties but ex hibit some plastic propert ies wh en stressed for
other than short per iods .
2. Elastic (elasto meric) m ate rials return rapidly to their approximate initia l d im ension and sh ape aft er substantia l
deformation by a weak stre ss and release 0 stre ss.
3 . Under lavoura ble co nditio ns, the expected service lil e qu oted may be exceed ed . Co nsult the appropriate sealant
manufac turer for such information.
ReIer to as 6213 : 1982 Selection 01Const ructio nal Seala nts l or furt her deta ils .

5.8

EXTERNAL MASONRY WALLS AND

STEEL FRAMED BUILDINGS

--

Extern al mas onry wall panel s in steel

frame buildings should be des igned to prevent
cracking resulting from stresses generat ed by
differential movem ent between the panel and
the frame. In the structural design of the building
the designer must consider all forces wh ich may
act upon the stru cture, i.e. dead. imposed and
wind load s. and asse ss the likely theoretical
deflections of those structura l elements
required to provide lateral restraint to the
external wall panel s. Such elements include
main fram e columns, intermediate col umns,
eaves beams, mid-height horizontal restrain t
rails, floor beams etc.
a. Single Sto rey Stee l Frames
Single storey buildings. particularly port al
frame s, have two particula r deflection modes
wh ich influence the design detail of external
masonry cladding panels. These are:(i) deflection or sway at eaves. particularly
that due to latera wind loads,
see Fig. 5.5.
(ii) differential movement at eaves in the end
bays between the braced gable frame
and adja cent portal fram e,
see Fig. 5.5.

Horizontal eaves defle ctions tend to be

acco mmodated by the steel fram e and wall
panel moving together. In such cases the
wall must be free to rotate about its base .
usually at the dpc level. As a result full fixity
should not be assumed along the base of the
wall when assessing the latera l stability of
the panel.
As a general rule perm itted theo retical eaves
dell ection s approa ching 11300 of the height
of the stanch ion should not impair the
stability or the rain resistance of a cavity wall .
The differential defle ction between a braced
gable frame and the adjacent portal frame
measured from corner to corn er should be
restricted to U660, where L is the length of
the diagonal.
These deflection limits are shown
diagrammatically on Fig. 5.5. For som e
buildings a horizontal movement or sway at
the top of the wall in excess of these limits
may be accep tabl e although information on
this topic is sparse .
Th e roof sheeting will provide some stiffen ing
by diaphragm action and in many cases will
reduce the 'ca lculated' eaves deflection by
transferring lateral load to the gab le frames.

33

The amount of any reduct ion will depend

upon several factors, including the type of
sheet ing or cladding , the fixings and the plan
shape and size of the building .
Standard profiled metal shee ting
incorporating either sell-drillinglselftapping
screws, bolts or cartridge fired pins to
connect both the individual sheets to the
supporting roof structure and the seams
between adjacent sheets is generally
considered the most suitable form of roof
construction for providing diaphragm actio n.
However, not all forms of profiled metal
sheeting are suitable, part icularty those with
a standard seam profile which are normally
clipped to the supporting structure .
Asbestos cement sheets incorpo rating hook
bon fasteners will provide some add ~ional
stiffness . However, ~ is not recomme nded
that the designer shou ld rely on this form of
construction when considering critical
deflections of the structural frame e.g. side
sway single storey portal columns.
For particularly tall portal frame buildings,
i.e. height to eaves in the order of 78m, an
alternative approach would be to consider
the steel frame and the external wall as
separate elements. Stab ility of the wall could
be maintained by adopting a post tensioned
brick diaphragm form of construction
designed as a freestandi ng wall resisting
lateral wind pressures. It is then poss ible to
design a lighter structural steel frame (taking
into account the reduct ion on wind loads)
and utilise earty construction of the roof
cladding leading to potential cost benefits
and reduced contract periods.
Freestanding post-tensioned brick
diaphragm walls can also be utilised to
minimise the possibility that a fire will spread
from one build ing to anoth er under 'boundary
wall' conditions.
Furthe r explanation of the term 'boundary
wall' can be obta ined from Building
RegUlations.
b, Multi-Storey Steel Frames
In addition to the need to provide
vertical joints to accommodate horizontal
movement in masonry its useto clad multistorey framed bu ildings causes a number of
other factors to influence the des ign and
detailing. Account must be taken of
(i) vertical differential thermal and
moisture movements between the walls
and frame , see Fig. 5.6.

