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Introduction to
Human Body
Center for Foundation Studies
Management and Science University
(MSU)
Topical Outcome
By the end of this topic you are able
to:
Differentiate the term of anatomy and
physiology
Identify and explain the levels of
organization and body system
Describe the life process
Describe the mechanism of homeostasis
Mammals
Possess:
Mammary glands
Hair
Endothermy (i.e., we generate heat internally)
Heterodonty (i.e., we have teeth w/ different
shapes and functions)
3 middle ear bones.
What are
humans?
Primates
Possess:
Opposable thumbs (can you touch your pinky
with your thumb?). What advantage does this
confer?
2 clavicles (collarbones)
Only 2 mammary glands. Why only 2? (Think
about how many kids a woman normally gives
birth to.)
Forward facing eyes with stereoscopic vision
(for depth perception)
Hominids
Bipedal (walk on 2 legs)
Possess a large brain size/body size ratio
What is anatomy?
Anatomy is defined as the study of
Types of Anatomy
Physiology
Physiology is defined as
the study of function
so human physiology
attempts to explain how
and why humans
function.
Physiology is where we
figure out how stuff
works.
How do muscles contract?
How do we run?
How does our heart beat?
Some Important
Themes
1. Biology is hierarchical with each level
building on the level below it.
2. Each level of biological structure has
emergent properties.
3. Cells are an organisms basic unit of
structure and function.
4. Structure and function are correlated at
all levels of biological organization!!!!!!!!
5. Regulatory mechanisms ensure a
dynamic balance in living systems.
Levels of
Structure
In order to understand how
something is built and how
something works, you must
look at all of its components
and analyze them both
individually and together.
In doing these collective
and separate analyses, you
must examine things at
multiple structural levels,
i.e., one must break them
down from large to small
this is called reductionism
An organism (such as a
human being) may be
broken down as illustrated
on the left.
Organelle
Cell
Tissue
Organ
Organ System
Organism
Levels of
Structure
The basic unit of life is the cell.
All living organisms are composed of one or more
cells.
The human body contains about 100 trillion cells.
There are about 200 different types of cells in the
human body.
The different types of cells have different
features but for the most part, all cells are made
up of organelles and various macromolecules
(e.g., proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic
acids).
Organelles themselves are made of these
macromolecules and macromolecules are
polymers of smaller molecules which consist of
atoms of various chemical elements.
A Prototypical Cell
Important Organelles
Plasma Membrane Separates the cell exterior
from the cell interior (cytoplasm).
Nucleus Membrane bound structure that contains
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which is the set of
instructions for the synthesis of all the bodys
proteins.
CAN YOU SEE THE NUCLEUS AND THE
PLASMA MEMBRANE IN THE CELL TO THE
RIGHT?
Mitochondria Structure bound by a double
membrane and the site at which the energy stored
in sugars and other organic molecules is
transferred to ATP, the chemical which acts as the
currency for energy in the cell.
Ribosomes Not bound by a membrane. Sites of
protein synthesis. May be free floating in the
cytoplasm or bound to the endoplasmic
reticulum.
Important Organelles
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Membranous set of tubes with
ribosomes studded along its
surface. Site of the synthesis of
proteins that are destined to be
exported from the cell.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
ER w/o the attached ribosomes.
Site of cellular lipid synthesis,
among other things.
Golgi Apparatus Membrane
bound organelle responsible for
determining the direction of
proteins synthesized in the rough
ER.
Lysosomes Membrane bound
organelle that houses digestive
enzymes that can be used to
break down ingested toxins or
worn out cell parts.
Integumentary
System
Structures:
-
Functions:
-
Skeletal System
Structures:
The 206 bones of the human body
Functions:
Protects and supports body organs
What characteristics might bone have
that
allows it to support and protect?
Muscular System
Structures:
The 600+ muscles
of the body
Functions:
Locomotion
Manipulation of the
environment
Maintaining posture
Thermogenesis
(generation of heat)
Nervous System
Structures:
Brain, spinal cord, and
peripheral nerves
Functions:
Fast-acting control
system of the body
Monitoring of the internal
and external
environment and
responding (when
necessary) by initiating
muscular or glandular
activity
Endocrine
System
Structures:
Hormone-secreting glands
Pituitary, Thyroid, Thymus,
Pineal, Parathyroid, Adrenal,
Pancreas, Small Intestine,
Stomach, Testes, Ovaries,
Kidneys, Heart
Functions:
Long-term control system of
the body
Regulates growth,
reproduction, and nutrient
use among other things.
