RESISTANCE OF THE

BODY TO INFECTION: II.

IMMUNITY AND ALLERGY
DR. VERGEL JOHN P. ERCIA

IMMUNITY
THE HUMAN BODY HAS THE ABILITY TO RESIST ALMOST ALL
TYPES OF ORGANISMS OR TOXINS THAT TEND TO DAMAGE THE
TISSUES AND ORGANS .

TYPES:
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY - DOES NOT DEVELOP UNTIL AFTER
THE BODY IS FIRST ATTACKED BY A BACTERIUM, VIRUS, OR
TOXIN, OFTEN REQUIRING WEEKS OR MONTHS TO DEVELOP
THE IMMUNIT
INNATE IMMUNITY INCLUDES THE FOLLOWING: . PHAGOCYTOSIS,
RESISTANCE OF THE SKIN TO INVASION BY ORGANISMS.
PRESENCE IN THE BLOOD OF CERTAIN CHEMICAL
COMPOUNDS THAT ATTACH TO FOREIGN ORGANISMS OR
TOXINS AND DESTROY THEM

ACQUIRED (ADAPTIVE)
IMMUNITY
CAUSED BY A SPECIAL IMMUNE SYSTEM THAT FORMS
ANTIBODIES AND/OR ACTIVATED LYM- PHOCYTES THAT
ATTACK AND DESTROY THE SPECIFIC INVADING ORGANISM
OR TOXI
DOES NOT DEVELOP UNTIL AFTER INVASION BY A
FOREIGN ORGANISM OR TOXIN,IT IS CLEAR THAT THE
BODY MUST HAVE SOME MECHANISM FOR RECOGNIZING THIS INVASION
TYPES OF ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
HUMORAL IMMUNITY OR B-CELL IMMUNITY (BECAUSE
B LYMPHOCYTES PRODUCE THE ANTIBODIES).
CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY OR T-CELL IMMUNITY
(BECAUSE THE ACTIVATED LYMPHOCYTES ARE T

LYMPHOCYTES ARE RESPONSIBLE

FOR ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY IS THE PRODUCT OF THE
BODYS LYMPHOCYTES.
LOCATION: LYMPH NODES, SPLEEN,
SUBMUCOSAL AREAS OF THE
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT, TONSILS AND
ADENOIDS, THYMUS, AND BONE MARROW

TWO TYPES OF LYMPHOCYTE RESPONSIBLE FOR

ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
1. T LYMPHOCYTE- CELL MEDIATED

BOTH T AND B LYMPHOCYTE ARE DERIVED FROM THE PHSC AND LYMPHOCYTECOMMITTED STEM CELLS OF THE EMBRYO
ALMOST ALL OF THE LYMPHOCYTES END UP IN THE LYMPHOID TISSUE, BUT
BEFORE DOING SO, THEY ARE FURTHER DIFFERENTIATED OR PREPROCESSED :
1. T LYMPHOCYTES DESTINED TO BECOME THE ACTIVATED T- LYMPHOCYTE
MIGRATE AND PREPROCESSED IN THE THYMUS
CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY
2. B LYMPHOCYTES DESTINED TO FORM ANTIBODIES
PREPROCESSED IN THE LIVER-MIDFETAL LIFE, IN THE BONEMARROW-LATE FETAL
LIFE AND AFTERBIRTH
HUMORAL IMMUNITY

LYMPHOCYTE CLONES
ONCE THE SPECIFIC LYMPHOCYTE IS ACTIVATED BY ITS
ANTIGEN,IT REPRODUCES WILDLY, FORMING TREMENDOUS
NUMBERS OF DUPLICATE LYMPHOCYTES
B LYMPHOCYTE WILL EVENTUALLY SECRETE THE
SPECIFIC TYPE OF ANTIBODY
T LYMPHOCYTE, WILL YIELD SPECIFIC SENSITIZED T
CELLS
ALL THE DIFFERENT LYMPHOCYTES THAT ARE CAPABLE
OF FORMING ONE SPECIFICITY OF ANTIBODY OR T CELL
ARE CALLED A CLONE OF LYMPHOCYTE

MECHANISM FOR ACTIVATING

A CLONE OF LYMPHOCYTE
FOR B LYMPHOCYTES 100,000
ANTIBODY MOLECULES ANTIGEN
COMES ALONG IT IMMEDIATELY
ATTACHES TO THE ANTIBODY IN THE CELL
MEMBRANE LEADS TO THE ACTIVATION
PROCESS
FOR T LYMPHOCYTES, SURFACE
RECEPTOR PROTEINS (OR T-CELL
MARKERS) ANTIGEN ACTIVATION OF

 ROLE OF MACROPHAGES IN THE ACTIVATION PROCESS

1. PHAGOCYTOSIS BY MACROPHAGES PASS THE
ANTIGENS BY CELL-TO-CELL CONTACT DIRECTLY TO
THE LYMPHOCYTES ACTIVATION OF THE SPECIFIED
LYMPHOCYTIC CLONE
2. MACROPHAGE SECRETE INTERLEUKIN-1
PROMOTES STILL FURTHER GROWTH AND
REPRODUCTION OF THE SPECIFIC LYMPHOCYTES.

