RUNNING HEAD: LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY 1

Learning Theories and Their Application to Literacy

Elliot J. Zackoski
Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY

Introduction
Nobel Peace Prize winning nonfiction author and former Ghanaian diplomat Kofi
Annan once said:
Literacy is a bridge from misery to hope. It is a tool for daily life in modern
society. It is a bulwark against poverty, and a building block of development, an
essential complement to investments in roads, dams, clinics and factories.
Literacy is a platform for democratization, and a vehicle for the promotion of
cultural and national identity. (Annan, 2014)
Literacy is the foundational skill for children to interact in society and the vehicle they
must use to attain their goals and aspirations. Many theories exist that enable educators to
better examine how they approach teaching literary elements to children. Many of these
approaches are used in combination with one another, because they all have their
strengths and weaknesses. Three very influential theories in relation to literacy are:
Piagets theory of Cognitive Development, Lev Vygotskys Social Learning Theory, and
the Information Processing Theory in which many theorist have examined and altered.
Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development
Piaget believed that children develop cognitively in four stages. These stages
include: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete-operational, and formal-operational (Roe
& Smith, 2012, p. 119). Piaget asserted that these stages worked successively. In other
words a child would need to accomplish one stage before entering into the next one. In
terms of literacy these stages work successively too. For example, the preoperational
stage thinker cannot comprehend reading and writing, but does have the concept of
syntax. Therefore, the child knows how to form sentences and create logical sentences,

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY

but cannot contextualize meaning of literary works yet (Roe & Smith, 2012). Historically
Piagets theory has not changed over time, but his ideas and impact on education and
literacy are profound. Piagets theory of Cognitive Development is centered on 3 key
ideas. They are: assimilation, accommodation, and equilibrium. Assimilation is the
process of fitting new information into existing schema (mental representations) (Giles,
2013). Accommodation is the process of creating new schema to fit in new information
that could not be resolved with old schema (Giles, 2013). Finally, equilibrium is a state
obtained by balancing assimilation and accommodation (Giles, 2013). Equilibrium is
considered a state of stability that one reaches either naturally or through adjustments by
changing existing or developing new schema bridged by an older schema (Giles, 2013).
Although the stages of cognitive development must be accomplished sequentially, every
child may move through each stage at a different rate. Therefore, each stage is
accomplished in an age range, because everyone is different. Table 1 below illustrates
these age ranges and explains some key elements of each stage. Roe and Smith state,
Not all children go through Piagets stages at the same ages; in fact, children may be in
some areas, displaying many of the skills characteristic of one
Stages

Age Range

Key Characteristics

Sensorimotor

Birth- 2 years

a. Infants think by acting on the world

b. They use their hands, feet, eyes, ears (actions and
senses) to discover relationships

Preoperational

2- 7 years

a. Preschool children can use symbol to stand for real

objects
b. They can experience language (words, gestures)
c. They can also pretend and play

Concrete Operational

7- 11 years

a. Reasoning becomes more logical

b. Children can Conserve
c. Can mentally manipulate symbols

Formal Operational

11 years- Beyond

a. Development of abstract and hypothetical thought.

Table 1 (Giles, 2013)

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY

stage, while they have not mastered other skills characteristic of that same stage
(Teaching Reading in Today's Elementary Schools, 2012, p. 119). From the above table
we can ascertain that Piaget would recommend teaching certain skills at certain times.
Each stage is accomplished in a range; therefore, Piaget understood that children
accomplish and acquire skills at a more personalized rate, and that is why Piaget is
considered more of a child-centered theorist when applied to education. Lesley Mandel
Morrow and Susan Dougherty, state, Jean Piagets theories had a strong influence on
early childhood education. Piaget believed that a child acquires knowledge by interacting
with the world and constantly changing and reorganizing their own knowledge. Piaget
stressed that learning occurs when children engage with peers and adults in a social
setting (Early Literacy Development: Merging Perspectives That Influence Practice,
2011, p. 6).
Children in the preoperational stage would be ready to learn the alphabet
according to Piaget. Roe and Smith declare that, Most emerging readers demonstrate
characteristics of Piagets preoperational period. They begin to engage in symbolic
thought using symbols to stand for spoken words. They realize that writing represents
meaning, a concept that is basic to reading comprehension (Teaching Reading in Today's
Elementary Schools, 2012, p. 119). The preoperational stage is between ages 2-7 and it is
around ages 3 and 4 that we start to send children to preschool to learn the alphabet and
other basic literacy skills. Piagets theory was foundational for the idea of
developmentally appropriate practices. Both the International Reading Association (IRA)
and the National Association for the Education of Young Children (IRA/NAEYC)
composed a joint position statement that provides guidance for teachers of young children

