Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
A book by H. S. Ahamad
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Contents
Articles
Physics 1
Acceleration 13
Force 16
Cross product 38
Torque 50
Center of mass 58
Uniform circular motion 69
Angular acceleration 72
Angular velocity 73
Centripetal force 77
Right-hand rule 90
Coriolis effect 93
Angular momentum 111
Rotation 119
Rigid body 123
Moment of inertia 128
Radius of gyration 135
Rotational energy 137
Rotation around a fixed axis 138
Parallel axis theorem 144
Perpendicular axis theorem 146
List of moment of inertia tensors 147
List of moments of inertia 148
Simple harmonic motion 151
Pendulum 157
Precession 181
Larmor precession 186
Thomas precession 187
Gyroscope 190
Orbit 196
References
Article Sources and Contributors 207
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 212
Article Licenses
License 215
Physics 1
Physics
Physics (Greek: physis – φύσις meaning "nature") is a natural science; it is the study of matter[1] and its motion
through spacetime and all that derives from these, such as energy and force.[2] More broadly, it is the general
analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the world and universe behave.[3] [4]
Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy.[5] Over the
last two millennia, physics had been considered synonymous with philosophy, chemistry, and certain branches of
mathematics and biology, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 16th century, it emerged to become a unique
modern science in its own right.[6] However, in some subject areas such as in mathematical physics and quantum
chemistry, the boundaries of physics remain difficult to distinguish.
Physics is both significant and influential, in part because advances in its understanding have often translated into
new technologies, but also because new ideas in physics often resonate with the other sciences, mathematics and
philosophy.
For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism or nuclear physics led directly to the development
of new products which have dramatically transformed modern-day society (e.g., television, computers, domestic
appliances, and nuclear weapons); advances in thermodynamics led to the development of motorized transport; and
advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus.
It is also worth noting there are some physicists who work at the
interplay of theory and experiment who are called phenomenologists.
Phenomenologists look at the complex phenomena observed in
experiment and work to relate them to fundamental theory.
Theoretical physics has historically taken inspiration from philosophy
and metaphysics; electromagnetism was unified this way.[9] Beyond
the known universe, the field of theoretical physics also deals with
hypothetical issues,[10] such as parallel universes, a multiverse, and Lightning is an electric current
higher dimensions. Theorists invoke these ideas in hopes of solving
particular problems with existing theories. They then explore the consequences of these ideas and work toward
making testable predictions.
Experimental physics informs, and is informed by, engineering and technology. Experimental physicists involved in
basic research design and perform experiments with equipment such as particle accelerators and lasers, whereas
those involved in applied research often work in industry, developing technologies such as magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) and transistors. Feynman has noted that experimentalists may seek areas which are not well explored
by theorists.
Physics 3
Philosophical implications
Physics in many ways stems from ancient Greek philosophy. From Thales' first attempt to characterize matter, to
Democritus' deduction that matter ought to reduce to an invariant state, the Ptolemaic astronomy of a crystalline
firmament, and Aristotle's book Physics, different Greek philosophers advanced their own theories of nature. Well
into the 18th century, physics was known as "Natural philosophy".
By the 19th century physics was realized as a positive science and a distinct discipline separate from philosophy and
the other sciences. Physics, as with the rest of science, relies on philosophy of science to give an adequate
description of the scientific method.[12] The scientific method employs a priori reasoning as well as a posteriori
reasoning and the use of Bayesian inference to measure the validity of a given theory.[13]
“
Truth is ever to be found in the simplicity, and not in the multiplicity and confusion of things.
”
—Isaac Newton
The development of physics has answered many questions of early philosophers, but has also raised new questions.
Study of the philosophical issues surrounding physics, the philosophy of physics, involves issues such as the nature
of space and time, determinism, and metaphysical outlooks such as empiricism, naturalism and realism.[14]
Physics 4
Many physicists have written about the philosophical implications of their work, for instance Laplace, who
championed causal determinism,[15] and Erwin Schrödinger, who wrote on Quantum Mechanics.[16] The
mathematical physicist Roger Penrose has been called a Platonist by Stephen Hawking,[17] a view Penrose discusses
in his book, The Road to Reality.[18] Hawking refers to himself as an "unashamed reductionist" and takes issue with
Penrose's views.[19]
History
Since antiquity, people have tried to understand the behavior of the
natural world. One great mystery was the predictable behavior of
celestial objects such as the Sun and the Moon. Several theories were
proposed, the majority of which were disproved.
The Greek philosophers Thales (ca. 624 BC–ca. 546 BC), and
Leucippus (first half of 5th century BC) refused to accept various
supernatural, religious or mythological explanations for natural
phenomena, proclaiming that every event had a natural cause. Early
physical theories were largely couched in philosophical terms, and
never verified by systematic experimental testing as is popular today.
Many of the commonly accepted works of Ptolemy and Aristotle are
not always found to match everyday observations.
Research fields
Contemporary research in physics can be broadly divided into condensed matter physics; atomic, molecular, and
optical physics; particle physics; astrophysics; geophysics and biophysics. Some physics departments also support
research in Physics education.
Since the twentieth century, the individual fields of physics have become increasingly specialized, and today most
physicists work in a single field for their entire careers. "Universalists" such as Albert Einstein (1879–1955) and Lev
Landau (1908–1968), who worked in multiple fields of physics, are now very rare.[20]
Condensed matter
Condensed matter physics is by far the largest field of contemporary physics. Historically, condensed matter physics
grew out of solid-state physics, which is now considered one of its main subfields. The term condensed matter
physics was apparently coined by Philip Anderson when he renamed his research group — previously solid-state
theory — in 1967.
In 1978, the Division of Solid State Physics at the American Physical Society was renamed as the Division of
Condensed Matter Physics.[21] Condensed matter physics has a large overlap with chemistry, materials science,
nanotechnology and engineering.
influenced by the nucleus (see, e.g., hyperfine splitting), but intra-nuclear phenomenon such as fission and fusion are
considered part of high energy physics.
Molecular physics focuses on multi-atomic structures and their internal and external interactions with matter and
light. Optical physics is distinct from optics in that it tends to focus not on the control of classical light fields by
macroscopic objects, but on the fundamental properties of optical fields and their interactions with matter in the
microscopic realm.
Astrophysics
Physical cosmology is the study of the formation and evolution of the universe on its largest scales. Albert Einstein’s
theory of relativity plays a central role in all modern cosmological theories. In the early 20th century, Hubble's
discovery that the universe was expanding, as shown by the Hubble diagram, prompted rival explanations known as
Physics 7
Fundamental physics
While physics aims to discover
universal laws, its theories lie in
explicit domains of applicability.
Loosely speaking, the laws of classical
physics accurately describe systems
whose important length scales are
greater than the atomic scale and
whose motions are much slower than
the speed of light. Outside of this
domain, observations do not match
their predictions. Albert Einstein
contributed the framework of special The basic domains of physics
With the standard consensus that the laws of physics are universal and do not change with time, physics can be used
to study things that would ordinarily be mired in uncertainty. For example, in the study of the origin of the Earth, one
can reasonably model Earth's mass, temperature, and rate of rotation, over time. It also allows for simulations in
engineering which drastically speed up the development of a new technology.
But there is also considerable interdisciplinarity in the physicist's methods, and so many other important fields are
influenced by physics: e.g. presently the fields of econophysics plays an important role, as well as sociophysics.
Current research
Research in physics is continually progressing on a large number of
fronts.
In condensed matter physics, an important unsolved theoretical
problem is that of high-temperature superconductivity. Many
condensed matter experiments are aiming to fabricate workable
spintronics and quantum computers.
In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for
physics beyond the Standard Model have begun to appear. Foremost
among these are indications that neutrinos have non-zero mass. These Feynman diagram signed by R. P. Feynman
These complex phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, including the
availability of modern mathematical methods and computers, which enabled complex systems to be modeled in new
ways. Complex physics has become part of increasingly interdisciplinary research, as exemplified by the study of
turbulence in aerodynamics and the observation of pattern formation in biological systems. In 1932, Horace Lamb
said:
“
I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two matters on which I hope for enlightenment. One is quantum
electrodynamics, and the other is the turbulent motion of fluids. And about the former I am rather optimistic.
” [23]
—Horace Lamb
See also
General
• Glossary of classical physics
• List of elementary physics formulae
• Index of physics articles
• Perfection in physics and chemistry
• Philosophy of physics
• List of important publications in physics
• Physics (Aristotle) – an early book on physics, which attempted to analyze and define motion from a
philosophical point of view
• Unsolved problems in physics
Related fields
• Astronomy
• Chemistry
• Engineering
• Mathematics
• Science
Physics 10
Further reading
Popular reading
• Feynman, Richard (1994). Character of Physical Law. Random House. ISBN 0-679-60127-9.
• Greene, Brian (2000). The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate
Theory. Vintage. ISBN 0-375-70811-1.
• Hawking, Stephen (1988). A Brief History of Time. Bantam. ISBN 0-553-10953-7.
• Kaku, Michio (1995). Hyperspace: A Scientific Odyssey Through Parallel Universes, Time Warps, and the 10th
Dimension. Anchor. ISBN 0-385-47705-8.
• Leggett, Anthony (1988). The Problems of Physics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-289186-3.
• Kakalios, James (2005). The physics of superheroes. Gotham books. ISBN 1-592-40242-9.
• Rogers, Eric (1960). Physics for the Inquiring Mind: The Methods, Nature, and Philosophy of Physical Science.
Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08016-X.
• Walker, Jearl (1977). The Flying Circus of Physics. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-02984-X.
• Fontanella, John (2006). The Physics of Basketball. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-801-88513-2.
General textbooks
• Crowell, Benjamin (2001). Simple Nature [24].
• Feynman, Richard; Leighton, Robert; Sands, Matthew (1989). Feynman Lectures on Physics. Addison-Wesley.
ISBN 0-201-51003-0.
• Feynman, Richard. Exercises for Feynman Lectures Volumes 1-3. Caltech. ISBN 2-35648-789-1.
• Knight, Randall (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: A Strategic Approach. Benjamin Cummings. ISBN
0-8053-8685-8.
• Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert; Walker, Jearl. Fundamentals of Physics 8th ed. ISBN 978-0-471-75801-3.
• Hewitt, Paul (2001). Conceptual Physics with Practicing Physics Workbook (9th ed.). Addison Wesley. ISBN
0-321-05202-1.
• Giancoli, Douglas (2005). Physics: Principles with Applications (6th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-060620-0.
• Schiller, Christoph (2007). Motion Mountain: The Free Physics Textbook [25].
• Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN
0-534-40842-7.
• Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics
(5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4.
• Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern
Physics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0810-8.
• Wilson, Jerry; Buffa, Anthony (2002). College Physics (5th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-067644-6.
• Verma, H. C. (2005). Concepts of Physics. Bharti Bhavan. ISBN 81-7709-187-5.
Physics 11
External links
General
• HyperPhysics website [26] – HyperPhysics, a physics and astronomy mind-map from Georgia State University
• PhysicsCentral [27] – Web portal run by the American Physical Society [28]
• Physics.org [29] – Web portal run by the Institute of Physics [30]
• The Skeptic's Guide to Physics [31]
• Usenet Physics FAQ [32] – A FAQ compiled by sci.physics and other physics newsgroups
• Website of the Nobel Prize in physics [33]
• World of Physics [34] – An online encyclopedic dictionary of physics
• Nature: Physics [35]
• Physics [36] announced July 17, 2008 by the American Physical Society
• Physics/Publications [37] at the Open Directory Project
• Physicsweb.org [38]
• Physics Central [39] - includes articles on astronomy, particle physics, and mathematics.
• The Vega Science Trust [40] - science videos, including physics
• Video: Physics "Lightning" Tour with Justin Morgan [41]
• 52-part video course: The Mechanical Universe...and Beyond [42] Note: also available at 01 - Introduction Physics
[43]
at Google Video (Adobe Flash video)
• Encyclopedia of Physics [44] at Scholarpedia
• de Haas, Paul, "Historic Papers in Physics (20th Century)" [45]
Organizations
• AIP.org [46] – Website of the American Institute of Physics
• APS.org [47] – Website of the American Physical Society
• IOP.org [48] – Website of the Institute of Physics
• PlanetPhysics.org [49]
• Royal Society [50] – Although not exclusively a physics institution, it has a strong history of physics
• SPS National [51] – Website of the Society of Physics Students
pcd:Fisike
References
[1] R. P. Feynman, R. B. Leighton, M. Sands (1963), The Feynman Lectures on Physics, ISBN 0-201-02116-1 Hard-cover. p.1-1 Feynman
begins with the atomic hypothesis, as his most compact statement of all scientific knowledge: "If, in some cataclysm, all of scientific
knowledge were to be destroyed, and only one sentence passed on to the next generations ..., what statement would contain the most
information in the fewest words? I believe it is ... that all things are made up of atoms – little particles that move around in perpetual motion,
attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another. ..." vol. I p. I–2
[2] James Clerk Maxwell (1878), Matter and Motion (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=noRgWP0_UZ8C& printsec=titlepage& dq=matter+
and+ motion& source=gbs_summary_r& cad=0). New York: D. Van Nostrand. p.1: "Nature of Physical Science – Physical science is that
department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature." | accessdate=2008-11-04
[3] H.D. Young & R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics: 11th Edition: International Edition (2004), Addison Wesley.
Chapter 1, section 1.1, page 2 has this to say: "Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find
patterns and principles that relate these phenomena. These patterns are called physical theories or, when they are very well established and of
broad use, physical laws or principles."
Steve Holzner, Physics for Dummies (2006), Wiley. Chapter 1, page 7 says: "Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe
around you." See Amazon Online Reader: Physics For Dummies (For Dummies(Math & Science)) (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ gp/ reader/
0764554336), retrieved 24 Nov 2006
[4] Note: The term 'universe' is defined as everything that physically exists: the entirety of space and time, all forms of matter, energy and
momentum, and the physical laws and constants that govern them. However, the term 'universe' may also be used in slightly different
contextual senses, denoting concepts such as the cosmos or the philosophical world.
Physics 12
[5] Evidence exists that the earliest civilizations dating back to beyond 3000BC, such as the Sumerians, Ancient Egyptians, and the Indus Valley
Civilization, all had a predictive knowledge and a very basic understanding of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars.
[6] Francis Bacon's 1620 Novum Organum was critical in the development of scientific method.
[7] The Feynman Lectures on Physics Volume I. Feynman, Leighton and Sands. ISBN 0-201-02115-3 See Chapter 3 : "The Relation of Physics
to Other Sciences" for a general discussion. For the philosophical issue of whether other sciences can be "reduced" to physics, see
reductionism and special sciences).
[8] Some principles, such as Newton's laws of motion, are still generally called "laws" even though they are now known to be limiting cases of
newer theories. Thus, for example, in Thomas Brody (1993, Luis de la Peña and Peter Hodgson, eds.) The Philosophy Behind Physics ISBN
0-387-55914-0, pp 18–24 (Chapter 2), explains the 'epistemic cycle' in which a student of physics discovers that physics is not a finished
product but is instead the process of creating [that product].
[9] See, for example, the influence of Kant and Ritter on Oersted.
[10] Concepts which are denoted hypothetical can change with time. For example, the atom of nineteenth century physics was denigrated by
some, including Ernst Mach's critique of Ludwig Boltzmann's formulation of statistical mechanics. By the end of World War II, the atom was
no longer deemed hypothetical.
[11] "Philosophy is written in that great book which ever lies before our eyes. I mean the universe, but we cannot understand it if we do not first
learn the language and grasp the symbols in which it is written. This book is written in the mathematical language, and the symbols are
triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without whose help it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word of it, and without
which one wanders in vain through a dark labyrinth." – Galileo (1623), The Assayer, as quoted by G. Toraldo Di Francia (1976), The
Investigation of the Physical World ISBN 0-521-29925-X p.10
[12] Rosenberg, Alex (2006). Philosophy of Science. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-34317-8. See Chapter 1 for a discussion on the necessity of
philosophy of science.
[13] Peter Godfrey-Smith (2003), Chapter 14 "Bayesianism and Modern Theories of Evidence" Theory and Reality: an introduction to the
philosophy of science ISBN 0-226-30063-3
[14] Peter Godfrey-Smith (2003), Chapter 15 "Empiricism, Naturalism, and Scientific Realism?" Theory and Reality: an introduction to the
philosophy of science ISBN 0-226-30063-3
[15] See Laplace, Pierre Simon, A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities, translated from the 6th French edition by Frederick Wilson Truscott and
Frederick Lincoln Emory, Dover Publications (New York, 1951)
[16] See "The Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics" Ox Bow Press (1995) ISBN 1881987094. and "My View of the World" Ox Bow Press
(1983) ISBN 0918024307.
[17] Stephen Hawking and Roger Penrose (1996), The Nature of Space and Time ISBN 0-691-05084-8 p.4 "I think that Roger is a Platonist at
heart but he must answer for himself."
[18] Roger Penrose, The Road to Reality ISBN 0-679-45443-8
[19] Penrose, Roger; Abner Shimony, Nancy Cartwright, Stephen Hawking (1997). The Large, the Small and the Human Mind. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-78572-3.
[20] Yet, universalism is encouraged in the culture of physics. For example, the World Wide Web, which was innovated at CERN by Tim
Berners-Lee, was created in service to the computer infrastructure of CERN, and was/is intended for use by physicists worldwide. The same
might be said for arXiv.org
[21] "Division of Condensed Matter Physics Governance History" (http:/ / dcmp. bc. edu/ page. php?name=governance_history). . Retrieved
2007-02-13.
[22] 584 co-authors "Direct observation of the strange 'b' baryon " Fermilab-Pub-07/196-E, June 12, 2007 http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ 0706.
1690v2 finds a mass of 5.774 GeV for the
[23] Goldstein, Sydney (1969). "Fluid Mechanics in the First Half of this Century". Annual Reviews in Fluid Mechanics 1: 1–28. doi:
10.1146/annurev.fl.01.010169.000245 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1146/ annurev. fl. 01. 010169. 000245).
[24] http:/ / www. lightandmatter. com/ html_books/ 0sn/
[25] http:/ / www. motionmountain. net/
[26] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ Hbase/ hframe. html
[27] http:/ / www. physicscentral. com/
[28] http:/ / www. aps. org/
[29] http:/ / www. physics. org/
[30] http:/ / www. iop. org/
[31] http:/ / musr. physics. ubc. ca/ ~jess/ hr/ skept/
[32] http:/ / math. ucr. edu/ home/ baez/ physics/
[33] http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/
[34] http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ physics/
[35] http:/ / www. nature. com/ naturephysics
[36] http:/ / physics. aps. org/
[37] http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ / Science/ Physics/ Publications/ /
[38] http:/ / physicsweb. org
[39] http:/ / physlib. com/
Physics 13
Acceleration
For the waltz composed by Johann Strauss, see Accelerationen.
In physics, and more specifically kinematics,
acceleration is the change in velocity over time.[1]
Because velocity is a vector, it can change in two ways:
a change in magnitude and/or a change in direction. In
one dimension, i.e. a line, acceleration is the rate at
which something speeds up or slows down. However,
as a vector quantity, acceleration is also the rate at
which direction changes.[2] [3] Acceleration has the
dimensions L T−2. In SI units, acceleration is measured
in metres per second squared (m/s2).
In classical mechanics, for a body with constant mass, the acceleration of the body is proportional to the resultant
(total) force acting on it (Newton's second law):
Acceleration 14
where F is the resultant force acting on the body, m is the mass of the body, and a is its acceleration.
with v(t) equal to the speed of travel along the path, and
a unit vector tangent to the path pointing in the direction of motion at the chosen moment in time. Taking into
account both the changing speed v(t) and the changing direction of ut, the acceleration of a particle moving on a
curved path on a planar surface can be written using the chain rule of differentiation as:
where un is the unit (outward) normal vector to the particle's trajectory, and R is its instantaneous radius of curvature
based upon the osculating circle at time t. These components are called the tangential acceleration and the radial
Acceleration 15
acceleration, respectively. The negative of the radial acceleration is the centripetal acceleration, which points
inward, toward the center of curvature.
Extension of this approach to three-dimensional space curves that cannot be contained on a planar surface leads to
the Frenet-Serret formulas.[4] [5]
Relation to relativity
After completing his theory of special relativity, Albert Einstein realized that forces felt by objects undergoing
constant proper acceleration are actually feeling themselves being accelerated, so that, for example, a car's
acceleration forwards would result in the driver feeling a slight pressure between herself and her seat. In the case of
gravity, which Einstein concluded is not actually a force, this is not the case; acceleration due to gravity is not felt by
an object in free-fall. This was the basis for his development of general relativity, a relativistic theory of gravity.
See also
• Uniform acceleration
• Angular acceleration
• Gravitational acceleration
• Coordinate vs. physical acceleration
• Derivatives of position
• Equations of Motion
• Proper Acceleration
• 0 to 60 mph
• Shock (mechanics)
• Specific force
External links
• Acceleration and Free Fall [6] - a chapter from an online textbook
• Science aid: Movement [7]
• Science.dirbix: Acceleration [8]
• Acceleration Calculator [9]
• Motion Characteristics for Circular Motion [10]
• Practical Guide to Accelerometers [11]
• Acceleration Converter [12] Converts common acceleration units.
• Acceleration Calculator [13] Simple acceleration unit converter
References
[1] Crew, Henry (2008). The Principles of Mechanics. BiblioBazaar, LLC. pp. 43. ISBN 0559368712.
[2] Bondi, Hermann (1980). Relativity and Common Sense. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 3. ISBN 0486240215.
[3] Lehrman, Robert L. (1998). Physics the Easy Way. Barron's Educational Series. pp. 27. ISBN 0764102362.
[4] Larry C. Andrews & Ronald L. Phillips (2003). Mathematical Techniques for Engineers and Scientists (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=MwrDfvrQyWYC& pg=PA164& dq=particle+ "planar+ motion"& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U2LpH6ofhuuC2UiED0pf38wbspY8A#PPA164,M1). SPIE Press. p. 164. ISBN 0819445061. .
[5] Ch V Ramana Murthy & NC Srinivas (2001). Applied Mathematics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Q0Pvv4vWOlQC& pg=PA337&
vq=frenet& dq=isbn=8121920825& source=gbs_search_s& sig=ACfU3U3S5vGMS-NnraAEmpBf6B9bB2wK6A). New Delhi: S. Chand &
Co.. p. 337. ISBN 81-219-2082-5. .
[6] http:/ / www. lightandmatter. com/ html_books/ 1np/ ch03/ ch03. html
[7] http:/ / www. scienceaid. co. uk/ physics/ forces/ motion. html
[8] http:/ / science. dirbix. com/ physics/ acceleration
[9] http:/ / www. ajdesigner. com/ constantacceleration/ cavelocitya. php
Acceleration 16
[10] http:/ / www. glenbrook. k12. il. us/ gbssci/ phys/ Class/ circles/ u6l1b. html
[11] http:/ / www. sensr. com/ pdf/ practical-guide-to-accelerometers. pdf
[12] http:/ / www. convertbuster. com/ Tools/ AccelerationConverter/ tabid/ 103/ Default. aspx
[13] http:/ / www. unitjuggler. com/ convert-acceleration-from-ms2-to-fts2. html
Force
See also Force (disambiguation).
In physics, the concept of force is used to
describe an influence which causes a free
massive body to undergo an acceleration.
Forces which do not act uniformly on all
parts of a body will also cause mechanical
stresses.[1]
An applied force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. Newton's second law states that an
object with a constant mass will accelerate in proportion to the net force acting upon and in inverse proportion to its
mass. Equivalently, the net force, on an object equals the rate at which its momentum changes.[4]
Philosophers in antiquity have used the concept of force in the study of stationary and moving objects. Aristotle
attempted to define this concept in detail but incorporated fundamental misunderstandings that lasted many
centuries. Archimedes developed a better understanding of force by observing simple machines, but many in his time
still believed Aristotle's concept of force.[5] When the Age of Enlightenment began, Sir Isaac Newton corrected these
misunderstandings with mathematical insight that remained unchanged for nearly three hundred years.[3] By the
early 20th century, Einstein developed the theory of Special Relativity to correctly predict how forces increase
exponentially for particles approaching the speed of light.
With modern insights into quantum mechanics and technology that can accelerate particles close to the speed of
light, particle physics has devised a Standard Model to describe forces between particles smaller than atoms. The
Standard Model predicts that exchange particles called gauge bosons are the fundamental means by which forces are
emitted and absorbed. Only four main interactions are known: in order of decreasing strength, they are: strong,
Force 17
electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational.[2] High-energy particle physics observations made during the 1970s and
1980s confirmed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are expressions of a more fundamental electroweak
interaction.[6]
Pre-Newtonian concepts
Since antiquity, the concept of force has been recognized as integral to the
functioning of each of the simple machines. The mechanical advantage given
by a simple machine allowed for less force to be used in exchange for that
force acting over a greater distance. Analysis of the characteristics of forces
ultimately culminated in the work of Archimedes who was especially famous
for formulating a treatment of buoyant forces inherent in fluids.[5]
These shortcomings would not be fully explained and corrected until the seventeenth century work of Galileo
Galilei, who was influenced by the late medieval idea that objects in forced motion carried an innate force of
impetus. Galileo constructed an experiment in which stones and cannonballs were both rolled down an incline to
disprove the Aristotelian theory of motion early in the seventeenth century. He showed that the bodies were
accelerated by gravity to an extent which was independent of their mass and argued that objects retain their velocity
unless acted on by a force, for example friction.[9]
Force 18
Newtonian mechanics
Sir Isaac Newton sought to describe the motion of all objects using the concepts of inertia and force, and in doing so,
he found that they obey certain conservation laws. In 1687, Newton went on to publish his thesis Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica.[3] [10] In this work, Newton set out three laws of motion that to this day are the
way forces are described in physics.[10]
where is the momentum of the system, and is the net (vector sum) force. In equilibrium, there is zero net force
by definition, but (balanced) forces may be present nevertheless. In contrast, the second law states an unbalanced
force acting on an object will result in the object's momentum changing over time.[10]
By the definition of momentum,
For closed systems (systems of constant total mass), the time derivative of mass is zero and the equation becomes
By substituting the definition of acceleration, the algebraic version of this common simplification of Newton's
second law is derived:
It is sometimes called the "second most famous formula in physics".[13] Newton never explicitly stated the formula
in the reduced form above.
Newton's second law asserts the proportionality of acceleration and mass to force. Accelerations can be defined
through kinematic measurements. However, while kinematics are well-described through reference frame analysis in
advanced physics, there are still deep questions that remain as to what is the proper definition of mass. General
relativity offers an equivalence between space-time and mass, but lacking a coherent theory of quantum gravity, it is
unclear as to how or whether this connection is relevant on microscales. With some justification, Newton's second
Force 20
law can be taken as a quantitative definition of mass by writing the law as an equality; the relative units of force and
mass then are fixed.
The use of Newton's second law as a definition of force has been disparaged in some of the more rigorous
textbooks,[2] [14] because it is essentially a mathematical truism. The equality between the abstract idea of a "force"
and the abstract idea of a "changing momentum vector" ultimately has no observational significance because one
cannot be defined without simultaneously defining the other. What a "force" or "changing momentum" is must either
be referred to an intuitive understanding of our direct perception, or be defined implicitly through a set of
self-consistent mathematical formulas. Notable physicists, philosophers and mathematicians who have sought a more
explicit definition of the concept of "force" include Ernst Mach, Clifford Truesdell and Walter Noll.[15]
Newton's second law can be used to measure the strength of forces. For instance, knowledge of the masses of planets
along with the accelerations of their orbits allows scientists to calculate the gravitational forces on planets.
This law implies that forces always occur in action-and-reaction pairs.[10] If object 1 and object 2 are considered to
be in the same system, then the net force on the system due to the interactions between objects 1 and 2 is zero since
This means that in a closed system of particles, there are no internal forces that are unbalanced. That is,
action-and-reaction pairs of forces shared between any two objects in a closed system will not cause the center of
mass of the system to accelerate. The constituent objects only accelerate with respect to each other, the system itself
remains unaccelerated. Alternatively, if an external force acts on the system, then the center of mass will experience
an acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the external force divided by the mass of the system.[2]
Combining Newton's second and third laws, it is possible to show that the linear momentum of a system is
conserved. Using
which is the conservation of linear momentum.[17] Using the similar arguments, it is possible to generalizing this to a
system of an arbitrary number of particles. This shows that exchanging momentum between constituent objects will
not affect the net momentum of a system. In general, as long as all forces are due to the interaction of objects with
mass, it is possible to define a system such that net momentum is never lost nor gained.[2]
Force 21
Descriptions
Since forces are perceived as pushes or pulls, this can
provide an intuitive understanding for describing
forces.[3] As with other physical concepts (e.g.
temperature), the intuitive understanding of forces is
quantified using precise operational definitions that
are consistent with direct observations and compared
to a standard measurement scale. Through
experimentation, it is determined that laboratory
measurements of forces are fully consistent with the
conceptual definition of force offered by Newtonian
mechanics.
Historically, forces were first quantitatively investigated in conditions of static equilibrium where several forces
canceled each other out. Such experiments demonstrate the crucial properties that forces are additive vector
quantities: they have magnitude and direction.[3] When two forces act on an object, the resulting force, the resultant,
can be determined by following the parallelogram rule of vector addition: the addition of two vectors represented by
sides of a parallelogram, gives an equivalent resultant vector which is equal in magnitude and direction to the
transversal of the parallelogram.[2] . The magnitude of the resultant varies from the difference of the magnitudes of
the two forces to their sum, depending on the angle between their lines of action.
Free-body diagrams can be used as a convenient way to keep track of forces acting on a system. Ideally, these
diagrams are drawn with the angles and relative magnitudes of the force vectors preserved so that graphical vector
addition can be done to determine the resultant.[18]
As well as being added, forces can also be resolved into independent components at right angles to each other. A
horizontal force pointing northeast can therefore be split into two forces, one pointing north, and one pointing east.
Summing these component forces using vector addition yields the original force. Resolving force vectors into
components of a set of basis vectors is often a more mathematically clean way to describe forces than using
Force 22
magnitudes and directions.[19] This is because, for orthogonal components, the components of the vector sum are
uniquely determined by the scalar addition of the components of the individual vectors. Orthogonal components are
independent of each other because forces acting at ninety degrees to each other have no effect on the magnitude or
direction of the other. Choosing a set of orthogonal basis vectors is often done by considering what set of basis
vectors will make the mathematics most convenient. Choosing a basis vector that is in the same direction as one of
the forces is desirable, since that force would then have only one non-zero component. Orthogonal force vectors can
be three-dimensional with the third component being at right-angles to the other two.[2]
Equilibria
Equilibrium occurs when the resultant force acting on a point particle is zero (that is, the vector sum of all forces is
zero). When dealing with an extense body, it is also necessary that the net torque in it is 0.
There are two kinds of equilibrium: static equilibrium and dynamic equilibrium.
Static equilibrium
Static equilibrium was understood well before the invention of classical mechanics. Objects which are at rest have
zero net force acting on them.[20]
The simplest case of static equilibrium occurs when two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. For
example, an object on a level surface is pulled (attracted) downward toward the center of the Earth by the force of
gravity. At the same time, surface forces resist the downward force with equal upward force (called the normal
force). The situation is one of zero net force and no acceleration.[3]
Pushing against an object on a frictional surface can result in a situation where the object does not move because the
applied force is opposed by static friction, generated between the object and the table surface. For a situation with no
movement, the static friction force exactly balances the applied force resulting in no acceleration. The static friction
increases or decreases in response to the applied force up to an upper limit determined by the characteristics of the
contact between the surface and the object.[3]
A static equilibrium between two forces is the most usual way of measuring forces, using simple devices such as
weighing scales and spring balances. For example, an object suspended on a vertical spring scale experiences the
force of gravity acting on the object balanced by a force applied by the "spring reaction force" which equals object's
weight. Using such tools, some quantitative force laws were discovered: that the force of gravity is proportional to
volume for objects of constant density (widely exploited for millennia to define standard weights); Archimedes'
principle for buoyancy; Archimedes' analysis of the lever; Boyle's law for gas pressure; and Hooke's law for springs.