(ii) vertical differential thermal and

moisture movements where walls are

constructed of diss imilar materials i.e.
clay bricks and concrete blocks.
(iii) long term shrinkage and creep of
struct ural columns. This last point relates
more to concrete than to steel wh ich is
more dimensionally stable.
The most satisfactory method of
accommodating these potential movements
is to construct the external masonry walls
comp letely independent of the steel frame .
The walls carry their own dead weight to the
foundation , the steel frame provid ing the
walls w~h lateral suppport only.The walls are
fixed back to the steel frame using flexible
ties/anchors wh ich take tension and
compression, but no shear, perm~ng
differential longitudinal and vertical
movements between the frame and the wall .
Differential vertical movement must be
accommodated at all junctions between the
external cavity wall and the following internal
elements:i) Non-load bearing internal partitions.
ii) Floors at skirting board level.
iii) Equipment/services .
A schematic diagram for such a structural
system is shown in Rg. 5.7. The problem of
vertica l differential thermal and moisture
movements would still be relevant if a wall
were to be constructed with a clay brick oute r
skin and a concrete block inner skin .
This differential movement could be further
reduced if a wall construction comprised two
clay brick skins with compatible movement
characteristics. Where other des ign or space
restra ints necessitate that the inner skin has
to be supported off the main structural
framework, then horizontal movement joints
will have to be incorporated to accommodate
the vertical differential thermal and moisture
movements (See Fig. 5.7).
Because of the effect of different ial
movement loosening wa ll ties , BS.5628:
Part 1: (Ref. 6) recommends that the outer
leaf shou ld be supported at intervals of not
more than every third storey or 9m ,

whichever is less. However, forbuildings not

exceed ing four storeys or 12m in height,
whichever is less , the outer leaf may be
uninterrupted for its full height. Alternative
details for forming horizontal movement
joi nts can be found in Section 7.

34

Th e eff ec ts 01 rotation 01 edge beams

t hro ug h torsion and the deflection 01
cantilevers and edge beams under load
must be considered in detail where these
elements are attached to the brickwork
claddi ng .
With regard to deflections in the steel
frame. 65.5950 : Part 1: 1985 (Ref. 23)
calls for:a. A limit of 5panl360 (on imposed load) for
beams carrying a brittle finish. This amount
of deflect ion may not be suitable for beam s
supporting a wall, espec ially on long spans
where a more stringent limit might be
necessa ry and where the wall weight is
applied eccentrically to the beam , such as at
horizontal movement joints.

b. A limit of Heightl300 per storey for columns

in a building of more than one storey.
This should be viable as a basis for the
evaluation of allowab le sway in buildings up
to about 6 storeys.
If brickwo rk cladd ing is used for higher
buildings this figure might need mod ification.
For example in the U.S.A. a sway limrtation
of Heightl600 is common for higher rise
buildings. i.e. 2O-storeys or over.
Table 5.5 lists some suggestions for limiting
the deflection of various steel frame
members eithe r supporting or restraining a
maso nry wall .

Table 5.5
Theoretical deflections lor steellrame members supporting and/or restraining an external
masonry cavity wall.
Theoreticaldeflections
Building

Single
storey

..ult....tore y

Structural member

load supported

Eaves beam

Wind only

Eaves beam

Wind + 8WTrainwater gutter

Main colu mns (sway) '

Rool,deadand wind

Gable post

Wind only

Intermed ia te posl

Wind only

Horizontal restraint rail

Wind only

Main columns IswaylJ

Wind only

Intermediate post

Wind only

Horizon lal restra int

Wind only

Perimeterfloorbeam

Floor (dead + super)

Perimeterftoofbeam

FW (de ad + SUI*) + SWTimerleaf

Support angleat horizontal

8WT extemal brickwork

(2 storey max .)

expansIOn

JoInt

~Ie + perimeter beam at

horizontal expansion joinl

Jrdead +

Floor

+S

super) + SWTinnefleaf
ex1efnall:Jrickworl(on angle

Vertical

......
-

Horizontal

.....

......

.....

.....
.....
.....
.....

---

...... (lull load)

......

~ 10 Ylooo'

'noo (super)

Notes

1. L. is the horizontal or vertical span of the beam or post.

h. is the height of the cotumn.

--

2. Referto figure 5.5. Maximum tneoretical dIfferential deflection between the braced gable frame and the first
Ieng1l1 ot diagonal
portal frame limited to

660 .
3. The theoretical deflections quo ted are per storey height. However, the permissibe cumul ative deflection at
the top of a muhistorey building will probably further limit the deflection of the columns.
4. The vertical deflectoo quoted is based upon the span . L, between bolt or fixing centres.
In addition the maximum length of the outstanding 16t irrespective of whether the angle is mild steel or
stainless steel .
Maximum vertical deflection outstand ing leg in the order of 1mm.
Suitable stai nless steel grades would be 304 or 316 (suggested perm iss ible bend ing stress 80% that
of mild steel) .
5. The deflection must be quantified and related to the expansion joint thickn ess. This should be a minimum
of 2Omm. As an alte rnative pistol bricks could be incorporated to minimise the visual appea rance of the
expansk>n joint.

35

Figure 5.1 TYPICAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION MOVEMENT JOIN TS.

CD

'"

Outside

1. Sealant to external face of joint.

2. Brick wall external leaf.
3. Cellular preformed compre ssible sheet.
4. Joints in internal walls are at greater centres
@)
than in external walls.

,;

Cavity

Plan of expansi on Joint In clay brick

external wall.

QJZ;

Plan of contraction Joints In blockwork

Internal walls.