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY

in various settings in May of 1998 (Roe & Smith, 2012, p. 120). Piaget once stated,
[children are] active builders of knowledge-little scientists who construct their own
theories of the world (Revenson & Singer, 2014). Through this, children will struggle
and develop schemas that will naturally move them through Piagets successive stages.
Morrow and Dougherty determine, A Piagetian preschool curriculum emphasizes
decision-making, problem-solving, using self-discipline, goal setting, planning and
evaluating ones own activities with teachers and peers (Early Literacy Development:
Merging Perspectives That Influence Practice, 2011, p. 6). Those who follow Piagets
practices will put children in situations to learn spontaneously fostering their curiosity
that will move them through theses stages. Children will enter the concrete operational
stage between ages 7-11. This is around the time they will enter grades 3 or 4. At this
time educationally children will begin to, read to learn, rather than learn to read (Hirch,
2001, pp. 1-2). At this stage one can see from Table 1 that Piaget has asserted children
can reason more logically, conserve, and mentally manipulate symbols; therefore children
are ready to take on the added responsibility of learning through independent reading
(McLeod, Jean Piaget, 2009).
Piagets theory of Cognitive Development has strongly influenced educational
practices. Piagets ideas on how schema and the idea of assimilation, accommodation,
and the process of finding equilibrium are paramount in such educational techniques as
discovery learning (McLeod, Jean Piaget, 2009). Piagets theory has influenced how
people study child development; and his stages have influenced how and when ideas and
skills are taught in many schools as stated above. Some criticisms of Piagets theory
include: whether his stages are accurate or not, Piaget also did not consider culture as a

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY

factor of development, and Piaget only studied a small number of children therefore his
validity is questioned (McLeod, 2009 and Giles, 2013).

Vygotskys Social Learning Theory

Much like Piaget, Vygotsky concurred that children learn both spontaneously and
scientifically (Roe & Smith, 2012). Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky stresses social experiences
as a vehicle of learning for children. Vygotskys theory of Social Learning is experience
based. Roe and Smith state, Vygotsky denes spontaneous concepts as those that
children learn informally in the course of everyday concrete experiences at home and
elsewhere. Verbal interactions with parents and others help children gain meaning from
these experiences (Teaching Reading in Today's Elementary Schools, 2012, p. 120). On
the other side of learning Vygotsky defines the scientific concepts as, those that children
learn during systematic classroom instruction when teachers present information. In other
words, spontaneous concepts result from what children directly see or manipulate, and
scientic concepts help children formalize their understandings as the teacher transmits
knowledge verbally (Roe & Smith, 2012, pp. 120-121).
Vygotskys role in educational practices has also been profound and relevant for
many years. Vygotsky developed the idea of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
The ZPD is defined as, the span between a childs actual skill level and the childs
potential level with assistance, or the difference between what a child can do alone and
what the child can do with help (Roe & Smith, 2012, p. 121). This would be considered
a childs instructional level. Other key ideas of Vygotskys theory are: the Zone of Actual

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY

Development (ZAD), which is what a child accomplishes with no help at all, Beyond
ZPD is the level of frustration, and the idea of scaffolding or providing different levels of
supports (Roberts, 2014). These concepts have and will continue to affect how children
are taught. Vygotskys educational implications have been very prominent especially
within literacy instruction. An example of this is seen in reciprocal teaching. McLeod
states, in this method, teacher and students collaborate in learning and practicing four key
skills: summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher's role in the
process is reduced over time (McLeod, Jean Piaget, 2009). This method is used to assist
students to better comprehend texts and embodies Vygotskys ideas of scaffolding and
using the ZPD. One notices Vygotskys influence in such teaching methods as
collaborative learning, peer groups, and interactive writing and the shared pen approach.
These all involve students in social situations to enable learning either through a more
knowledgeable other. Vygotsky also paid tribute the influence of language in his work.
Many teacher preparation texts emphasize the use of: informal conversations, read
alouds, and other auditory methods as vehicles of learning. Roe and Smith assert,
Children learn about using language through informal conversations, which they
may engage in while working together at centers or on class projects. Teachers
recognition of the value of talk reects Vygotskys theory [], that children
develop intellectually as they interact socially with other children and with
mediating adults (Teaching Reading in Today's Elementary Schools, 2012, p.
143).
Vygotskys application of language into his theory offers additional tools that Piagets
theory did not. By emphasizing language teachers can effectively model how words and