These were all formulated and experimentally verified before Isaac Newton expounded his three laws of motion.[2]
[3]
Force 23
Dynamical equilibrium
Moreover, any object traveling at a constant velocity must be subject to zero net force (resultant force). This is the
definition of dynamical equilibrium: when all the forces on an object balance but it still moves at a constant velocity.
A simple case of dynamical equilibrium occurs in constant velocity motion across a surface with kinetic friction. In
such a situation, a force is applied in the direction of motion while the kinetic friction force exactly opposes the
applied force. This results in a net zero force, but since the object started with a non-zero velocity, it continues to
move with a non-zero velocity. Aristotle misinterpreted this motion as being caused by the applied force. However,
when kinetic friction is taken into consideration it is clear that there is no net force causing constant velocity
motion.[2]
Special relativity
In the special theory of relativity mass and energy are equivalent (as can be seen by calculating the work required to
accelerate an object). When an object's velocity increases so does its energy and hence its mass equivalent (inertia).
It thus requires more force to accelerate it the same amount than it did at a lower velocity. Newton's second law
remains valid due to the fact that it is a mathematical definition.[21] But in order to be conserved, relativistic
momentum must be redefined as:
where
is the velocity and
is the speed of light.
The relativistic expression relating force and acceleration for a particle with constant non-zero rest mass moving
in the direction is:
Force 24
[22]
Relativistic force does not produce a constant acceleration, but an ever decreasing acceleration as the object
approaches the speed of light. Note that is undefined for an object with a non zero rest mass at the speed of light,
and the theory yields no prediction at that speed.
One can however restore the form of
for use in relativity through the use of four-vectors. This relation is correct in relativity when is the four-force,
[23]
m is the invariant mass, and is the four-acceleration.
Feynman diagrams
In modern particle physics, forces and the acceleration
of particles are explained as the exchange of
momentum-carrying gauge bosons. With the
development of quantum field theory and general
relativity, it was realized that "force" is a redundant
concept arising from conservation of momentum
(4-momentum in relativity and momentum of virtual
particles in quantum electrodynamics). The
conservation of momentum, from Noether's theorem,
can be directly derived from the symmetry of space and
so is usually considered more fundamental than the
concept of a force. Thus the currently known
fundamental forces are considered more accurately to
be "fundamental interactions".[6] When particle A emits
(creates) or absorbs (annihilates) particle B, a force
accelerates particle A in response to the momentum of
A Feynman diagram for the decay of a neutron into a proton. The W
particle B, thereby conserving momentum as a whole. boson is between two vertices indicating a repulsion.
This description applies for all forces arising from
fundamental interactions. While sophisticated mathematical descriptions are needed to predict, in full detail, the
nature of such interactions, there is a conceptually simple way to describe such interactions through the use of
Feynman diagrams. In a Feynman diagram, each matter particle is represented as a straight line (see world line)
traveling through time which normally increases up or to the right in the diagram. Matter and anti-matter particles
are identical except for their direction of propagation through the Feynman diagram. World lines of particles
intersect at interaction vertices, and the Feynman diagram represents any force arising from an interaction as
occurring at the vertex with an associated instantaneous change in the direction of the particle world lines. Gauge
bosons are emitted away from the vertex as wavy lines (similar to waves) and, in the case of virtual particle
exchange, are absorbed at an adjacent vertex.[24]
The utility of Feynman diagrams is that other types of physical phenomena that are part of the general picture of
fundamental interactions but are conceptually separate from forces can also be described using the same rules. For
example, a Feynman diagram can describe in succinct detail how a neutron decays into an electron, proton, and
neutrino, an interaction mediated by the same gauge boson that is responsible for the weak nuclear force.[24]
Force 25
Fundamental models
All the forces in the universe are based on four fundamental forces. The strong and weak forces act only at very short
distances, and are responsible for the interactions between subatomic particles including nucleons and compound
nuclei. The electromagnetic force acts between electric charges and the gravitational force acts between masses. All
other forces are based on the existence of the four fundamental interactions. For example, friction is a manifestation
of the electromagnetic force acting between the atoms of two surfaces, and the Pauli Exclusion Principle,[25] which
does not allow atoms to pass through each other. The forces in springs, modeled by Hooke's law, are also the result
of electromagnetic forces and the Exclusion Principle acting together to return the object to its equilibrium position.
Centrifugal forces are acceleration forces which arise simply from the acceleration of rotating frames of reference.[2]
The development of fundamental theories for forces proceeded along the lines of unification of disparate ideas. For
example, Isaac Newton unified the force responsible for objects falling at the surface of the Earth with the force
responsible for the orbits of celestial mechanics in his universal theory of gravitation. Michael Faraday and James
Clerk Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic forces were unified through one consistent theory of
electromagnetism. In the twentieth century, the development of quantum mechanics led to a modern understanding
that the first three fundamental forces (all except gravity) are manifestations of matter (fermions) interacting by
exchanging virtual particles called gauge bosons.[26] This standard model of particle physics posits a similarity
between the forces and led scientists to predict the unification of the weak and electromagnetic forces in electroweak
theory subsequently confirmed by observation. The complete formulation of the standard model predicts an as yet
unobserved Higgs mechanism, but observations such as neutrino oscillations indicate that the standard model is
incomplete. A grand unified theory allowing for the combination of the electroweak interaction with the strong force
is held out as a possibility with candidate theories such as supersymmetry proposed to accommodate some of the
outstanding unsolved problems in physics. Physicists are still attempting to develop self-consistent unification
models that would combine all four fundamental interactions into a theory of everything. Einstein tried and failed at
this endeavor, but currently the most popular approach to answering this question is string theory.[6]
Force 26
Gravity
What we now call gravity was not identified as a universal force until the work of
Isaac Newton. Before Newton, the tendency for objects to fall towards the Earth was
not understood to be related to the motions of celestial objects. Galileo was
instrumental in describing the characteristics of falling objects by determining that the
acceleration of every object in free-fall was constant and independent of the mass of
the object. Today, this acceleration due to gravity towards the surface of the Earth is
usually designated as and has a magnitude of about 9.81 meters per second squared
(this measurement is taken from sea level and may vary depending on location), and
points toward the center of the Earth.[27] This observation means that the force of
gravity on an object at the Earth's surface is directly proportional to the object's mass.
Thus an object that has a mass of will experience a force:
In free-fall, this force is unopposed and therefore the net force on the object is its weight. For objects not in free-fall,
the force of gravity is opposed by the reactions of their supports. For example, a person standing on the ground
experiences zero net force, since his weight is balanced by a normal force exerted by the ground.[2]
Newton's contribution to gravitational theory was to unify the motions of heavenly bodies, which Aristotle had
assumed were in a natural state of constant motion, with falling motion observed on the Earth. He proposed a law of
gravity that could account for the celestial motions that had been described earlier using Kepler's Laws of Planetary
Motion.[28]
Newton came to realize that the effects of gravity might be observed in different ways at larger distances. In
particular, Newton determined that the acceleration of the Moon around the Earth could be ascribed to the same
Force 27
force of gravity if the acceleration due to gravity decreased as an inverse square law. Further, Newton realized that
the acceleration due to gravity is proportional to the mass of the attracting body.[28] Combining these ideas gives a
formula that relates the mass ( ) and the radius ( ) of the Earth to the gravitational acceleration:
where the vector direction is given by , the unit vector directed outward from the center of the Earth.[10]
In this equation, a dimensional constant is used to describe the relative strength of gravity. This constant has
come to be known as Newton's Universal Gravitation Constant,[29] though its value was unknown in Newton's
lifetime. Not until 1798 was Henry Cavendish able to make the first measurement of using a torsion balance; this
was widely reported in the press as a measurement of the mass of the Earth since knowing the could allow one to
solve for the Earth's mass given the above equation. Newton, however, realized that since all celestial bodies
followed the same laws of motion, his law of gravity had to be universal. Succinctly stated, Newton's Law of
Gravitation states that the force on a spherical object of mass due to the gravitational pull of mass is
where is the distance between the two objects' centers of mass and is the unit vector pointed in the direction
away from the center of the first object toward the center of the second object.[10]
This formula was powerful enough to stand as the basis for all subsequent descriptions of motion within the solar
system until the twentieth century. During that time, sophisticated methods of perturbation analysis[30] were invented
to calculate the deviations of orbits due to the influence of multiple bodies on a planet, moon, comet, or asteroid. The
formalism was exact enough to allow mathematicians to predict the existence of the planet Neptune before it was
observed.[31]
It was only the orbit of the planet Mercury that Newton's Law of Gravitation seemed not to fully explain. Some
astrophysicists predicted the existence of another planet (Vulcan) that would explain the discrepancies; however,
despite some early indications, no such planet could be found. When Albert Einstein finally formulated his theory of
general relativity (GR) he turned his attention to the problem of Mercury's orbit and found that his theory added a
correction which could account for the discrepancy. This was the first time that Newton's Theory of Gravity had
been shown to be less correct than an alternative.[32]
Since then, and so far, general relativity has been acknowledged as the theory which best explains gravity. In GR,
gravitation is not viewed as a force, but rather, objects moving freely in gravitational fields travel under their own
inertia in straight lines through curved space-time – defined as the shortest space-time path between two space-time
events. From the perspective of the object, all motion occurs as if there were no gravitation whatsoever. It is only
when observing the motion in a global sense that the curvature of space-time can be observed and the force is
inferred from the object's curved path. Thus, the straight line path in space-time is seen as a curved line in space, and
it is called the ballistic trajectory of the object. For example, a basketball thrown from the ground moves in a
parabola, as it is in a uniform gravitational field. Its space-time trajectory (when the extra ct dimension is added) is
almost a straight line, slightly curved (with the radius of curvature of the order of few light-years). The time
derivative of the changing momentum of the object is what we label as "gravitational force".[2]
Electromagnetic forces
The electrostatic force was first described in 1784 by Coulomb as a force which existed intrinsically between two
charges.[33] The properties of the electrostatic force were that it varied as an inverse square law directed in the radial
direction, was both attractive and repulsive (there was intrinsic polarity), was independent of the mass of the charged
objects, and followed the law of superposition. Coulomb's Law unifies all these observations into one succinct
statement.[34]
Force 28
Subsequent mathematicians and physicists found the construct of the electric field to be useful for determining the
electrostatic force on an electric charge at any point in space. The electric field was based on using a hypothetical
"test charge" anywhere in space and then using Coulomb's Law to determine the electrostatic force.[35] Thus the
electric field anywhere in space is defined as
where is the magnitude of the hypothetical test current and is the length of hypothetical wire through which the
test current flows. The magnetic field exerts a force on all magnets including, for example, those used in compasses.
The fact that the Earth's magnetic field is aligned closely with the orientation of the Earth's axis causes compass
magnets to become oriented because of the magnetic force pulling on the needle.
Through combining the definition of electric current as the time rate of change of electric charge, a rule of vector
multiplication called Lorentz's Law describes the force on a charge moving in an magnetic field.[35] The connection
between electricity and magnetism allows for the description of a unified electromagnetic force that acts on a charge.
This force can be written as a sum of the electrostatic force (due to the electric field) and the magnetic force (due to
the magnetic field). Fully stated, this is the law:
where is the electromagnetic force, is the magnitude of the charge of the particle, is the electric field, is
the velocity of the particle which is crossed with the magnetic field ( ).
The origin of electric and magnetic fields would not be fully explained until 1864 when James Clerk Maxwell
unified a number of earlier theories into a succinct set of four equations. These "Maxwell Equations" fully described
the sources of the fields as being stationary and moving charges, and the interactions of the fields themselves. This
led Maxwell to discover that electric and magnetic fields could be "self-generating" through a wave that traveled at a
speed which he calculated to be the speed of light. This insight united the nascent fields of electromagnetic theory
with optics and led directly to a complete description of the electromagnetic spectrum.[36]
However, attempting to reconcile electromagnetic theory with two observations, the photoelectric effect, and the
nonexistence of the ultraviolet catastrophe, proved troublesome. Through the work of leading theoretical physicists,
a new theory of electromagnetism was developed using quantum mechanics. This final modification to
electromagnetic theory ultimately led to quantum electrodynamics (or QED), which fully describes all
electromagnetic phenomena as being mediated by wave particles known as photons. In QED, photons are the
fundamental exchange particle which described all interactions relating to electromagnetism including the
electromagnetic force.[37]
It is a common misconception to ascribe the stiffness and rigidity of solid matter to the repulsion of like charges
under the influence of the electromagnetic force. However, these characteristics actually result from the Pauli
Exclusion Principle. Since electrons are fermions, they cannot occupy the same quantum mechanical state as other
electrons. When the electrons in a material are densely packed together, there are not enough lower energy quantum
mechanical states for them all, so some of them must be in higher energy states. This means that it takes energy to
pack them together. While this effect is manifested macroscopically as a structural "force", it is technically only the
result of the existence of a finite set of electron states.
Force 29
Nuclear forces
There are two "nuclear forces" which today are usually described as interactions that take place in quantum theories
of particle physics. The strong nuclear force[38] is the force responsible for the structural integrity of atomic nuclei
while the weak nuclear force[39] is responsible for the decay of certain nucleons into leptons and other types of
hadrons.[2]
The strong force is today understood to represent the interactions between quarks and gluons as detailed by the
theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD).[40] The strong force is the fundamental force mediated by gluons, acting
upon quarks, antiquarks, and the gluons themselves. The strong interaction is the most powerful of the four
fundamental forces.
The strong force only acts directly upon elementary particles. However, a residual of the force is observed between
hadrons (the best known example being the force that acts between nucleons in atomic nuclei) as the nuclear force.
Here the strong force acts indirectly, transmitted as gluons which form part of the virtual pi and rho mesons which
classically transmit the nuclear force (see this topic for more). The failure of many searches for free quarks has
shown that the elementary particles affected are not directly observable. This phenomenon is called colour
confinement.
The weak force is due to the exchange of the heavy W and Z bosons. Its most familiar effect is beta decay (of
neutrons in atomic nuclei) and the associated radioactivity. The word "weak" derives from the fact that the field
strength is some 1013 times less than that of the strong force. Still, it is stronger than gravity over short distances. A
consistent electroweak theory has also been developed which shows that electromagnetic forces and the weak force
are indistinguishable at a temperatures in excess of approximately 1015 Kelvin. Such temperatures have been probed
in modern particle accelerators and show the conditions of the universe in the early moments of the Big Bang.
Non-fundamental forces
Some forces are consequences of fundamental. In such situations, idealized models can be utilized to gain physical
insight.
Normal force
The normal force is the repulsive force of interaction between atoms at close contact.
When their electron clouds overlap, Pauli repulsion (due to fermionic nature of
electrons) follows resulting in the force which acts normal to the surface interface
between two objects.[41] The normal force, for example, is responsible for the structural
integrity of tables and floors as well as being the force that responds whenever an FN represents the normal
external force pushes on a solid object. An example of the normal force in action is the force exerted on the object.
impact force on an object crashing into an immobile surface.[2]
Friction
Friction is a surface force that opposes motion. The frictional force is directly related to the normal force which acts
to keep two solid objects separated at the point of contact. There are two broad classifications of frictional forces:
static friction and kinetic friction.
The static friction force ( ) will exactly oppose forces applied to an object parallel to a surface contact up to the
limit specified by the coefficient of static friction ( ) multiplied by the normal force ( ). In other words the
magnitude of the static friction force satisfies the inequality:
.
Force 30
The kinetic friction force ( ) is independent of both the forces applied and the movement of the object. Thus, the
magnitude of the force equals:
,
where is the coefficient of kinetic friction. For most surface interfaces, the coefficient of kinetic friction is less
than the coefficient of static friction.[2]
Tension
Tension forces can be modeled using ideal strings which are massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and unstretchable.
They can be combined with ideal pulleys which allow ideal strings to switch physical direction. Ideal strings transmit
tension forces instantaneously in action-reaction pairs so that if two objects are connected by an ideal string, any
force directed along the string by the first object is accompanied by a force directed along the string in the opposite
direction by the second object.[42] By connecting the same string multiple times to the same object through the use of
a set-up that uses movable pulleys, the tension force on a load can be multiplied. For every string that acts on a load,
another factor of the tension force in the string acts on the load. However, even though such machines allow for an
increase in force, there is a corresponding increase in the length of string that must be displaced in order to move the
load. These tandem effects result ultimately in the conservation of mechanical energy since the work done on the
load is the same no matter how complicated the machine.[2] [43]
Elastic force
An elastic force acts to return a spring to its natural length. An ideal spring is
taken to be massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and infinitely stretchable.
Such springs exert forces that push when contracted, or pull when extended,
in proportion to the displacement of the spring from its equilibrium
position.[44] This linear relationship was described by Robert Hooke in 1676,
for whom Hooke's law is named. If is the displacement, the force
exerted by an ideal spring equals:
where is the spring constant (or force constant), which is particular to the spring. The minus sign accounts for the
tendency of the elastic force to act in opposition to the applied load.[2]
Force 31
Continuum mechanics
Newton's laws and Newtonian mechanics in general were first developed to
describe how forces affect idealized point particles rather than
three-dimensional objects. However, in real life, matter has extended structure
and forces that act on one part of an object might affect other parts of an
object. For situations where lattice holding together the atoms in an object is
able to flow, contract, expand, or otherwise change shape, the theories of
continuum mechanics describe the way forces affect the material. For
example, in extended fluids, differences in pressure result in forces being
directed along the pressure gradients as follows:
where is the volume of the object in the fluid and is the scalar function that describes the pressure at all
locations in space. Pressure gradients and differentials result in the buoyant force for fluids suspended in
gravitational fields, winds in atmospheric science, and the lift associated with aerodynamics and flight.[2]
A specific instance of such a force that is associated with dynamic pressure is fluid resistance: a body force that
resists the motion of an object through a fluid due to viscosity. For so-called "Stokes' drag" the force is
approximately proportional to the velocity, but opposite in direction:
where:
is a constant that depends on the properties of the fluid and the dimensions of the object (usually the
cross-sectional area), and
is the velocity of the object.[2]
More formally, forces in continuum mechanics are fully described by a stress tensor with terms that are roughly
defined as
where is the relevant cross-sectional area for the volume for which the stress-tensor is being calculated. This
formalism includes pressure terms associated with forces that act normal to the cross-sectional area (the matrix
diagonals of the tensor) as well as shear terms associated with forces that act parallel to the cross-sectional area (the
off-diagonal elements). The stress tensor accounts for forces that cause all deformations including also tensile
stresses and compressions.
Force 32
Fictitious forces
There are forces which are frame dependent, meaning that they appear due to the adoption of non-Newtonian (that is,
non-inertial) reference frames. Such forces include the centrifugal force and the Coriolis force.[45] These forces are
considered fictitious because they do not exist in frames of reference that are not accelerating.[2]
In general relativity, gravity becomes a fictitious force that arises in situations where spacetime deviates from a flat
geometry. As an extension, Kaluza-Klein theory and string theory ascribe electromagnetism and the other
fundamental forces respectively to the curvature of differently scaled dimensions, which would ultimately imply that
all forces are fictitious.
where
is the particle's position vector relative to a pivot
is the force acting on the particle.
Torque is the rotation equivalent of force in the same way that angle is the rotational equivalent for position, angular
velocity for velocity, and angular momentum for momentum. All the formal treatments of Newton's Laws that
applied to forces equivalently apply to torques. Thus, as a consequence of Newton's First Law of Motion, there exists
rotational inertia that ensures that all bodies maintain their angular momentum unless acted upon by an unbalanced
torque. Likewise, Newton's Second Law of Motion can be used to derive an alternative definition of torque:
where
is the moment of inertia of the particle
is the angular acceleration of the particle.
This provides a definition for the moment of inertia which is the rotational equivalent for mass. In more advanced
treatments of mechanics, the moment of inertia acts as a tensor that, when properly analyzed, fully determines the
characteristics of rotations including precession and nutation.
Equivalently, the differential form of Newton's Second Law provides an alternative definition of torque:
[46]
Centripetal force
For an object accelerating in circular motion, the unbalanced force acting on the object equals:[48]
where is the mass of the object, is the velocity of the object and is the distance to the center of the circular
path and is the unit vector pointing in the radial direction outwards from the center. This means that the
unbalanced centripetal force felt by any object is always directed toward the center of the curving path. Such forces
act perpendicular to the velocity vector associated with the motion of an object, and therefore do not change the
speed of the object (magnitude of the velocity), but only the direction of the velocity vector. The unbalanced force
that accelerates an object can be resolved into a component that is perpendicular to the path, and one that is
tangential to the path. This yields both the tangential force which accelerates the object by either slowing it down or
speeding it up and the radial (centripetal) force which changes its direction.[2]
Kinematic integrals
Forces can be used to define a number of physical concepts by integrating with respect to kinematic variables. For
example, integrating with respect to time gives the definition of impulse[49]
which, by Newton's Second Law, must be equivalent to the change in momentum (yielding the Impulse momentum
theorem).
Similarly, integrating with respect to position gives a definition for the work done by a force:[50]
which is equivalent to changes in kinetic energy (yielding the work energy theorem).[50]
Power P is the rate of change dW/dt of the work W, as the trajectory is extended by a position change in a time
[51]
interval dt:
Potential energy
Instead of a force, often the mathematically related concept of a potential energy field can be used for convenience.
For instance, the gravitational force acting upon an object can be seen as the action of the gravitational field that is
present at the object's location. Restating mathematically the definition of energy (via the definition of work), a
potential scalar field is defined as that field whose gradient is equal and opposite to the force produced at
every point:
Forces can be classified as conservative or nonconservative. Conservative forces are equivalent to the gradient of a
potential while non-conservative forces are not.[2]
Force 34
Conservative forces
A conservative force that acts on a closed system has an associated mechanical work that allows energy to convert
only between kinetic or potential forms. This means that for a closed system, the net mechanical energy is conserved
whenever a conservative force acts on the system. The force, therefore, is related directly to the difference in
potential energy between two different locations in space,[52] and can be considered to be an artifact of the potential
field in the same way that the direction and amount of a flow of water can be considered to be an artifact of the
contour map of the elevation of an area.[2]
Conservative forces include gravity, the electromagnetic force, and the spring force. Each of these forces has models
which are dependent on a position often given as a radial vector emanating from spherically symmetric
potentials.[53] Examples of this follow:
For gravity:
where is electric permittivity of free space, and is the electric charge of object n.
For spring forces:
Nonconservative forces
For certain physical scenarios, it is impossible to model forces as being due to gradient of potentials. This is often
due to macrophysical considerations which yield forces as arising from a macroscopic statistical average of
microstates. For example, friction is caused by the gradients of numerous electrostatic potentials between the atoms,
but manifests as a force model which is independent of any macroscale position vector. Nonconservative forces other
than friction include other contact forces, tension, compression, and drag. However, for any sufficiently detailed
description, all these forces are the results of conservative ones since each of these macroscopic forces are the net
results of the gradients of microscopic potentials.[2]
The connection between macroscopic non-conservative forces and microscopic conservative forces is described by
detailed treatment with statistical mechanics. In macroscopic closed systems, nonconservative forces act to change
the internal energies of the system, and are often associated with the transfer of heat. According to the Second Law
of Thermodynamics, nonconservative forces necessarily result in energy transformations within closed systems from
ordered to more random conditions as entropy increases.[2]
Force 35
Units of measurement
The SI unit of force is the newton (symbol N), which is the force required to accelerate a one kilogram mass at a rate
of one meter per second squared, or kg·m·s−2.[54] The corresponding CGS unit is the dyne, the force required to
accelerate a one gram mass by one centimeter per second squared, or g·cm·s−2. A newton is thus equal to
100,000 dyne.
The gravitational foot-pound-second English unit of force is the pound-force (lbf), defined as the force exerted by
gravity on a pound-mass in the standard gravitational field of 9.80665 m·s−2.[54] The pound-force provides an
alternative unit of mass: one slug is the mass that will accelerate by one foot per second squared when acted on by
one pound-force.[54]
An alternative unit of force in a different foot-pound-second system, the absolute fps system, is the poundal, defined
as the force required to accelerate a one pound mass at a rate of one foot per second squared.[54] The units of slug
and poundal are designed to avoid a constant of proportionality in Newton's second law.
The pound-force has a metric counterpart, less commonly used than the newton: the kilogram-force (kgf) (sometimes
kilopond), is the force exerted by standard gravity on one kilogram of mass.[54] The kilogram-force leads to an
alternate, but rarely used unit of mass: the metric slug (sometimes mug or hyl) is that mass which accelerates at
1 m·s−2 when subjected to a force of 1 kgf. The kilogram-force is not a part of the modern SI system, and is
generally deprecated; however it still sees use for some purposes as expressing jet thrust, bicycle spoke tension,
torque wrench settings and engine output torque. Other arcane units of force include the sthène which is equivalent
to 1000 N and the kip which is equivalent to 1000 lbf.
Units of force
newton dyne kilogram-force, pound-force poundal
(SI unit) kilopond
1 dyn ≡ 1 g·cm/s²
= 10−5 N ≈ 1.0197×10−6 ≈ 2.2481×10−6 lbf ≈ 7.2330×10−5
kp pdl
The value of gn as used in the official definition of the kilogram-force is used here for all gravitational units.
References
• Corbell, H.C.; Philip Stehle (1994). Classical Mechanics p 28,. New York: Dover publications. ISBN
0-486-68063-0.
• Cutnell, John d.; Johnson, Kenneth W. (2004). Physics, Sixth Edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc..
ISBN 041-44895-8.
• Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. B., Sands, M. (1963). Lectures on Physics, Vol 1. Addison-Wesley. ISBN
0-201-02116-1.
• Halliday, David; Robert Resnick; Kenneth S. Krane (2001). Physics v. 1. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN
0-471-32057-9.
• Parker, Sybil (1993). Encyclopedia of Physics, p 443,. Ohio: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-051400-3.
• Sears F., Zemansky M. & Young H. (1982). University Physics. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. ISBN
0-201-07199-1.
Force 36
• Serway, Raymond A. (2003). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing.
ISBN 0-534-40842-7.
• Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics
(5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4.
• Verma, H.C. (2004). Concepts of Physics Vol 1. (2004 Reprint ed.). Bharti Bhavan. ISBN 81-7709-187-5.
External links
• Video lecture on Newton's three laws [55] by Walter Lewin from MIT OpenCourseWare
• A Java simulation on vector addition of forces [56]
• Force Unit Converter [57]
References
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Retrieved 2008-04-09. "Force: Any external agent that causes a change in the motion of a free body, or that causes stress in a fixed body."
[2] e.g. Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. B., Sands, M. (1963). Lectures on Physics, Vol 1. Addison-Wesley.; Kleppner, Daniel; Robert Kolenkow
(1973). An Introduction to Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. pp. 133–134. ISBN 0070350485..
[3] University Physics, Sears, Young & Zemansky, pp18–38
[4] See for example pages 9-1 and 9-2 of Feynman, Leighton and Sands (1963).
[5] Heath,T.L.. "The Works of Archimedes (1897). The unabridged work in PDF form (19 MB)" (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/
worksofarchimede029517mbp). Archive.org. . Retrieved 2007-10-14.
[6] Weinberg, S. (1994). Dreams of a Final Theory. Vintage Books USA. ISBN 0-679-74408-8
[7] Land, Helen The Order of Nature in Aristotle's Physics: Place and the Elements (1998)
[8] Hetherington, Norriss S. (1993). Cosmology: Historical, Literary, Philosophical, Religious, and Scientific Perspectives. Garland Reference
Library of the Humanities. p. 100. ISBN 0815310854.
[9] Drake, Stillman (1978). Galileo At Work. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-16226-5
[10] Newton, Isaac (1999). The Principia Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN
0-520-08817-4. This is a recent translation into English by I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, with help from Julia Budenz.
[11] DiSalle, Robert (2002-03-30). "Space and Time: Inertial Frames" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ spacetime-iframes/ ). Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. . Retrieved 2008-03-24.
[12] Newton's Principia Mathematica actually used a finite difference version of this equation based upon impulse. See Impulse.
[13] For example, by Rob Knop PhD in his Galactic Interactions blog on February 26, 2007 at 9:29 a.m. (http:/ / scienceblogs. com/ interactions/
2007/ 02/ the_greatest_mystery_in_all_of. php)
[14] One exception to this rule is: Landau, L. D.; Akhiezer, A. I.; Lifshitz, A. M. (1967). General Physics; mechanics and molecular physics
(First English ed.). Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0080033040. Translated by: J. B. Sykes, A. D. Petford, and C. L. Petford. Library of
Congress Catalog Number 67-30260. In section 7, pages 12–14, this book defines force as dp/dt.
[15] e.g. W. Noll, “On the Concept of Force”, in part B of Walter Noll's website. (http:/ / www. math. cmu. edu/ ~wn0g/ noll).
[16] Henderson, Tom (1996-2007). "Lesson 4: Newton's Third Law of Motion" (http:/ / www. glenbrook. k12. il. us/ gbssci/ phys/ Class/
newtlaws/ u2l4a. html). The Physics Classroom. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[17] Dr. Nikitin (2007). "Dynamics of translational motion" (http:/ / physics-help. info/ physicsguide/ mechanics/ translational_dynamics. shtml).
. Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[18] "Introduction to Free Body Diagrams" (http:/ / eta. physics. uoguelph. ca/ tutorials/ fbd/ intro. html). Physics Tutorial Menu. University of
Guelph. . Retrieved 2008-01-02.
[19] Henderson, Tom (2004). "The Physics Classroom" (http:/ / www. glenbrook. k12. il. us/ GBSSCI/ PHYS/ Class/ vectors/ u3l1b. html). The
Physics Classroom and Mathsoft Engineering & Education, Inc.. . Retrieved 2008-01-02.
[20] "Static Equilibrium" (http:/ / www. uvi. edu/ Physics/ SCI3xxWeb/ Structure/ StaticEq. html). Physics Static Equilibrium (forces and
torques). University of the Virgin Islands. . Retrieved 2008-01-02.
[21] Cutnell. Physics, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc. pp. 855–876. ISBN 047123124X.
[22] "Seminar: Visualizing Special Relativity" (http:/ / www. anu. edu. au/ Physics/ Searle/ Obsolete/ Seminar. html). THE RELATIVISTIC
RAYTRACER. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[23] Wilson, John B.. "Four-Vectors (4-Vectors) of Special Relativity: A Study of Elegant Physics" (http:/ / SciRealm. com/ 4Vectors. html). The
Science Realm: John's Virtual Sci-Tech Universe. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[24] Shifman, Mikhail (1999). ITEP LECTURES ON PARTICLE PHYSICS AND FIELD THEORY. World Scientific. ISBN 981-02-2639-X.
[25] Nave, R. "Pauli Exclusion Principle" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ pauli. html). HyperPhysics***** Quantum Physics. .
Retrieved 2008-01-02.
[26] "Fermions & Bosons" (http:/ / particleadventure. org/ frameless/ fermibos. html). The Particle Adventure. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
Force 37
[27] Cook, A. H. (16-160-1965). "A New Absolute Determination of the Acceleration due to Gravity at the National Physical Laboratory" (http:/
/ www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v208/ n5007/ abs/ 208279a0. html). Nature 208: 279. doi: 10.1038/208279a0 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1038/ 208279a0). . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[28] University Physics, Sears, Young & Zemansky, pp59–82
[29] "Sir Isaac Newton: The Universal Law of Gravitation" (http:/ / csep10. phys. utk. edu/ astr161/ lect/ history/ newtongrav. html). Astronomy
161 The Solar System. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[30] Watkins, Thayer. "Perturbation Analysis, Regular and Singular" (http:/ / www. sjsu. edu/ faculty/ watkins/ perturb. htm). Department of
Economics. San José State University. .