1. Blocks are laid to give a continuou s vertical

joint which is filled with mortar as wo rk
proceeds .The mortar is then raked out on both r?\ /
sides of the joint to a depth of 20mm and the ~
gap filled with a sealing compound .
2. Fair/aced concrete blockwork .
3 }->.,..-,.L--""
3. Portland cement: Lime: Sand, 1:1:6 mortar.
-'''''-_ _ --'_ ' -_ _ -"''''_
Inside

1. Concrete Block.
2. Building paper or sheet D.PC .
3. Plaster finish to inside face stopped either
side of joint.

1. Joint pointed with a weak mortar instead of

being filled with a seal ing compound.
Portland cement: Lime : Sand, 1:1:9 mortar
pointing .
2. Fair/aced concrete blockwo rk.
3. Portland cement: Lime : Sand, 1:1:6 mortar.

/LIZ

Outside

Plan of mov ement joint In calcium silicate

brick external wall.

f1'I
\.:.J

1. Sealant to external face of joint.

2. Calcium silicate/concrete brick.
3. Cellular preformed highly compres sible sheet.@)

Cavity

36

Figure 5.2 RECOMMENDED LOCATIONS OF MOVEMENT JOINTS.

Expansion jointin steel frames should be considelfJd

torbuildings over 70m long.

Movement joint in brick cladding,

frame and strucllJre atl coincide.

Gmnge of height - elevation.

z
Change of wall thickness - plan.

,(

%'

Behind latye dJase- plan.

37

F1gul1l 5.3 TYPICAL LOCAnON OF MOVEMENT JOINTS AT COLUMN POSmONS.

Note:Ties to the steel frame requi red to maintain lateral stabili ty of wall panels.

CJ
(a)

(b)

EJ

(c)

EJ

Z,.t. IV+ /

(d)

EJ

7 ;4 II""'
, 7..---_ /-,

(e)

(I)

EJ
71
-'--

1- 7--;7"-/

= ~ /~>t
CJ

CJ

(g)

(h)

Key:
_
- Direction of movement.
EJ - Expansion joi nt clay brickwork.
CJ - Contraction joint concrete blockwork.
SJ - Shear joint to accommodate expansion or contraction.

38

Figure 5.4 TYPICAL LOCATIONS OF MOVEMENT JOINTS AT CORNER COLUMNS.

Note:Ties to the steel frame required to maintain lateral stability of wall panels .
SJ

]JJ~

~['Rf < ,<

f~j CJ/SJ

(a)

(b)

.(

IfffiXX:Y;

r:
~

,
(d)

(c)

(e)

.,

/'

--

CJ

"

'

f'

(f)

(g)

(h)

Key:

..-

- Direction ofmovement.

EJ

- Expansion joint clay brickwork.

CJ
SJ

- Contraction joint concrete blockwork.

- Shear joint to accommodate expansion or cont raction .

39

Agure 5.5 TYPICAL DEFLECTlON AND SWAY OF SINGLE STOREY PORTAL FRAME BUILDING.

~ limit 10 eaves

'1m e.g. 20mm tI

ronnm.

" -,

""

''- ,- 0

. >

'\ t

@)

Dellection orsway ateaves due 10 lateral

wind loads.

DittetelJlia1 movement at eaves in endbay bel'MJen braced

gable frame and adjacent portal frame.
1lestJict movement 10 length <D - 0

660
Panel A - provide movement joint at 1st portal column Additional
joint at gable column if preferred.
Panel B - provide further movement joints at either every column
or alternate columns. Panel rocks on d.p.c., thus simple support at
base .

Load Case 1- Dead & Wind Loading.

~ ./-

~-

"- ,

Suggested limit10 eaves del1eclion

smaller of'1m e.g. 20mm in

ronnm.

-,

"
-,

-,

-c -,
"-

"I

<,

Load Case 11- Dead & Superimposed Loading.

40

Figure 5.6 SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION OFTHE DIFFERENTIAL MOVEMENT

BETWEEN EXTERNAL WALL AND STRUCTURE.

Masonry cavity wall.

SlnJctIJre.

;If' .
Differential

/7JOIfJII)OOt exaggemted
(not 10 scale).

_ _ _--,1-_ 1

Difference incnJases wit1I increasing height

--e.g. 7 ~ approx. 25mm rnaxJfTlUm.

~
"

Although shown as ftapplies in /he

veroeaJ plane. relative dilleiential

/7JOIfJII)OOt 0CClJ1S equally on plan.
III

41

Figure 5.7 COMPARISON BETW EEN EXT ERNAL CAVITY WALLS IN

MULTI-STOREY BUILDINGS.
Cavily wall lies omitted for clarily. Vertical movemenl joints to accommodate horizontal
movements also to be provided.
External masonry wall Indepe ndent
of ateel frame.

Internal skin and external above

9m height supported off ma in
atructurallramework.

/lcrommodate ~ mowment

atwaJllrooI junction.

- . - - -....... <;;;;;;; ==

,,

"iii
~ c:

.,2! ".c:
'"
'0 .Q
'"
"in
~

t
~

8.
~

se "c:0

.g

.,c:

s;;;

"~

C>

c:

.~

:g

c
:; '"

. .,8

.11
to

0.

c
s:

~ ~
0. >.; 'iii

cavity wall fiJred back to

SllUcllJIaJfnune using llexible
liesIanchors at ead1 storoy
height

e- 8~ .,
...., .,'"
'0

I~I
.'

.'"
>

WARNING :Where partitions or services are

supported off the floor and abut
the outer wall provi sion must be
made for diffe renlial movement.