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY

phrases should sound. Students through language can develop a sense of what fluency is
and this is truly vital when teaching children about phonics and phonemic awareness.
Morrow and Dougherty consider Vygotsky a child-centered theorist like Piaget and
state,
Parents and teachers provide the language children need to help them solve a
problem and internalize new concepts. The child needs a more knowledgeable
person to scaffold and model the new ideas by showing children how to complete
the task. Scaffolding discussions gives information about finishing a task, provide
advice, and directs a childs attention to what they need to know (Early Literacy
Development: Merging Perspectives That Influence Practice, 2011, p. 7).
This idea is applicable across many strategies to teach literacy throughout the education
field. This idea of scaffolding and using language is used from the time of learning letter
sounds to teaching advanced graphic organizer and beyond to the college level.
Historically Vygotskys theory has not changed over time. His ideas of learning
through social interactions, scaffolding, and the aspects of the ZPD still impact teaching
practices today. Critics of Vygotsky proclaim that scaffolding may not be culturally
universal. McLeod states, [T]he concept of scaffolding - which is heavily dependent on
verbal instruction - may not be equally useful in all cultures for all types of learning
(McLeod, Lev Vygotsky, 2007). Another weakness to Vygotskys theory is his lack of
specific hypotheses, which takes away from our ability to better test his ideas (McLeod,
Lev Vygotsky, 2007).
Information Processing Theory
The Information Processing Theory compares cognitive development of a child to

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY

how computers work. The invention of the computer in the 1950s and 1960s has
attributed to a new way cognitive psychologist study how human beings learn. Saul
McLeod states, The computer gave cognitive psychologists a metaphor, or analogy, to
which they could compare human mental processing (McLeod, Information Processing,
2008). The theory emphasizes that children and all individuals have three modes of
memory including: sensory memory, short-term memory/working memory, and long-term
memory (Giles, 2013). These modes are often compared to a computers: input devices,
central processing unit, and hard drive. Figure 1 below illustrates how this comparison
for better understanding.

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY

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Figure 1- http://epltt.coe.uga.edu/index.php?title=Information_processing
One of the key elements of this theory is: children use information from the world, store
it, and then use it to solve more complex problem (Giles, 2013). In other words, children
interact with their environment, perceive the situation, store the information or retrieve
information already stored, and then proceed to use either the gained or stored
information accordingly. This theory has been applied to education for some time now
and is continually developing. Research writer for Scholastic Online Maryanne Wolf
states, David LaBerge and Jay Samuels (1974) were the first psychologists to construct a
model of what it means to acquire automaticity in reading (New Research on an Old
Problem: A Brief History of Fluency, 2014). Their work led the design of the Repeated
Reading Technique designed by Dahl and Samuels, which is widely used to improve
fluency even today (Wolf, 2014). The Information Processing Theory has served as a
model for how educators should provide information to students. Table 2 on the next page
shows the capacities of each type of memory in this theory and their retention rates.

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY

11

Table 2- http://www.education.com/
Gregory Schraw and Mathew McCrudden proclaim,
From an educational perspective, it is essential for students to become automated
at basic skills such as letter and word decoding, number recognition, and simple
procedural skills such as handwriting, multiplication, and spelling. Automaticity
makes available limited processing resources that can be used to engage in laborintensive self-regulation and comprehension monitoring (Schraw & McCrudden,
2013).
In terms of literacy the Information Processing Theory has been truly applied in the
process of instructing and monitoring a childs literary abilities as stated above.
Other key literacy implications of this theory involve the relevance of a childs
prior knowledge facilities and retrieval processes. Teachers need to be aware of the
information stored within a child and find ways to activate that prior knowledge from
their long-term memory, and bring it into their working memory (Schraw & McCrudden,
2013). This is very important in all learning, but especially when teaching aspects of
literacy such as a particular story, assigning a particular writing prompt, or asking
students to read an unfamiliar text. Information Processing Theory stresses automaticity
and the need to use information in our long-term memory to perceive new information,
and process it through our sensory and working memories. One can apply this idea to the