[31] Kollerstrom, Nick (2001). "Neptune's Discovery. The British Case for Co-Prediction." (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20051111190351/
http:/ / www. ucl. ac. uk/ sts/ nk/ neptune/ index. htm). University College London. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. ucl. ac. uk/ sts/
nk/ neptune/ index. htm) on 2005-11-11. . Retrieved 2007-03-19.
[32] Einstein, Albert (1916). "The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity" (http:/ / www. alberteinstein. info/ gallery/ gtext3. html)
(PDF). Annalen der Physik 49: 769–822. . Retrieved 2006-09-03.
[33] Cutnell. Physics, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 519. ISBN 047123124X.
[34] Coulomb, Charles (1784). "Recherches théoriques et expérimentales sur la force de torsion et sur l'élasticité des fils de metal". Histoire de
l’Académie Royale des Sciences: 229–269.
[35] Feynman, Leighton and Sands (2006). The Feynman Lectures on Physics The Definitive Edition Volume II. Pearson Addison Wesley. ISBN
0-8053-9047-2.
[36] Duffin, William (1980). Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd Ed.. McGraw-Hill. pp. 364–383. ISBN 0-07-084111-X.
[37] For a complete library on quantum mechanics see Quantum_mechanics#References
[38] Cutnell. Physics, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 940. ISBN 047123124X.
[39] Cutnell. Physics, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 951. ISBN 047123124X.
[40] Stevens, Tab (10/07/2003). "Quantum-Chromodynamics: A Definition - Science Articles" (http:/ / www. physicspost. com/
science-article-168. html). . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[41] Cutnell. Physics, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 93. ISBN 047123124X.
[42] "Tension Force" (http:/ / www. mtsu. edu/ ~phys2010/ Lectures/ Part_2__L6_-_L11/ Lecture_9/ Tension_Force/ tension_force. html).
Non-Calculus Based Physics I. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[43] Fitzpatrick, Richard (2006-02-02). "Strings, pulleys, and inclines" (http:/ / farside. ph. utexas. edu/ teaching/ 301/ lectures/ node48. html). .
Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[44] "Elasticity, Periodic Motion" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ permot2. html). HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. .
Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[45] Mallette, Vincent (1982-2008). "Inwit Publishing, Inc. and Inwit, LLC -- Writings, Links and Software Distributions - The Coriolis Force"
(http:/ / www. algorithm. com/ inwit/ writings/ coriolisforce. html). Publications in Science and Mathematics, Computing and the Humanities.
Inwit Publishing, Inc.. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[46] "Newton's Second Law for Rotation" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ HBASE/ n2r. html). HyperPhysics***** Mechanics *****
Rotation. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[47] Fitzpatrick, Richard (2007-01-07). "Newton's third law of motion" (http:/ / farside. ph. utexas. edu/ teaching/ 336k/ lectures/ node26. html). .
Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[48] Nave, R. "Centripetal Force" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ cf. html). HyperPhysics***** Mechanics ***** Rotation. .
[49] Hibbeler, Russell C. (2010), Engineering Mechanics, 12th edition, Pearson Prentice Hall, p. 222, ISBN 0-13-607791-9
[50] Feynman, Leighton & Sands (1963), vol. 1, p. 13-3.
[51] Feynman, Leighton & Sands (1963), vol. 1, p. 13-2.
[52] Singh, Sunil Kumar (2007-08-25). "Conservative force" (http:/ / cnx. org/ content/ m14104/ latest/ ). Connexions. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[53] Davis, Doug. "Conservation of Energy" (http:/ / www. ux1. eiu. edu/ ~cfadd/ 1350/ 08PotEng/ ConsF. html). General physics. . Retrieved
2008-01-04.
[54] Wandmacher, Cornelius; Johnson, Arnold (1995). Metric Units in Engineering. ASCE Publications. p. 15. ISBN 0784400709.
[55] http:/ / ocw. mit. edu/ OcwWeb/ Physics/ 8-01Physics-IFall1999/ VideoLectures/ detail/ Video-Segment-Index-for-L-6. htm
[56] http:/ / phy. hk/ wiki/ englishhtm/ Vector. htm
[57] http:/ / www. lorenz-messtechnik. de/ english/ company/ force_unit_calculation. php
Cross product 38
Cross product
In mathematics, the cross product is a binary operation on two vectors in a three-dimensional Euclidean space that
results in another vector which is perpendicular to the plane containing the two input vectors. The algebra defined by
the cross product is neither commutative nor associative. It contrasts with the dot product which produces a scalar
result. In many engineering and physics problems, it is desirable to be able to construct a perpendicular vector from
two existing vectors, and the cross product provides a means for doing so. The cross product is also useful as a
measure of "perpendicularness"—the magnitude of the cross product of two vectors is equal to the product of their
magnitudes if they are perpendicular and scales down to zero when they are parallel. The cross product is also
known as the vector product, or Gibbs vector product.
The cross product is only defined in three or seven dimensions. Like the dot product, it depends on the metric of
Euclidean space. Unlike the dot product, it also depends on the choice of orientation or "handedness". Certain
features of the cross product can be generalized to other situations. For arbitrary choices of orientation, the cross
product must be regarded not as a vector, but as a pseudovector. For arbitrary choices of metric, and in arbitrary
dimensions, the cross product can be generalized by the exterior product of vectors, defining a two-form instead of a
vector.
Definition
The cross product of two vectors a and b is denoted by a × b. In
physics, sometimes the notation a∧b is used,[1] though this is avoided
in mathematics to avoid confusion with the exterior product.
In a three-dimensional Euclidean space, with a right-handed coordinate
system, a × b is defined as a vector c that is perpendicular to both a
and b, with a direction given by the right-hand rule and a magnitude
equal to the area of the parallelogram that the vectors span.
The cross product is defined by the formula[2]
where θ is the measure of the smaller angle between a and b (0° ≤ θ ≤ 180°), a and b are the magnitudes of vectors a
and b, and is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing a and b in the direction given by the right-hand
rule as illustrated. If the vectors a and b are collinear (i.e., the angle θ between them is either 0° or 180°), by the
above formula, the cross product of a and b is the zero vector 0.
The direction of the vector is given by the right-hand rule, where one simply points the forefinger of the right hand
in the direction of a and the middle finger in the direction of b. Then, the vector is coming out of the thumb (see
the picture on the right). Using this rule implies that the cross-product is anti-commutative, i.e., b × a = -(a × b). By
pointing the forefinger toward b first, and then pointing the middle finger toward a, the thumb will be forced in the
opposite direction, reversing the sign of the product vector.
Using the cross product requires the handedness of the coordinate system to be taken into account (as explicit in the
definition above). If a left-handed coordinate system is used, the direction of the vector is given by the left-hand
rule and points in the opposite direction.
This, however, creates a problem because transforming from one arbitrary reference system to another (e.g., a mirror
image transformation from a right-handed to a left-handed coordinate system), should not change the direction of .
The problem is clarified by realizing that the cross-product of two vectors is not a (true) vector, but rather a
pseudovector. See cross product and handedness for more detail.
Coordinate notation
The unit vectors i, j, and k from the given orthogonal coordinate system satisfy the following equalities:
i×j=k j×k=i k×i=j
Together with the skew-symmetry and bilinearity of the cross product, these three identities are sufficient to
determine the cross product of any two vectors. In particular, the following identities are also seen to hold
j × i = −k k × j = −i i × k = −j
i × i = j × j = k × k = 0.
With these rules, the coordinates of the cross product of two vectors can be computed easily, without the need to
determine any angles: Let
Cross product 40
Matrix notation
The definition of the cross product can also be represented by the determinant of a matrix:
This determinant can be computed using Sarrus' rule. Consider the table
From the first three elements on the first row draw three diagonals sloping downward to the right (for example, the
first diagonal would contain i, a2, and b3), and from the last three elements on the first row draw three diagonals
sloping downward to the left (for example, the first diagonal would contain i, a3, and b2). Then multiply the elements
on each of these six diagonals, and negate the last three products. The cross product would be defined by the sum of
these products:
Cross product 41
Properties
Geometric meaning
The magnitude of the cross product can be interpreted
as the positive area of the parallelogram having a and b
as sides (see Figure 1):
Indeed, one can also compute the volume V of a parallelepiped having a, b and c as sides by using a combination of
a cross product and a dot product, called scalar triple product (see Figure 2):
Figure 2 demonstrates that this volume can be found in two ways, showing geometrically that the identity holds that
a "dot" and a "cross" can be interchanged without changing the result. That is:
Because the magnitude of the cross product goes by the sine of the angle between its arguments, the cross product
can be thought of as a measure of "perpendicularness" in the same way that the dot product is a measure of
"parallelness". Given two unit vectors, their cross product has a magnitude of 1 if the two are perpendicular and a
magnitude of zero if the two are parallel.
Cross product 42
Algebraic properties
The cross product is anticommutative,
a × b = −b × a,
distributive over addition,
a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c),
and compatible with scalar multiplication so that
(r a) × b = a × (r b) = r (a × b).
It is not associative, but satisfies the Jacobi identity:
a × (b × c) + b × (c × a) + c × (a × b) = 0.
It does not obey the cancellation law:
If a × b = a × c and a ≠ 0 then:
(a × b) − (a × c) = 0 and, by the distributive law above:
a × (b − c) = 0
Now, if a is parallel to (b − c), then even if a ≠ 0 it is possible that (b − c) ≠ 0 and therefore that b ≠ c.
However, if both a · b = a · c and a × b = a × c, then it can be concluded that b = c. Indeed,
a · (b - c) = 0, and
a × (b - c) = 0
so that b - c is both parallel and perpendicular to the non-zero vector a. This is only possible if b - c = 0.
The distributivity, linearity and Jacobi identity show that R3 together with vector addition and cross product forms a
Lie algebra. In fact, the Lie algebra is that of the real orthogonal group in 3 dimensions, SO(3).
Further, two non-zero vectors a and b are parallel if and only if a × b = 0.
It follows from the geometrical definition above that the cross product is invariant under rotations about the axis
defined by a×b.
There is also this property relating cross products and the triple product:
(a × b) × (a × c) = (a · (b × c)) a.
The cross product obeys this identity under matrix transformations:
This is a special case of the multiplicativity of the norm in the quaternion algebra, and a restriction to
of Lagrange's identity.
Quaternions
The cross product can also be described in terms of quaternions, and this is why the letters i, j, k are a convention for
the standard basis on : it is thought of as the imaginary quaternions.
For instance, the above given cross product relations among i, j, and k agree with the multiplicative relations among
the quaternions i, j, and k. In general, if a vector [a1, a2, a3] is represented as the quaternion a1i + a2j + a3k, the cross
product of two vectors can be obtained by taking their product as quaternions and deleting the real part of the result.
The real part will be the negative of the dot product of the two vectors.
Alternatively and more straightforwardly, using the above identification of the 'purely imaginary' quaternions with
, the cross product may be thought of as half of the commutator of two quaternions.
where
then
Cross product 44
This notation provides another way of generalizing cross product to the higher dimensions by substituting
pseudovectors (such as angular velocity or magnetic field) with such skew-symmetric matrices. It is clear that such
physical quantities will have n(n-1)/2 independent components in n dimensions, which coincides with number of
dimensions for three-dimensional space, and this is why vectors can be used (and most often are used) to represent
such quantities.
This notation is also often much easier to work with, for example, in epipolar geometry.
From the general properties of the cross product follows immediately that
and
and from fact that is skew-symmetric it follows that
The above-mentioned triple product expansion (bac-cab rule) can be easily proven using this notation.
The above definition of means that there is a one-to-one mapping between the set of 3×3 skew-symmetric
matrices, also known as the Lie algebra of SO(3), and the operation of taking the cross product with some vector .
Index notation
The cross product can alternatively be defined in terms of the Levi-Civita symbol,
where the indices correspond, as in the previous section, to orthogonal vector components. This
characterization of the cross product is often expressed more compactly using the Einstein summation convention as
in which repeated indices are summed from 1 to 3. Note that this representation is another form of the
skew-symmetric representation of the cross product:
In classical mechanics: representing the cross-product with the Levi-Civita symbol can cause
mechanical-symmetries to be obvious when physical-systems are isotropic in space. (Quick example: consider a
particle in a Hooke's Law potential in three-space, free to oscillate in three dimensions; none of these dimensions are
"special" in any sense, so symmetries lie in the cross-product-represented angular-momentum which are made clear
by the abovementioned Levi-Civita representation).
Mnemonic
The word xyzzy can be used to remember the definition of the cross product.
If
where:
then:
Cross product 45
The second and third equations can be obtained from the first by simply vertically rotating the subscripts, x → y → z
→ x. The problem, of course, is how to remember the first equation, and two options are available for this purpose:
either to remember the relevant two diagonals of Sarrus's scheme (those containing i), or to remember the xyzzy
sequence.
Since the first diagonal in Sarrus's scheme is just the main diagonal of the above-mentioned matrix, the first
three letters of the word xyzzy can be very easily remembered.
Applications
Computational geometry
The cross product can be used to calculate the normal for a triangle or polygon, an operation frequently performed in
computer graphics.
In computational geometry of the plane, the cross product is used to determine the sign of the acute angle defined by
three points , and . It corresponds to the direction of the cross product of the two
coplanar vectors defined by the pairs of points and , i.e., by the sign of the expression
. In the "right-handed" coordinate system, if the result is 0, the points are
collinear; if it is positive, the three points constitute a negative angle of rotation around from to , otherwise
a positive angle. From another point of view, the sign of tells whether lies to the left or to the right of line
.
Mechanics
Moment of a force applied at point B around point A is given as:
Other
The cross product occurs in the formula for the vector operator curl. It is also used to describe the Lorentz force
experienced by a moving electrical charge in a magnetic field. The definitions of torque and angular momentum also
involve the cross product.
The trick of rewriting a cross product in terms of a matrix multiplication appears frequently in epipolar and
multi-view geometry, in particular when deriving matching constraints.
Cross product 46
This can be thought of as the oriented multi-dimensional element "perpendicular" to the bivector. Only in three
dimensions is the result an oriented line element – a vector – whereas, for example, in 4 dimensions the Hodge dual
of a bivector is two-dimensional – another oriented plane element. So, in three dimensions only is the cross product
of a and b the vector dual to the bivector a∧b: it is perpendicular to the bivector, with orientation dependent on the
coordinate system's handedness, and has the same magnitude relative to the unit normal vector as a∧b has relative to
the unit bivector; precisely the properties described above.
Generalizations
There are several ways to generalize the cross product to the higher dimensions.
Lie algebra
The cross product can be seen as one of the simplest Lie products, and is thus generalized by Lie algebras, which are
axiomatized as binary products satisfying the axioms of multilinearity, skew-symmetry, and the Jacobi identity.
Many Lie algebras exist, and their study is a major field of mathematics, called Lie theory.
For example, the Heisenberg algebra gives another Lie algebra structure on In the basis the product is
Using octonions
A cross product for 7-dimensional vectors can be obtained in the same way by using the octonions instead of the
quaternions. The nonexistence of such cross products of two vectors in other dimensions is related to the result that
the only normed division algebras are the ones with dimension 1, 2, 4, and 8.
Wedge product
In general dimension, there is no direct analogue of the binary cross product. There is however the wedge product,
which has similar properties, except that the wedge product of two vectors is now a 2-vector instead of an ordinary
vector. As mentioned above, the cross product can be interpreted as the wedge product in three dimensions after
using Hodge duality to identify 2-vectors with vectors.
The wedge product and dot product can be combined to form the Clifford product.
Multilinear algebra
In the context of multilinear algebra, the cross product can be seen as the (1,2)-tensor (a mixed tensor) obtained from
the 3-dimensional volume form,[3] a (0,3)-tensor, by raising an index.
In detail, the 3-dimensional volume form defines a product by taking the determinant of the matrix
given by these 3 vectors. By duality, this is equivalent to a function (fixing any two inputs gives a
function by evaluating on the third input) and in the presence of an inner product (such as the dot product;
more generally, a non-degenerate bilinear form), we have an isomorphism and thus this yields a map
which is the cross product: a (0,3)-tensor (3 vector inputs, scalar output) has been transformed into a
(1,2)-tensor (2 vector inputs, 1 vector output) by "raising an index".
Translating the above algebra into geometry, the function "volume of the parallelepiped defined by " (where
the first two vectors are fixed and the last is an input), which defines a function , can be represented uniquely
as the dot product with a vector: this vector is the cross product From this perspective, the cross product is
defined by the scalar triple product,
In the same way, in higher dimensions one may define generalized cross products by raising indices of the
n-dimensional volume form, which is a -tensor. The most direct generalizations of the cross product are to
define either:
• a -tensor, which takes as input vectors, and gives as output 1 vector – an -ary vector-valued
product, or
• a -tensor, which takes as input 2 vectors and gives as output skew-symmetric tensor of rank n−2 – a
binary product with rank n−2 tensor values. One can also define -tensors for other k.
These products are all multilinear and skew-symmetric, and can be defined in terms of the determinant and parity.
Cross product 48
The -ary product can be described as follows: given vectors in define their generalized
cross product as:
• perpendicular to the hyperplane defined by the
• magnitude is the volume of the parallelotope defined by the which can be computed as the Gram determinant
of the
• oriented so that is positively oriented.
This is the unique multilinear, alternating product which evaluates to , and so forth
for cyclic permutations of indices.
In coordinates, one can give a formula for this n-ary analogue of the cross product in Rn+1 by:
This formula is identical in structure to the determinant formula for the normal cross product in R3 except that the
row of basis vectors is the last row in the determinant rather than the first. The reason for this is to ensure that the
ordered vectors (v1,...,vn,Λ(v1,...,vn)) have a positive orientation with respect to (e1,...,en+1). If n is even, this
modification leaves the value unchanged, so this convention agrees with the normal definition of the binary product.
In the case that n is odd, however, the distinction must be kept. This n-ary form enjoys many of the same properties
as the vector cross product: it is alternating and linear in its arguments, it is perpendicular to each argument, and its
magnitude gives the hypervolume of the region bounded by the arguments. And just like the vector cross product, it
can be defined in a coordinate independent way as the Hodge dual of the wedge product of the arguments.
History
In 1773, Joseph Louis Lagrange introduced the component form of both the dot and cross products in order to study
the tetrahedron in three dimensions.[4] In 1843 the Irish mathematical physicist Sir William Rowan Hamilton
introduced the quaternion product, and with it the terms "vector" and "scalar". Given two quaternions [0, u] and [0,
v], where u and v are vectors in R3, their quaternion product can be summarized as [−u·v, u×v]. James Clerk
Maxwell used Hamilton's quaternion tools to develop his famous electromagnetism equations, and for this and other
reasons quaternions for a time were an essential part of physics education.
However, Oliver Heaviside in England and Josiah Willard Gibbs in Connecticut felt that quaternion methods were
too cumbersome, often requiring the scalar or vector part of a result to be extracted. Thus, about forty years after the
quaternion product, the dot product and cross product were introduced—to heated opposition. Pivotal to (eventual)
acceptance was the efficiency of the new approach, allowing Heaviside to reduce the equations of electromagnetism
from Maxwell's original 20 to the four commonly seen today.
Largely independent of this development, and largely unappreciated at the time, Hermann Grassmann created a
geometric algebra not tied to dimension two or three, with the exterior product playing a central role. William
Kingdon Clifford combined the algebras of Hamilton and Grassmann to produce Clifford algebra, where in the case
of three-dimensional vectors the bivector produced from two vectors dualizes to a vector, thus reproducing the cross
product.
The cross notation, which began with Gibbs, inspired the name "cross product". Originally appearing in privately
published notes for his students in 1881 as Elements of Vector Analysis, Gibbs's notation—and the name—later
reached a wider audience through Vector Analysis (Gibbs/Wilson), a textbook by a former student. Edwin Bidwell
Wilson rearranged material from Gibbs's lectures, together with material from publications by Heaviside, Föpps, and
Hamilton. He divided vector analysis into three parts:
Cross product 49
First, that which concerns addition and the scalar and vector products of vectors. Second, that which concerns
the differential and integral calculus in its relations to scalar and vector functions. Third, that which contains
the theory of the linear vector function.
Two main kinds of vector multiplications were defined, and they were called as follows:
• The direct, scalar, or dot product of two vectors
• The skew, vector, or cross product of two vectors
Several kinds of triple products and products of more than three vectors were also examined. The above mentioned
triple product expansion was also included.
See also
• Multiple cross products – Products involving more than three vectors.
• Dot product
• Cartesian product – A product of two sets.
• × (the symbol)
• Bivector
• Pseudovector
Notes
[1] Jeffreys, H and Jeffreys, BS (1999). Methods of mathematical physics (http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 41158050?tab=details). Cambridge
University Press. .
[2] Wilson 1901
[3] By a volume form one means a function that takes in n vectors and gives out a scalar, the volume of the parallelotope defined by the vectors:
This is an n-ary multilinear skew-symmetric form. In the presence of a basis, such as on this is given by the
determinant, but in an abstract vector space, this is added structure. In terms of G-structures, a volume form is an -structure.
[4] Lagrange, JL (1773). "Solutions analytiques de quelques problèmes sur les pyramides triangulaires". Oeuvres. vol 3.
References
• Cajori, Florian (1929), A History Of Mathematical Notations Volume II (http://www.archive.org/details/
historyofmathema027671mbp), Open Court Publishing, p. 134, ISBN 978-0-486-67766-8
• Wilson, Edwin Bidwell (1901), Vector Analysis: A text-book for the use of students of mathematics and physics,
founded upon the lectures of J. Willard Gibbs (http://www.archive.org/details/117714283), Yale University
Press
External links
• Weisstein, Eric W., " Cross Product (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/CrossProduct.html)" from MathWorld.
• A quick geometrical derivation and interpretation of cross products (http://behindtheguesses.blogspot.com/
2009/04/dot-and-cross-products.html)
• Z.K. Silagadze (2002). Multi-dimensional vector product. Journal of Physics. A35, 4949 (http://uk.arxiv.org/
abs/math.la/0204357) (it is only possible in 7-D space)
• Real and Complex Products of Complex Numbers (http://www.cut-the-knot.org/arithmetic/algebra/
RealComplexProducts.shtml)
• An interactive tutorial (http://physics.syr.edu/courses/java-suite/crosspro.html) created at Syracuse
University - (requires java)
• W. Kahan (2007). Cross-Products and Rotations in Euclidean 2- and 3-Space. University of California, Berkeley
(PDF). (http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~wkahan/MathH110/Cross.pdf)
Torque 50
Torque
Torque, also called moment or moment of force (see the terminology
below), is the tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis,[1]
fulcrum, or pivot. Just as a force is a push or a pull, a torque can be
thought of as a twist.
Loosely speaking, torque is a measure of the turning force on an object
such as a bolt or a flywheel. For example, pushing or pulling the
handle of a wrench connected to a nut or bolt produces a torque
(turning force) that loosens or tightens the nut or bolt.
Relationship between force F, torque τ, linear
The terminology for this concept is not straightforward: In physics, it is
momentum p, and angular momentum L in a
usually called "torque", and in mechanical engineering, it is called system which has rotation constrained in one
"moment".[2] However, in mechanical engineering, the term "torque" plane only. (Forces and moments due to gravity
means something different,[3] described below. In this article, the word and friction not considered.)
The symbol for torque is typically τ, the Greek letter tau. When it is called moment, it is commonly denoted M.
The magnitude of torque depends on three quantities: First, the force applied; second, the length of the lever arm[4]
connecting the axis to the point of force application; and third, the angle between the two. In symbols:
where
τ is the torque vector and τ is the magnitude of the torque,
r is the displacement vector (a vector from the point from which torque is measured to the point where force is
applied), and r is the length (or magnitude) of the lever arm vector,
F is the force vector, and F is the magnitude of the force,
× denotes the cross product,
θ is the angle between the force vector and the lever arm vector.
The length of the lever arm is particularly important; choosing this length appropriately lies behind the operation of
levers, pulleys, gears, and most other simple machines involving a mechanical advantage.
The SI unit for torque is the newton meter (N·m). In Imperial and U.S. customary units, it is measured in foot pounds
(ft·lbf) (also known as 'pound feet') and for smaller measurement of torque: inch pounds (in·lbf) or even inch ounces
(in·ozf). For more on the units of torque, see below.
Torque 51
Terminology
In mechanical engineering (unlike physics), the terms "torque" and "moment" are not interchangeable. "Moment" is
the general term for the tendency of one or more applied forces to rotate an object about an axis (the concept which
in physics is called torque).[3] "Torque" is a special case of this: If the applied force vectors add to zero (i.e., their
"resultant" is zero), then the forces are called a "couple" and their moment is called a "torque".[3]
For example, a rotational force down a shaft, such as a turning screw-driver, forms a couple, so the resulting moment
is called a "torque". By contrast, a lateral force on a beam produces a moment (called a bending moment), but since
the net force is nonzero, this bending moment is not called a "torque".
This article follows physics terminology by calling all moments by the term "torque", whether or not they are
associated with a couple.
History
The concept of torque, also called moment or couple, originated with the studies of Archimedes on levers. The
rotational analogues of force, mass, and acceleration are torque, moment of inertia, and angular acceleration,
respectively.
where r is the particle's position vector relative to the fulcrum, and F is the force acting on the particle. The
magnitude τ of the torque is given by
where r is the distance from the axis of rotation to the particle, F is the magnitude of the force applied, and θ is the
angle between the position and force vectors. Alternatively,
Torque 52
where F⊥ is the amount of force directed perpendicularly to the position of the particle. Any force directed parallel to
the particle's position vector does not produce a torque.[6]
It follows from the properties of the cross product that the torque vector is perpendicular to both the position and
force vectors. It points along the axis of rotation, and its direction is determined by the right-hand rule.[6]
The torque on a body determines the rate of change of the body's angular momentum,
where L is the angular momentum vector and t is time. If multiple torques are acting on the body, it is instead the net
torque which determines the rate of change of the angular momentum:
where I is the moment of inertia and ω is the angular velocity. It follows that
where "×" indicates the vector cross product and p is the particle's linear momentum. The time-derivative of this is:
This result can easily be proven by splitting the vectors into components and applying the product rule. Now using
the definitions of velocity v = dr/dt, acceleration a = dv/dt and linear momentum p = mv,
The cross product of any vector with itself is zero, so the second term vanishes. Hence with the definition of force F
= ma (Newton's 2nd law),
The proof relies on the assumption that mass is constant; this is valid only in non-relativistic systems in which no
mass is being ejected.
Torque 53
Units
Torque has dimensions of force times distance. Official SI literature suggests using the unit newton meter (N·m) or
the unit joule per radian.[7] The unit newton meter is properly denoted N·m or N m.[8] This avoids ambiguity—for
example, mN is the symbol for millinewton.
The joule, which is the SI unit for energy or work, is dimensionally equivalent to a newton meter, but it is not used
for torque. Energy and torque are entirely different concepts, so the practice of using different unit names for them
helps avoid mistakes and misunderstandings.[7] The dimensional equivalence of these units, of course, is not simply
a coincidence: A torque of 1 N·m applied through a full revolution will require an energy of exactly 2π joules.
Mathematically,
where E is the energy, τ is magnitude of the torque, and θ is the angle moved (in radians). This equation motivates
the alternate unit name joules per radian.[7]
Other non-SI units of torque include "pound-force-feet", "foot-pounds-force", "inch-pounds-force",
"ounce-force-inches", and "meter-kilograms-force". For all these units, the word "force" is often left out,[9] for
example abbreviating "pound-force-foot" to simply "pound-foot". (In this case, it would be implicit that the "pound"
is pound-force and not pound-mass.)
The construction of the "moment arm" is shown in the figure below, along with the vectors r and F mentioned
above. The problem with this definition is that it does not give the direction of the torque but only the magnitude,
and hence it is difficult to use in three-dimensional cases. If the force is perpendicular to the displacement vector r,
the moment arm will be equal to the distance to the centre, and torque will be a maximum for the given force. The
equation for the magnitude of a torque, arising from a perpendicular force:
For example, if a person places a force of 10 N on a spanner (wrench) which is 0.5 m long, the torque will be 5 N m,
assuming that the person pulls the spanner by applying force perpendicular to the spanner.
Torque 54
Static equilibrium
For an object to be in static equilibrium, not only must the sum of
the forces be zero, but also the sum of the torques (moments)
about any point. For a two-dimensional situation with horizontal
and vertical forces, the sum of the forces requirement is two
equations: ΣH = 0 and ΣV = 0, and the torque a third equation: Στ
= 0. That is, to solve statically determinate equilibrium problems
in two-dimensions, we use three equations.
Machine torque
Torque is part of the basic specification of an engine: the power output
of an engine is expressed as its torque multiplied by its rotational speed
of the axis. Internal-combustion engines produce useful torque only
over a limited range of rotational speeds (typically from around
1,000–6,000 rpm for a small car). The varying torque output over that
range can be measured with a dynamometer, and shown as a torque
curve. The peak of that torque curve occurs somewhat below the
overall power peak. The torque peak cannot, by definition, appear at
higher rpm than the power peak.
Torque curve of a motorcycle ("BMW K 1200 R
Understanding the relationship between torque, power and engine
2005"). The horizontal axis is the speed (in rpm)
speed is vital in automotive engineering, concerned as it is with that the wheels are turning, and the vertical axis is
transmitting power from the engine through the drive train to the the torque (in Newton metres) that the engine is
wheels. Power is a function of torque and engine speed. The gearing of capable of providing at that speed.
the drive train must be chosen appropriately to make the most of the
motor's torque characteristics. Power at the drive wheels is equal to engine power less mechanical losses regardless
of any gearing between the engine and drive wheels.
Steam engines and electric motors tend to produce maximum torque close to zero rpm, with the torque diminishing
as rotational speed rises (due to increasing friction and other constraints). Reciprocating steam engines can start
heavy loads from zero RPM without a clutch.
Torque 55
where W is work, τ is torque, and θ1 and θ2 represent (respectively) the initial and final angular positions of the
body.[10] It follows from the work-energy theorem that W also represents the change in the rotational kinetic energy
Krot of the body, given by
where I is the moment of inertia of the body and ω is its angular speed.[10]
Power is the work per unit time, given by
where P is power, τ is torque, ω is the angular velocity, and · represents the scalar product.
Mathematically, the equation may be rearranged to compute torque for a given power output. Note that the power
injected by the torque depends only on the instantaneous angular speed - not on whether the angular speed increases,
decreases, or remains constant while the torque is being applied (this is equivalent to the linear case where the power
injected by a force depends only on the instantaneous speed - not on the resulting acceleration, if any).
In practice, this relationship can be observed in power stations which are connected to a large electrical power grid.
In such an arrangement, the generator's angular speed is fixed by the grid's frequency, and the power output of the
plant is determined by the torque applied to the generator's axis of rotation.
Consistent units must be used. For metric SI units power is watts, torque is newton meters and angular speed is
radians per second (not rpm and not revolutions per second).
Also, the unit newton meter is dimensionally equivalent to the joule, which is the unit of energy. However, in the
case of torque, the unit is assigned to a vector, whereas for energy, it is assigned to a scalar.
where 60,000 comes from 60 seconds per minute times 1000 watts per kilowatt.
Some people (e.g. American automotive engineers) use horsepower (imperial mechanical) for power, foot-pounds
(lbf·ft) for torque and rpm (revolutions per minute) for angular speed. This results in the formula changing to:
The constant below in, ft·lbf./min, changes with the definition of the horsepower; for example, using metric
horsepower, it becomes ~32,550.
Use of other units (e.g. BTU/h for power) would require a different custom conversion factor.
Torque 56
Derivation
For a rotating object, the linear distance covered at the circumference in a radian of rotation is the product of the
radius with the angular speed. That is: linear speed = radius × angular speed. By definition, linear distance=linear
speed × time=radius × angular speed × time.