C> ~

32 ~
0

.'-

':;

--

.,.,c: ~

.0

C>

"0

c:

CD
e
~c .S;

'"

<Ii

"iii
~

~ 1lCic
z

E
., Q

,.,,-

'" .,=

c: E ...

C > ..
ou;
~ E,s;
~

-.'
~

Ground
level. ,

d.p.c.

42

SECTION

61

STABI LITY
6.1
GENERAL
The major structural requirement of nonloading masonry wa lls is to resist lateral wind
loads. Alternative approaches for assessing the
lateral stab ility of external wall panels are we ll
documented. The most common approach for
cavity walls to BS 5628: Part 1 (Ref. 6) is
listed below:(i) Assess the wind loads to CP3 : Ch .V: Part 2
(Ref. 18) paying part icular attention to the
panels situated at the corners of bu'.'dings
which will be subjected to loca l suctions of
higher magnitude.
(ii) Establish vert ical and horizontal lateral
support conditions at panel edges. taking
into account positicns of movement jcin ts,
openinQs . and check panel limiting
dimensions.
(iii) Determine section properties and flexural
strengths for each leaf and calculate the
orthoqonal ratios. p.. and design moments

of resistance.
(iv) Determine bending moment coefficients.
"'. based upon the panel edge r,:straints
M. and p.. and calculate the deSign
moments for each leaf .
(v) Compare the total moment of resistance
against the appl ied design moment. If the
former is exceeded then re-assess the
panel desi~n:. ..
a) increasinq the edge restraint conditions.
b) reducing the panel span by the use of
intermediate vertical posts or honzontal
rails,
c) increase the thickness of inner leaf .
d) increase the flexural strength of one or
both leaves.
For the purposes of this publication it is
intended to concentrate on the following
aspeets:(i) Horizontal and vertical lateral support

6.2

HORIZONTAL ANO VERTICAL

LATERAL SUPPORT CONDITIONS

A simple support may be assumed where a

panel is adequately tied to the supporting
structure with metal wall or frame ties.
The connection should be capable of res isting
the tens'.'e or compressive load generated by the
revers ible wind load . A simple support is also
generally assumed at all dpc positions unable to
transmit tens'.'e stresses. Continu~ may be
assumed where a masonry panel is continuous
past a column or beam and IS tied to it, Only one
leaf is required to be continuous past a support,
provided that the cav ity wall has ties in
accordance w~h Clause 29.1 of BS 5628: Part I ,
between discontinuous leaf and the supporting
structure.
Where the leaves are of different
thicknesses the thicker leaf is to be continuous.
Figs. 6.1 & 6.2 show some typica l exam ples of
sim ple and continuous support conditions.

6.3
CAVITY WALL TIES
The BRE publication "Performance
Specifications for Wall Ties' (Ref . 26) lists the
main structural requirements of wall ties :(i) Ab'.'ity to transmit tension and compression
forces without excessive deformation.
(ii) Ab'.'ity to allow vertical differential
movement.
(iii) Ability to allow horizontal differential

movement.
(iv) Ability to maintain functions (i). (ii) & (iii)
during a fire.

conditions.

(ii) Performance of cav ity wall ties .

(iii) Effects of size and locat ion of glazed
open ings with in a panel.

43

The characteristic strengths quoted in

BS 562 8: Part 1 (Ref. 6) for wall ties complying
with BS 1243 (Ref. 13) and spacing and factors
affecting selection of ties are summarised in
Table 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3. The values quoted for
shear are only valid for situations in which the tie
is used as a shear connector and do not apply to
the shear and bending condition of a tie crossing
an open cavity.
Masonry walls are relatively stiff and as a
result horizontal deflections at failure due to
lateral wind loads will usually be only a few
millimetres. The ability of a tie to accept and
transfer load depends on its axial stiffness as
well as strength.

Vertical twist ties provide the highest ability

to trans mit lateral loads . However, they are
unnecessa rily strong in tension and not very
flexible and should not be spec ified wh ere large
differentia l movements are expected to tak e
place between the leaves, or whe re large
adjust men ts are likely to be needed during
construction. At the other end of the scale ,
butterfly wire ties are relatively weak in
compression and are proba bly more ideally
suited to low rise buildings up to two storeys or
11 m in height when used at the standard
spac ings recommended in BS 5628 : Part 1
(Ref. 6).

Table 6.1
Characteristic strengths of wall ties used as panel supports (from Table 8, BS 5628: Part 1)
Type

CharaetensllC strengths Of tee engaged in

dOvetail sJots set: In structw"al ccoceie
TenSIOn kN

She ar kN

40

5.0

30

45

35

4.0

Dove tail slo t types of ees

(al Ga lvan ized or sta inless sleellrshlail anchors 3mm thick ,
17mm min . width in 1.25mm thick galvanized or stainless steerSlol ,
150mm long , set In structural concrele
(b) Galva nized or stainless steer fishtail anchors 2mm IhiCk,
17mm min . width, in 2mm thick galvanIZed or stai nless steel sots

1SOmm long. set in structural concrete

Ie) Copper fisht ail anchOrs 3mm thICk, 17mm min. Width
In 1.2Smmcopper slots. 150mm long . set In structural concrete

Cha raaensllC loads in ties embedded in mortar

Shear

Tensoon

""".,
_nabon

Mortar deSign8tlOfl
(I) a ndl_'

(.)