ROLE OF THE T CELLS IN ACTIVATION OF THE B

LYMPHOCYTES
T CELLS FORMED, CALLED HELPER CELLS, SECRETE
LYMPHOKINES THAT ACTIVATE THE SPECIFIC B
LYMPHOCYTES.
WITHOUT THE AID OF THESE HELPER T CELLS,THE
QUANTITY OF ANTIBODIES FORMED BY THE B
LYMPHOCYTES IS USUALLY SLIGHT

HUMORAL IMMUNITY
AND ANTIBODIES
FORMATION OF ANTIBODIES BY PLASMA CELLS
B LYMPHOCYTES ENLARGE AND TAKE ON THE
APPEARANCE OF LYMPHOBLASTS DIFFERENTIATE
TO PLASMABLASTS, WHICH ARE PRECURSORS OF
PLASMA CELLS.
MATURE PLASMA CELL THEN PRODUCES GAMMA
GLOBULIN ANTIBODIES AT AN EXTREMELY RAPID RATE
ABOUT 2000 MOLECULES PER SECOND FOR EACH
PLASMA CELL.
PROCESS CONTINUES FOR SEVERAL DAYS OR
WEEKS UNTIL FINALLY EXHAUSTION AND DEATH OF
THE PLASMA CELLS OCCUR

 FORMATION OF MEMORY CELLS

A FEW OF THE LYMPHOBLASTS FORMED BY
ACTIVATION OF A CLONE OF B LYM- PHOCYTES
DO NOT GO ON TO FORM PLASMA CELLS BUT
INSTEAD FORM MODERATE NUMBERS OF NEW B
LYMPHOCYTES SIMILAR TO THOSE OF THE
ORIGINAL CLONE.
CIRCULATE THROUGHOUT THE BODY TO
POPULATE ALL THE LYMPHOID TISSUE;
IMMUNOLOGICALLY, HOWEVER, THEY REMAIN
DORMANT UNTIL ACTIVATED ONCE AGAIN BY
A NEW QUANTITY OF THE SAME ANTIGEN
MEMORY CELLS
MORE RAPID AND MUCH MORE POTENT

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRIMARY

RESPONSE AND SECONDARY
RESPONSE- ROLE OF MEMORY CELLS
PRIMARY RESPONSE: 1-WEEK DELAY IN THE APPEARANCE ,
WEAK POTENCY, AND SHORT LIFE.
SECONDARY RESPONSE : BEGINS RAPIDLY AFTER EXPOSURE
TO THE ANTIGEN (OFTEN WITHIN HOURS), MORE POTENT, AND
FORMS ANTIBODIES FOR MANY MONTHS RATHER THAN FOR
ONLY A FEW WEEKS.
EXPLAIN WHY IMMUNIZATION IS USUALLY ACCOMPLISHED
BY INJECTING ANTIGEN IN MULTIPLE DOSES WITH
PERIODS OF SEVERAL WEEKS OR SEVERAL MONTHS
BETWEEN INJECTIONS.

NATURE OF THE
ANTIBODIES

GAMMA GLOBULINS CALLED IMMUNO- GLOBULINS

(ABBREVIATED AS IG), AND THEY HAVE MOLECULAR
WEIGHTS BETWEEN 160,000 AND 970,000

FIVE GENERAL CLASSES OF ANTIBODIES :

IGM
IGG
IGA
IGD
IGE.