Cardiovascular System
Structures:
Heart, Blood vessels (arteries,
veins, and capillaries)
Functions:
The heart pumps blood thru
the blood vessels.
Blood provides the transport
medium for nutrients (glucose,
amino acids, lipids), gases (O2,
CO2), wastes (urea,
creatinine), signaling molecules
(hormones), and heat.
Lymphatic/Im
mune
System
Structures:
Lymphatic vessels, Lymph nodes,
Spleen, Thymus, Red bone marrow
Functions:
Returning leaked fluid back to
the bloodstream,
Disposal of debris
Attacking and resisting foreign
invaders (pathogens i.e., diseasecausing organisms)
Respiratory System
Structures:
Nasal cavity,
pharynx, trachea,
bronchi, lungs
Functions:
Constantly supply
the blood with O2,
and remove CO2
Regulate blood pH
Digestive
System
Structures:
Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, rectum, salivary
glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder
Functions:
Ingestion and subsequent breakdown of
food into absorbable units that will enter
the blood for distribution to the bodys
cells
Urinary System
Structures:
Kidneys, ureters,
urinary bladder,
urethra
Functions:
Removal of
nitrogenous wastes
Regulation of bodys
levels of water,
electrolytes, and
acidity
Reproductive System
Structures:
Male:
Testes, scrotum,
epididymis, vas deferens,
urethra, prostate gland,
seminal vesicles, penis
Female:
Ovary, uterine tube,
uterus, cervix, vagina,
mammary glands
Functions:
Production of offspring
Stayin Alive
Your body has about 100 trillion cells in
it.
For your life to NOT end abruptly, these
cells need to have the correct amount
of:
Oxygen
Nutrients
Waste removal
Heat
Ions (sodium, calcium, etc.)
Lots of other stuff
Homeostasis
Lets use a
thermostat as an
example
Variable temperature
Measuring implement thermostat
Control center also the thermostat
A preset or standard value for the variable
Effectors the air conditioner and
furnace
Blood
Pressure
BP is a variable that weve got to
maintain at a certain level
We have sensory receptors that
measure the BP in the body. Theyre
located in the aorta (the big blood
vessel coming out of the heart) and
in the carotid arteries (the large
vessels that bring blood to the brain).
These pressure receptors measure BP
and then send the info (we can call
this input) to a control center in
the brain the particular BP control
center is in the medulla oblongata of
the brain
Blood Pressure
We call the connection btwn the
receptor and the control center the
afferent pathway.
In the control center, the input BP is
compared with a set value.
If there is a difference between the
current BP value and the reference
BP value then weve got an error.
And weve got to fix that error!
Blood Pressure
The control center will signal
effector organs such as the heart
in this case to alter their activity.
This process is called output.
The connection between the control
center and the effector organ is
called the efferent pathway.
Blood Pressure
Suppose the current BP is too high.
The effector must act in a way to decrease
it so the medulla oblongata (the control
center) would signal the heart to decrease
the force and rate of its contractions; this
would decrease BP.
Notice that the original stimulus was an
INcrease in BP and the bodys response
was to act so as to DEcrease BP.
The stimulus is opposite the
response!
Negative Feedback
B/c the movement of a variable in
one direction causes the body to
enact processes that cause the
variable to move in the opposite
direction (so as to return the value to
the correct level) we call it
negative feedback
Lets look at BP again:
Increased
BP
Sensed by pressure
receptors in aortic arch
and carotid sinus
BP DECREASES
Heart rate & force
of contraction
decrease
Blood
vessel
diameter
increases
Current BP
compared with
set point and
error signal
generated
Why is Negative
Feedback so common in
the body?
Homeostasis is
Important!
Most of the physiological processes that
occur in your body are designed to
maintain homeostasis.
ALWAYS KEEP THIS IN MIND!
Homeosta
sis is
DYNAMIC
!
What this means is that the homeostatic variables are NOT kept
rigidly fixed upon a single value. They are kept within a certain
range, and when they exit that range thats when negative
feedback loops turn on to bring them back.
Is your body temperature always exactly 98.6F?
Positive
Feedback
in
Childbirth
Positive
Feedbac
k
in Blood
Clotting
Dangerous Positive
Feedback
Rise in body temperature
Increase in body
heat
production
Increase in body
metabolism
Water, water
everywhere!