IN)

(i). (i1) or (iii)

..

"""'"

desig nahon
(i),( ii)

(iii)

(il

Cavlty walf tlest

kN

kN

kN

kN

kN

kN

kN

(a) W ire bunerfly ty pe :

Zinc coa ted mild stee l or stainless steel

30

2.5

20

z.o

0.3

0 .3

(b) Ve rtical twi st type :

Zinc coa ted mild stee l or bronze or stain less stee l

50

4.0

25

35

5.0

40

Z.5

(e) Do ub le triang le type :

Zinc coated mi ld steel or bro nze or stainless steer

50

40

2.5

3.0

1.25

1.25

Apphc a tNe only to cases where shear exrsts between clos ely abunlng surfaces . e .g . wher e Int ernal walls abut exte rnal wall s
or to fie the two leaves 01a collar tolnted wall . They dO not apply to the shear resistance 01a tie crossing an open cavity.
Prov id ing the open cavity ISnot greater than 75mm.

t See as 12-'3 : 1978 .

No le : Bu_r1ly II nol re<:omm.nded for olher then low ri s. buildings.

44

Table 6.2

Selection of ties (from Table 9(b) BS 5628 : Part 3)

Type 01tie in BS 1243

Cavitywidth

mm
Increasing strength

Increasingflexibility
and sound insulation

150 or less

Vertical twist
Double triangle

75 or less

Butterfly

75 or less

Table 6.3 Spacing of ties ' (Table 6 BS 5628 Pt. 1)

Leal
thickness

Cavity
width

Spacing of ties

Horizontally

Number
ct ues

Vertically

per square
metre

mm

mm

mm

mm

Less than 90

50 7 5

450

450

4.9

90 or more

50-150

900

450

2 .5

The partialsafetyfactorlor matenal strength

( IX m) 01 wa ll lies should be 3.0. When
considering the probable effects of misuse

or accidental damage. this value may be

halved .
The partial safety factor applied 10 wind
loads ( IX f) when considering the stabilityof
laterally loaded wall panels. whose removal
would in no way affectthe stabilityof the
remaining structure, should be 1.2.

"Additionalties should be provided within 225mm of all openings at max, 300mm vertical centres.

Butterfly wire ties are therefor e not

recomm ended for cladding panels in medium
and high rise buildings. They should be used
only at the discretion of an engineer or suitably
qual ified designer. Double-triangle wire ties
seem to offer the most suitable combination of
both co mpressive strength and the ability to
accommodate vertical and horizontal
differential movem ents . As with ali wire type ties
incorporated In high rise build ings , the numb er
of tieslm 2 required should be verified by an
engineer or suitably qua lified designer.
For example, consider a multi-storey
building 50m long x 15m wide x 35m high
(approx. equivale nt to t o storeys) located in a
smali town or on the outskirts of a large city
situated in the North of England.
The wind pressures are calculated as
foliows to CP3 Ch.V : Part 2: (Ref. 18).
Basic wind speed
V = 46 mls
Topography factor
S, = 1.0 (Area 3. Class A)
Ground roughne ss S2 = 1.03 (H > 35m )
factor
Statistical factor
S3 = 1.0 (50 yr. exposure)
Design wind speed
V. = 46 x 1.0 x 1.03 x 1.0 = 47.4 mls

Dynamic pressure
q = 0.613V. = 0.613 x 47.4 = 1.38 kN/m'
1000
1000
Table 7 (Ref. 18): 3/2 < h!w < 6 & 3/2 < IIW < 4
Max. external pressure coefficient Cpe = +0.80
also high local suction coefficient Cpe = - 1.20.
Apply ing a part ial safety factor " f = 1.2 for
cladding panels
maximum compressionforce
= (0.8 x 1.38) x 1.20 = 1.32 kN
and max. tension force
= (1.20 x 1.38) x 1.20 = 1.99 kN .
Assuming a 1:1:6 mortar and " m = 3.0 , the
quantity of ties requi red for each type is
summarised in the table below:
Strength (kN)

Type

No. ties

Spacing

1m'

(mm)
H xV

Tension Compression
Double
Triangle

1.3

0 .42

3.2

600)( 450

Vertical
Twist

1.3

1.3

1.5

900x 450

45

The above spacings do not take into

account the additional tying requirements
around the sides of openings orto the perimeter
of the wall panel. They also represent the sort of
spacings that can be expected for the worst
case, i.e. wall panels to the top storey.
The spacings of the double triangle type
tiescan be gradualty increased as one moves
down the height of the building but must not
exceed the maximum permitted spacings of
900mm horizontally and 450mm vertically.
Fog. 6.6 divides the British Isles into four
zones and suggests typical spac i"lls for
allernative types of cavity wall ties In single
storey and medium to high rise buildings.
A number of manufacturers are producing
alternative cavity wall tie designs. Each should
be assessed on its own merit taking into
account structural performance as proven
under acceptable test procedures.