MECHANISMS OF
ACTION OF ANTIBODIES
ANTIBODIES ACT MAINLY IN TWO WAYS TO PROTECT
THE BODY AGAINST INVADING AGENTS:
(1) BY DIRECT ATTACK ON THE INVADER
(2) BY ACTIVATION OF THE COMPLEMENT SYSTEM
COMPLEMENT IS A COLLECTIVE TERM THAT
DESCRIBES A SYSTEM OF ABOUT 20 PROTEINS,
MANY OF WHICH ARE ENZYME PRECURSORS.
THE PRINCIPAL ACTORS IN THIS SYSTEM ARE 11
PROTEINS DESIGNATED C1 THROUGH C9,

CELL-MEDIATED
IMMUNITY

RELEASE OF ACTIVATED T CELLS FROM LYMPHOID TISSUE

AND FORMATION OF MEMORY CELLS
T LYMPHOCYTES EXPOSED TO ANTIGEN T
LYMPHOCYTES OF A SPECIFIC LYMPHOCYTE CLONE
PROLIFERATE AND RELEASE LARGE NUMBERS OF
ACTIVATED T CELL
WHOLE ACTIVATED T CELLS ARE FORMED AND
RELEASED INTO THE LYMPHENTER CIRCULATION
DISTRIBUTED THROUGHOUT THE BODY
T-LYMPHOCYTE MEMORY CELLS ARE FORMED IN THE
SAME WAY THAT B MEMORY CELLS ARE FORMED IN
THE ANTIBODY SYSTEM

MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY
COMPLEX
T LYMPHOCYTES RESPOND TO ANTIGENS ONLY WHEN THEY ARE
BOUND TO SPECIFIC MOLECULES CALLED MHC PROTEINS ON THE
SURFACE OF ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS IN THE LYMPHOID
TISSUE
THREE MAJOR TYPES OF ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS
MACROPHAGES
B LYMPHOCYTES
DENDRITIC CELLS- ONLY KNOWN FUNCTION IS TO
PRESENT ANTIGENS TO T CELLS.
TWO TYPES OF MHC PROTEINS:
MHC I PROTEINS,WHICH PRESENT ANTIGENS TO
CYTOTOXIC T CELLS
MHC II PROTEINS,WHICH PRESENT ANTIGENS TO T
HELPER CELLS.

T CELLS AND THEIR DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS

HELPER T CELLS

CYTOTOXIC T CELLS
SUPPRESSOR T CELLS.

HELPER T CELLS

MOST NUMEROUS

FORMS A SERIES OF PROTEIN MEDIATORS,CALLED LYMPHOKINES,

THAT ACT ON OTHER CELLS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM AS WELL AS ON
BONE MARROW CELLS
INTERLEUKIN-2 INTERLEUKIN-3 INTERLEUKIN-4 INTERLEUKIN-5
INTERLEUKIN-6 GRANULOCYTE-MONOCYTE COLONY-STIMULATING
FACTOR INTERFERON-G
FUNCTIONS:
STIMULATION OF GROWTH AND PROLIFERATION OF CYTOTOXIC T
CELLS AND SUPPRESSOR T CELLS.
STIMULATION OF B-CELL GROWTH AND DIFFERENTIATION TO
FORM PLASMA CELLS AND ANTIBODIES
ACTIVATION OF THE MACROPHAGE SYSTEM
FEEDBACK STIMULATORY EFFECT ON THE HELPER CELLS
THEMSELVES.

CYTOTOXIC T CELLS
DIRECT-ATTACK CELL THAT IS CAPABLE OF KILLING MICROORGANISMS AND, AT TIMES, EVEN SOME OF THE BODYS OWN CELLS
CALLED KILLER CELLS
CYTOTOXIC T CELL SECRETES HOLE FORMING PROTEINS, CALLED
PERFORINS, THAT LITERALLY PUNCH ROUND HOLES IN THE
MEMBRANE OF THE ATTACKED CELL
CYTOTOXIC KILLER CELLS CAN PULL AWAY FROM THE VICTIM CELLS
AFTER THEY HAVE PUNCHED HOLES AND DELIVERED CYTOTOXIC
SUBSTANCES AND THEN MOVE ON TO KILL MORE CELLS.
CYTOTOXIC CELLS ALSO PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN DESTROYING
CANCER CELLS, HEART TRANSPLANT CELLS,OR OTHER TYPES OF
CELLS THAT ARE FOREIGN TO THE PERSONS OWN BODY.

SUPPRESSOR T CELLS

CAPABLE OF SUPPRESSING THE FUNCTIONS OF BOTH

CYTOTOXIC AND HELPER T CELLS.