By the definition of torque: torque=force × radius. We can rearrange this to determine force=torque ÷ radius. These
two values can be substituted into the definition of power:
The radius r and time t have dropped out of the equation. However angular speed must be in radians, by the assumed
direct relationship between linear speed and angular speed at the beginning of the derivation. If the rotational speed
is measured in revolutions per unit of time, the linear speed and distance are increased proportionately by in the
above derivation to give:
If torque is in lbf·ft and rotational speed in revolutions per minute, the above equation gives power in ft·lbf/min. The
horsepower form of the equation is then derived by applying the conversion factor 33000 ft·lbf/min per horsepower:
because
Principle of Moments
The Principle of Moments, also known as Varignon's theorem (not to be confused with the geometrical theorem of
the same name) states that the sum of torques due to several forces applied to a single point is equal to the torque due
to the sum (resultant) of the forces. Mathematically, this follows from:
See also
• Conversion of units
• Angular momentum
• Mechanical equilibrium
• Moment (physics)
• Rigid body dynamics
• Statics
• Torque converter
• Torque screwdriver
• Torque limiter
• Torque wrench
• Torque tester
• Torsion (mechanics)
• Couple (mechanics)
Torque 57
External links
• Power and Torque Explained [11] A clear explanation of the relationship between Power and Torque, and how
they relate to engine performance.
• "Horsepower and Torque" [12] An article showing how power, torque, and gearing affect a vehicle's performance.
• "Torque vs. Horsepower: Yet Another Argument" [13] An automotive perspective
• a discussion of torque and angular momentum in an online textbook [14]
• Torque and Angular Momentum in Circular Motion [15] on Project PHYSNET [16].
• An interactive simulation of torque [17]
• Torque Unit Converter [18]
• www.mechanismen.be-what is a moment (dutch) [19]
.
References
[1] Serway, R. A. and Jewett, Jr. J. W. (2003). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. 6th Ed. Brooks Cole. ISBN 0-53440-842-7.
[2] Physics for Engineering by Hendricks, Subramony, and Van Blerk, page 148, Web link (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=8Kp-UwV4o0gC& pg=PA148)
[3] Dynamics, Theory and Applications by T.R. Kane and D.A. Levinson, 1985, pp. 90-99: Free download (http:/ / ecommons. library. cornell.
edu/ handle/ 1813/ 638)
[4] Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman.
ISBN 0-7167-0809-4.
[5] "Right Hand Rule for Torque" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ tord. html). . Retrieved 2007-09-08.
[6] Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert (1970). Fundamentals of Physics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. p. 184–85.
[7] From the official SI website (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ si/ si_brochure/ chapter2/ 2-2/ 2-2-2. html): "...For example, the quantity torque
may be thought of as the cross product of force and distance, suggesting the unit newton metre, or it may be thought of as energy per angle,
suggesting the unit joule per radian."
[8] "SI brochure Ed. 8, Section 5.1" (http:/ / www1. bipm. org/ en/ si/ si_brochure/ chapter5/ 5-1. html). Bureau International des Poids et
Mesures. 2006. . Retrieved 2007-04-01.
[9] See, for example: "CNC Cookbook: Dictionary: N-Code to PWM" (http:/ / www. cnccookbook. com/ MTCNCDictNtoPWM. htm). .
Retrieved 2008-12-17.
[10] Kleppner, Daniel; Kolenkow, Robert (1973). An Introduction to Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. p. 267–68.
[11] http:/ / www. epi-eng. com/ ET-PwrTrq. htm
[12] http:/ / craig. backfire. ca/ pages/ autos/ horsepower
[13] http:/ / kevinthenerd. googlepages. com/ torque_vs_hp. html
[14] http:/ / www. lightandmatter. com/ html_books/ 2cl/ ch05/ ch05. html
[15] http:/ / www. physnet. org/ modules/ pdf_modules/ m34. pdf
[16] http:/ / www. physnet. org
[17] http:/ / www. phy. hk/ wiki/ englishhtm/ Torque. htm
[18] http:/ / www. lorenz-messtechnik. de/ english/ company/ torque_unit_calculation. php
[19] http:/ / www. mechanismen. be/ theoretische_mechanica/ momenten/ momenten-theorie-1. htm
Center of mass 58
Center of mass
The center of mass of a system of particles is the point at which the system's whole mass can be considered to be
concentrated for the purpose of calculations. The center of mass is a function only of the positions and masses of the
particles that compose the system. In the case of a rigid body, the position of its center of mass is fixed in relation to
the object (but not necessarily in contact with it). In the case of a loose distribution of masses in free space, such as,
say, shot from a shotgun, the position of the center of mass is a point in space among them that may not correspond
to the position of any individual mass.
The center of mass is often called the center of gravity but this is only true in a system where the gravitational
forces are uniform. For example, on the Earth where the differences in the pull of gravity may safely be ignored.
Barycenter may also refer to the center of mass although this is most commonly used when referring to the point at
which the gravitational forces exerted by two objects are equal.
The center of mass of a body does not always coincide with its intuitive geometric center, and one can exploit this
freedom. Engineers try to design a sports car's center of mass as low as possible to make the car handle better. When
high jumpers perform a "Fosbury Flop", they bend their body in such a way that it is possible for the jumper to clear
the bar while his or her center of mass does not.[1]
The center of momentum frame is an inertial frame defined as the inertial frame in which the center of mass of a
system is at rest. A specific center of momentum frame in which the center of mass is not only at rest, but also at the
origin of the coordinate system, is sometimes called the center of mass frame, or center of mass coordinate system.
Definition
The center of mass of a system of particles is defined as the average of their positions, , weighted by their
masses, :
For a continuous distribution with mass density and total mass , the sum becomes an integral:
If an object has uniform density then its center of mass is the same as the centroid of its shape.
Examples
• The center of mass of a two-particle system lies on the line connecting the particles (or, more precisely, their
individual centers of mass). The center of mass is closer to the more massive object; for details, see below.
• The center of mass of a ring is at the center of the ring (in the air).
• The center of mass of a solid triangle lies on all three medians and therefore at the centroid, which is also the
average of the three vertices.
• The center of mass of a rectangle is at the intersection of the two diagonals.
• In a spherically symmetric body, the center of mass is at the center. This approximately applies to the Earth: the
density varies considerably, but it mainly depends on depth and less on the latitude and longitude coordinates.
• More generally, for any symmetry of a body, its center of mass will be a fixed point of that symmetry.
Center of mass 59
History
The concept of center of mass was first introduced by the ancient Greek mathematician, physicist, and engineer
Archimedes of Syracuse. Archimedes showed that the torque exerted on a lever by weights resting at various points
along the lever is the same as what it would be if all of the weights were moved to a single point — their center of
mass. In work on floating bodies he demonstrated that the orientation of a floating object is the one that makes its
center of mass as low as possible. He developed mathematical techniques for finding the centers of mass of objects
of uniform density of various well-defined shapes, in particular a triangle, a hemisphere, and a frustum (of a circular
paraboloid).
In the Middle Ages, theories on the center of mass were further developed by Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī, Zakaria Razi
(Latinized as Rhazes), Omar Khayyám, and al-Khazini.[2]
Newton's second law is refomulated with respect to the center of mass in Euler's first law.
Where M indicates the total mass, and vcm is the velocity of the center of mass. This velocity can be computed by
taking the time derivative of the position of the center of mass.
An analogue to Newton's Second Law is
Where F indicates the sum of all external forces on the system, and acm indicates the acceleration of the center of
mass.
Letting the total internal force of the system.
where is the total mass of the system and is a vector yet to be defined, since:
and
then
We therefore have a vectorial definition for center of mass in terms of the total forces in the system. This is
particularly useful for two-body systems.
Center of mass 60
Alternative derivation
Consider first two bodies, with masses m1 and m2, and position vectors r1 and r2. Write M = m1 + m2 for the total
mass of the 2-body system, and R for the position vector of the center of mass.
It is reasonable to require, for any system of masses, that the center of mass lie within the convex hull of the system.
In particular, for a pair of mass points, this means that the tip of R must lie on the line segment joining the tips of r1
and r2. By geometry, R - r1 = k(r2 - R) for some positive constant k. Taking magnitudes on both sides of this
equation, we get d1 = kd2, where d1 is the distance from the center of mass to body 1, and d2 is the distance from the
center of mass to body 2. The constant k should obviously depend only on the masses m1 and m2, and we will
examine the nature of this dependence.
Assuming the total mass M is nonzero, it is clear that if m2 = 0, the center of mass should coincide with body 1, and
d1 = 0. This means d2 = D, the total distance between the two bodies, and m1 = M. Symmetry demands that these
relations remain true when the subscripts 1 and 2 are interchanged everywhere.
The simplest model satisfying these requirements is the linear one, d1 = (D/M)m2 and d2 = (D/M)m1.
Under this model, we have k = d1/d2 = m2/m1. Therefore, after multiplying our vector equation by m1, we find that
m1(R - r1) = m2(r2 − R), or (m1 + m2)R = m1r1 + m2r2. Thus,
Now suppose there is a third body, of mass m3 and position r3. Temporarily break the symmetry between the three
bodies, and define the 3-body center of mass as the 2-body center of mass determined by body 3 together with a
single body of mass M0 = m1 + m2 placed at the center of mass of bodies 1 and 2, whose position vector we now
denote by R0. The formula derived above gives
Since R turns out to be symmetric in the mi and ri, it would not have mattered had we started by combining bodies 2
and 3, or bodies 1 and 3, instead of bodies 1 and 2. This kind of reasoning clearly extends to any number of masses,
and yields the formula
So our simple model of the 2-body center of mass uniquely and consistently determines the corresponding formula in
any number of mass points. Writing M = m1 + m2 + ... + mn, the above formula for the center of mass may be
expressed in the form
i.e., the sum of the momenta of a number of bodies is the momentum of their center of mass. It is this principle that
gives precise expression to the intuitive notion that the system as a whole behaves like a mass of M placed at R, and
justifies our simple linear model of the one-dimensional center of mass.
Center of mass 61
If the gravitational field acting on a body is not uniform, then the center of mass does not necessarily exhibit these
convenient properties concerning gravity. As the situation is put in Feynman's influential textbook The Feynman
Lectures on Physics:
"The center of mass is sometimes called the center of gravity, for the reason that, in many cases, gravity may
be considered uniform. ...In case the object is so large that the nonparallelism of the gravitational forces is
significant, then the center where one must apply the balancing force is not simple to describe, and it departs
slightly from the center of mass. That is why one must distinguish between the center of mass and the center of
gravity."
Many authors have been less careful, stating that when gravity is not uniform, "the center of gravity" departs from
the CM. This usage seems to imply a well-defined "center of gravity" concept for non-uniform fields. Symon, in his
textbook Mechanics, shows that the center of gravity of an extended body must always be defined relative to an
external point, at which location resides a point mass that is exerting a gravitational force on the object in question.
Center of mass 62
CM frame
The angular momentum vector for a system is equal to the angular momentum of all the particles around the center
of mass, plus the angular momentum of the center of mass, as if it were a single particle of mass :
Engineering
Aeronautical significance
The center of mass is an important point on an aircraft, which significantly affects the stability of the aircraft. To
ensure the aircraft is safe to fly, it is critical that the center of mass fall within specified limits. This range varies by
aircraft, but as a rule of thumb it is centered about a point one quarter of the way from the wing leading edge to the
wing trailing edge (the quarter chord point). If the center of mass is ahead of the forward limit, the aircraft will be
less maneuverable, possibly to the point of being unable to rotate for takeoff or flare for landing. If the center of
mass is behind the aft limit, the moment arm of the elevator is reduced, which makes it more difficult to recover
from a stalled condition. The aircraft will be more maneuverable, but also less stable, and possibly so unstable that it
is impossible to fly.
Center of mass 63
where:
a is the distance between the centers of the two bodies;
m1 and m2 are the masses of the two bodies.
r1 is essentially the semi-major axis of the primary's orbit around the barycenter—and r2 = a − r1 the semi-major
axis of the secondary's orbit. Where the barycenter is located within the more massive body, that body will appear to
"wobble" rather than following a discernible orbit.
The following table sets out some examples from our solar system. Figures are given rounded to three significant
figures. The last two columns show R1, the radius of the first (more massive) body, and r1/R1, the ratio of the
distance to the barycenter and that radius: a value less than one shows that the barycenter lies inside the first body.
Center of mass 64
Examples
Larger m1 Smaller m2 a r1 R1 r1/R1
body (mE=1) body (mE=1) (km) (km) (km)
Remarks
Both bodies have distinct orbits around the barycenter, and as such Pluto and Charon were considered as a double planet by many before the
redefinition of planet in August 2006.
If m1 ≫ m2—which is true for the Sun and any planet—then the ratio r1/R1 approximates to:
Hence, the barycenter of the Sun-planet system will lie outside the Sun only if:
That is, where the planet is heavy and far from the Sun.
If Jupiter had Mercury's orbit (57,900,000 km, 0.387 AU), the Sun-Jupiter barycenter would be only 5,500 km from
the center of the Sun (r1/R1 ~ 0.08). But even if the Earth had Eris' orbit (68 AU), the Sun-Earth barycenter would
still be within the Sun (just over 30,000 km from the center).
To calculate the actual motion of the Sun, you would need to sum all the influences from all the planets, comets,
asteroids, etc. of the solar system (see n-body problem). If all the planets were aligned on the same side of the Sun,
the combined center of mass would lie about 500,000 km above the Sun's surface.
The calculations above are based on the mean distance between the bodies and yield the mean value r1. But all
celestial orbits are elliptical, and the distance between the bodies varies between the apses, depending on the
eccentricity, e. Hence, the position of the barycenter varies too, and it is possible in some systems for the barycenter
to be sometimes inside and sometimes outside the more massive body. This occurs where:
Note that the Sun-Jupiter system, with eJupiter = 0.0484, just fails to qualify: 1.05 ≯ 1.07 > 0.954.
Center of mass 65
Animations
Images are representative, not simulated.
Two bodies of similar mass Two bodies with a difference in Two bodies with a major difference Two bodies with an extreme
orbiting around a common mass orbiting around a common in mass orbiting around a common difference in mass orbiting around a
barycenter. (similar to the 90 barycenter, as in the Pluto-Charon barycenter (similar to the common barycenter (similar to the
Antiope system) system. Earth-Moon system) Sun-Earth system)
Step 1: An arbitrary 2D shape. Step 2: Suspend the shape from a location near Step 3: Suspend the shape from another location not too
an edge. Drop a plumb line and mark on the close to the first. Drop a plumb line again and mark. The
object. intersection of the two lines is the center of mass.
Center of mass 66
Of an L-shaped object
This is a method of determining the center of mass of an L-shaped object.
1. Divide the shape into two rectangles, as shown in fig 2. Find the center of masses of these two rectangles by
drawing the diagonals. Draw a line joining the centers of mass. The center of mass of the shape must lie on this
line AB.
2. Divide the shape into two other rectangles, as shown in fig 3. Find the centers of mass of these two rectangles by
drawing the diagonals. Draw a line joining the centers of mass. The center of mass of the L-shape must lie on this
line CD.
3. As the center of mass of the shape must lie along AB and also along CD, it is obvious that it is at the intersection
of these two lines, at O. The point O might not lie inside the L-shaped object.
Of a composite shape
This method is useful when one wishes to find the location of the centroid or center of mass of an object that is easily
divided into elementary shapes, whose centers of mass are easy to find (see List of centroids). Here the center of
mass will only be found in the x direction. The same procedure may be followed to locate the center of mass in the y
direction.
The
shape. It is easily divided into a square, triangle, and circle. Note that the circle will have negative area.
From the List of centroids, we note the coordinates of the individual centroids.
Center of mass 67
units.
The center of mass of this figure is at a distance of 8.5 units from the left corner of the figure.
See also
• Center of gravity of an aircraft
• Center of percussion
• Center of pressure
• Metacentric height
• Roll center
• Two-body problem
• Weight distribution
References
• Feynman, Richard; Robert Leighton, Matthew Sands (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Addison Wesley.
ISBN 0-201-02116-1.
• Goldstein, Herbert; Charles Poole, John Safko (2002). Classical Mechanics (3e ed.). Addison Wesley. ISBN
0-201-65702-3.
• Kleppner, Daniel; Robert Kolenkow (1973). An Introduction to Mechanics (2e ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN
0-07-035048-5.
• Marion, Jerry; Stephen Thornton (1995). Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems (4e ed.). Harcourt. ISBN
0-03-097302-3.
• Murray, Carl; Stanley Dermott (1999). Solar System Dynamics. Cambridge UP. ISBN 0-521-57295-9.
• Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN
0-534-40842-7.
• Symon, Keithe R. (1971). Mechanics (3rd edition ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-07392-7.
• Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics
(5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4.
Center of mass 68
External links
• Centre of mass model [5] - A Background model for segmentation of moving objects in image processing.
• barycenter fold [6] by Paul Niquette.
• Center of Gravity [7] Encyclopaedia Britannica.
• Locating the center of mass by mechanical means [4].
• The dynamic centre of gravity [8] Engineer Xavier Borg - Blaze Labs Research
• Measuring Center of Gravity [9] Space Electronics, manufacturer of center of gravity measurement instruments.
• Motion of the Center of Mass [10] shows that the motion of the center of mass of an object in free fall is the same
as the motion of a point object.
• The solar system's barycenter [11] Simulations showing the effect each planet contributes to the solar system's
barycenter
• Polygon Center of Mass [12] An algorithm that would calculate the center of mass of a polygonal figure consisting
of n points (x, y).
References
[1] Van Pelt, Michael (2005). Space Tourism: Adventures in Earth Orbit and Beyond. Springer. pp. 185. ISBN 0387402136.
[2] Salah Zaimeche PhD (2005). Merv (http:/ / www. muslimheritage. com/ uploads/ Merv. pdf), Foundation for Science Technology and
Civilization.
[3] Symon, K. R. (1971). Mechanics, 3rd ed., Reading: Addison-Wesley.
[4] http:/ / web. mat. bham. ac. uk/ C. J. Sangwin/ Publications/ integrometer. pdf
[5] http:/ / portal. acm. org/ citation. cfm?id=1247738. 1247811
[6] http:/ / niquette. com/ puzzles/ barycntp. htm
[7] http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9037797/ centre-of-gravity
[8] http:/ / www. blazelabs. com/ dynamic-cg. pdf
[9] http:/ / www. space-electronics. com
[10] http:/ / www. kettering. edu/ ~drussell/ Demos/ COM/ com-a. html
[11] http:/ / orbitsimulator. com/ gravity/ articles/ ssbarycenter. html
[12] http:/ / www. astone. com/ sky/ cntr/
Uniform circular motion 69
Figure 3: (Left) Ball in circular motion – rope provides centripetal force to keep
ball in circle (Right) Rope is cut and ball continues in straight line with velocity at
the time of cutting the rope, in accord with Newton's law of inertia, because
centripetal force is no longer there
where the angular rate of rotation is ω. (By rearrangement, ω = v/r.) Thus, v is a constant, and the velocity vector v
also rotates with constant magnitude v, at the same angular rate ω.
Acceleration
The left-hand circle in Figure 2 is the orbit showing the velocity vectors at two adjacent times. On the right, these
two velocities are moved so their tails coincide. Because speed is constant, the velocity vectors on the right sweep
out a circle as time advances. For a swept angle dθ = ω dt the change in v is a vector at right angles to v and of
magnitude v dθ, which in turn means that the magnitude of the acceleration is given by
Centripetal force
The acceleration is due to an inward-acting force, which is known as the centripetal force (meaning "center-seeking
force"). It is the force that keeps an object in uniform circular motion. From Newton's second law of motion, the
centripetal force Fc for an object in uniform circular motion is related to the object's acceleration by
The centripetal force can be provided by many different things, such as tension (as in a sling), friction (as between
tires and road for a turning car), or gravity (as between the Sun and the Earth).
Figure 3 shows an example of the role of centripetal force in maintaining a circular orbit: a mass tied to a rope and
spinning around in a horizontal circle. The tension in the rope is the centripetal force, and it is the force keeping the
object in uniform circular motion.
Uniform circular motion 71
If the rope is cut at a particular time, the ball continues to move in the direction of its velocity at the moment of
cutting, traveling tangent to the circular path.
In Figure 3, the rope holding the ball of mass m is cut about 3⁄4 of the way around the orbit. After the rope is cut, the
tension force/centripetal force is no longer acting upon the object so there is no force holding the object in uniform
circular motion. Therefore it continues going in the direction when it was last in contact with the force. This is
commonly mistaken for Centrifugal Force.
Consider the example of a car racing in a circular track. Similar to the tension force, the radially directed component
of frictional force between the tires of the car and the road provides the centripetal force keeping the car in the circle.
If the road were a frictionless plane, the car would not be able to move in uniform circular motion, and would instead
travel in a straight line. For example, if there is a slick spot on the track, the car leaves the track much in the manner
shown in Figure 3, accompanied by some spinning about its own axis to conserve angular momentum.
External links
• Physclips: Mechanics with animations and video clips [1] from the University of New South Wales
See also
• Example: Circular motion
• Circular motion
• Centripetal force
• Fictional force
• Reactive centrifugal force
• Sling (weapon)
References
[1] http:/ / www. physclips. unsw. edu. au/
Angular acceleration 72
Angular acceleration
Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity over time. In SI units, it is measured in radians per
second squared (rad/s2), and is usually denoted by the Greek letter alpha (α).[1]
Mathematical definition
The angular acceleration can be defined as either:
, or
where is the angular velocity, is the linear tangential acceleration, and r is the radius of curvature.
Equations of motion
For rotational motion, Newton's second law can be adapted to describe the relation between torque and angular
acceleration:
,
where is the total torque exerted on the body, and is the mass moment of inertia of the body.
Constant acceleration
For all constant values of the torque, , of an object, the angular acceleration will also be constant. For this special
case of constant angular acceleration, the above equation will produce a definitive, constant value for the angular
acceleration:
Non-constant acceleration
For any non-constant torque, the angular acceleration of an object will change with time. The equation becomes a
differential equation instead of a constant value. This differential equation is known as the equation of motion of the
system and can completely describe the motion of the object. It is also the best way to calculate the angular velocity.
See also
• Angular momentum
• Angular speed
• Angular velocity
• Rotation
• Spin
References
[1] http:/ / theory. uwinnipeg. ca/ physics/ circ/ node3. html
Angular velocity 73
Angular velocity
In physics, the angular velocity is a vector quantity
(more precisely, a pseudovector) which specifies the
angular speed of an object and the axis about which the
object is rotating. The SI unit of angular velocity is
radians per second, although it may be measured in
other units such as degrees per second, revolutions per
second, degrees per hour, etc. When measured in cycles
or rotations per unit time (e.g. revolutions per minute),
it is often called the rotational velocity and its
magnitude the rotational speed. Angular velocity is
usually represented by the symbol omega (Ω or ω). The
direction of the angular velocity vector is perpendicular
to the plane of rotation, in a direction which is usually Angular velocity describes the speed of rotation and the orientation
of the instantaneous axis about which the rotation occurs. The
specified by the right hand grip rule.[1]
direction of the angular velocity vector will be along the axis of
rotation; in this case (counter-clockwise rotation) the vector points
up.
The angular velocity of a particle
Two dimensions
The angular velocity of a particle in a 2-dimensional
plane is the easiest to understand. As shown in the
figure on the right (typically expressing the angular
measures φ and θ in radians), if we draw a line from
the origin (O) to the particle (P), then the velocity
vector (v) of the particle will have a component along
the radius (radial component, v∥) and a component
perpendicular to the radius (cross-radial component, v
). However, it must be remembered that the
velocity vector can be also decomposed into
tangential and normal components.
Utilizing θ, the angle between vectors v∥ and v, or equivalently as the angle between vectors r and v, gives:
Angular velocity 74
Combining the above two equations and defining the angular velocity as ω=dΦ/dt yields:
In two dimensions the angular velocity is a single number which has no direction. A single number which has no
direction is either a scalar or a pseudoscalar, the difference being that a scalar does not change its sign when the x
and y axes are exchanged (or inverted), while a pseudoscalar does. The angle as well as the angular velocity is a
pseudoscalar. The positive direction of rotation is taken, by convention, to be in the direction towards the y axis from
the x axis. If the axes are inverted, but the sense of a rotation does not, then the sign of the angle of rotation, and
therefore the angular velocity as well, will change.
It is important to note that the pseudoscalar angular velocity of a particle depends upon the choice of the origin.
Three dimensions
In three dimensions, the angular velocity becomes a bit more complicated. The angular velocity in this case is
generally thought of as a vector, or more precisely, a pseudovector. It now has not only a magnitude, but a direction
as well. The magnitude is the angular speed, and the direction describes the axis of rotation. The right-hand rule
indicates the positive direction of the angular velocity pseudovector, namely:
If you curl the fingers of your right hand to follow the direction of the rotation, then the direction of the
angular velocity vector is indicated by your right thumb.
Just as in the two dimensional case, a particle will have a component of its velocity along the radius from the origin
to the particle, and another component perpendicular to that radius. The combination of the origin point and the
perpendicular component of the velocity defines a plane of rotation in which the behavior of the particle (for that
instant) appears just as it does in the two dimensional case. The axis of rotation is then a line normal to this plane,
and this axis defined the direction of the angular velocity pseudovector, while the magnitude is the same as the
pseudoscalar value found in the 2-dimensional case. Define a unit vector which points in the direction of the
angular velocity pseudovector. The angular velocity may be written in a manner similar to that for two dimensions:
Higher dimensions
In general, the angular velocity in an n-dimensional space is the time derivative of the angular displacement tensor
which is a second rank skew-symmetric tensor. This tensor will have n(n-1)/2 independent components and this
number is the dimension of the Lie algebra of the Lie group of rotations of an n-dimensional inner product space.[2]
It turns out that in three dimensional space angular velocity can be represented by vector because number of
independent components is equal to number of dimensions of space.
The defining characteristic of a rigid body is that the distance between any two points in a rigid body is unchanging
in time. This means that the length of the vector is unchanging. By Euler's rotation theorem, we may replace the
vector with where is a rotation matrix and is the position of the particle at some fixed point in
time, say t=0. This replacement is useful, because now it is only the rotation matrix which is changing in time
and not the reference vector , as the rigid body rotates about point O'. The position of the particle is now written
as:
where Vi is the velocity of the particle (in the lab frame) and V is the velocity of O' (the origin of the rigid body
frame). Since is a rotation matrix its inverse is its transpose. So we substitute :
is the negative of its transpose. Therefore it is a skew symmetric 3x3 matrix. We can therefore take its dual
to get a 3 dimensional vector. is called the angular velocity tensor. If we take the dual of this tensor, matrix
multiplication is replaced by the cross product. Its dual is called the angular velocity pseudovector, ω.
It can be seen that the velocity of a point in a rigid body can be divided into two terms - the velocity of a reference
point fixed in the rigid body plus the cross product term involving the angular velocity of the particle with respect to
the reference point. This angular velocity is the "spin" angular velocity of the rigid body as opposed to the angular
velocity of the reference point O' about the origin O.
It is an important point that the spin angular velocity of every particle in the rigid body is the same, and that the
spin angular velocity is independent of the choice of the origin of the rigid body system or of the lab system. In other
words, it is a physically real quantity which is a property of the rigid body, independent of one's choice of coordinate
system. The angular velocity of the reference point about the origin of the lab frame will, however, depend on these
choices of coordinate system. It is often convenient to choose the center of mass of the rigid body as the origin of the
rigid body system, since a considerable mathematical simplification occurs in the expression for the angular
momentum of the rigid body.
If the reference point is the "Instantaneous axis of rotation" the expression of velocity of a point in the rigid body
will have just the angular velocity term. This is because the velocity of instantaneous axis of rotation is zero. An
example of instantaneous axis of rotation is the hinge of a door. Another example is the point of contact of a pure
rolling spherical rigid body.
See also
• Angular frequency
• Angular acceleration
• Angular momentum
• Areal velocity
• Isometry
• Lie algebra
• Orthogonal group
• Rigid body dynamics
• Rotation group
Angular velocity 77
References
[1] Hibbeler, Russell C. (2009). Engineering Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=tOFRjXB-XvMC& pg=PA314& dq=angular+
velocity& rview=1). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 314, 153. ISBN 9780136077916. .(EM1)
[2] Rotations and Angular Momentum (http:/ / math. ucr. edu/ home/ baez/ classical/ galilei2. pdf) on the Classical Mechanics page of the
website of John Baez (http:/ / math. ucr. edu/ home/ baez/ README. html), especially Questions 1 and 2.
External links
A college text-book of physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QBc5AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA88&
dq=angular+velocity+of+a+particle&lr=&rview=1) By Arthur Lalanne Kimball (Angular Velocity of a particle)
Centripetal force
Centripetal force is a force that makes a body follow a curved path:it
is always directed orthogonal to the velocity of the body, toward the
instantaneous center of curvature of the path.[1] [2] The term centripetal
force comes from the Latin words centrum ("center") and petere ("tend
towards", "aim at"), signifying that the force is directed inward toward
the center of curvature of the path. Isaac Newton's description was: "A
centripetal force is that by which bodies are drawn or impelled, or in
any way tend, towards a point as to a center."[3]
The direction of the force is toward the center of the circle in which the object is moving, or the osculating circle, the
circle that best fits the local path of the object, if the path is not circular.[5] This force is also sometimes written in
terms of the angular velocity ω of the object about the center of the circle:
Centripetal force 78
Geometric derivation
and, by analogy,
Setting these two equations equal and solving for |a|, we get
Centripetal force 79
Comparing the two circles in Figure 2 also shows that the acceleration points toward the center of the R circle. For
example, in the left circle in Figure 2, the position vector R pointing at 12 o'clock has a velocity vector v pointing at
9 o'clock, which (switching to the circle on the right) has an acceleration vector a pointing at 6 o'clock. So the
acceleration vector is opposite to R and toward the center of the R circle.
with θ the angular position at time t. In this subsection, dθ/dt is assumed constant, independent of time. The distance
traveled ℓ of the particle in time dt along the circular path is
which, by properties of the vector cross product, has magnitude rdθ and is in the direction tangent to the circular
path.
Consequently,
In other words,
Applying Lagrange's formula with the observation that Ω • r(t) = 0 at all times,
In words, the acceleration is pointing directly opposite to the radial displacement r at all times, and has a magnitude:
Centripetal force 80
where vertical bars |...| denote the vector magnitude, which in the case of r(t) is simply the radius R of the path. This
result agrees with the previous section if the substitution is made for rate of rotation in terms of the period of rotation
T:
When the rate of rotation is made constant in the analysis of nonuniform circular motion, that analysis agrees with
this one.
A merit of the vector approach is that it is manifestly independent of any coordinate system.
The horizontal net force on the ball is the horizontal component of the force from the road, which has magnitude |Fh|
= m|an|sinθ. The vertical component of the force from the road must counteract the gravitational force, that is |Fv| =
m|an|cosθ = m|g|. Accordingly one finds the net horizontal force to be:
On the other hand, at velocity |v| on a circular path of radius R, kinematics says that the force needed to turn the ball
continuously into the turn is the radially inward centripetal force Fc of magnitude:
Consequently the ball is in a stable path when the angle of the road is set to satisfy the condition:
or,
Centripetal force 81
As the angle of bank θ approaches 90°, the tangent function approaches infinity, allowing larger values for |v|2/R. In
words, this equation states that for faster speeds (bigger |v|) the road must be banked more steeply (a larger value for
θ), and for sharper turns (smaller R) the road also must be banked more steeply, which accords with intuition. When
the angle θ does not satisfy the above condition, the horizontal component of force exerted by the road does not
provide the correct centripetal force, and an additional frictional force tangential to the road surface is called upon to
provide the difference. If friction cannot do this (that is, the coefficient of friction is exceeded), the ball slides to a
different radius where the balance can be realized.[9] [10]
These ideas apply to air flight as well. See the FAA pilot's manual.[11]
ur = cosθ i + sinθ j
and
uθ = -sinθ i + cosθ j.