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12

process of children learning sight and high frequency words to become more fluent
readers to improve their comprehension.
Overall Information Processing is a constantly developing theory that
psychologist and educators are using to help understand how children use and apply their
knowledge. The strengths of this theory are: it is continuous and active, it takes both
nature and nurture into account, and it addresses the brain and cognitive development
together (Giles, 2013). Critics of this theory argue that: it does not consider the
differences of culture, Information Processing Theory omits the influence emotional and
motivational factors that affect humans and not computers, and much of the research on
this theory has been conducted in isolation (Giles, 2013 & McLeod, Information
Processing, 2008).
Comparison of Cognitive Development, Social Learning, and Information
Processing Theories
Piagets theory of Cognitive Development, Vygotskys theory of Social Learning,
and the Information Processing Theory all have relevance in education and a profound
impact on literacy instruction today. These theories contain many similarities and
differences that allow educators to blend their most enticing traits for better instruction.
No one theory exists to prescribe the best solutions for every child that is why we must
examine the strengths and weaknesses of the most prominent theories and look to modify
and adjust them as time goes on.
The uniqueness of each strategy is very important to note. Each strategy has
several key characteristics that separates it from the other and offers exclusive benefits
for the purposes of literacy instruction. Piagets theory of Cognitive Development focuses

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY

13

on a childs individual body of knowledge that they construct based on the social world;
whereas Vygotsky proclaims knowledge is socially constructed, and the Information
Processing Theory sees knowledge as a fixed body to be acquired (Woolfolk & Margetts,
2009, p. 371). Piaget thought of learning as process based on what a learner already
knows and can perceive. Emel Ultanir states, In Piagets contribution to constructivist
theory, during a childs process of cognitive development they rely upon their perception
(An Epistemological Glance at the Constructivist Approach: Constructivist Learning in
Dewey, Piaget, and Montessori, 2012, p. 202). The Information Processing Theory
exercises a somewhat similar belief in that learning occurs from effective use of known
strategies, and Vygotsky completely contrasts these beliefs proclaiming that learning is a
collaborative process (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2009, p. 371). Both Piaget and the
Information Processing Theory see teachers as guides to assist children construct or
develop knowledge individually; whereas, Vygotsky sees teachers as co-participants in
these processes (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2009, p. 371).
While examining these theories for literacy instruction one notices how their
differences would attest toward certain methods. The theories of Cognitive Development
and Information Processing prefer more individualized instruction of literary concepts.
Teachers prescribing to these theories would use a lot of explicit instruction and
discovery learning techniques. These teachers may incorporate individualized technology
into their literacy instruction. They may use such programs as: Lexia Reading Core5,
Fast ForWord, Read Naturally Live, or Reads 180 which are all independent technology
based programs that work on a childs individual literacy needs. These programs enlist
the teacher as more of a facilitator. Teachers prescribing to Vygotskys approach would

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY

14

involve such activities as book clubs, interactive writing, guided reading, and partner
reading. They may use online programs, but would emphasize more social experiences,
and assume a more active role for their students. Table 3 below is from Educational
Psychology by Anita Woolfolk and Kay Margetts. This table does a fantastic job
organizing key differences discussed above into 6 categories. It also helps illustrate both
the similarities and differences of the 3 theories being discussed. Table 3 will complement
the Venn diagram of the theories following analysis of their similarities and implications
to literacy.

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY

15

Table 3- (Educational Psychology, 2009,

p. 371)
Although many differences separate these three theories several similarities exist
which allows educators to combine them for effective use if they so choose. Both Piaget
and Vygotsky as stated above are considered child-centered theorists (Roe & Smith,
2012, p. 121). Margetts and Woolfolk both consider these two theorists as
constructivists as well (Educational Psychology, 2009, p. 371). Constructivism is a
combination of many theories that better enables children to construct meaning on their
own. Denise Rea and Sandra Mecuri proclaim, Constructivists invite students to
construct their own knowledge by making meaning of their world. Learning experts such
as Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky, Gardner, and Feuerstein have been strongly influenced by
constructivism (Research-Based Strategies for English Language Learners, 2006, p. 1).
Both Piaget and Vygotsky support that children construct knowledge during play, learn
both spontaneously and scientifically, and address the idea of schemas (Roe & Smith,
2012, p. 121; McLeod, Lev Vygotsky, 2007). Cognitive Development and the
Information Processing both lack the consideration of culture in their methodology.
Additionally the research conducted on both theories has been impractical in the sense
that Piaget only examined small pools of children and the Information Processing Theory
lacks practical applications in real life settings. Lastly, these two theories put more