PREVENTS THE CYTOTOXIC CELLS FROM CAUSING

EXCESSIVE IMMUNE REACTIONS THAT MIGHT BE
DAMAGING TO THE BODYS OWN TISSUES
LIMITS THE ABILITY OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM TO
ATTACK A PERSONS OWN BODY TISSUES, CALLED
IMMUNE TOLERANCE

TOLERANCE OF THE ACQUIRED

IMMUNITY SYSTEM TO ONES OWN
TISSUES

IF A PERSON SHOULD BECOME IMMUNE TO HIS OR HER OWN TISSUES, THE

PROCESS OF ACQUIRED IMMUNITY WOULD DESTROY THE INDIVIDUALS
OWN BODY
FAILURE OF THE TOLERANCE MECHANISM CAUSES AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES
(1) RHEUMATIC FEVER, IN WHICH THE BODY BECOMES IMMUNIZED AGAINST
TISSUES IN THE JOINTS AND HEART
(2) ONE TYPE OF GLOMERULONEPHRITIS, IN WHICH THE PERSON
BECOMES IMMUNIZED AGAINST THE BASEMENT MEMBRANES OF
GLOMERULI;
(3) MYASTHENIA GRAVIS- IMMUNITY DEVELOPS AGAINST THE
ACETYLCHOLINE RECEPTOR PROTEINS OF THE NEUROMUSCULAR
JUNCTION,CAUSING PARALYSIS;AND
(4) LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS, IN WHICH THE PERSON BECOMES IMMUNIZED
AGAINST MANY DIFFERENT BODY TISSUES AT THE SAME TIME

IMMUNIZATION BY
INJECTION OF ANTIGENS
IMMUNIZATION HAS BEEN USED FOR MANY YEARS TO
PRODUCE ACQUIRED IMMUNITY AGAINST SPECIFIC
DISEASE
IMMUNITY CAN BE ACHIEVED AGAINST TOXINS THAT HAVE
BEEN TREATED WITH CHEMICALS SO THAT THEIR TOXIC
NATURE HAS BEEN DESTROYED EVEN THOUGH THEIR
ANTIGENS FOR CAUSING IMMUNITY ARE STILL INTACT.
A PERSON CAN BE IMMUNIZED BY BEING INFECTED WITH
LIVE ORGANISMS THAT HAVE BEEN ATTENUATED.
THIS PROCEDURE IS USED TO PROTECT AGAINST
POLIOMYELITIS, YELLOW FEVER,MEASLES,SMALLPOX,AND
MANY OTHER VIRAL DISEASES

PASSIVE IMMUNITY
TRANSFUSION OF ANTIBODIES OR T
LYMPHOCYTES TO CONFER IMMUNITY IS
CALLED PASSIVE IMMUNITY.

ALLERGY AND
HYPERSENSITIVITY
AN IMPORTANT UNDESIRABLE SIDE EFFECT OF IMMUNITY IS THE
DEVELOPMENT OF ALLERGY OR OTHER TYPES OF IMMUNE
HYPERSENSITIVITY
1. ALLERGY CAUSED BY ACTIVATED T CELLS: DELAYED-REACTION ALLERGY
CAUSED BY ACTIVATED T CELLS AND NOT BY ANTIBODIES
2. ALLERGIES IN THE ALLERGIC PERSON, WHO HAS EXCESS IGE
ANTIBODIES
CALLED ATOPIC ALLERGIES BECAUSE THEY ARE CAUSED BY A
NONORDINARY RESPONSE OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
TYPES: ANAPHYLAXIS. HISTAMINE IS RELEASED INTO THE CIRCULATION
AND CAUSES BODY-WIDE VASODILATION AS WELL AS INCREASED
PERMEABILITY OF THE CAPILLARIES WITH RESULTANT MARKED LOSS
OF PLASMA FROM THE CIRCULATION
DIES OF CIRCULATORY SHOCK WITHIN A FEW MINUTES
SPASM OF THE SMOOTH MUSCLE OF THE BRONCHIOLES,ELICITING AN
ASTHMA-LIKE ATTACK,SOMETIMES CAUSING DEATH BY SUFFOCATION.

 URTICARIA. HISTAMINENRELEASED LOCALLY

CAUSES (1) VASODILATION THAT INDUCES AN
IMMEDIATE RED FLARE AND (2) INCREASED
LOCAL PERMEABILITY OF THE CAPILLARIES THAT
LEADS TO LOCAL CIRCUMSCRIBED AREAS OF
SWELLING OF THE SKIN WITHIN ANOTHER FEW
MINUTES. THE SWELLINGS ARE COMMONLY
CALLED HIVES.
HAY FEVER. RAPID FLUID LEAKAGE INTO THE
NASAL CAVITIES AND INTO ASSOCIATED DEEPER
TISSUES OF THE NOSE; AND THE NASAL LININGS
BECOME SWOLLEN AND SECRETORY. CAUSE

 ASTHMA. OCCURS IN THE BRONCHIOLES

OF THE LUNGS, CAUSES DIFFICULTY OF
BREATHING