We differentiate to find velocity:
and
Polar coordinates
where the notation ρ is used to describe the distance of the path from the origin instead of R to emphasize that this
distance is not fixed, but varies with time. The unit vector uρ travels with the particle and always points in the same
direction as r(t). Unit vector uθ also travels with the particle and stays orthogonal to uρ. Thus, uρ and uθ form a local
Cartesian coordinate system attached to the particle, and tied to the path traveled by the particle.[14] By moving the
unit vectors so their tails coincide, as seen in the circle at the left of Figure 6, it is seen that uρ and uθ form a
right-angled pair with tips on the unit circle that trace back and forth on the perimeter of this circle with the same
angle θ(t) as r(t).
When the particle moves, its velocity is
To evaluate the velocity, the derivative of the unit vector uρ is needed. Because uρ is a unit vector, its magnitude is
fixed, and it can change only in direction, that is, its change duρ has a component only perpendicular to uρ. When the
trajectory r(t) rotates an amount dθ, uρ, which points in the same direction as r(t), also rotates by dθ. See Figure 6.
Therefore the change in uρ is
or
Centripetal force 83
In a similar fashion, the rate of change of uθ is found. As with uρ, uθ is a unit vector and can only rotate without
changing size. To remain orthogonal to uρ while the trajectory r(t) rotates an amount dθ, uθ, which is orthogonal to
r(t), also rotates by dθ. See Figure 6. Therefore, the change duθ is orthogonal to uθ and proportional to dθ (see
Figure 6):
Figure 6 shows the sign to be negative: to maintain orthogonality, if duρ is positive with dθ, then duθ must decrease.
Substituting the derivative of uρ into the expression for velocity:
Substituting the derivatives of uρ and uθ, the acceleration of the particle is:[15]
As a particular example, if the particle moves in a circle of constant radius R, then dρ/dt = 0, v = vθ, and:
These results agree with those above for nonuniform circular motion. See also the article on non-uniform circular
motion. If this acceleration is multiplied by the particle mass, the leading term is the centripetal force and the
negative of the second term related to angular acceleration is sometimes called the Euler force.[16]
For trajectories other than circular motion, for example, the more general trajectory envisioned in Figure 6, the
instantaneous center of rotation and radius of curvature of the trajectory are related only indirectly to the coordinate
system defined by uρ and uθ and to the length |r(t)| = ρ. Consequently, in the general case, it is not straightforward to
disentangle the centripetal and Euler terms from the above general acceleration equation.[17] [18] To deal directly
with this issue, local coordinates are preferable, as discussed next.
Centripetal force 84
Local coordinates
The radius of curvature usually is taken as positive (that is, as an absolute value), while the curvature κ is a signed
quantity.
A geometric approach to finding the center of curvature and the radius of curvature uses a limiting process leading to
the osculating circle.[24] [25] See Figure 7.
Using these coordinates, the motion along the path is viewed as a succession of circular paths of ever-changing
center, and at each position s constitutes non-uniform circular motion at that position with radius ρ. The local value
of the angular rate of rotation then is given by:
As for the other examples above, because unit vectors cannot change magnitude, their rate of change is always
perpendicular to their direction (see the left-hand insert in Figure 7):[26]
In this local coordinate system the acceleration resembles the expression for nonuniform circular motion with the
local radius ρ(s), and the centripetal acceleration is identified as the second term.[29]
Centripetal force 85
Extension of this approach to three dimensional space curves leads to the Frenet-Serret formulas.[30] [31]
Alternative approach
Looking at Figure 7, one might wonder whether adequate account has been taken of the difference in curvature
between ρ(s) and ρ(s + ds) in computing the arc length as ds = ρ(s)dθ. Reassurance on this point can be found using
a more formal approach outlined below. This approach also makes connection with the article on curvature.
To introduce the unit vectors of the local coordinate system, one approach is to begin in Cartesian coordinates and
describe the local coordinates in terms of these Cartesian coordinates. In terms of arc length s let the path be
described as:[32]
where primes are introduced to denote derivatives with respect to s. The magnitude of this displacement is ds,
showing that:[33]
(Eq. 1)
This displacement is necessarily tangent to the curve at s, showing that the unit vector tangent to the curve is:
Orthogonality can be verified by showing the vector dot product is zero. The unit magnitude of these vectors is a
consequence of Eq. 1. Using the tangent vector, the angle of the tangent to the curve, say θ, is given by:
and
The radius of curvature is introduced completely formally (without need for geometric interpretation) as:
Now:
in which the denominator is unity. With this formula for the derivative of the sine, the radius of curvature becomes:
as can be verified by taking the dot product with the unit vectors ut(s) and un(s). This result for acceleration is the
same as that for circular motion based on the radius ρ. Using this coordinate system in the inertial frame, it is easy to
identify the force normal to the trajectory as the centripetal force and that parallel to the trajectory as the tangential
force. From a qualitative standpoint, the path can be approximated by an arc of a circle for a limited time, and for the
limited time a particular radius of curvature applies, the centrifugal and Euler forces can be analyzed on the basis of
circular motion with that radius.
This result for acceleration agrees with that found earlier. However, in this approach the question of the change in
radius of curvature with s is handled completely formally, consistent with a geometric interpretation, but not relying
upon it, thereby avoiding any questions Figure 7 might suggest about neglecting the variation in ρ.
Then:
which can be recognized as a circular path around the origin with radius α. The position s = 0 corresponds to [α, 0],
or 3 o'clock. To use the above formalism the derivatives are needed:
which serve to show that s = 0 is located at position [ρ, 0] and s = ρπ/2 at [0, ρ], which agrees with the original
expressions for x and y. In other words, s is measured counterclockwise around the circle from 3 o'clock. Also, the
derivatives of these vectors can be found:
To obtain velocity and acceleration, a time-dependence for s is necessary. For counterclockwise motion at variable
speed v(t):
where it already is established that α = ρ. This acceleration is the standard result for non-uniform circular motion.
See also
• Fictitious force • Example: circular motion • Kinematics
• Centrifugal force • Mechanics of planar particle motion • Applied mechanics
• Circular motion • Frenet-Serret formulas • Analytical mechanics
• Coriolis force • Orthogonal coordinates • Dynamics (physics)
• Reactive centrifugal • Statics • Classical mechanics
force
• Kinetics
Further reading
• Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN
0-534-40842-7.
• Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics
(5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4.
• Centripetal force [34] vs. Centrifugal force [35], from an online Regents Exam physics tutorial by the Oswego City
School District
External links
• Notes from University of Winnipeg [36]
• Notes from Physics and Astronomy HyperPhysics at Georgia State University [37]; see also home page [38]
• Notes from Britannica [39]
• Notes from PhysicsNet [40]
• NASA notes by David P. Stern [41]
• Notes from U Texas [42].
• Analysis of smart yo-yo [43]
• The Inuit yo-yo [44]
• Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library (KMODDL) [45]
Movies and photos of hundreds of working mechanical-systems models at Cornell University. Also includes an
e-book library [46] of classic texts on mechanical design and engineering.
Centripetal force 88
References
[1] Russelkl C Hibbeler (2009). "Equations of Motion: Normal and tangential coordinates" (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=tOFRjXB-XvMC& pg=PA131). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (12 ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 131. ISBN 0136077919. .
[2] Paul Allen Tipler, Gene Mosca (2003). Physics for scientists and engineers (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=2HRFckqcBNoC&
pg=PA129) (5th ed.). Macmillan. p. 129. ISBN 0716783398. .
[3] Felix Klein, Arnold Sommerfeld (2008). The Theory of the Top (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xdxGF918uI8C& pg=PA232) (Reprint
with translators' notes of 1897 ed.). Boston, Mass.: Birkhäuser. p. 232. ISBN 0817647201. .
[4] Chris Carter (2001). Facts and Practice for A-Level: Physics. S.l.: Oxford Univ Press. p. 30. ISBN 9780199147687.
[5] Eugene Lommel and George William Myers (1900). Experimental physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=4BMPAAAAYAAJ&
pg=PA63& dq=centripetal-force+ osculating-circle& lr=& as_brr=3& ei=gmNASs2tCYXWlQTXieiADw). K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co.
p. 63. .
[6] Johnnie T. Dennis (2003). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=P1hL1EwElX4C& pg=PA91&
dq=centripetal+ component+ gravity& lr=& as_brr=3& ei=VWpASuruKY-gkQTc7bzxDg). Alpha Books. p. 91. ISBN 9781592570812. .
[7] George Bernard Benedek and Felix Villars (2000). Physics, with Illustrative Examples from Medicine and Biology: Mechanics (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=GeALYXiy9sMC& pg=PA52& dq=gravity+ "centripetal+ force"+ intitle:mechanics& lr=& as_brr=3&
ei=W7EtSqu7Bo62zATZnrSOBw). Springer. p. 52. ISBN 9780387987699. .
[8] Lawrence S. Lerner (1997). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=kJOnAvimS44C& pg=PA129&
dq=centripetal+ "banked+ curve"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=0ueAq7G5l2R3ausiXue0CPW_1dM#PPA128,M1). Boston: Jones & Bartlett
Publishers. p. 128. ISBN 0867204796. .
[9] Arthur Beiser (2004). Schaum's Outline of Applied Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=soKguvJDgmsC& pg=PA103&
dq=friction+ "banked+ turn"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=hMYfCzJHm6Ni4Noq5v5NRvvPSyQ). New York: McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 103.
ISBN 0071426116. .
[10] Alan Darbyshire (2003). Mechanical Engineering: BTEC National Option Units (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=fzfXLGpElZ0C&
pg=PA57& dq=centripetal+ "banked+ curve"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=hbaHu8Xt_uTGvd5b1DG01vCYFF8#PPA56,M1). Oxford: Newnes.
p. 56. ISBN 0750657618. .
[11] Federal Aviation Administration (2007). Pilot's Encyclopedia of Aeronautical Knowledge (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=m5V04SXE4zQC& pg=PT33& lpg=PT33& dq=+ "angle+ of+ bank"& source=web& ots=iYTi_mZAra&
sig=ytjcmr9RStdIdgZzaiBJJ-wxjts& hl=en#PPT32,M1). Oklahoma City OK: Skyhorse Publishing Inc.. Figure 3-21. ISBN 1602390347. .
[12] Note: unlike the Cartesian unit vectors i and j, which are constant, in polar coordinates the direction of the unit vectors ur and uθ depend on
θ, and so in general have non-zero time derivatives.
[13] Although the polar coordinate system moves with the particle, the observer does not. The description of the particle motion remains a
description from the stationary observer's point of view.
[14] Notice that this local coordinate system is not autonomous; for example, its rotation in time is dictated by the trajectory traced by the
particle. Note also that the radial vector r(t) does not represent the radius of curvature of the path.
[15] John Robert Taylor (2005). Classical Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=P1kCtNr-pJsC& printsec=index&
dq=isbn=189138922X& lr=& as_brr=0& source=gbs_toc_s& cad=1#PPA29,M1). Sausalito CA: University Science Books. p. 28–29. ISBN
189138922X. .
[16] Cornelius Lanczos (1986). The Variational Principles of Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ZWoYYr8wk2IC& pg=PA103&
dq="Euler+ force"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=UV46Q9NIrYWwn5EmYpPv-LPuZd0#PPA103,M1). New York: Courier Dover Publications.
p. 103. ISBN 0486650677. .
[17] See, for example, Howard D. Curtis (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=6aO9aGNBAgIC& pg=PA193& dq=orbit+ "coordinate+ system"& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=p5hZldx_U1CnV0Ggc29YBLgLj9k#PPA5,M1). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 5. ISBN 0750661690. .
[18] S. Y. Lee (2004). Accelerator physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=VTc8Sdld5S8C& pg=PA37& dq=orbit+ "coordinate+
system"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=h5GU58FVOzEGclxsJkYQuVvtWkU) (2nd ed.). Hackensack NJ: World Scientific. p. 37. ISBN 981256182X.
.
[19] The observer of the motion along the curve is using these local coordinates to describe the motion from the observer's frame of reference,
that is, from a stationary point of view. In other words, although the local coordinate system moves with the particle, the observer does not. A
change in coordinate system used by the observer is only a change in their description of observations, and does not mean that the observer
has changed their state of motion, and vice versa.
[20] Zhilin Li & Kazufumi Ito (2006). The immersed interface method: numerical solutions of PDEs involving interfaces and irregular domains
(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=_E084AX-iO8C& pg=PA16& dq="local+ coordinates"& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U2p_S2c7vRzd1vabU9WhIBJXk8ESw). Philadelphia: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. p. 16. ISBN 0898716098.
.
[21] K L Kumar (2003). Engineering Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QabMJsCf2zgC& pg=PA339& dq="path+
coordinates"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U1ZlP_syppme85cv4pimhLxyUOLug). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill. p. 339. ISBN
0070494738. .
Centripetal force 89
[22] Lakshmana C. Rao, J. Lakshminarasimhan, Raju Sethuraman & SM Sivakuma (2004). Engineering Dynamics: Statics and Dynamics (http:/
/ books. google. com/ books?id=F7gaa1ShPKIC& pg=PA134& dq="path+ coordinates"& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U0PT2mGvAHroVJFVXGB46y6zLWaGA#PPA132,M1). Prentice Hall of India. p. 133. ISBN 8120321898. .
[23] Shigeyuki Morita (2001). Geometry of Differential Forms (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=5N33Of2RzjsC& pg=PA1& dq="local+
coordinates"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U3dnL01bMDu8d0GCmCC9eI717lsPA). American Mathematical Society. p. 1. ISBN
0821810456. .
[24] The osculating circle at a given point P on a curve is the limiting circle of a sequence of circles that pass through P and two other points on
the curve, Q and R, on either side of P, as Q and R approach P. See the online text by Lamb: Horace Lamb (1897). An Elementary Course of
Infinitesimal Calculus (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=eDM6AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA406& dq="osculating+ circle"& lr=& as_brr=0).
University Press. p. 406. ISBN 1108005349. .
[25] Guang Chen & Fook Fah Yap (2003). An Introduction to Planar Dynamics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xt09XiZBzPEC&
pg=PA34& dq=motion+ "center+ of+ curvature"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U2lKY09hG88_XSHtU9H_xuaXXdGlA) (3rd ed.). Central
Learning Asia/Thomson Learning Asia. p. 34. ISBN 9812435689. .
[26] R. Douglas Gregory (2006). Classical Mechanics: An Undergraduate Text (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uAfUQmQbzOkC&
pg=RA1-PA18& dq=particle+ curve+ normal+ tangent& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U3_WR6_esuEz-mUMmOXuZabQY6Now#PRA1-PA20,M1). Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN 0521826780. .
[27] Edmund Taylor Whittaker & William McCrea (1988). A Treatise on the Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies: with an
introduction to the problem of three bodies (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=epH1hCB7N2MC& pg=PA20& vq=radius+ of+
curvature& dq=particle+ movement+ "radius+ of+ curvature"+ acceleration+ -soap& lr=& as_brr=0& source=gbs_search_s&
sig=ACfU3U3cKHnTYJNja9o0t_Iw2VeRSGEWCg) (4rth ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN 0521358833. .
[28] Jerry H. Ginsberg (2007). Engineering Dynamics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=je0W8N5oXd4C& pg=PA723& dq=osculating+
"planar+ motion"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U0Yuca2DhshUowHlkVtw_bRSR-qww#PPA33,M1). Cambridge University Press. p. 33.
ISBN 0521883032. .
[29] Joseph F. Shelley (1990). 800 solved problems in vector mechanics for engineers: Dynamics (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=ByNrVgf041MC& pg=PA46& dq=particle+ movement+ "radius+ of+ curvature"+ acceleration+ -soap& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U3xRX2OpTCS7_OF87Yi07fQmymg7A#PPA47,M1). McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 47. ISBN 0070566879. .
[30] Larry C. Andrews & Ronald L. Phillips (2003). Mathematical Techniques for Engineers and Scientists (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=MwrDfvrQyWYC& pg=PA164& dq=particle+ "planar+ motion"& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U2LpH6ofhuuC2UiED0pf38wbspY8A#PPA164,M1). SPIE Press. p. 164. ISBN 0819445061. .
[31] Ch V Ramana Murthy & NC Srinivas (2001). Applied Mathematics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Q0Pvv4vWOlQC& pg=PA337&
vq=frenet& dq=isbn=8121920825& source=gbs_search_s& sig=ACfU3U3S5vGMS-NnraAEmpBf6B9bB2wK6A). New Delhi: S. Chand &
Co.. p. 337. ISBN 81-219-2082-5. .
[32] The article on curvature treats a more general case where the curve is parametrized by an arbitrary variable (denoted t), rather than by the arc
length s.
[33] Ahmed A. Shabana, Khaled E. Zaazaa, Hiroyuki Sugiyama (2007). Railroad Vehicle Dynamics: A Computational Approach (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=YgIDSQT0FaUC& pg=RA1-PA207& dq="generalized+ coordinate"& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U2tosoLUEAUNkGu2x8TTtuxLfeLGQ#PRA1-PA91,M1). CRC Press. p. 91. ISBN 1420045814. .
[34] http:/ / regentsprep. org/ Regents/ physics/ phys06/ bcentrif/ default. htm
[35] http:/ / regentsprep. org/ Regents/ physics/ phys06/ bcentrif/ centrif. htm
[36] http:/ / theory. uwinnipeg. ca/ physics/ circ/ node6. html
[37] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ HBASE/ cf. html#cf
[38] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ HBASE/ hframe. html
[39] http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ topic-102869/ centripetal-acceleration
[40] http:/ / www. ac. wwu. edu/ ~vawter/ PhysicsNet/ Topics/ RotationalKinematics/ CentripetalForce. html
[41] http:/ / www-istp. gsfc. nasa. gov/ stargaze/ Scircul. htm
[42] http:/ / farside. ph. utexas. edu/ teaching/ 301/ lectures/ node87. html
[43] http:/ / gicl. cs. drexel. edu/ wiki/ Smart_Yo-yo
[44] http:/ / www. fofweb. com/ onfiles/ SEOF/ Science_Experiments/ 6-17. pdf
[45] http:/ / kmoddl. library. cornell. edu/ index. php
[46] http:/ / kmoddl. library. cornell. edu/ e-books. php
Right-hand rule 90
Right-hand rule
In mathematics and physics, the right-hand rule is a common
mnemonic for understanding notation conventions for vectors in 3
dimensions. It was invented for use in electromagnetism by British
physicist Zachariah William Cole in the late 1800s.[1] [2]
When choosing three vectors that must be at right angles to each other,
there are two distinct solutions, so when expressing this idea in
mathematics, one must remove the ambiguity of which solution is
meant. The left-handed orientation is shown on the left,
and the right-handed on the right.
There are variations on the mnemonic depending on context, but all
variations are related to the one idea of choosing a convention.
• With the thumb, index, and middle fingers at right angles to each other (with the index finger pointed straight),
the middle finger points in the direction of c when the thumb represents a and the index finger represents b.
Other (equivalent) finger assignments are possible. For example, the first (index) finger can represent a, the first
vector in the product; the second (middle) finger, b, the second vector; and the thumb, c, the product.[3]
Applications
Right-hand rule 91
The first form of the rule is used to determine the direction of the cross product of two vectors. This leads to
widespread use in physics, wherever the cross product occurs. A list of physical quantities whose directions are
related by the right-hand rule is given below. (Some of these are related only indirectly to cross products, and use the
second form.)
• The angular velocity of a rotating object and the rotational velocity of any point on the object
• A torque, the force that causes it, and the position of the point of application of the force
• A magnetic field, the position of the point where it is determined, and the electric current (or change in electric
flux) that causes it
• A magnetic field in a coil of wire and the electric current in the wire
• The force of a magnetic field on a charged particle, the magnetic field itself, and the velocity of the object
• The vorticity at any point in the field of flow of a fluid
• The induced current from motion in a magnetic field (known as Fleming's right hand rule)
Fleming's left hand rule is a rule for finding the direction of the thrust on a conductor carrying a current in a
magnetic field.
Left handedness
In certain situations, it may be useful to use the opposite convention,
where one of the vectors is reversed and so creates a left-handed triad
instead of a right-handed triad.
An example of this situation is for left-handed materials. Normally, for
an electromagnetic wave, the electric and magnetic fields, and the
direction of propagation of the wave obey the right-hand rule.
However, left-handed materials have special properties - the negative
Fleming's left hand rule
refractive index. It makes the direction of propagation point in the
opposite direction.
De Graaf's translation of Fleming's left-hand rule - which uses thrust, field and current - and the right-hand rule, is
the FBI rule. The FBI rule changes Thrust into F (Lorentz force), B (direction of the magnetic field) and I (current).
The FBI rule is easily remembered by US citizens because of the commonly known abbreviation for the Federal
Bureau of Investigation.
Symmetry
Vector Right-Hand Right-Hand Right-Hand Left-Hand Left-Hand Left-Hand
a, x or I Thumb Fingers or Palm First or Index Thumb Fingers or Palm First or Index
b, y or B First or Index Thumb Fingers or Palm Fingers or Palm First or Index Thumb
c, z or F Fingers or Palm First or Index Thumb First or Index Thumb Fingers or Palm
Right-hand rule 92
See also
• Chirality (mathematics)
• Right hand grip rule
• Curl (mathematics)
• Pseudovector
• Improper rotation
• Reflection (mathematics)
• Fleming's left hand rule
• Vorticity
• ISO 2
External links
• Right and Left Hand Rules - Interactive Java Tutorial [5] National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
• A demonstration of the right-hand rule at physics.syr.edu [6]
• Definition at mathworld.wolfram.com [7]
References
[1] Cole, Zachariah William (1902). Magnets and Electric Currents, 2nd Edition (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ASUYAAAAYAAJ&
pg=PA173). London: E.& F. N. Spon. pp. 173–174. .
[2] "Right and left hand rules" (http:/ / www. magnet. fsu. edu/ education/ tutorials/ java/ handrules/ index. html). Tutorials, Magnet Lab U..
National High Magnetic Field Laboratory. . Retrieved 2008-04-30.
[3] PHYS345 Introduction to the Right Hand Rule (http:/ / www. physics. udel. edu/ ~watson/ phys345/ Fall1998/ class/ 1-right-hand-rule. html),
George Watson, University of Delaware, 1998
[4] Wilson, Adam (2008). "Hand Rules" (http:/ / www. ece. unb. ca/ Courses/ EE2683/ AW/ hand_rules. pdf). Course outline, EE2683 Electric
Circuits and Machines. Faculty of Engineering, Univ. of New Brunswick. . Retrieved 2008-08-11.
[5] http:/ / www. magnet. fsu. edu/ education/ tutorials/ java/ handrules/ index. html
[6] http:/ / physics. syr. edu/ courses/ video/ RightHandRule/ index2. html
[7] http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ Right-HandRule. html
Coriolis effect 93
Coriolis effect
In physics, the Coriolis effect is an apparent deflection of moving
objects when they are viewed from a rotating reference frame. For
example, consider two children on opposite sides of a spinning
roundabout (carousel), who are throwing a ball to each other. From the
children's point of view, the ball's path is curved sideways by the
Coriolis effect. From the thrower's perspective, the deflection is to the
right with anticlockwise carousel rotation (viewed from above).
Deflection is to the left with clockwise rotation.
History
Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis published a paper in 1835 on the energy yield of machines with rotating parts, such as
waterwheels.[2] This paper considered the supplementary forces that are detected in a rotating frame of reference.
Coriolis divided these supplementary forces into two categories. The second category contained a force that arises
from the cross product of the angular velocity of a coordinate system and the projection of a particle's velocity into a
plane perpendicular to the system's axis of rotation. Coriolis referred to this force as the "compound centrifugal
force" due to its analogies with the centrifugal force already considered in category one.[3] [4] By the early 20th
Coriolis effect 94
century the effect was known as the "acceleration of Coriolis".[5] By 1919 it was referred by to as "Coriolis' force"[6]
and by 1920 as "Coriolis force".[7]
In 1856, William Ferrel proposed the existence of a circulation cell in the mid-latitudes with air being deflected by
the Coriolis force to create the prevailing westerly winds.[8]
Understanding the kinematics of how exactly the rotation of the Earth affects airflow was partial at first.[9] Late in
the 19th century, the full extent of the large scale interaction of pressure gradient force and deflecting force that in
the end causes air masses to move along isobars was understood.
Formula
In non-vector terms: at a given rate of rotation of the observer, the magnitude of the Coriolis acceleration of the
object is proportional to the velocity of the object and also to the sine of the angle between the direction of
movement of the object and the axis of rotation.
The vector formula for the magnitude and direction of the Coriolis acceleration is
where (here and below) v is the velocity of the particle in the rotating system, and Ω is the angular velocity vector
which has magnitude equal to the rotation rate ω and is directed along the axis of rotation of the rotating reference
frame, and the × symbol represents the cross product operator.
The equation may be multiplied by the mass of the relevant object to produce the Coriolis force:
.
See fictitious force for a derivation.
The Coriolis effect is the behavior added by the Coriolis acceleration. The formula implies that the Coriolis
acceleration is perpendicular both to the direction of the velocity of the moving mass and to the frame's rotation axis.
So in particular:
• if the velocity is parallel to the rotation axis, the Coriolis acceleration is zero.
• if the velocity is straight inward to the axis, the acceleration is in the direction of local rotation.
• if the velocity is straight outward from the axis, the acceleration is against the direction of local rotation.
• if the velocity is in the direction of local rotation, the acceleration is outward from the axis.
• if the velocity is against the direction of local rotation, the acceleration is inward to the axis.
The vector cross product can be evaluated as the determinant of a matrix:
Causes
The Coriolis effect exists only when using a rotating reference frame. In the rotating frame it behaves exactly like a
real force (that is to say, it causes acceleration and has real effects). However, Coriolis force is a consequence of
inertia, and is not attributable to an identifiable originating body, as is the case for electromagnetic or nuclear forces,
for example. From an analytical viewpoint, to use Newton's second law in a rotating system, Coriolis force is
mathematically necessary, but it disappears in a non-accelerating, inertial frame of reference. For a mathematical
formulation see Mathematical derivation of fictitious forces.
A denizen of a rotating frame, such as an astronaut in a rotating space station, very probably will find the
interpretation of everyday life in terms of the Coriolis force accords more simply with intuition and experience than
Coriolis effect 95
a cerebral reinterpretation of events from an inertial standpoint. For example, nausea due to an experienced push may
be more instinctively explained by Coriolis force than by the law of inertia.[10] [11] See also Coriolis effect
(perception). In meteorology, a rotating frame (the Earth) with its Coriolis force proves a more natural framework for
explanation of air movements than a hypothetical, non-rotating, inertial frame without Coriolis forces.[12] [13] In
long-range gunnery, sight corrections for the Earth's rotation are based upon Coriolis force.[14] These examples are
described in more detail below.
The acceleration entering the Coriolis force arises from two sources of change in velocity that result from rotation:
the first is the change of the velocity of an object in time. The same velocity (in an inertial frame of reference where
the normal laws of physics apply) will be seen as different velocities at different times in a rotating frame of
reference. The apparent acceleration is proportional to the angular velocity of the reference frame (the rate at which
the coordinate axes change direction), and to the component of velocity of the object in a plane perpendicular to the
axis of rotation. This gives a term . The minus sign arises from the traditional definition of the cross
product (right hand rule), and from the sign convention for angular velocity vectors.
The second is the change of velocity in space. Different positions in a rotating frame of reference have different
velocities (as seen from an inertial frame of reference). In order for an object to move in a straight line it must
therefore be accelerated so that its velocity changes from point to point by the same amount as the velocities of the
frame of reference. The effect is proportional to the angular velocity (which determines the relative speed of two
different points in the rotating frame of reference), and to the component of the velocity of the object in a plane
perpendicular to the axis of rotation (which determines how quickly it moves between those points). This also gives
a term .
The Rossby number is the ratio of inertial to Coriolis forces. A small Rossby number signifies a system which is
strongly affected by Coriolis forces, and a large Rossby number signifies a system in which inertial forces dominate.
For example, in tornadoes, the Rossby number is large, in low-pressure systems it is low and in oceanic systems it is
of the order of unity. As a result, in tornadoes the Coriolis force is negligible, and balance is between pressure and
centrifugal forces. In low-pressure systems, centrifugal force is negligible and balance is between Coriolis and
pressure forces. In the oceans all three forces are comparable.[15]
An atmospheric system moving at U = 10 m/s occupying a spatial distance of L = 1000 km, has a Rossby number of
approximately 0.1. A man playing catch may throw the ball at U = 30 m/s in a garden of length L = 50 m. The
Rossby number in this case would be about = 6000. Needless to say, one does not worry about which hemisphere
one is in when playing catch in the garden. However, an unguided missile obeys exactly the same physics as a
baseball, but may travel far enough and be in the air long enough to notice the effect of Coriolis. Long-range shells
in the Northern Hemisphere landed close to, but to the right of, where they were aimed until this was noted. (Those
fired in the southern hemisphere landed to the left.) In fact, it was this effect that first got the attention of Coriolis
himself.[16] [17] [18]
Coriolis effect 96
Applied to Earth
Rotating sphere
Consider a location with latitude on a sphere that is
rotating around the north-south axis.[19] A local
coordinate system is set up with the axis
horizontally due east, the axis horizontally due north
and the axis vertically upwards.The rotation vector,
velocity of movement and Coriolis acceleration
expressed in this local coordinate system (listing
components in the order East (e), North (n) and
Upward (u)) are:
When considering atmospheric or oceanic dynamics, the vertical velocity is small and the vertical component of the
Coriolis acceleration is small compared to gravity. For such cases, only the horizontal (East and North) components
matter. The restriction of the above to the horizontal plane is (setting vu=0):
As a different case, consider equatorial motion setting φ = 0°. In this case, Ω is parallel to the North or n-axis, and:
Accordingly, an eastward motion (that is, in the same direction as the rotation of the sphere) provides an upward
acceleration known as the Eötvös effect, and an upward motion produces an acceleration due west.
This can be recognised as the centripetal force that will keep the star in a circular movement around the observer.
The general situation for a star, not above the equator is more complicated. Just as for air flows on Earth's surface, on
the northern hemisphere a star's trajectory will be deflected to the right. After rising at a certain angle, it will bend to
the right, culminate and start setting.
Meteorology
Perhaps the most important instance of the Coriolis effect is in
the large-scale dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere. In
meteorology and ocean science, it is convenient to use a
rotating frame of reference where the Earth is stationary. The
fictitious centrifugal and Coriolis forces must then be
introduced. Their relative importance is determined by the
Rossby number. Tornadoes have a high Rossby number, so
Coriolis forces are unimportant, and are not discussed here.[22]
As discussed next, low-pressure areas are phenomena where
Coriolis forces are significant.
Inertial circles
Eötvös effect
The practical impact of the Coriolis effect is mostly caused by the horizontal acceleration component produced by
horizontal motion.
There are other components of the Coriolis effect. Eastward-traveling objects will be deflected upwards (feel
lighter), while westward-traveling objects will be deflected downwards (feel heavier). This is known as the Eötvös
effect. This aspect of the Coriolis effect is greatest near the equator. The force produced by this effect is similar to
the horizontal component, but the much larger vertical forces due to gravity and pressure mean that it is generally
unimportant dynamically.
In addition, objects traveling upwards or downwards will be deflected to the west or east respectively. This effect is
also the greatest near the equator. Since vertical movement is usually of limited extent and duration, the size of the
effect is smaller and requires precise instruments to detect.
decreases as water approaches the plug hole so the rate of rotation increases, equivalent to bringing your arms and
legs in while spinning on a chair.
Special cases
Cannon on turntable
Figure 1 is an animation of the classic
illustration of Coriolis force. Another
visualization of the Coriolis and centrifugal
forces is this animation clip [31]. Figure 3 is
a graphical version.
Here is a question: given the radius of the
turntable R, the rate of angular rotation ω,
and the speed of the cannonball (assumed
constant) v, what is the correct angle θ to
aim so as to hit the target at the edge of the Figure 3: Cannon at the center of a rotating turntable. To hit the target located at
turntable? position 1 on the perimeter at time t = 0s, the cannon must be aimed ahead of the
target at angle θ. That way, by the time the cannonball reaches position 3 on the
The inertial frame of reference provides one periphery, the target also will be at that position. In an inertial frame of reference,
way to handle the question: calculate the the cannonball travels a straight radial path to the target (curve yA). However, in
the frame of the turntable, the path is arched (curve yB), as also shown in the figure.
time to interception, which is tf = R / v .