6.4
FRAME TIES
The selection of a suitable frame tie is very
important in terms of both structural
performance and ability to accommodate
differential movements. Fig. 6.3 shows some
typical examples of frame ties commonly
available today.
Frame ties tend to be manufactured out of
strip metal nominally 20mm wide x 2 or 3mm
thick by 150mm long , and tend to create similar
problems to those posed by the vertical twist
cavity ties , i.e. insufficient fleXibility to
accommodate thermal and moisture
movements. Some of the addrtional precautions
necessary, particularly to accommodate vertical
andlor horizontal movement, are outlined in
Fig. 6.4.(a) and (b). Fig. 6.5 shows some
alternative frametie designs which, whilst not
being as strong in compression nevertheless
are much better for accommodating differential
vertical and horizontal movements. Frame ties
are not covered by a relevant British Standard,
but BS 5628: Part 1 stipulates that where ties
are required to transmit compression, provided
that any gap between the wall and the
supporting structure is not greater than 75mm ,
the characteristic strengths given in Table 6.1
may be used . Other important functions of the
frame tie are:(i) Durability.
(ii) Resistance to the passage of water
particularly wrth frame ties directly between
external brickwork and steel frame, i.e.
incorporate an adequate drip .

(iii) Profile suitable for minimising tendency to

collect mortar droppings.

6.5
METHODS OF FIXING WALL
PANEL RESTRAINTTIES TO
STEEL FRAMES
Fig. 6.7 indicates a number of alternative
methods for connecting wall ties , restraining an
external wall panel against lateral wind loads to
a frame. The range of fixings available is listed
below:a. Bolted connection - main disadvantage
is the lack of suitable tolerance on sening
out unless the holes are either drilled on
site as the work proceeds or vertically
slotted in the fabrication shop to
accommodate any minor deviations in the
bed joint positions. Holes drilled on site are
very expensive.
Under no circumstances should wall ties
be bent to suit the brickwork coursing.
b. Self drilling and self tapping screws normally used to fix metal roof decking to
steel purlins. They can be installed in a
single high speed operation in steel up to
20mm thICk without the need for drilling a
pilot hole . Wall panel restraint ties up to
3mm thick can be accommodated.
c. Shot fired nails - main advantage is the
speed at which the fixing is made. However
there are definite drawbacks such as
correct cartridge selection, and the
experience of the operator using the gun .
One common problem is insufficient
penetration of the nail allowing free
movement of the wall panel tie between the
steel web or flange and the head of the nail.
It is recommended that a shot fired or
power actuated fastener should only be
used in shear and compression. Unless
adequate site supervision is provided. they
are not suited for use with a tie in tension.
d. Proprietary and slotted frame tieschannels, positioned vertically or
horizontally, may be either welded or bolted
to the steel web or flange in the fabrication
shop . The slotted frame ties can then be
inserted into the channels as the masonry
proceeds on site . The cost of this type of
fixing can be relatively expensive when
compared to either (b) or (c) and may be
vulnerable to transportation damage.

46

Table 6.4
Su itability 01 alternative IIxlngs lor wall panel restraint t ies to steel Irame.
Type 01
fixing

Nut and bolt

Sell drill an d tap

screw

Tension

Shear

./
./

./

Shot fired nails

Tie in channel
surface fixed
to beam/co lum n

./
./

Tie in channel
cast into concrete

./
./
./

1.

./

No test date availab le. Spacings giv en in tables to Figu re 6 .6 are based on an ass umed capacity 015 0% of the values
scecneopn Tabl e 8,
5628 : Part 1: 1985 10allo w for de-bond ing ol lie and effect s of lever arm produ ced by gap
betwee n brickwork and steel frame.

as

e.

Proprietary dovetail slots and ties cast

into the edge of an insitu rein forced
concrete floo r or concrete casing to a
perimete r floor beam.
Table 6.4 summarises the suitability of the
alte rnative typ e s ollixing normail y used.

6.6
MASONRY PANELS CONTAINING
OPENINGS

--

Very litt le experimental data is avai lable on

the performance of wail pa nels containing
ope nings. BS 5628 : Part 3 (Ref . 6) provides
some Simple rules for buildings up to and
incl uding lour storeys. These are set out below:"Wails should be free Irom doo rs, windows
etc . un less either: (i) intermediate supports are provided , or
(ii) the total area of such openings is not
greater than 10% of the appropriate
max imum area give n in Table 8 or 25% of
the actual area of wa il, whichever is the
lesser, and no ope ning less than half its
maximum dimension from the edg e of
the wail . . ."
As with most simplilied gu idelines. the
designer may lind these a little restr icti ve and for

ope nings whose size and location wit hin a

pan el are not cove red by the cod e, an
alternative approac h wiil be necessary.
BS 5628 : Part 3 Ap pe ndi x D suggests

two options:(i)

Div ide the pan el into sub-pane ls and then

design each part in accordance with the
rule s given in the code. An obvious
dr awback of this method is that line loads
on the free edge o f a pan el are not cate red
for in the code.
Th is p rob iem can be ove rco me using
Jo hansen's yield line theory which
enables bend ing moment coeff icien ts to be
ca lculated for pan els with line load s.
Wh ile thi s theo ry is not strict ly appl ica ble to
masonry pan el s. good co rrelatio n with
exper ime ntal results has been obtained for
pan el s without open ings.
(ii) As with lin e load s. Johansen's yie ld line
theory can be app lied for obtain ing the
bending moments in wail pan els with
' smail" openi ngs . Wh at constitutes
a ' smail" open ing is dependent upo n a
number of factors and the design er should
ass ess each individual wall panel on its
own meri ts, ta king into account bot h the
size and di sposition o f ail openings .