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY

16

ownership of learning on individuals, which omits the influence of peers and teachers that
Vygotsky addresses. The Social Learning Theory and Information Processing Theory
have some coinciding ideals, which blend well. Both theories support the use of
providing background knowledge to support the construction of new knowledge, and
both see children as active participants in their learning.
All three of these theories consider children to be active thinkers in their learning,
incorporate the ideas of using prior knowledge as a vehicle for gaining new knowledge,
and believe the environment is at play in the learning process. An educator looking to
fuse these theories in their instruction would acknowledge students as individuals and
implore collaborative practices.
These educators
would
understand the importance of
Learning
Theory
Comparison
chunking information and building background knowledge. Educators meshing these
theories would utilize many methods of instruction. Examples of these methods may
-Children construct knowledge

and develop
intellectuallyof technology
Vygotskys
include: book clubs, sustained silent reading,
integration
suchSocial
as theLearningTheory

Piagets CognitiveDevelopment Theory

through play
Learning is a social experience
- Considered child-centered
Four
stages
programs
mentioned above, and project
based
approaches.
All
of
the
similarities
Learning
andoccurs through supports
theorists
(scaffolding)
Naturally occurring
- Considered children to learn
figure
There are
spontaneously
and found
scientifically
Does
not considerare
culture
differences
presented in a Venn diagram
format
below labeled as
2. no explicit stages
- Both address the idea of
Considers culture
Processes of assimilation,
schema
accommodation, and equilibrium
Considers learning more

- The idea of using past

information and applying it
to new situations
- All have shortcomings in
practical research
- Children are active in
construction of information
-The environment
stimulates learning

- Does not consider culture

- Limited practical research
- Sees learning as a more
individual process
- Teachers are more of a
guide than a collaborative
helper in learning

- Implications to provide
supports for background
knowledge
- Children are more active in
learning

Information ProcessingTheory

communally
Emphasizes teachable moments

Three memory types

Multiple theorists
Compares people to computers
Learning is continuous and active
Accounts for both nature and nurture
Addresses both brain and cognitive
development together

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY

17

Figure 2
Reflection/Use in my Classroom
As I reflect upon these theories and how I can implement them into my future
classroom I become excited. All of these theories have uncovered aspects of educational
practices that will be beneficial to my future students. I consider myself to be a
constructivist because I believe we can take and learn something from everyone, and that
is the approach I will try and convey to my students. In terms of literacy I will honor
Vygotskys ideas by instituting books clubs or literature circles into my future
classrooms. Piagets ideas on Cognitive development will be iterated through such
methods as providing developmentally appropriate reading materials for my students to
read independently. Lastly, the Information processing theory will be administered
through proper introduction of books and content materials that will serve as a basis for
literature based projects.
Books clubs and literature circles are a great way to enrich the reading experience
for students. Both of these methods change reading from an independent process to a
community experience for all students. When done properly students co-construct

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY

18

understanding of the book and relate personal experiences in a meaningful way. I will do
Vygoskys ideals justice through scaffolding conversations, context, and vocabulary
instruction and weaning my involvement away. By instituting materials that students
want to read I will be able to create a positive peer pressure that excites students about
discussion days for these book clubs or literature circles. Students will want to read so
they can participate in this community experience and have their thoughts shared. Both
more advanced students and myself will serve as the more knowledgeable others
throughout the process to assist students with less knowledge or reading ability for a
particular reading. The book clubs or literature circles I institute will allow students to
work together to improve their reading ability, understanding of vocabulary, and through
practice they will also enhance their fluency.
I will institute Cognitive Development through providing developmentally
appropriate reading materials to my students. By utilizing my students current reading
data I will be able to prescribe leveled material to my students so they can assimilate and
accommodate their current schema to increase their levels. If I am teaching a lesson on a
particular topic such as the Civil War I can assign developmentally appropriate readings
to each student, and have them write or produce a product showing understanding the
literature and content. Depending on the students needs would indicate how challenging
the writing or product would be. Both would require a writing element to better their
literacy skills. The writing may entail graphics in addition to well put together thoughts
on the Civil War. Other products may include PowerPoint presentations, posters,
pamphlets, brochures, or 3-dimensional dioramas with writings interwoven.