Then, the turntable revolves an angle ω tf in
this time. If the cannon is pointed an angle θ = ω tf = ω R / v, then the cannonball arrives at the periphery at position
number 3 at the same time as the target.
No discussion of Coriolis force can arrive at this solution as simply, so the reason to treat this problem is to
demonstrate Coriolis formalism in an easily visualized situation.
Coriolis effect 101
Figure 4: Successful trajectory of cannonball as seen from the turntable for three
angles of launch θ. Plotted points are for the same equally spaced times steps on
each curve. Cannonball speed v is held constant and angular rate of rotation ω is
varied to achieve a successful "hit" for selected θ. For example, for a radius of 1 m
and a cannonball speed of 1 m/s, the time of flight tf = 1 s, and ωtf = θ → ω and θ
have the same numerical value if θ is expressed in radians. The wider spacing of
the plotted points as the target is approached show the speed of the cannonball is
accelerating as seen on the turntable, due to fictitious Coriolis and centrifugal
forces.
Figure 5: Acceleration components at an earlier time (top) and at arrival time at the
target (bottom)
Coriolis effect 102
In the turntable frame (denoted B), the x- y axes rotate at angular rate ω, so the trajectory becomes:
in which the term in Ω × vB is the Coriolis acceleration and the term in Ω × ( Ω × rB) is the centrifugal acceleration.
The results are (let α = θ − ωt):
Also:
It is seen that the Coriolis acceleration not only cancels the centrifugal acceleration, but together they provide a net
"centripetal", radially inward component of acceleration (that is, directed toward the center of rotation):[32]
The "centripetal" component of acceleration resembles that for circular motion at radius rB, while the perpendicular
component is velocity dependent, increasing with the radial velocity v and directed to the right of the velocity. The
situation could be described as a circular motion combined with an "apparent Coriolis acceleration" of 2ωv.
However, this is a rough labeling: a careful designation of the true centripetal force refers to a local reference frame
that employs the directions normal and tangential to the path, not coordinates referred to the axis of rotation.
These results also can be obtained directly by two time differentiations of rB (t). Agreement of the two approaches
demonstrates that one could start from the general expression for fictitious acceleration above and derive the
trajectories of Figure 4. However, working from the acceleration to the trajectory is more complicated than the
reverse procedure used here, which, of course, is made possible in this example by knowing the answer in advance.
As a result of this analysis an important point appears: all the fictitious accelerations must be included to obtain the
correct trajectory. In particular, besides the Coriolis acceleration, the centrifugal force plays an essential role. It is
easy to get the impression from verbal discussions of the cannonball problem, which are focussed on displaying the
Coriolis effect particularly, that the Coriolis force is the only factor that must be considered;[33] emphatically, that is
not so.[34] A turntable for which the Coriolis force is the only factor is the parabolic turntable. A somewhat more
complex situation is the idealized example of flight routes over long distances, where the centrifugal force of the
path and aeronautical lift are countered by gravitational attraction.[35] [36]
Bounced ball
Figure 8 describes a more complex situation
where the tossed ball on a turntable bounces
off the edge of the carousel and then returns
to the tosser, who catches the ball. The
effect of Coriolis force on its trajectory is
shown again as seen by two observers: an
observer (referred to as the "camera") that
rotates with the carousel, and an inertial
observer. Figure 8 shows a bird's-eye view
based upon the same ball speed on forward
and return paths. Within each circle, plotted
dots show the same time points. In the left Figure 8: Bird's-eye view of carousel. The carousel rotates clockwise. Two
viewpoints are illustrated: that of the camera at the center of rotation rotating with
panel, from the camera's viewpoint at the
the carousel (left panel) and that of the inertial (stationary) observer (right panel).
center of rotation, the tosser (smiley face) Both observers agree at any given time just how far the ball is from the center of
and the rail both are at fixed locations, and the carousel, but not on its orientation. Time intervals are 1/10 of time from launch
the ball makes a very considerable arc on its to bounce.
The ball's path through the air is straight when viewed by observers standing on the ground (right panel). In the right
panel (stationary observer), the ball tosser (smiley face) is at 12 o'clock and the rail the ball bounces from is at
position one (1). From the inertial viewer's standpoint, positions one (1), two (2), three (3) are occupied in sequence.
At position 2 the ball strikes the rail, and at position 3 the ball returns to the tosser. Straight-line paths are followed
because the ball is in free flight, so this observer requires that no net force is applied.
A video clip of the tossed ball and other experiments are found at youtube: coriolis effect (2-11) [37], University of
Illinois WW2010 Project [38] (some clips repeat only a fraction of a full rotation), and youtube [39].
Coriolis effect 105
Discs cut from cylinders of dry ice can be used as pucks, moving
around almost frictionlessly over the surface of the parabolic turntable,
allowing effects of Coriolis on dynamic phenomena to show
themselves. To get a view of the motions as seen from the reference
frame rotating with the turntable, a video camera is attached to the
turntable so as to co-rotate with the turntable, with results as shown in
Figure 11. In the left panel of Figure 11, which is the viewpoint of a
stationary observer, the gravitational force in the inertial frame pulling
the object toward the center (bottom ) of the dish is proportional to the
distance of the object from the center. A centripetal force of this form
Figure 10: The forces at play in the case of a
causes the elliptical motion. In the right panel, which shows the curved surface.
viewpoint of the rotating frame, the inward gravitational force in the Red: gravity
rotating frame (the same force as in the inertial frame) is balanced by Green : the normal force
the outward centrifugal force (present only in the rotating frame). With Blue : the resultant centripetal force.
these two forces balanced, in the rotating frame the only unbalanced
force is Coriolis (also present only in the rotating frame), and the motion is an inertial circle. Analysis and
observation of circular motion in the rotating frame is a simplification compared to analysis or observation of
elliptical motion in the inertial frame.
Because this reference frame rotates several times a minute, rather than only once a day like the Earth, the Coriolis
acceleration produced is many times larger, and so easier to observe on small time and spatial scales, than is the
Coriolis acceleration caused by the rotation of the Earth.
In a manner of speaking, the Earth is analogous to such a turntable.[42] The rotation has caused the planet to settle on
a spheroid shape, such that the normal force, the gravitational force and the centrifugal force exactly balance each
other on a "horizontal" surface. (See equatorial bulge.)
The Coriolis effect caused by the rotation of the Earth can be seen indirectly through the motion of a Foucault
pendulum.
Coriolis effect 106
Insect flight
Flies (Diptera) and moths (Lepidoptera) utilize the Coriolis effect when flying: their halteres, or antennae in the case
of moths, oscillate rapidly and are used as vibrational gyroscopes.[43] See Coriolis effect in insect stability.[44] In this
context, the Coriolis effect has nothing to do with the rotation of the Earth.
See also
• Analytical mechanics • Gyroscope
• Applied mechanics • Kinetics (physics)
• Centrifugal force • Mass flow meter
• Centrifugal force (rotating reference frame) • Mechanics of planar particle motion
• Centripetal force • Reactive centrifugal force
• Classical mechanics • Secondary flow
• Dynamics (physics) • Statics
• Earth's rotation • Uniform circular motion
• Equatorial Rossby wave
• Frenet-Serret formulas
• Geostrophic wind
Coriolis effect 107
References
[1] Bhatia, V.B. (1997). Classical Mechanics: With introduction to Nonlinear Oscillations and Chaos. Narosa Publishing House. p. 201. ISBN
81-7319-105-0.
[2] G-G Coriolis (1835). "Sur les équations du mouvement relatif des systèmes de corps". J. de l'Ecole royale polytechnique 15: 144–154.
[3] Dugas, René and J. R. Maddox (1988). A History of Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vPT-JubW-7QC& pg=PA374).
Courier Dover Publications: pg 374. ISBN 0486656322
[4] Bartholomew Price (1862). A Treatise on Infinitesimal Calculus : Vol. IV. The dynamics of material systems (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=qrMA0R_0TPEC& pg=PA420& dq=coriolis+ centrifugal+ force+ date:0-1920& lr=& as_brr=1& as_pt=ALLTYPES&
ei=OX5dSdfPE4XEkASg3bn5BQ#PPA418,M1). Oxford : University Press. pp. 418–420. .
[5] Arthur Gordon Webster (1912). The Dynamics of Particles and of Rigid, Elastic, and Fluid Bodies (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=zXkRAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA320& dq=coriolis+ centrifugal+ force+ date:0-1920& lr=& as_brr=1& as_pt=ALLTYPES&
ei=OX5dSdfPE4XEkASg3bn5BQ). B. G. Teubner. p. 320. .
[6] Willibald Trinks (1919). Governors and the Governing of Prime Movers (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=v1RDAAAAIAAJ&
pg=PA209& dq=coriolis-force+ date:0-1920& lr=& as_brr=1& as_pt=ALLTYPES& ei=2YhdSb_dKozukgS3zaXTBA#PPA210,M1). D. Van
Nostrand Company. p. 209. .
[7] Edwin b. Wilson (1920). James McKeen Cattell. ed. "Space, Time, and Gravitation" (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=xYUZAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA226& dq=coriolis-force+ date:0-1920& lr=& as_brr=1& as_pt=ALLTYPES&
ei=2YhdSb_dKozukgS3zaXTBA). The Scientific Monthly (American Association for the Advancement of Science) 10: 226. .
[8] William Ferrel (Nov. 1856). "An Essay on the Winds and the Currents of the Ocean" (http:/ / www. aos. princeton. edu/ WWWPUBLIC/ gkv/
history/ ferrel-nashville56. pdf). Nashville Journal of Medicine and Surgery xi (4): 7–19. . Retrieved on 2009-01-01.
[9] Anders O. Persson. The Coriolis Effect:Four centuries of conflict between common sense and mathematics, Part I: A history to 1885 (http:/ /
www. aos. princeton. edu/ WWWPUBLIC/ gkv/ history/ persson_on_coriolis05. pdf). .
[10] Sheldon M. Ebenholtz (2001). Oculomotor Systems and Perception (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=1W7ePrvrRyYC& pg=PA151&
dq=nausea+ Coriolis& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=iRxVjBDpQb0s10KW1pVEvyGq3sU). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521804590. .
[11] George Mather (2006). Foundations of perception (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LYA9faq3lt4C& pg=PA73& dq=nausea+
Coriolis& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=Izy98Cn_a904vysVnnTarv_XSoo). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0863778356. .
[12] Roger Graham Barry, Richard J. Chorley (2003). Atmosphere, Weather and Climate (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=MUQOAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA115& dq=Coriolis+ + "low+ pressure"& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U2KRehZqWtLiiGi6hvfN3iVBEDxqw#PPA113,M1). Routledge. p. 113. ISBN 0415271711. .
[13] MIT essays (http:/ / ocw. mit. edu/ ans7870/ resources/ price/ index. htm) by James F. Price, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (2006).
See in particular §4.3 in the Coriolis lecture (http:/ / ocw. mit. edu/ ans7870/ resources/ price/ essay2. pdf)
[14] The claim is made that in the Falklands in WW I, the British failed to correct their sights for the southern hemisphere, and so missed their
targets. John Robert Taylor (2005). Classical Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=P1kCtNr-pJsC& pg=PA364). University
Science Books. p. 364; Problem 9.28. ISBN 189138922X. .. For set up of the calculations, seeDonald E. Carlucci, Sidney S. Jacobson (2007).
Ballistics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=pX9Tzs7VuSoC& pg=PA225). CRC Press. p. 225. ISBN 1420066188. .
[15] Lakshmi H. Kantha & Carol Anne Clayson (2000). Numerical Models of Oceans and Oceanic Processes (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=Gps9JXtd3owC& pg=PA103& dq=Coriolis+ cyclostrophic+ "low+ pressure+ "& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U2D17cQw-EqXGqYCoF5R_h44zwYpQ). Academic Press. p. 103. ISBN 0124340687. .
[16] Stephen D. Butz (2002). Science of Earth Systems (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=JB4ArbvXXDEC& pg=PA304& dq=Coriolis+
"artillery+ "& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=qyq8mmGuUQSHSEPuuW9Q6gDpQRY#PPA305,M1). Thomson Delmar Learning. p. 305. ISBN
0766833917. .
[17] James R. Holton (2004). An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=fhW5oDv3EPsC& pg=PA18&
dq=Coriolis+ "artillery+ "& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=XolqFkAk7whMwGvYJQk21ZE9z7c). Academic Press. p. 18. ISBN 0123540151. .
[18] Donald E. Carlucci & Sidney S. Jacobson (2007). Ballistics: Theory and Design of Guns and Ammunition (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=pX9Tzs7VuSoC& pg=PA224& dq=artillery+ Coriolis+ example& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=8oNcRBNDeBFxL3bYGDDe1YUBpUk#PPA225,M1). CRC Press. p. 224–226. ISBN 1420066188. .
[19] William Menke & Dallas Abbott (1990). Geophysical Theory (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=XP3R_pVnOoEC& pg=PA120&
dq=spheres+ rotating+ + Coriolis& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=LGf9nJ0SKd47ey-CAYPZBo0xCY0#PPA125,M1). Columbia University Press.
p. 124–126. ISBN 0231067925. .
[20] David Morin, Eric Zaslow, Elizabeth Haley, John Goldne, and Natan Salwen (2 December, 2005). "Limerick – May the Force Be With
You" (http:/ / www. phys. canterbury. ac. nz/ newsletter/ 2005/ nl20051202. pdf). Weekly Newsletter Volume 22, No 47. Department of
Physics and Astronomy, University of Canterbury. . Retrieved 2009-01-01.
[21] David Morin (2008). Introduction to classical mechanics: with problems and solutions (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=Ni6CD7K2X4MC& pg=PA466& dq=Coriolis+ carousel& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=jha8GCqJh5TwRPPbtFfajFrzcKY#PPA466,M1).
Cambridge University Press. p. 466. ISBN 0521876222. .
[22] James R. Holton (2004). p. 64 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=fhW5oDv3EPsC& pg=PA64& dq=tornado+ rossby& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U3_xIjuaBO-7JXZguecMx9a58Xd3A) (An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology ed.). Burlington, MA: Elsevier Academic Press.
ISBN 0123540151. .
Coriolis effect 108
[23] Roger Graham Barry & Richard J. Chorley (2003). Atmosphere, Weather and Climate (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=MUQOAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA115& dq=Coriolis+ + "low+ pressure"& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U2KRehZqWtLiiGi6hvfN3iVBEDxqw#PPA115,M1). Routledge. p. 115. ISBN 0415271711. .
[24] Cloud Spirals and Outflow in Tropical Storm Katrina (http:/ / earthobservatory. nasa. gov/ Newsroom/ NewImages/ images.
php3?img_id=17026) from Earth Observatory (NASA)
[25] John Marshall & R. Alan Plumb (2007). p. 98 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=aTGYbmVaA_gC& pg=PA98& vq=inertial+ circle&
dq=Coriolis+ "parabolic+ turntable"& lr=& as_brr=0& source=gbs_search_s& sig=ACfU3U2t-wW4ciZh-91PmB428QrXfQT-Jg).
Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press. ISBN 0125586914. .
[26] (Vorticity, Part 1) (http:/ / web. mit. edu/ fluids/ www/ Shapiro/ ncfmf. html)
[27] "Who Knew? The No-Spin Zone" (http:/ / sciencereview. berkeley. edu/ articles/ issue9/ who-knew. pdf)from Berkeley Science Review
(PDF)
[28] "Flush Bosh" (http:/ / www. snopes. com/ science/ coriolis. asp)fromsnopes.com
[29] "X-Files coriolis error leaves viewers wondering" (http:/ / www. encyclopedia. com/ doc/ 1G1-16836639. html) from Skeptical Inquirer
[30] "Bad Coriolis" (http:/ / www. ems. psu. edu/ ~fraser/ Bad/ BadCoriolis. html) from Penn State College of Earth and Mineral Sciences
[31] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=49JwbrXcPjc
[32] Here the description "radially inward" means "toward the axis of rotation". That direction is not toward the center of curvature of the path,
however, which is the direction of the true centripetal force. Hence, the quotation marks on "centripetal".
[33] George E. Owen (2003). Fundamentals of Scientific Mathematics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=9dRxGCktg7QC& pg=PA22&
dq=Coriolis+ carousel& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=a2n5yMAC_3u7QCrcldHIrb2R_1U#PPA23,M1) (original edition published by Harper & Row,
New York, 1964 ed.). Courier Dover Publications. p. 23. ISBN 0486428087. .
[34] Morton Tavel (2002). Contemporary Physics and the Limits of Knowledge (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=SELS0HbIhjYC&
pg=PA88& dq=Coriolis+ carousel& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=jqFpIAojj3cz_fHcrBMnDNz38dU). Rutgers University Press. p. 88. ISBN
0813530776. .
[35] James R Ogden & M Fogiel (1995). High School Earth Science Tutor (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=fFmqhNXixLUC&
pg=PA167& dq=airplane+ Coriolis& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=oHkHJGwukRlnBHS0PMEDaDz8LaM#PPA167,M1). Research & Education
Assoc.. p. 167. ISBN 0878919759. .
[36] James Greig McCully (2006). Beyond the moon: A Conversational, Common Sense Guide to Understanding the Tides (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=RijQELAGnEIC& pg=PA76& dq=airplane+ Coriolis& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=zew-P2KGA8-NMxFn0Sn23zI_x2Y#PPA75,M1). World Scientific. p. 74–76. ISBN 9812566430. .
[37] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=mcPs_OdQOYU
[38] http:/ / ww2010. atmos. uiuc. edu/ (Gh)/ guides/ mtr/ fw/ crls. rxml
[39] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=LAX3ALdienQ& feature=related
[40] When a container of fluid is rotating on a turntable, the surface of the fluid naturally assumes the correct parabolic shape. This fact may be
exploited to make a parabolic turntable by using a fluid that sets after several hours, such as a synthetic resin. For a video of the Coriolis effect
on such a parabolic surface, see Geophysical fluid dynamics lab demonstration (http:/ / www-paoc. mit. edu/ labweb/ lab5/ gfd_v. htm) John
Marshall, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
[41] For a java applet of the Coriolis effect on such a parabolic surface, see Brian Fiedler (http:/ / mensch. org/ physlets/ inosc. html) School of
Meteorology at the University of Oklahoma.
[42] John Marshall & R. Alan Plumb (2007). Atmosphere, Ocean, and Climate Dynamics: An Introductory Text (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=aTGYbmVaA_gC& pg=PA101& dq=Coriolis+ "parabolic+ turntable"& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U36psyPl8H5G3iCFMbay9XDg6rUiA#PPA101,M1). Academic Press. p. 101. ISBN 0125586914. .
[43] "Antennae as Gyroscopes", Science, Vol. 315, 9 Feb 2007, p. 771
[44] Halteres for the micromechanical flying insect (Wu, W.C.; Wood, R.J.; Fearing, R.S.) Dept. of Electr. Eng. & Comput. Sci., California
Univ., Berkeley, CA; This paper appears in: Robotics and Automation, 2002. Proceedings. ICRA '02. IEEE International Conference on
Publication Date: 2002 Volume: 1, On page(s): 60- 65 vol.1 ISBN 0-7803-7272-7 Date Published in Issue: 2002-08-07 00:46:34.0 (http:/ /
ieeexplore. ieee. org/ xpl/ freeabs_all. jsp?arnumber=1013339)
• Coriolis, G.G., 1832: Mémoire sur le principe des forces vives dans les • Durran, D. R., and S. K. Domonkos, 1996: An apparatus
mouvements relatifs des machines. Journal de l'école Polytechnique, Vol 13, for demonstrating the inertial oscillation (http:/ / www.
268–302. atmos. washington. edu/ ~durrand/ pdfs/ inertial_osc. pdf),
( Original article (http:/ / www. aos. princeton. edu/ WWWPUBLIC/ gkv/ Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 77,
history/ Coriolis-1831. pdf) [in French], PDF-file, 1.6 MB, scanned images of 557–559.
complete pages.)
• Marion, Jerry B. 1970, Classical Dynamics of Particles
• Coriolis, G.G., 1835: Mémoire sur les équations du mouvement relatif des
and Systems, Academic Press.
systèmes de corps. Journal de l'école Polytechnique, Vol 15, 142–154
( Original article (http:/ / www. aos. princeton. edu/ WWWPUBLIC/ gkv/
history/ Coriolis-1835. pdf) [in French] PDF-file, 400 KB, scanned images of
complete pages.)
• Gill, AE Atmosphere-Ocean dynamics, Academic Press, 1982. • Persson, A., 1998 (http:/ / www. aos. princeton. edu/
WWWPUBLIC/ gkv/ history/ Persson98. pdf) How do we
Understand the Coriolis Force? Bulletin of the American
Meteorological Society 79, 1373–1385.
• Symon, Keith. 1971, Mechanics, Addison-Wesley
• Robert Ehrlich (1990). Turning the World Inside Out and 174 Other Simple
Physics Demonstrations (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=ehSTsNS9qB4C& pg=PA80& dq=centrifugal+ turntable& lr=&
as_brr=0#PPA80,M1). Princeton University Press. p. Rolling a ball on a
rotating turntable; p. 80 ff. ISBN 0691023956.
• Durran, D. R. (http:/ / www. atmos. washington. edu/ ~durrand/ ), 1993: Is the • Phillips, Norman A. (http:/ / www. fi. edu/ tfi/ exhibits/
Coriolis force really responsible for the inertial oscillation? (http:/ / www. bower/ 03/ earth. html), 2000 An Explication of the
atmos. washington. edu/ ~durrand/ pdfs/ Coriolis_BAMS. pdf), Bull. Amer. Coriolis Effect (http:/ / www. met. utah. edu/ reichler/
Meteor. Soc., 74, 2179–2184; Corrigenda. Bulletin of the American 6010/ Coriolis/ Phillips. pdf), Bulletin of the American
Meteorological Society, 75, 261 Meteorological Society: Vol. 81, No. 2, pp. 299–303.
• Grattan-Guinness, I., Ed., 1994: Companion Encyclopedia of • Kuhn, T. S., 1977: Energy conservation as an example of simultaneous
the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences. discovery. The Essential Tension, Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition
Vols. I and II. Routledge, 1840 pp. and Change, University of Chicago Press, 66–104.
1997: The Fontana History of the Mathematical Sciences. • Kutzbach, G., 1979: The Thermal Theory of Cyclones. A History of
Fontana, 817 pp. 710 pp. Meteorological Thought in the Nineteenth Century. Amer. Meteor. Soc.,
• Khrgian, A., 1970: Meteorology — A Historical Survey. Vol. 254 pp.
1. Keter Press, 387 pp.
Coriolis effect 110
External links
• The definition of the Coriolis effect from the Glossary of Meteorology (http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/
glossary/search?id=coriolis-force1)
• The Coriolis Effect (http://met.no/english/topics/nomek_2005/coriolis.pdf) PDF-file. 17 pages. A general
discussion by Anders Persson of various aspects of the coriolis effect, including Foucault's Pendulum and Taylor
columns.
• Anders Persson The Coriolis Effect: Four centuries of conflict between common sense and mathematics, Part I: A
history to 1885 (http://www.meteohistory.org/2005historyofmeteorology2/01persson.pdf) History of
Meteorology 2 (2005)
• 10 Coriolis Effect Videos and Games (http://weather.about.com/od/weathertutorials/tp/coriolisvideos.htm)-
from the About.com Weather Page
• Coriolis Force (http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/CoriolisForce.html) - from ScienceWorld
• Coriolis Effect and Drains (http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/phy00/phy00733.htm) An article from
the NEWTON web site hosted by the Argonne National Laboratory.
• Catalog of Coriolis videos (http://www.imaginascience.com/articles/sciencesphysiques/mecanique/coriolis/
coriolis4.php)
• Do bathtubs drain counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere? (http://www.straightdope.com/classics/
a1_161.html) by Cecil Adams.
• Bad Coriolis. (http://www.ems.psu.edu/~fraser/Bad/BadCoriolis.html) An article uncovering
misinformation about the Coriolis effect. By Alistair B. Fraser, Emeritus Professor of Meteorology at
Pennsylvania State University
• The Coriolis Effect: A (Fairly) Simple Explanation (http://stratus.ssec.wisc.edu/courses/gg101/coriolis/
coriolis.html), an explanation for the layperson
• Coriolis Effect: A graphical animation (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mcPs_OdQOYU), an visual earth
animation with precise explanation
• Observe an animation of the Coriolis effect over Earth's surface (http://www.classzone.com/books/
earth_science/terc/content/visualizations/es1904/es1904page01.cfm?chapter_no=visualization)
• Animation clip (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=49JwbrXcPjc) showing scenes as viewed from both an
inertial frame and a rotating frame of reference, visualizing the Coriolis and centrifugal forces.
• Vincent Mallette The Coriolis Force @ INWIT (http://www.inwit.com/inwit/writings/coriolisforce.html)
• NASA notes (http://pwg.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Srotfram.htm)
Angular momentum 111
Angular momentum
In physics, angular momentum is a conserved vector quantity
that is useful in describing the overall rotational state of a physical
system. The angular momentum L of a particle with respect to
some point of origin is
where r is the particle's position from the origin, p = mv is its linear momentum, and × denotes the cross product.
The angular momentum of a system of particles (e.g. a rigid body) is the sum of angular momenta of the individual
particles. For a rigid body rotating around an axis of symmetry (e.g. the fins of a ceiling fan), the angular momentum
can be expressed as the product of the body's moment of inertia I (a measure of an object's resistance to changes in
its rotation rate) and its angular velocity ω:
In this way, angular momentum is sometimes described as the rotational analog of linear momentum.
Angular momentum is conserved in a system where there is no net external torque, and its conservation helps explain
many diverse phenomena. For example, the increase in rotational speed of a spinning figure skater as the skater's
arms are contracted is a consequence of conservation of angular momentum. The very high rotational rates of
neutron stars can also be explained in terms of angular momentum conservation. Moreover, angular momentum
conservation has numerous applications in physics and engineering (e.g. the gyrocompass).
Angular momentum 112
Definition
The angular momentum L of a particle about a given origin is defined
as:
where r is the position vector of the particle relative to the origin, p is the linear momentum of the particle, and ×
denotes the cross product.
As seen from the definition, the derived SI units of angular momentum are newton metre seconds (N·m·s or
kg·m2s-1) or joule seconds. Because of the cross product, L is a pseudovector perpendicular to both the radial vector
r and the momentum vector p and it is assigned a sign by the right-hand rule.
For an object with a fixed mass that is rotating about a fixed symmetry axis, the angular momentum is expressed as
the product of the moment of inertia of the object and its angular velocity vector:
where I is the moment of inertia of the object (in general, a tensor quantity), and ω is the angular velocity.
Angular momentum is also known as moment of momentum.
where is the distance of particle i from the reference point, is its mass, and is its velocity. The center of
mass is defined by:
If we define as the displacement of particle i from the centre of mass, and as the velocity of particle i with
respect to the centre of mass, then we have
and
and also
and
The first term is just the angular momentum of the centre of mass. It is the same angular momentum one would
obtain if there were just one particle of mass M moving at velocity V located at the centre of mass. The second term
is the angular momentum that is the result of the particles moving relative to their center of mass. This second term
can be even further simplified if the particles form a rigid body, in which case it is the product of moment of inertia
and angular velocity of the spinning motion (as above). The same result is true if the discrete point charges discussed
above are replaced by a continuous distribution of matter.
where θr,p is the angle between r and p measured from r to p; an important distinction because without it, the sign of
the cross product would be meaningless. From the above, it is possible to reformulate the definition to either of the
following:
where is the component of p that is perpendicular to r. As above, the sign is decided based on the sense of
rotation.
For an object with a fixed mass that is rotating about a fixed symmetry axis, the angular momentum is expressed as
the product of the moment of inertia of the object and its angular velocity vector:
where I is the moment of inertia of the object (in general, a tensor quantity) and ω is the angular velocity.
As the kinetic energy K of a massive rotating body is given by
The torque caused by the two opposing forces Fg and -Fg causes a
change in the angular momentum L in the direction of that torque
(since torque is the time derivative of angular momentum). This
causes the top to precess.
(The cross-product of velocity and momentum is zero, because these vectors are parallel.) So requiring the system to
be "closed" here is mathematically equivalent to zero external torque acting on the system:
where is any torque applied to the system of particles. It is assumed that internal interaction forces obey
Newton's third law of motion in its strong form, that is, that the forces between particles are equal and opposite and
act along the line between the particles.
In orbits, the angular momentum is distributed between the spin of the planet itself and the angular momentum of its
orbit:
;
If a planet is found to rotate slower than expected, then astronomers suspect that the planet is accompanied by a
satellite, because the total angular momentum is shared between the planet and its satellite in order to be conserved.
The conservation of angular momentum is used extensively in analyzing what is called central force motion. If the
net force on some body is directed always toward some fixed point, the center, then there is no torque on the body
with respect to the center, and so the angular momentum of the body about the center is constant. Constant angular
momentum is extremely useful when dealing with the orbits of planets and satellites, and also when analyzing the
Bohr model of the atom.
The conservation of angular momentum explains the angular acceleration of an ice skater as she brings her arms and
legs close to the vertical axis of rotation. By bringing part of mass of her body closer to the axis she decreases her
body's moment of inertia. Because angular momentum is constant in the absence of external torques, the angular
velocity (rotational speed) of the skater has to increase.
Angular momentum 115
The same phenomenon results in extremely fast spin of compact stars (like white dwarfs, neutron stars and black
holes) when they are formed out of much larger and slower rotating stars (indeed, decreasing the size of object 104
times results in increase of its angular velocity by the factor 108).
The conservation of angular momentum in Earth–Moon system results in the transfer of angular momentum from
Earth to Moon (due to tidal torque the Moon exerts on the Earth). This in turn results in the slowing down of the
rotation rate of Earth (at about 42 nsec/day), and in gradual increase of the radius of Moon's orbit (at ~4.5 cm/year
rate).
Basic definition
The classical definition of angular momentum as depends on six numbers: , , , , ,
and . Translating this into quantum-mechanical terms, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle tells us that it is not
possible for all six of these numbers to be measured simultaneously with arbitrary precision. Therefore, there are
limits to what can be known or measured about a particle's angular momentum. It turns out that the best that one can
do is to simultaneously measure both the angular momentum vector's magnitude and its component along one axis.
Mathematically, angular momentum in quantum mechanics is defined like momentum - not as a quantity but as an
operator on the wave function:
where r and p are the position and momentum operators respectively. In particular, for a single particle with no
electric charge and no spin, the angular momentum operator can be written in the position basis as
where is the vector differential operator "Del" (also called "Nabla"). This orbital angular momentum operator is
the most commonly encountered form of the angular momentum operator, though not the only one. It satisfies the
following canonical commutation relations:
,
where εlmn is the (antisymmetric) Levi-Civita symbol. From this follows
Angular momentum 116
Since,
the quantum number associated with its magnitude can range from to in integer steps where
and are quantum numbers corresponding to the magnitudes of the individual angular momenta.
The eigenfunctions of Lz are therefore , and since has a period of , ml must be an integer.
For a particle with a spin S, this takes into account only the angular dependence of the location of the particle, for
example its orbit in an atom. It is therefore known as orbital angular momentum. However, when one rotates the
system, one also changes the spin. Therefore the total angular momentum, which is the full generator of rotations, is
Being an angular momentum, J satisfies the same commutation relations as L, as will be explained
below. namely
Acting with J on the wavefunction of a particle generates a rotation: is the wavefunction rotated
around the z axis by an angle . For an infinitesmal rotation by an angle , the rotated wavefunction is
. This is similarly true for rotations around any axis.
In a charged particle the momentum gets a contribution from the electromagnetic field, and the angular momenta L
and J change accordingly.