47

Figure 6.1 DETAILS PROVIDING SIMPLE AND FIXED VERTICAL LATERAL SUPPORT.

/'

j. b'

/'

(ii)

(i)

(iii)

(a) Fixed vert ical support conditions.

>

(ii)

(i)

(iii)

(b) Simple vertica l support conditions.

48

Figure 6.2 DETAILS PROVIDING SIMPLE AND FIXED HORIZONTAL LATERAL SUPPORT.

D.p.c. material

Dp.c. formed from

2 or3 courses of
dp.c. clay bricks
to BS 3921: 1985.

must be
capable ofresisting
!texural bending "
stresses.

Ground
level.
(ii)

(i)

(i) & (ii) Not to be used with porta l frames since the wall is required to be free to rotate at d .p.c. level
as the portal frame sways. Therefore use simple support shown below.

I IX
I"

rY

Inner leaf
-~+V-:lk-;-'--
lied to channel
cast into !toar slab.

/
/

:..

iX
:'>(

Outer brick teaf lied

to !toar beam.

SOft joint.

Sliding anchor with lies

into brick and blocJ<worl<
fixed back to !toar slab.

(iv)

(iii)
(a) Fixed ho ri zo ntal su pport cond it ions.

Smooth dp.c.
Movement joint.

-P"'T- h.:~,;.--

(i)
Suitable for portal frame.

(ii)
(b) Simple horizontal support cond it ions.

49

Figure 6.3 TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF FRAME TI ES.

(a)

(b)

(e)

(e)

(d)

(f)

(9)

50

Figure 6.4(a) DETAILS TO ACCOMMODATE VERTICAL AND/OR HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT.

Channel welded orboiled to lleb 01 standIion

al 450 vertJcal cis. max.

Channel boiled to flange

al 450cIS. max.

Channel bolted through vertJcally slotted holes In flange 0'

stanchion using countersunk bolts.

Ie cki-bonr1ed using plastic sleeve Of proptietaJY cki-txJncIlng

agenl to allawhorizon/illmovemenl 01masonry. te alsoI"", to
move vertically In channel.

Note:Whenusing flexible ties the amountofvertical movement should be limited toavoidrain water
penetrating the outer leaf andcoming into contact with the steel frame. Alternatively the ties
can be installed sloping down towards the outer leaf.

rles ffxed to llange wilh

selldrilling sell lapping
ancholS at450vertical

cts.max.

Shot firedlixlngnot
acceptable when In

tension.

De-txJncIing ollie alkJws

horizon/ill movemenl 01
masonry

--

ne ffxerJ to web withselfdrillingsell tapping

anchors orshot firing at
450 verticat ers. max.

tI"

Flexible liealkJws movemenl in vertJcal

and horizon/ill directions.

51

Figure 6.4{b) DETAILSTO ACCOMMODATE VERTICAL AND/OR HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT.

M
iId_._
_

to_

beammax.

450ett

>:

Note :When using flex ible nes the amount at vertical movement should be lim ited to avoid
ra in water pen etrating the outer leaf and coming into contact with the steel fra me.
Alternatively the ties can be installed sloping down towards the o uter lea f.

52

Figure 6.5 ALTERNATIVE NON-STANDARD FRAMETIE DESIGNS FOR INCREASED FLEXIBILITY.

Courtesyot
Harris and
Edgar Ltd.

53

Noles 10 Fi gure 6.6

1. Cavity wall tie spacing based on a 3.0m wide x 3 .5m high panel in a 10 storey building 50m long
x 15m wide , ground roughness Category 2, Class A.
2. Assuming that only the inner leaf is tied to the frame . Additional cavity ties must be provided around
the perimeter of the panel at these spacings in order to stiffen the edge of the panel.
3. Assuming one row of ties at floor level per panel.
4. Cavity wall tie spacing based on a 3.0m wide x 6.0m high panel in a single storeybuilding 30m long
x 10m wide , ground roughness Category 2, Class B. Main frames at 6.0m centres with splitter posts
positioned midway between main frames .
5. Spacing doe s not conform with blockwork construction. Options are:(i) Use fishtail anchors debonded to allow in-plane movement of the masonry.
(ii) Increase spacing to 225mm and tie both the brickwork and blockwork leaves to the frame .
TIes to be staggered vertically.
(iii) Alter cavity wall cons truction to two leaves of brickwork, the inner leaf tied to the frame
at 150mm centres.
6. Double triangular ties can be used at these spacings whether in tension or com pression.
7. Fishtail anchors can be used at these spacings.whether in tension , compression or shear .
8. Additio nal ties provided around perimeter of panel at same centres as floor and column pane l.
9. Additional ties should be provided within 225mm of all open ings at 225mm vertical and horizontal

centres.

54

Figure 6.6 TYPICAL SPACINGS OF DOUBLE TRIANGULAR AND VERTICAL TWIST CAVITY TIES
AND PANEL RESTRAINTTIES IN SINGLE STOREY AND MEDIUM TO HIGH RISE BUILDINGS.