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY

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Lastly, I will also address Information Processing Theory in my teaching through

proper chunking, and introduction of books and content material. Information Processing
Theory stresses the need to bridge prior knowledge in order for individuals to properly
store new knowledge into their working memory and then contextualize it into their longterm memory. I will pay attention to the number of bits of information I introduce to
students at one time keeping the capacity element of Table 2 on page 10 of this paper in
mind. I will focus on creating brief and lively introductions to make even difficult texts
accessible for all readers (scaffolding from Vygotsky will also be taking place
simultaneously). These book and content introductions will consist of: bridging of prior
knowledge, explanation of important concepts, interactive discussions of themes,
introduction of language patterns, picture walks, use of more difficult vocabulary, and
one or two inquiry based questions for students to consider while they read. I will look to
assess the students through the same writing and project based approaches discussed with
Piagets theory of Cognitive Development above.
Conclusion
Piagets theory of Cognitive Development, Lev Vygotskys Social Learning
Theory, and the Information Processing Theory all hold relevance in education today.
When used constructively these theories have the potential to maximize a teachers
effectiveness and catapult student learning. Both Piagets and the Information Processing
theories address the need for developmentally appropriate material and recognizing the
individual needs and abilities of students. Teachers who blend these ideals with
Vygotskys methods of scaffolding the learning process and incorporating communal
learning will address both the individual and social needs of their students. In terms of

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY

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literacy, effectively imploring these theories will allow students to appropriately struggle
with literary assignments individually, while recognizing others (peers, teachers,
guardians, and all other individuals in their educational life) as a part of their community
of learning to utilize for co-construction their literary capabilities.

References
Annan, K. (2014, November). Literacy Quotes. Retrieved November 12, 2014, from
Good Reads: http://www.goodreads.com/quotes/tag/literacy
Giles, N. (2013, October). Cognitive Development. Class. Lecture conducted from
Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania, Bloomsburg, PA.
Hirch, E. (2001). The Latest Dismal NAEP Scores. Education Week , 20 (33), 2.
Lesley, M. M., & Dougherty, S. (2011). Early Literacy Development: Merging
Perspectives That Influence Practice. Journal of Reading Education , 36 (3), 5-11.
McLeod, S. A. (2008). Information Processing. Retrieved November 7, 2014, from
Simply Psychology: http://www.simplypsychology.org/informationprocessing.html
McLeod, S. A. (2009). Jean Piaget. Retrieved November 8, 2014, from Simply
Psychology: http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY

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McLeod, S. A. (2007). Lev Vygotsky. Retrieved November 8, 2014, from Simply

Psychology: http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
Rea, D. M., & Mercuri, S. P. (2006). Research-Based Strategies for English Language
Learners. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Revenson, T. A., & Singer, D. G. (2014). Teachers. Retrieved November 8, 2014, from
Scholastic: http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/pioneers-our-field-jeanpiaget-champion-childrens-ideas
Roberts, C. (2014, October). Introduction to Teaching Reading. Class. Lecture conducted
from Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania, Bloomsburg, PA.
Roe, B. D., & Smith, S. H. (2012). Teaching Reading in Today's Elementary Schools (11
ed.). Canada: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Schraw, G., & McCrudden, M. (2013, July 12). Information Processing Theory .
Retrieved November 6, 2014, from Education:
http://www.education.com/reference/article/information-processing-theory/
Ultanir, E. (2012). An Epistemological Glance at the Constructivist Approach:
Constructivist Learning in Dewey, Piaget, and Montessori. International Journal
of Instruction , 5 (2), 195-212.
Wolf, M. (2014). New Research on an Old Problem: A Brief History of Fluency.
Retrieved November 5, 2014, from Scholastic:
http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/new-research-old-problem-briefhistory-fluency
Woolfolk, A., & Margetts, K. (2009). Educational Psychology (2nd ed.). Australia:
Pearson Higher Education.

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Comparison of 3 Theories Checklist

Use the checklist as a way to ensure that you have all the required items for the
Comparison of 3 Theories Assignment. The instructor will be looking for these items and
lack of these items will influence your grade for this assignment.
Missing ( ) /
Incomplete ( x
)
Missing or
incomplete
items will
affect grade.

Complete as
outlined in
directions
above.

Introduction (1, 11%)

Piagets Theory (1, 11%)

Vygotskys Theory (1, 11%)

Choice Theory (1, 11%)

Comparison of Theories (1, 11%)

Visual Representation (1, 11%)

LEARNING THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO LITERACY

Missing ( ) /
Incomplete ( x
)
Missing or
incomplete
items will
affect grade.

Complete as
outlined in
directions
above.

Reflection/Use in Classroom (1, 11%)

Conclusion (1, 11%)

References (1, 11%)

Headings are included

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