If the Hamiltonian is invariant under rotations, as in spherically symmetric problems, then according to Noether's
theorem, it commutes with the total angular momentum. So the total angular momentum is a conserved quantity
Angular momentum 117
Since angular momentum is the generator of rotations, its commutation relations follow the commutation relations of
the generators of the three-dimensional rotation group SO(3). This is why J always satisfies these commutation
relations. In d dimensions, the angular momentum will satisfy the same commutation relations as the generators of
the d-dimensional rotation group SO(d).
SO(3) has the same Lie algebra (i.e. the same commutation relations) as SU(2). Generators of SU(2) can have
half-integer eigenvalues, and so can m . Indeed for fermions the spin S and total angular momentum J are
half-integer. In fact this is the most general case: j and m are either integers or half-integers.
Technically, this is because the universal cover of SO(3) is isomorphic to SU(2), and the representations of the latter
are fully known. Ji span the Lie algebra and J2 is the Casimir invariant, and it can be shown that if the eigenvalues of
Jz and J2 are mj and j(j+1) then mj and j are both integer multiples of one-half. j is non-negative and mj takes values
between -j and j.
where
where is the electric charge, c the speed of light and A the vector potential. Thus, for example, the Hamiltonian of
a charged particle of mass m in an electromagnetic field is then
where is the scalar potential. This is the Hamiltonian that gives the Lorentz force law. The gauge-invariant
angular momentum, or "kinetic angular momentum" is given by
The interplay with quantum mechanics is discussed further in the article on canonical commutation relations.
Angular momentum 118
See also
• Angular momentum coupling
• Areal velocity
• Balancing machine
• Control moment gyroscope
• Falling cat problem
• Moment of inertia
• Noether's theorem
• Precession
• Relative angular momentum
• Rigid rotor
• Rotational energy
• Spatial quantization
• Specific relative angular momentum
• Yrast
References
• Cohen-Tannoudji, Claude; Diu, Bernard; Laloë, Franck (1977) Quantum Mechanics. John Wiley & Sons.
• E. U. Condon and G. H. Shortley (1935) The Theory of Atomic Spectra. Cambridge University Press, ISBN
0-521-09209-4. Esp. chpt. 3.
• Edmonds, A.R. (1957) Angular Momentum in Quantum Mechanics. Princeton University Press, ISBN
0-691-07912-9.
• Jackson, John David (1998) Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons.
• Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 6th ed.. Brooks/Cole. ISBN
0-534-40842-7.
• Thompson, William J. (1994) Angular Momentum: An Illustrated Guide to Rotational Symmetries for Physical
Systems. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-55264.
• Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics,
5th ed.. W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4.
External links
• Conservation of Angular Momentum [14] - a chapter from an online textbook
• Angular Momentum in a Collision Process [2] - derivation of the three dimensional case
References
[1] "The classical theory of fields", L.D. Landau and E.M. Lifshitz( Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1995) ISBN 0750627689
[2] http:/ / www. hakenberg. de/ diffgeo/ collision_resolution. htm
Rotation 119
Rotation
A rotation is a movement of an object in a circular motion. A two-dimensional object
rotates around a center (or point) of rotation. A three-dimensional object rotates around
a line called an axis. If the axis of rotation is within the body, the body is said to rotate
upon itself, or spin—which implies relative speed and perhaps free-movement with
angular momentum. A circular motion about an external point, e.g. the Earth about the
Sun, is called an [orbit] or more properly an orbital revolution.
A polyhedron resembling a
sphere rotating around an
axis.
Mathematics
Mathematically, a rotation is a rigid body movement which, unlike a
translation, keeps a point fixed. This definition applies to rotations
within both two and three dimensions (in a plane and in space,
respectively.) A rotation in three-dimensional space keeps an entire
line fixed, i.e. a rotation in three-dimensional space is a rotation around
an axis. This follows from Euler's rotation theorem.
Astronomy
In astronomy, rotation is a commonly observed phenomenon. Stars,
planets and similar bodies all spin around on their axes. The rotation
rate of planets in the solar system was first measured by tracking visual
features. Stellar rotation is measured through Doppler shift or by
tracking active surface features.
This rotation induces a centrifugal acceleration in the reference frame
of the Earth which slightly counteracts the effect of gravity the closer
one is to the equator. One effect is that an object weighs slightly less at
the equator. Another is that the Earth is slightly deformed into an
Relations between rotation axis, plane of orbit
oblate spheroid.
and axial tilt (for Earth).
Another consequence of the rotation of a planet is the phenomenon of
precession. Like a gyroscope, the overall effect is a slight "wobble" in the movement of the axis of a planet.
Currently the tilt of the Earth's axis to its orbital plane (obliquity of the ecliptic) is 23.45 degrees, but this angle
changes slowly (over thousands of years). (See also Precession of the equinoxes and Pole star.)
Retrograde rotation
Most planets in our solar system, including Earth, spin in the same direction as they orbit the Sun. The exceptions are
Venus and Uranus. Uranus rotates nearly on its side relative to its orbit. Current speculation is that Uranus started off
with a typical prograde orientation and was knocked on its side by a large impact early in its history. Venus may be
thought of as rotating slowly backwards (or being "upside down"). The dwarf planet Pluto (formerly considered a
planet) is anomalous in this and other ways.
Physics
The speed of rotation is given by the angular frequency (rad/s) or frequency (turns/s, turns/min), or period (seconds,
days, etc.). The time-rate of change of angular frequency is angular acceleration (rad/s²), This change is caused by
torque. The ratio of the two (how heavy is it to start, stop, or otherwise change rotation) is given by the moment of
inertia.
The angular velocity vector also describes the direction of the axis of rotation. Similarly the torque is a vector.
According to the right-hand rule, the direction away from the observer is associated with clockwise rotation and the
direction towards the observer with counterclockwise rotation, like a screw.
A Rotation is simply a progressive radial orientation to a common
point. That common point lay within the axis of that motion. The axis
is 90 degrees perpendicular to the plane of the motion. If the axis of the
rotation lay external of the body in question then the body is said to
Orbit. There is no fundamental difference between a “rotation” and an
“orbit” and/or "spin". The key distinction is simply where the axis of
the rotation lay, either within or without a body in question. This
distinction is and can be demonstrated in and for both “ridged” and
“non ridged” bodies.
Rotational Orbit v Spin
Aviation
In flight dynamics, the principal rotations are known as pitch, roll and yaw. The term rotation is also used in aviation
to refer to the upward pitch (nose moves up) of an aircraft, particularly when starting the climb after takeoff.
Amusement rides
Many amusement rides provide rotation. A Ferris wheel has a horizontal central axis, and parallel axes for each
gondola, where the rotation is opposite, by gravity or mechanically. As a result at any time the orientation of the
gondola is upright (not rotated), just translated. The tip of the translation vector describes a circle. A carousel
provides rotation about a vertical axis. Many rides provide a combination of rotations about several axes. In
Chair-O-Planes the rotation about the vertical axis is provided mechanically, while the rotation about the horizontal
axis is due to the centripetal force. In roller coaster inversions the rotation about the horizontal axis is one or more
full cycles, where inertia keeps people in their seats.
Rotation 122
Sports
Rotation, usually called spin, plays a role in many sports. Topspin and backspin in tennis. English, follow and draw
in billiards and pool. Curve balls in baseball and spin bowling in cricket. Table tennis paddles are specialized to
allow players to spin the ball as they hit it.
See also
• Absolute rotation
• Balancing machine
• Mach's principle
• Rotation representation (mathematics)
• Rotation in living systems
External links
• Product of Rotations [1] at cut-the-knot
• When a Triangle is Equilateral [2] at cut-the-knot
• Rotate Points Using Polar Coordinates [3]
• Rotation in Two Dimensions [4] by Sergio Hannibal Mejia after work by Roger Germundsson and Understanding
3D Rotation [5] by Roger Germundsson, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.
References
[1] http:/ / www. cut-the-knot. org/ Curriculum/ Geometry/ RotationTransform. shtml
[2] http:/ / www. cut-the-knot. org/ Curriculum/ Geometry/ Connes. shtml
[3] http:/ / howtoproperly. com/ rotate-points-using-polar-coordinates
[4] http:/ / demonstrations. wolfram. com/ RotationInTwoDimensions/
[5] http:/ / demonstrations. wolfram. com/ Understanding3DRotation/
Rigid body 123
Rigid body
In physics, a rigid body is an idealization of a solid body of finite size
in which deformation is neglected. In other words, the distance
between any two given points of a rigid body remains constant in time
regardless of external forces exerted on it. Even though such an object
cannot physically exist due to relativity, objects can normally be
assumed to be perfectly rigid if they are not moving near the speed of
light.
electrons and nuclei) are often seen as rigid bodies (see classification
of molecules as rigid rotors).
Kinematics
Kinematical equations
where O is any arbitrary point fixed in reference frame N, and the N to the left of the d/dt operator indicates that the
derivative is taken in reference frame N. The result is independent of the selection of O so long as O is fixed in N.
Rigid body 125
where Q is the point fixed in B that instantaneously coincident with R at the instant of interest[7] . This equation is
often combined with Acceleration of two points fixed on a rigid body.
Other quantities
If C is the origin of a local coordinate system L, attached to the body,
• the spatial or twist acceleration of a rigid body is defined as the spatial acceleration of C (as opposed to material
acceleration above);
where
• represents the position of the point/particle with respect to the reference point of the body in terms of the local
coordinate system L (the rigidity of the body means that this does not depend on time)
• is the orientation matrix, an orthogonal matrix with determinant 1, representing the orientation (angular
position) of the local coordinate system L, with respect to the arbitrary reference orientation of another coordinate
system G. Think of this matrix as three orthogonal unit vectors, one in each column, which define the orientation
of the axes of L with respect to G.
• represents the angular velocity of the rigid body
• represents the total velocity of the point/particle
• represents the total acceleration of the point/particle
Rigid body 126
Kinetics
Any point that is rigidly connected to the body can be used as reference point (origin of coordinate system L) to
describe the linear motion of the body (the linear position, velocity and acceleration vectors depend on the choice).
However, depending on the application, a convenient choice may be:
• the center of mass of the whole system, which generally has the simplest motion for a body moving freely in
space;
• a point such that the translational motion is zero or simplified, e.g. on an axle or hinge, at the center of a ball and
socket joint, etc.
When the center of mass is used as reference point:
• The (linear) momentum is independent of the rotational motion. At any time it is equal to the total mass of the
rigid body times the translational velocity.
• The angular momentum with respect to the center of mass is the same as without translation: at any time it is
equal to the inertia tensor times the angular velocity. When the angular velocity is expressed with respect to a
coordinate system coinciding with the principal axes of the body, each component of the angular momentum is a
product of a moment of inertia (a principal value of the inertia tensor) times the corresponding component of the
angular velocity; the torque is the inertia tensor times the angular acceleration.
• Possible motions in the absence of external forces are translation with constant velocity, steady rotation about a
fixed principal axis, and also torque-free precession.
• The net external force on the rigid body is always equal to the total mass times the translational acceleration (i.e.,
Newton's second law holds for the translational motion, even when the net external torque is nonzero, and/or the
body rotates).
• The total kinetic energy is simply the sum of translational and rotational energy.
Geometry
Two rigid bodies are said to be different (not copies) if there is no proper rotation from one to the other. A rigid body
is called chiral if its mirror image is different in that sense, i.e., if it has either no symmetry or its symmetry group
contains only proper rotations. In the opposite case an object is called achiral: the mirror image is a copy, not a
different object. Such an object may have a symmetry plane, but not necessarily: there may also be a plane of
reflection with respect to which the image of the object is a rotated version. The latter applies for S2n, of which the
case n = 1 is inversion symmetry.
For a (rigid) rectangular transparent sheet, inversion symmetry corresponds to having on one side an image without
rotational symmetry and on the other side an image such that what shines through is the image at the top side, upside
down. We can distinguish two cases:
Rigid body 127
• the sheet surface with the image is not symmetric - in this case the two sides are different, but the mirror image of
the object is the same, after a rotation by 180° about the axis perpendicular to the mirror plane.
• the sheet surface with the image has a symmetry axis - in this case the two sides are the same, and the mirror
image of the object is also the same, again after a rotation by 180° about the axis perpendicular to the mirror
plane.
A sheet with a through and through image is achiral. We can distinguish again two cases:
• the sheet surface with the image has no symmetry axis - the two sides are different
• the sheet surface with the image has a symmetry axis - the two sides are the same
Configuration space
The configuration space of a rigid body with one point fixed (i.e., a body with zero translational motion) is given by
the underlying manifold of the rotation group SO(3). The configuration space of a nonfixed (with non-zero
translational motion) rigid body is E+(3), the subgroup of direct isometries of the Euclidean group in three
dimensions (combinations of translations and rotations).
See also
• angular velocity
• Rigid body dynamics
• infinitesimal rotations
• Euler's equations (rigid body dynamics)
• Euler's laws
• Born rigidity
• Rigid rotor
References
• Roy Featherstone (1987). Robot Dynamics Algorithms. Springer. ISBN 0898382300. This reference effectively
combines screw theory with rigid body dynamics for robotic applications. The author also chooses to use spatial
accelerations extensively in place of material accelerations as they simplify the equations and allow for compact
notation.
• JPL DARTS page has a section on spatial operator algebra (link: [8]) as well as an extensive list of references
(link: [9]).
References
[1] Lorenzo Sciavicco, Bruno Siciliano (2000). "§2.4.2 Roll-pitch-yaw angles" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=v9PLbcYd9aUC&
pg=PA32). Modelling and control of robot manipulators (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 32. ISBN 1852332212. .
[2] In general, the position of a point or particle is also known, in physics, as linear position, as opposed to the angular position or orientation
of a point, particle, axis or body.
[3] In kinematics, linear means "along a straight or curved line" (the path of the particle in space). In mathematics, however, linear has a different
meaning. In both contexts, the word "linear" is related to the word "line". In mathematics, a line is often defined as a straight curve. For those
who adopt this definition, a curve can be straight, and curved lines are not supposed to exist. In kinematics, the term line is used as a synonym
of the term trajectory, or path (namely, it has the same non-restricted meaning as that given, in mathematics, to the word curve). In short, both
straight and curved lines are supposed to exist. In kinematics and dynamics, the following words refer to the same non-restricted meaning of
the term "line":
• "linear" (= along a straight or curved line),
• "rectilinear" (= along a straight line, from Latin rectus = straight, and linere = spread),
• "curvilinear" (=along a curved line, from Latin curvus = curved, and linere = spread).
In topology and metereology, the term "line" has the same meaning; namely, a contour line is a curve.
Rigid body 128
[4] Kane, Thomas; Levinson, David (1996). "2-4 Auxiliary Reference Frames". Dynamics Online. Sunnyvale, California: OnLine Dynamics,
Inc..
[5] Kane, Thomas; Levinson, David (1996). "2-6 Velocity and Acceleration". Dynamics Online. Sunnyvale, California: OnLine Dynamics, Inc..
[6] Kane, Thomas; Levinson, David (1996). "2-7 Two Points Fixed on a Rigid Body". Dynamics Online. Sunnyvale, California: OnLine
Dynamics, Inc..
[7] Kane, Thomas; Levinson, David (1996). "2-8 One Point Moving on a Rigid Body". Dynamics Online. Sunnyvale, California: OnLine
Dynamics, Inc..
[8] http:/ / dshell. jpl. nasa. gov/ SOA/ index. php
[9] http:/ / dshell. jpl. nasa. gov/ References/ index. php
Moment of inertia
This article is about the moment of inertia of a rotating object. For the moment of inertia dealing with bending
of a plane, see second moment of area.
Moment of inertia, also called mass moment of inertia, rotational inertia, or the angular mass, (SI units kg·m2)
is a measure of an object's resistance to changes in its rotation rate. It is the rotational analog of mass, the inertia of a
rigid rotating body with respect to its rotation. The moment of inertia plays much the same role in rotational
dynamics as mass does in linear dynamics, determining the relationship between angular momentum and angular
velocity, torque and angular acceleration, and several other quantities. The symbol I and sometimes J are usually
used to refer to the moment of inertia.
While a simple scalar treatment of the moment of inertia suffices for many situations, a more advanced tensor
treatment allows the analysis of such complicated systems as spinning tops and gyroscopic motion.
The concept was introduced by Euler in his book a Theoria motus corporum solidorum seu rigidorum in 1730.[1] In
this book, he discussed the moment of inertia and many related concepts, such as the principal axis of inertia.
Overview
The moment of inertia of an object about a given axis describes how difficult it is to change its angular motion about
that axis. Therefore, it encompasses not just how much mass the object has overall, but how far each bit of mass is
from the axis. The farther out the object's mass is, the more rotational inertia the object has, and the more force is
required to change its rotation rate. For example, consider two hoops, A and B, made of the same material and of
equal mass. Hoop A is larger in diameter but thinner than B. It requires more effort to accelerate hoop A (change its
angular velocity) because its mass is distributed farther from its axis of rotation: mass that is farther out from that
axis must, for a given angular velocity, move more quickly than mass closer in. So in this case, hoop A has a larger
moment of inertia than hoop B.
The moment of inertia of an object can change if its shape changes. A
figure skater who begins a spin with arms outstretched provides a
striking example. By pulling in her arms, she reduces her moment of
inertia, causing her to spin faster (by the conservation of angular
momentum).
The moment of inertia has two forms, a scalar form (used when the
axis of rotation is known) and a more general tensor form that does not
require knowing the axis of rotation. The scalar moment of inertia
(often called simply the "moment of inertia") allows a succinct analysis Divers minimizing their moments of inertia to
of many simple problems in rotational dynamics, such as objects increase their rates of rotation
Moment of inertia 129
rolling down inclines and the behavior of pulleys. For instance, while a block of any shape will slide down a
frictionless decline at the same rate, rolling objects may descend at different rates, depending on their moments of
inertia. A hoop will descend more slowly than a solid disk of equal mass and radius because more of its mass is
located far from the axis of rotation, and thus needs to move faster if the hoop rolls at the same angular velocity.
However, for (more complicated) problems in which the axis of rotation can change, the scalar treatment is
inadequate, and the tensor treatment must be used (although shortcuts are possible in special situations). Examples
requiring such a treatment include gyroscopes, tops, and even satellites, all objects whose alignment can change.
The moment of inertia ( ) is also called the mass moment of inertia (especially by mechanical engineers) to
avoid confusion with the second moment of area, which is sometimes called the moment of inertia (especially by
structural engineers). The easiest way to differentiate these quantities is through their units ( vs ). In
addition, moment of inertia should not be confused with polar moment of inertia, which is a measure of an object's
ability to resist torsion (twisting) only.
Definition
A simple definition of the moment of inertia (with respect to a given axis of rotation) of any object, be it a point
mass or a 3D-structure, is given by:
Detailed analysis
The (scalar) moment of inertia of a point mass rotating about a known axis is defined by
The moment of inertia is additive. Thus, for a rigid body consisting of N point masses mi with distances ri to the
rotation axis, the total moment of inertia equals the sum of the point-mass moments of inertia:
The mass distribution along the axis of rotation has no effect on the moment of inertia.
For a solid body described by a mass density function, ρ(r), the moment of inertia about a known axis can be
calculated by integrating the square of the distance (weighted by the mass density) from a point in the body to the
rotation axis:
where
V is the volume occupied by the object.
ρ is the spatial density function of the object, and
r = (r,θ,φ), (x,y,z), or (r,θ,z) is the vector (orthogonal to the axis of rotation) between the axis of rotation and
the point in the body.
Moment of inertia 130
where
M is the mass
L is a length dimension taken from the centre of mass (in some cases, the length of the object is used instead.)
c is a dimensionless constant called the inertial constant that varies with the object in consideration.
Inertial constants are used to account for the differences in the placement of the mass from the center of rotation.
Examples include:
• c = 1, thin ring or thin-walled cylinder around its center,
• c = 2/5, solid sphere around its center
• c = 1/2, solid cylinder or disk around its center.
When c is 1, the length (L) is called the radius of gyration.
For more examples, see the List of moments of inertia.
This theorem is also known as the parallel axes rule and is a special case of Steiner's parallel-axis theorem.
Composite bodies
If a body can be decomposed (either physically or conceptually) into several constituent parts, then the moment of
inertia of the body about a given axis is obtained by summing the moments of inertia of each constituent part around
the same given axis.[2]
where is the common angular velocity (in radians per second). The final expression I ω2 / 2 also holds for a mass
density function with a generalization of the above derivation from a discrete summation to an integration.
In the special case where the angular momentum vector is parallel to the angular velocity vector, one can relate them
by the equation
where L is the angular momentum and is the angular velocity. However, this equation does not hold in many
cases of interest, such as the torque-free precession of a rotating object, although its more general tensor form is
always correct.
When the moment of inertia is constant, one can also relate the torque on an object and its angular acceleration in a
similar equation:
Definition
For a rigid object of point masses , the moment of inertia tensor is given by
where
Here denotes the moment of inertia around the -axis when the objects are rotated around the x-axis,
denotes the moment of inertia around the -axis when the objects are rotated around the -axis, and so on.
These quantities can be generalized to an object with distributed mass, described by a mass density function, in a
similar fashion to the scalar moment of inertia. One then has
where is their outer product, E3 is the 3 × 3 identity matrix, and V is a region of space completely containing
the object.
This is exactly the formula given below for the moment of inertia in the case of a single particle. For multiple
particles we need only recall that the moment of inertia is additive in order to see that this formula is correct.
Reduction to scalar
For any axis , represented as a column vector with elements ni, the scalar form I can be calculated from the tensor
form I as
However it should be noted that although this equation is mathematically equivalent to the equation above for any
matrix, inertia tensors are symmetrical. This means that it can be further simplified to:
where the coordinate axes are called the principal axes and the constants , and are called the principal
moments of inertia. The unit vectors along the principal axes are usually denoted as (e1, e2, e3). This result was first
shown by J. J. Sylvester (1852), and is a form of Sylvester's law of inertia.
Moment of inertia 133
When all principal moments of inertia are distinct, the principal axes are uniquely specified. If two principal
moments are the same, the rigid body is called a symmetrical top and there is no unique choice for the two
corresponding principal axes. If all three principal moments are the same, the rigid body is called a spherical top
(although it need not be spherical) and any axis can be considered a principal axis, meaning that the moment of
inertia is the same about any axis.
The principal axes are often aligned with the object's symmetry axes. If a rigid body has an axis of symmetry of
order , i.e., is symmetrical under rotations of 360°/m about a given axis, the symmetry axis is a principal axis.
When , the rigid body is a symmetrical top. If a rigid body has at least two symmetry axes that are not
parallel or perpendicular to each other, it is a spherical top, e.g., a cube or any other Platonic solid. A practical
example of this mathematical phenomenon is the routine automotive task of balancing a tire, which basically means
adjusting the distribution of mass of a car wheel such that its principal axis of inertia is aligned with the axle so the
wheel does not wobble.
where m is the total mass of the rigid body, E3 is the 3 × 3 identity matrix, and is the outer product.
Rotational symmetry
Using the above equation to express all moments of inertia in terms of integrals of variables either along or
perpendicular to the axis of symmetry usually simplifies the calculation of these moments considerably.
The velocity of each element of mass is where r is a vector from the center of rotation to that element of
mass. The cross product can be converted to matrix multiplication so that
and similarly
Thus
Moment of inertia 134
plugging in the definition of the term leads directly to the structure of the moment tensor.
See also
• List of moments of inertia
• List of moment of inertia tensors
• Rotational energy
• Parallel axis theorem
• Perpendicular axis theorem
• Stretch rule
• Tire balance
• Poinsot's ellipsoid
References
• Goldstein, H. (1980), Classical Mechanics (2nd ed.), Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-02918-9.
• Landau, LD; Lifshitz (1976), Mechanics (3rd ed.), Pergamon Press, ISBN 0-08-021022-8 (hardcover); ISBN
0-08-029141-4 (softcover).
• Marion, JB; Thornton, ST. (1995), Classical Dynamics of Systems and Particles (4th ed.), Thomson, ISBN
0-03-097302-3.
• Sylvester, J J (1852), "A demonstration of the theorem that every homogeneous quadratic polynomial is reducible
by real orthogonal substitutions to the form of a sum of positive and negative squares" [3], Philosophical
Magazine IV: 138–142, retrieved 2008-06-27
• Symon, KR (1971), Mechanics (3rd ed.), Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-07392-7.
• Tenenbaum, RA (2004), Fundamentals of Applied Dynamics, Springer, ISBN 0-387-00887-X.
External links
• Angular momentum and rigid-body rotation in two and three dimensions [4]
• Lecture notes on rigid-body rotation and moments of inertia [5]
• The moment of inertia tensor [6]
• An introductory lesson on moment of inertia: keeping a vertical pole not falling down (Java simulation) [7]
• Tutorial on finding moments of inertia, with problems and solutions on various basic shapes [8]
• Measuring moment of inertia [9]
References
[1] Euler, Leonhard (1765-01-01) (in Latin). Theoria motus corporum solidorum seu rigidorum: ex primis nostrae cognitionis principiis stabilita
et ad omnes motus, qui in huiusmodi corpora cadere possunt, accommodata. Auctore Leonh. Eulero. Cornell University Library. ISBN
978-1429742818.
[2] "Mass moment of inertia" by Mehrdad Negahban, University of Nebraska (http:/ / em-ntserver. unl. edu/ NEGAHBAN/ EM223/ note18/
note18. htm)
[3] http:/ / www. maths. ed. ac. uk/ ~aar/ sylv/ inertia. pdf
[4] http:/ / www. lightandmatter. com/ html_books/ 0sn/ ch04/ ch04. html
[5] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ mi. html
[6] http:/ / kwon3d. com/ theory/ moi/ iten. html
[7] http:/ / www. phy. hk/ wiki/ englishhtm/ Balance. htm
[8] http:/ / hypertextbook. com/ physics/ mechanics/ rotational-inertia/
[9] http:/ / www. space-electronics. com/ Products/ moment_of_inertia_instruments. php
Radius of gyration 135
Radius of gyration
Radius of gyration is the name of several related measures of the size of an object, a surface, or an ensemble of
points. It is calculated as the root mean square distance of the objects' parts from either its center of gravity or an
axis.
or
where I is the second moment of area and A is the total cross-sectional area. The gyration radius is useful in
estimating the stiffness of a beam. However, if the principal moments of the two-dimensional gyration tensor are not
equal, the beam will tend to buckle around the axis with the smaller principal moment. For example, a beam with an
elliptical cross-section will tend to buckle about the smaller semiaxis.
It also can be referred to as the radial distance from a given axis at which the mass of a body could be concentrated
without altering the rotational inertia of the body about that axis.
In engineering, where people deal with continuous bodies of matter, the radius of gyration is more usually calculated
as an integral.
Applications in mechanics
The radius of gyration (r) about a given axis can be computed in terms of the moment of inertia I around that axis,
and the total mass m;
or
It should be noted that I is a scalar, and is not the moment of inertia tensor. [1]
Molecular applications
In polymer physics, the radius of gyration is used to describe the dimensions of a polymer chain. The radius of
gyration of a particular molecule at a given time is defined as:
where is the mean position of the monomers. As detailed below, the radius of gyration is also proportional to
the root mean square distance between the monomers:
Radius of gyration 136
As a third method, the radius of gyration can also be computed by summing the principal moments of the gyration
tensor.
Since the chain conformations of a polymer sample are quasi infinite in number and constantly change over time, the
"radius of gyration" discussed in polymer physics must usually be understood as a mean over all polymer molecules
of the sample and over time. That is, the radius of gyration which is measured is an average over time or ensemble:
Note that, although represents the contour length of the polymer, a is strongly dependent of polymer stiffness,
and can vary over orders of magnitude. N is reduced accordingly.
One reason that the radius of gyration is an interesting property is that it can be determined experimentally with
static light scattering as well as with small angle neutron- and x-ray scattering. This allows theoretical polymer
physicists to check their models against reality. The hydrodynamic radius is numerically similar, and can be
measured with Size exclusion chromatography.
Derivation of identity
To show that the two definitions of are identical, we first multiply out the summand in the first definition:
Carrying out the summation over the last two terms and using the definition of gives the formula
References
• Grosberg AY and Khokhlov AR. (1994) Statistical Physics of Macromolecules (translated by Atanov YA), AIP
Press. ISBN 1563960710
• Flory PJ. (1953) Principles of Polymer Chemistry, Cornell University, pp. 428-429 (Appendix C o Chapter X).
References
[1] See for example Goldstein, Herbert (1950), Classical Mechanics (1st ed.), Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company
equation 5-30
Rotational energy 137
Rotational energy
The rotational energy or angular kinetic energy is the kinetic energy due to the rotation of an object and is part of
its total kinetic energy. Looking at rotational energy separately in an object's centre of mass frame, one gets the
following dependence on the object's moment of inertia:
where
is the angular speed
is the moment of inertia.
is the kinetic energy.
The mechanical work required for / applied during rotation is the torque times the rotation angle. The instantaneous
power of an angularly accelerating body is the torque times the angular frequency.
Note the close relationship between the results for linear (or translational) and rotational motion; the formula for the
In the rotating system, the moment of inertia, I, takes the role of the mass, m, and the angular velocity, , takes the
role of the linear velocity, v. The rotational energy of a rolling cylinder varies from one half of the translational
energy (if it is massive) to the same as the translational energy (if it is hollow).
As an example, let us calculate the rotational kinetic energy of the Earth. As the Earth has a period of about 23.93
hours, it has an angular velocity of 7.29×10−5 rad·s−1. The Earth has a moment of inertia, I = 8.04×1037 kg·m2[1].
Therefore, it has a rotational kinetic energy of 2.14×1029 J.
Part of it can be tapped using tidal power. This creates additional friction of the two global tidal waves,
infinitesimally slowing down Earth's angular velocity ω. Due to conservation of angular momentum this process
transfers angular momentum to the Moon's orbital motion, increasing its distance from Earth and its orbital period
(see tidal locking for a more detailed explanation of this process).
See also
• Flywheel
• Rigid rotor
• Rotational spectroscopy
References
[1] http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ physics/ MomentofInertiaEarth. html
Rotation around a fixed axis 138
change in the position of the rigid body is thus completely described by three translational and three rotational
coordinates.
Any displacement of a rigid body may be arrived at by first subjecting the body to a displacement followed by a
rotation, or conversely, to a rotation followed by a displacement. We already know that for any collection of
particles—whether at rest with respect to one another, as in a rigid body, or in relative motion, like the exploding
fragments of a shell, the acceleration of the center of mass is given by
where M is the total mass of the system and acm is the acceleration of the center of mass. There remains the matter of
describing the rotation of the body about the center of mass and relating it to the external forces acting on the body.
The kinematics and dynamics of rotational motion around a single axis resemble the kinematics and dynamics of
translational motion; rotational motion around a single axis even has a work-energy theorem analogous to that of
particle dynamics.
Kinematics
Angular position
The figure shows a reference line, fixed in the body,
perpendicular to the rotation axis and rotating with the
body. The angular position of this line is the angle of
the line relative to a fixed direction, which we take as
the zero angular position. From geometry, we know
that θ is given by
Here s is the length of a circular arc that extends from the x-axis (the zero angular position) to the reference line, and
r is the radius of the circle.
An angle defined in this way is measured in radians (rad) rather than in revolutions (rev) or degrees. The radian,
being the ratio of two lengths has no dimensions. Because the circumference of a circle of radius r is 2πr, there are
2π radians in a complete circle:
Thus
Rotation around a fixed axis 140
We do not reset θ to zero with each complete rotation of the reference line about the rotation axis. If the reference
line completes two revolutions from the zero angular position, then the angular position θ of the line is
. [1]
Angular displacement
If the object in the figure rotates about the rotation axis as shown in
the figure, changing the angular position of the reference line from
θ1 to θ2, the body undergoes an angular displacement Δθ given by
This definition of angular displacement holds not only for the rigid body as a whole, but also for every particle
within that body, because the particles are all locked together.