Panel Restraint Ties to Frame

Wind Zones
Medium to High Rise Buildings - Max. Height 10 Storeys (35m)
Panel restraint ties'

cavity waJIlies'

Wi""

,~ .

450

450

......

,--

10100' 1-1

Do,bIe

VertICal

triangular

twist

l> 38

9OOx 450

90011450

2 l> 42

750. 450

90011450

225

450

450

450

l> 46

600 x 4 50

900 III 450

225

450

225

450

l> 52

450 II 4 50

900 x 450

225

450

225

450

II

(ms- ' )

--

..... .

+
,- ,

Tocolumns

450

450

Single Storey Build ings - Max. Heigh t to Eaves 6.0m

_.

Panel restraint ties'

cavity waft ties' x

W'""

V.-

......

10coIumn&lsplinef post . .

..... .

Toeavesbeam H

v (ms-'j

Double
triang ular

l> 38

900 x 450

900 x 450

l> 42

900 x 450

900 x 450

225

450

450

450

l> 46

900 x 450

90011450

225

450

225

450

450 x 450

900 x 450

150'

225

225

450

52

twist

225

F""'''' 7
450

450

"lIhIu 7

450

55

Agure 6.7 METHODS OF FIXING FRAME TIES TO THE MAIN STRUCTURE.

(a) Channe l cast into

compos ite floor slab.

(b) Channel surface fixed

to composite floor slab
using expanding bolt.

(c) Channel welded to web

or flange of stanchion.

(d) Channe l bolted through

slotted holes in web or flange
of stanchion using countersunk
bolts.

(e) Tie fixed to stanchion using

self drilling self tapping anchors or
shot fired nails . Note: Shot fired fi xi ng
not acceptable In tension.

56

IJ

LIST OF

REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

17.
18.
19.

20.
21 .

22.
23 .
24.
25 .
26.
27.
28.

BS 5606 : 1978 "Code of Practice for Acc uracy in B u ild i n g ~

BS 6093: 1981 "Cod e 01 Practice for the Des ign of Joints and Jointing in Building Oonstrucnon"
BOA De sign Note 3 "Brickwork Dimensions Tables" - Hargreaves T.
BS 3921 : 1985 "Specilication lor Clay Bricks"
CIRI A Technical Note 113 "A Suggested Design Procedure lor Accuracy in Building ~
BS 5628 : Part 1: 1985 "Structural Use of Unreinlorced Masonry':
Part 2 : 1985 "Structural Use of Reinforced and Prestressed Masonry':
Part 3 : 1985 "Materials and Components. Design and Workmansh ip~
DO 93 : 1984 "Method s for Assessing Exposure to Wind-driven Ra in~
CP 121: Part 1: 1973 (wijhdrawnj "Brick and Block Masonry':
BRE Report "Driving Rain Index"
BRE Digest 236 "Cavity lnsulation"
BRE Digest 277 "Bum-in Cavity Wa ll Insulation for Housing~
BOA Des ign Note 7 "Brickwork Durabil i~ Hard ing J. R. and Sm ith R. A.
BS 1243: 1978 "Spec ifica tion for Metal Ties for Cavity Wall Con struction"
BS 729 : 1971 "Hot Dip Galvanized Coatings on Iron and Steel Art icle s~
BSC Publica tion "Steelwork in Cavity Walls~
PO 8484 : 1979 "Commentary on Corrosion at Bimetallic Contacts and its Alleviarion"
BS 6213 : 1982 "Guide to the Selee1ion 01 Constructional Sealants"
CP 3 Chapter V: Part 2 : 1972 "Basic Data lor the Design 01 BUildings - Wind Loads.
"Fire and Steel Construction - An Introd uction to the Fire Protection of Steel" - D. A. Ellio t.
"Fire Protee1ion for Structural Steel in Bu ild ings~ ASFPCM/Constrado .
BS 5250: 1975 "Cod e 01 Bas ic Data lor th e Des ign 01 BUildings : the Control 01 Condensation
in Dwellings~
6229 : 1982 "Code of Practice for Flat Rools with Continuously Supported Cove rings~
BS 5950 : Part 1: 1985 "Code of Practice lor Des ign in Simp le and Con tinuous Construction :
Hot Rolled See1ions~
BS 5950: Part 2: 1985 "Spec ification lor Mat erials . Fabrication and Eree1ion : Hot-Rolled secuons:
BS 4 : Part 1: 1960 "Structu ral Stee l See1ions: Specilication for Hot-Rotted See1ions~
BRE Publication "Performance Specifications for Wall Ties~ R. C . De Vek ey.
BS 187 : 1978 "Specifica tion for Calcium Silicate (Sand lime and Flintlime ) B ricks~
BOA Design Gu ide "Designing for Brickwork Movement~ Morton J.

as

-57

The Brick DewIopment Association

_side House Winkfield Windsor Berbhire 5L4 20X
rei Winkfield Row 10344) 885651

British Steel Corporation

B5C General Steels
Structural Divi sion - 5ectlons

p.o. Box24 , Steel House

Redcar, CJeveland. T5 10SOL
Telephone: 0042 474242