If a body is in translational motion along the x-axis, its displacement Δx is either positive or negative, depending on
whether the body is moving in the positive or negative direction of the axis. Similarly, the angular displacement Δθ
of a rotating body is either positive or negative, according to the following convention: an angular displacement in
the counterclockwise direction is positive, and one in the clockwise direction is negative.[1]
Angular velocity is the first derivative of angular position, just as velocity is the first derivative of position.
The angular velocity of a particle can be related to its translational velocity v, which depends on the distance from
the centre of rotation. Since θ = s/r and r is constant,
Thus v = rω.
Rotation around a fixed axis 141
The angular velocity is sometimes called the angular frequency. It can be deduced from the frequency, the number of
rotations in a given time.
Angular acceleration
A changing angular velocity indicates the presence of an angular acceleration, measured in rad s−2. The average
angular acceleration over a time interval Δt is given by
Thus, the angular acceleration is the first derivative of the angular velocity, just as acceleration is the first derivative
of velocity.
The translational acceleration of a point on the object rotating is given by
where r is the radius or distance from the centre of rotation. This is also the tangential component of acceleration: it
is tangential to the direction of motion of the point. If this component is 0, the motion is uniform circular motion, and
the velocity changes in direction only.
The radial acceleration (perpendicular to direction of motion) is given by
Equations of kinematics
The five quantities angular displacement, initial angular velocity, final angular velocity, angular acceleration, and
time can be related by four equations of kinematics:
The angular acceleration is caused by the torque, which can have a positive or negative value in accordance with the
convention of positive and negative angular frequency. The ratio of torque and angular acceleration (how difficult it
is to start, stop, or otherwise change rotation) is given by the moment of inertia.
Moment of Inertia
Increasing the mass increases the moment of inertia, symbolized by , which is sometimes called the rotational
inertia of an object. But the distribution of the mass is more important, i.e. distributing the mass further from the
centre of rotation increases the moment of inertia by a greater degree. The moment of inertia is measured in kilogram
metre² (kg m²)
The energy required or released during rotation is the torque times the rotation angle; the energy stored in a rotating
object is one half of the moment of inertia times the square of the angular velocity. The power required for angular
acceleration is the torque times the angular velocity.
Rotation around a fixed axis 142
Dynamics
Torque
Torque τ is the twisting effect of a force F applied to a rotating object which is at position r from its axis of rotation.
Mathematically,
where × denotes the cross product. A net torque acting upon an object will produce an angular acceleration of the
object according to
Angular Momentum
The angular momentum L is a measure of the difficulty of bringing a rotating object to rest. It is given by
just as F = dp/dt in linear dynamics. In the absence of an external torque, the angular momentum of a body remains
constant. The conservation of angular momentum is notably demonstrated in figure skating: when pulling the arms
closer to the body during a spin, the moment of inertia is decreased, and so the angular velocity is increased.
Kinetic energy
The kinetic energy Krot due to the rotation of the body is given by
Vector expression
The development above is a special case of general rotational motion. In the general case, angular displacement,
angular velocity, angular acceleration and torque are considered to be vectors.
An angular displacement is considered to be a vector pointing along the axis, of magnitude equal to that of .A
right-hand rule is used to find which way it points along the axis; if the fingers of the right hand are curled to point in
the way that the object rotated, then the thumb of the right hand can be pointed in the direction of the vector.
The angular velocity vector also points along the axis of rotation in the same way as the angular displacements it
causes. If a disk spins counterclockwise as seen from above, its angular velocity vector points upwards. Similarly,
the angular acceleration points along the axis of rotation in the same direction that the angular velocity would point if
the angular acceleration were maintained for a long time.
The torque vector points along the axis around which the torque tends to cause rotation. To maintain rotation around
a fixed axis, the total torque vector has to be along the axis, so that it only changes the magnitude and not the
direction of the angular velocity vector. In the case of a hinge, only the component of the torque vector along the axis
has effect on the rotation, other forces and torques are compensated by the structure.
Rotation around a fixed axis 143
Centripetal force
Internal tensile stress provides the centripetal force that keeps a spinning object together. A rigid body model
neglects the accompanying strain. If the body is not rigid this strain will cause it to change shape. This is expressed
as the object changing shape due to the "centrifugal force".
Celestial bodies rotating about each other often have elliptic orbits. The special case of a circular orbits is an
example of a rotation around a fixed axis: this axis is the line through the center of mass perpendicular to the plane
of motion. The centripetal force is provided by gravity, see also two-body problem. This usually also applies for a
spinning celestial body, so it need not be solid to keep together, unless the angular speed is too high in relation to its
density. (It will, however, tend to become oblate.) For example, a spinning celestial body of water must take at least
3 hours and 18 minutes to rotate, regardless of size, or the water will separate. If the density of the fluid is higher the
time can be less. See orbital period.
See also
• Fictitious force
• Centrifugal force
• Centripetal force
• artificial gravity by rotation
• axle
• carousel, Ferris wheel
• centrifuge
• circular motion
• Coriolis effect
• flywheel
• gyration
• revolutions per minute
• revolving door
• rigid body angular momentum
• rotational speed
• rotational symmetry
• spin
Rotation around a fixed axis 144
Further reading
Concepts of Physics Volume 1, 1st edition Seventh reprint by Harish Chandra Verma ISBN 81-7709-187-5
References
[1] Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert; Walker, Jearl. Fundamentals of Physics Extended (7th ed.). ISBN 0471232319.
where:
is the moment of inertia of the object about an axis passing through its centre of mass;
is the object's mass;
is the perpendicular distance between the two axes.
This rule can be applied with the stretch rule and perpendicular axis theorem to find moments of inertia for a variety
of shapes.
The parallel axes rule also applies to the second
moment of area (area moment of inertia) for a plane
region D:
where:
is the area moment of inertia of D relative to the parallel axis;
is the area moment of inertia of D relative to its centroid;
is the area of the plane region D;
is the distance from the new axis z to the centroid of the plane region D.
Note: The centroid of D coincides with the center of gravity (CG) of a physical plate with the same shape that has
constant density.
Parallel axis theorem 145
In classical mechanics
In classical mechanics, the Parallel axis theorem (also known as Huygens-Steiner theorem) can be generalized to
calculate a new inertia tensor Jij from an inertia tensor about a center of mass Iij when the pivot point is a
displacement a from the center of mass:
where
is the displacement vector from the center of mass to the new axis, and
See also
• Perpendicular axis theorem
• Stretch rule
• Jakob Steiner
References
• Parallel axis theorem [1]
References
[1] http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ physics/ ParallelAxisTheorem. html
Perpendicular axis theorem 146
This rule can be applied with the parallel axis theorem and the stretch rule to find moments of inertia for a variety of
shapes.
Proof
Let p be a plane thin uniform lamina. Let be a mass element with perpendicular distance from an axis OZ
perpendicular to the plane and passing through O in the plane.
Let OX and OY be two perpendicular axes lying in the plane. Let be the perpendicular distance of from OX
and be the perpendicular distance of from OY, both in the plane. Let
be the moment of inertia of p about OY. The moment of inertia of p about OZ is given by
See also
• Parallel axis theorem
• Stretch rule
References
[1] Paul A. Tipler (1976). "Ch. 12: Rotation of a Rigid Body about a Fixed Axis". Physics. Worth Publishers Inc.. ISBN 0-87901-041-X.
List of moment of inertia tensors 147
Hollow sphere of
radius r and mass m
Solid cylinder of
radius r, height h and
mass m
List of moment of inertia tensors 148
Thick-walled
cylindrical tube with
open ends, of inner
radius r1, outer radius
r2, length h and mass
m
See also
• Moment of inertia
• List of area moments of inertia
• The inertia tensor of a triangle in three-dimensional space
• The inertia tensor of a tetrahedron [1]
References
[1] http:/ / number-none. com/ blow/ inertia/ bb_inertia. doc
Thin, solid disk of radius r and mass This is a special case of the
m previous object for h=0.
See also
• Parallel axis theorem
• Perpendicular axis theorem
• List of area moments of inertia
• List of moment of inertia tensors
References
[1] Classical Mechanics - Moment of inertia of a uniform hollow cylinder (http:/ / www. livephysics. com/ problems-and-answers/
classical-mechanics/ find-moment-of-inertia-of-a-uniform-hollow-cylinder. html). LivePhysics.com. Retrieved on 2008-01-31.
Simple harmonic motion 151
Introduction
A typical example of a system that
undergoes simple harmonic motion is an
idealized spring–mass system, which is a
mass attached to a spring. If the spring is
unstretched, there is no net force on the
mass (that is, the system is in mechanical
equilibrium). However, if the mass is
displaced from equilibrium, the spring will
exert a restoring force, which is a force that
tends to restore the mass to the equilibrium
position. In the case of the spring–mass
system, this force is the elastic force, which
is given by Hooke's Law,
Simple harmonic motion shown both in real space and phase space. The orbit is
where F is the restoring force, x is the
periodic. (Here the velocity and position axes have been reversed from the standard
displacement, and k is the spring constant. convention in order to align the two diagrams)
Simple harmonic motion 152
Any system that undergoes simple harmonic motion exhibits two key features.
1. When the system is displaced from equilibrium there must exist a restoring force that tends to restore it to
equilibrium.
2. The restoring force must be proportional to the displacement, or approximately so.
The spring-mass system satisfies both.
Once the mass is displaced it experiences a restoring force, accelerating it, causing it to start going back to the
equilibrium position. As it gets closer to equilibrium the restoring force decreases; at the equilibrium position the
restoring force is 0. However, at x = 0, the mass has some momentum due to the impulse of the force that has acted
on it; this causes the mass to shoot past the equilibrium position, in this case, compressing the spring. The restoring
force then tends to slow it down, until the velocity reaches 0, whereby it will attempt to reach equilibrium position
again.
As long as the system does not lose energy, the mass will continue to oscillate like so; thus, the motion is termed
periodic motion. Further analysis will show that in the case of the spring-mass system the motion is simple
harmonic.
where m is the mass of the body, x is its displacement from the mean position, and k is a constant.
The solutions to this differential equation are sinusoidal; one solution is
where A, ω, and φ are constants, and the equilibrium position is chosen to be the origin.[1] Each of these constants
represents an important physical property of the motion: A is the amplitude, ω = 2πf is the angular frequency, and φ
is the phase.[2]
Using the techniques of differential calculus,
the velocity and acceleration as a function of
time can be found:
These equations demonstrate that period and frequency are independent of the amplitude and the initial phase of the
motion.
The total mechanical energy of the system therefore has the constant value
Simple harmonic motion 154
Examples
Simple harmonic motion is exhibited in a variety of simple physical systems and
below are some examples.
Mass on a spring
A mass m attached to a spring of spring constant k exhibits simple harmonic motion
in space. The equation
An undamped spring-mass
system undergoes simple
harmonic motion.
shows that the period of oscillation is independent of both the amplitude and gravitational acceleration.
Simple harmonic motion 155
This shows that the period of oscillation is independent of the amplitude and mass of the pendulum but not the
acceleration due to gravity (g), therefore a pendulum of the same length on the Moon would swing more slowly due
to the Moon's lower gravitational acceleration.
This approximation is accurate only in small angles because of the expression for angular acceleration being
proportional to the sine of position:
where I is the moment of inertia; in this case I = mℓ2. When θ is small, sin θ ≈ θ and therefore the expression
becomes
which makes angular acceleration directly proportional to θ, satisfying the definition of simple harmonic motion.
Simple harmonic motion 156
See also
• Isochronous
• Uniform circular motion
• Complex harmonic motion
• Damping
• Harmonic oscillator
External links
• Simple Harmonic Motion [3] from HyperPhysics
• Java simulation of spring-mass oscillator [4]
References
[1] The choice of using a cosine in this equation is arbitrary in that
is also a valid solution, since in general cos(θ) = sin(θ − π/2). By using a trigonometric identity,
and so
2π/ω is the period T. Then since T = 1/f, ω = 2πf is the angular velocity.
[3] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ shm. html
[4] http:/ / www. phy. hk/ wiki/ englishhtm/ SpringSHM. htm
Pendulum 157
Pendulum
Ornamented
pendulum in
a French
Comtoise
clock
Period of oscillation
The period of swing of a simple gravity pendulum depends on its length, the acceleration of gravity, and to a small
extent on the maximum angle that the pendulum swings away from vertical, θ0, called the amplitude.[8] It is
independent of the mass of the bob. If the amplitude is limited to small swings, the period T of a simple pendulum,
the time taken for a complete cycle, is:[9]
where L is the length of the pendulum and g is the local acceleration of gravity.
For small swings, the period of swing is approximately the same for different size swings: that is, the period is
independent of amplitude. This property, called isochronism, is the reason pendulums are so useful for
timekeeping.[10] Successive swings of the pendulum, even if changing in amplitude, take the same amount of time.
This formula is strictly accurate only for tiny infinitesimal swings. For larger amplitudes, the period increases
gradually with amplitude so it is longer than given by equation (1). For example, at an amplitude of θ0 = 23° it is 1%
larger than given by (1). The true period cannot be represented by a closed formula but is given by an infinite
series:[11] [12]
The difference between this true period and the period for small swings (1) above is called the circular error.
Mathematically, for small swings the pendulum approximates a harmonic oscillator, and its motion approximates to
simple harmonic motion:[5]
Compound pendulum
The length L of the ideal simple pendulum above, used for calculating the period, is the distance from the pivot point
to the center of mass of the bob. For a real pendulum consisting of a swinging rigid body, called a compound
pendulum, the length is more difficult to define. A real pendulum swings with the same period as a simple
pendulum with a length equal to the distance from the pivot point to a point in the pendulum called the center of
oscillation.[13] This is located under the center of mass, at a distance called the radius of gyration, that depends on
the mass distribution along the pendulum. However, for the usual sort of pendulum in which most of the mass is
concentrated in the bob, the center of oscillation is close to the center of mass.[14]
Christiaan Huygens proved in 1673 that the pivot point and the center of oscillation are interchangeable.[15] This
means if any pendulum is turned upside down and swung from a pivot at the center of oscillation, it will have the
same period as before, and the new center of oscillation will be the old pivot point.
Pendulum 159
History
One of the earliest known uses of a pendulum was in the first century seismometer device of Han Dynasty China
scientist Zhang Heng.[16] Its function was to sway and activate one of a series of levers after being disturbed by the
tremor of an earthquake far away.[17] Released by the lever, a small ball would fall out of the urn-shaped device into
one of eight metal toad's mouths below, at the eight points of the compass, signifying the direction the earthquake
was located.[17]
Many sources claim that tenth century Egyptian astronomer Ibn Yunis used a pendulum for time measurement[18]
[19] [20] [21] [22]
, but other sources claim this was a myth started in 1684 by British historian Edward Bernard.[23] [24]
During the Renaissance, large pendulums were used as sources of power for manual reciprocating machines such as
saws, bellows, and pumps.[25] Leonardo da Vinci made many drawings of the motion of pendulums, though without
realizing its value for timekeeping.
Italian scientist Galileo Galilei was the first to study the properties of pendulums, beginning around 1602.[26] His
biographer and student, Vincenzo Viviani, claimed his interest had been sparked around 1582 by the swinging
motion of a chandelier in the Pisa cathedral.[27] Galileo discovered the crucial property that makes pendulums useful
as timekeepers, called isochronism; the period of the pendulum is approximately independent of the amplitude or
width of the swing.[28] He also found that the period is independent of the mass of the bob, and proportional to the
square root of the length of the pendulum. He first employed freeswinging pendulums in simple timing applications,
such as a metronome for musicians. A physician friend used it as a timer to take patients' pulse, the pulsilogium[26] .
In 1641 Galileo also conceived a design for a pendulum clock.[28] [29] The pendulum was the first harmonic
oscillator used by man.[28]
In 1656 the Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens built the first pendulum clock.[30] This was a great improvement over
existing mechanical clocks; their best accuracy was increased from around 15 minutes a day to around 15 seconds a
day.[31] Pendulums spread over Europe as existing clocks were retrofitted with them.[32]
The English scientist Robert Hooke studied the conical pendulum around 1666, consisting of a pendulum that is free
to swing in two dimensions, with the bob rotating in a circle or ellipse.[33] He used the motions of this device as a
model to analyze the orbital motions of the planets.[34] Hooke suggested to Isaac Newton in 1679 that the
components of orbital motion consisted of inertial motion along a tangent direction plus an attractive motion in the
radial direction. This played a part in Newton's formulation of the law of universal gravitation.[35] [36] Robert Hooke
was also responsible for suggesting as early as 1666 that the pendulum could be used to measure the force of
gravity.[33]
During his expedition to Cayenne, French Guiana in 1671, Jean Richer found that a pendulum clock was 21⁄2
minutes per day slower at Cayenne than at Paris. From this he deduced that the force of gravity was lower at
Cayenne.[37] [38] In 1687, Isaac Newton in Principia Mathematica showed that this was because the Earth was not a
true sphere but slightly oblate (flattened at the poles) from the effect of centrifugal force due to its rotation, causing
gravity to increase with latitude.[39] Portable pendulums began to be taken on voyages to distant lands, as precision
gravimeters to measure the acceleration of gravity g at different points on Earth, eventually resulting in accurate
models of the shape of the Earth.[40]
In 1673, Christiaan Huygens published his theory of the pendulum, Horologium Oscillatorium sive de motu
pendulorum.[41] [42] He demonstrated that for an object to descend down a curve under gravity in the same time
interval, regardless of the starting point, it must follow a cycloid curve rather than the circular arc of a pendulum.[43]
This confirmed the earlier observation by Marin Mersenne that the period of a pendulum does vary with its
amplitude, and that Galileo's observation of isochronism was accurate only for small swings.[44] Huygens also solved
the issue of how to calculate the period of an arbitrarily shaped pendulum (called a compound pendulum),
discovering the center of oscillation, and its interchangeability with the pivot point.[45]
Pendulum 160
The existing clock movement, the verge escapement, made pendulums swing in very wide arcs of about 100°.[46]
Huygens showed this was a source of inaccuracy, causing the period to vary with amplitude changes caused by small
unavoidable variations in the clock's drive force.[47] To make its period isochronous, Huygens mounted
cycloidal-shaped metal 'cheeks' next to the pivot in his 1673 clock, that constrained the suspension cord and forced
the pendulum to follow a cycloid arc.[48] This solution didn't prove as practical as simply limiting the pendulum's
swing to small angles of a few degrees. The realization that only small swings were isochronous motivated the
development of the anchor escapement around 1670, which reduced the pendulum swing in clocks to 4°–6°.[46] [49]
During the 18th and 19th century, the pendulum clock's role as the most accurate timekeeper motivated much
practical research into improving pendulums. It was found that a major source of error was that the pendulum rod
expanded and contracted with changes in ambient temperature, changing the period of swing.[8] [50] This was solved
with the invention of temperature compensated pendulums, the mercury pendulum in 1721[51] and the gridiron
pendulum in 1726, reducing errors in precision pendulum clocks to a few seconds per week.[48]
The accuracy of gravity measurements made with pendulums was limited by the difficulty of finding the location of
their center of oscillation. Huygens had discovered in 1673 that a pendulum has the same period when hung from its
center of oscillation as when hung from its pivot,[15] and the distance between the two points was equal to the length
of a simple gravity pendulum of the same period.[13] In 1818 British Captain Henry Kater invented the reversible
Kater's pendulum[52] which used this principle, making possible very accurate measurements of gravity. For the next
century the reversible pendulum was the standard method of measuring absolute gravitational acceleration.
In 1851, Jean Bernard Léon Foucault showed that the plane of oscillation of a pendulum, like a gyroscope, tends to
stay constant regardless of the motion of the pivot, and that this could be used to demonstrate the rotation of the
Earth. He suspended a pendulum free to swing in two dimensions (later named the Foucault pendulum) from the
dome of the Panthéon in Paris. The length of the cord was 67 m. Once the pendulum was set in motion, the plane of
swing was observed to precess or rotate 360° clockwise in about 32 hours.[53] This was the first demonstration of the
Earth's rotation that didn't depend on astronomical observations,[54] and a 'pendulum mania' broke out, as Foucault
pendulums were displayed in many cities and attracted large crowds.[55] [56]
Around 1900 low thermal expansion materials began to be used for pendulum rods in the highest precision clocks
and other instruments, first invar, a nickel steel alloy, and later fused quartz, which made temperature compensation
trivial.[57] Precision pendulums were housed in low pressure tanks, which kept the air pressure constant to prevent
changes in the period due to changes in buoyancy of the pendulum due to changing atmospheric pressure.[57] The
accuracy of the best pendulum clocks topped out at around a second per year.[58] [59]
The timekeeping accuracy of the pendulum was exceeded by the quartz crystal oscillator, invented in 1921, and
quartz clocks, invented in 1927, replaced pendulum clocks as the world's best timekeepers,[2] although the French
Time Service continued using pendulum clocks in their official time standard ensemble until 1954.[60] Pendulum
gravimeters were superseded by "free fall" gravimeters in the 1950s,[61] but pendulum instruments continued to be
used into the 1970s.
Pendulum 161
Clock pendulums
Pendulums in clocks (see example at right) are usually made of a weight or bob
(b) suspended by a rod of wood or metal (a).[8] [64] To reduce air resistance
(which accounts for most of the energy loss in clocks)[65] the bob is traditionally
a smooth disk with a lens-shaped cross section, although in antique clocks it
often had carvings or decorations specific to the type of clock. In quality clocks
the bob is made as heavy as the suspension can support and the movement can
drive, since this improves the regulation of the clock (see Accuracy below). A
common weight for seconds pendulum bobs is 15 lbs. (6.8 kg). Instead of
hanging from a pivot, clock pendulums are usually supported by a short straight
spring (d) of flexible metal ribbon. This avoids the friction and 'play' caused by a
pivot, and the slight bending force of the spring merely adds to the pendulum's
restoring force. A few precision clocks have pivots of 'knife' blades resting on
agate plates. The impulses to keep the pendulum swinging are provided by an
arm hanging in back of the pendulum called the crutch, (e), which ends in a fork,
(f) whose prongs embrace the pendulum rod. The crutch is pushed back and forth
by the clock's escapement, (g,h).
Each time the pendulum swings through its center position, it releases one tooth
of the escape wheel (g). The wheel turns, and the tooth presses against one of the
pallets (h), giving the pendulum a short push. The clock's wheels, geared to the
escape wheel, move forward a fixed amount with each pendulum swing,
advancing the clock's hands.
The pendulum always has a means of adjusting the period, usually by an
Pendulum and anchor escapement
adjustment nut (c) under the bob which moves it up or down on the rod.[8] [66] from a grandfather clock
Moving the bob up decreases the pendulum's length, causing the pendulum to
swing faster and the clock to gain time. Some precision clocks have a small auxiliary adjustment weight on a
threaded shaft on the bob, to allow finer adjustment. Some precision and tower clocks use a tray attached to the
pendulum rod, to which small weights can be added or removed, to allow the rate to be adjusted without stopping the
clock.[67] [68]
The pendulum must be suspended from a rigid support.[8] [69] During operation, any elasticity in the support will
allow tiny imperceptible swaying motions of the support, which disturbs the clock's period, resulting in error.
Pendulum clocks should be attached firmly to a sturdy wall.
The most common pendulum length in quality clocks, which is always used in grandfather clocks, is the seconds
pendulum, about 1 meter (39 inches) long. In mantel clocks, half-second pendulums, 25 cm (10 in) long, or shorter,
are used. Only a few large tower clocks use longer pendulums, the 1.5 second pendulum, 2.25 m (7 ft) long, or
occasionally the two-second pendulum, 4 m (13 ft).[8] [70]
Temperature compensation
The largest source of error in early pendulums was slight changes in length due to thermal expansion and contraction
of the pendulum rod with changes in ambient temperature.[71] This was discovered when people noticed that
pendulum clocks ran slower in summer, by as much as a minute per week[50] [72] (one of the first was Godefroy
Wendelin, as reported by Huygens in 1658)[73] and was first studied by Jean Picard in 1669.[74] A pendulum with a
steel rod will expand by about 11.3 parts per million with each degree Celsius increase (6.3 µin/(in·°F)), causing it to
lose about 0.27 seconds per day, or 16 seconds per day for a 60 °F (33 °C) change. Wood rods expand less, losing
only about 6 seconds per day for a 60 °F change, which is why quality clocks often had wooden pendulum rods.
Pendulum 163
Mercury pendulum
The first device to compensate for this error was the mercury pendulum, invented
by George Graham[51] in 1721.[8] [72] The liquid metal mercury expands in
volume with temperature. In a mercury pendulum, the pendulum's weight (bob) is
made of a container of mercury. With a temperature rise, the pendulum rod gets
longer, but the mercury also expands and its surface level rises slightly in the
container, moving its center of mass closer to the pendulum pivot. By using the
correct height of mercury in the container these two effects will cancel, leaving
the pendulum's center of mass, and its period, unchanged with temperature. Its
main disadvantage was that when the temperature changed, the rod would come to
the new temperature quickly but the mass of mercury might take a day or two to
reach the new temperature, causing the rate to deviate during that time.[75] To
improve thermal accommodation several thin containers were often used, made of
metal. Mercury pendulums were the standard used in precision clocks into the
1900s.[76]
Gridiron pendulum
The most widely used compensated pendulum was the gridiron pendulum,
invented in 1726 by John Harrison.[8] [72] [75] This consists of alternating rods of
two different metals, one with lower thermal expansion (CTE), steel, and one with
higher thermal expansion, zinc or brass. The rods are connected by a frame as Mercury pendulum in Howard
astronomical regulator clock, 1887
shown, so that an increase in length of the zinc rods pushes the bob up, shortening
the pendulum. With a temperature increase, the low expansion steel rods make the
pendulum longer, while the high expansion zinc rods make it shorter. By making the rods of the correct lengths, the
greater expansion of the zinc cancels out the expansion of the steel rods which have a greater combined length, and
the pendulum stays the same length with temperature.
Zinc-steel gridiron pendulums are made with 5 rods, but the thermal expansion of brass is closer to steel, so
brass-steel gridirons usually require 9 rods. Gridiron pendulums adjust to temperature changes faster than mercury
pendulums, but scientists found that friction of the rods sliding in their holes in the frame caused gridiron pendulums
to adjust in a series of tiny jumps.[75] In high precision clocks this caused the clock's rate to change suddenly with
each jump. Later it was found that zinc is subject to creep. For these reasons mercury pendulums were used in the
highest precision clocks, but gridirons were used in quality regulator clocks. They became so associated with quality
that, to this day, many ordinary clock pendulums have decorative 'fake' gridirons that don't actually have any
temperature compensation function.
Atmospheric pressure
The presence of air around the pendulum has three effects on the period:[57] [79]
• By Archimedes principle the effective weight of the bob is reduced by the buoyancy of the air it displaces, while
the mass (inertia) remains the same, reducing the pendulum's acceleration during its swing and increasing the
period. This depends on the density but not the shape of the pendulum.
• The pendulum carries an amount of air with it as it swings, and the mass of this air increases the inertia of the
pendulum, again reducing the acceleration and increasing the period.
• Viscous air resistance slows the pendulum's velocity. This has a negligible effect on the period, but dissipates
energy, reducing the amplitude. This reduces the pendulum's Q factor, requiring a stronger drive force from the
clock's mechanism to keep it moving, which causes increased disturbance to the period.
So increases in barometric pressure slow the pendulum slightly due to the first two effects, by about 0.11 seconds per
day per kilopascal (0.37 seconds per day per inch of mercury or 0.015 seconds per day per torr).[57] Researchers
using pendulums to measure the acceleration of gravity had to correct the period for the air pressure at the altitude of
measurement, computing the equivalent period of a pendulum swinging in vacuum. A pendulum clock was first
operated in a constant-pressure tank by Friedrich Tiede in 1865 at the Berlin Observatory,[80] [81] and by 1900 the
highest precision clocks were mounted in tanks that were kept at a constant pressure to eliminate changes in
atmospheric pressure. Alternately, in some a small aneroid barometer mechanism attached to the pendulum
compensated for this effect.
Gravity
Pendulums are affected by changes in gravitational acceleration, which varies by as much as 0.5% at different
locations on Earth, so pendulum clocks have to be recalibrated after a move. Even moving a pendulum clock to the
top of a tall building can cause it to lose measurable time from the reduction in gravity.
Q factor
The measure of a harmonic oscillator's resistance to
disturbances to its oscillation period is a dimensionless
parameter called the Q factor equal to the resonant
frequency divided by the bandwidth.[83] [84] The higher
the Q, the smaller the bandwidth, and the more constant
the frequency or period of the oscillator for a given
disturbance.[85] The reciprocal of the Q is roughly
proportional to the limiting accuracy achievable by a
harmonic oscillator as a time standard.[86]
where M is the mass of the bob, ω = 2π/T is the pendulum's radian frequency of oscillation, and Γ is the frictional
damping force on the pendulum per unit velocity.
ω is fixed by the pendulum's period, and M is limited by the load capacity and rigidity of the suspension. So the Q of
clock pendulums is increased by minimizing frictional losses (Γ). Precision pendulums are suspended on low friction
pivots consisting of triangular shaped 'knife' edges resting on agate plates. Around 99% of the energy loss in a
freeswinging pendulum is due to air friction, so mounting a pendulum in a vacuum tank can increase the Q, and thus
the accuracy, by a factor of 100.[87]
The Q of pendulums ranges from several thousand in an ordinary clock to several hundred thousand for precision
regulator pendulums swinging in vacuum.[88] A quality home pendulum clock might have a Q of 10,000 and an
accuracy of 10 seconds per month. The most accurate commercially produced pendulum clock was the
Shortt-Synchronome free pendulum clock, invented in 1921.[2] [58] [89] [90] [91] Its Invar master pendulum swinging
in a vacuum tank had a Q of 110,000[88] and an error rate of around a second per year.[58]
This explains why pendulums are more accurate timekeepers than balance wheels, with Q around 100-300, but less
accurate than quartz crystals with Q of 105–106.[2] [88]
Pendulum 166
Escapement
Pendulums (unlike, for example, quartz crystals) have a low enough Q that the disturbance caused by the impulses to
keep them moving is generally the limiting factor on their timekeeping accuracy. Therefore the design of the
escapement has a large effect on the accuracy of a clock pendulum. If the impulses given to the pendulum by the
escapement each swing could be exactly identical, the response of the pendulum would be identical, and its period
would be constant. This is not achievable; unavoidable random fluctuations in the force due to friction of the clock's
pallets, lubrication variations, and changes in the torque provided by the clock's power source as it runs down, mean
that the force of the impulse applied by the escapement varies.
If these variations in the escapement's force cause changes in the pendulum's width of swing (amplitude), this will
cause corresponding slight changes in the period, since (as discussed at top) a pendulum with a finite swing is not
quite isochronous. Therefore, the goal of traditional escapement design is to apply the force with the proper profile,
and at the correct point in the pendulum's cycle, so force variations have no effect on the pendulum's amplitude. This
is called an isochronous escapement.
Gravity measurement
The presence of the acceleration of gravity g in the periodicity equation (1) for a pendulum means that the local
gravitational acceleration of the Earth can be calculated from the period of a pendulum. A pendulum can therefore be
used as a gravimeter to measure the local gravity, which varies by about 0.5% at different points on the surface of the
Earth. The pendulum in a clock is disturbed by the pushes it receives from the clock movement, so freeswinging
pendulums were used, and were the standard instruments of gravimetry up to the 1930s.
The difference between clock pendulums and gravimeter pendulums is that to measure gravity, the pendulum's
length as well as its period has to be measured. The period of freeswinging pendulums could be found to great
precision by comparing their swing with a precision clock that had been adjusted to keep correct time by the passage
of stars overhead. In the early measurements, a weight on a cord was suspended in front of the clock pendulum, and
its length adjusted until the two pendulums swung in exact synchronism. Then the length of the cord was measured.
From the length and the period, g could be calculated from (1).
Early observations
• 1620: British scientist Francis Bacon was one of the first to propose using a pendulum to measure gravity,
suggesting taking one up a mountain to see if gravity varies with altitude.[94]
• 1644: Even before the pendulum clock, French priest Marin Mersenne first determined the length of the seconds
pendulum was 39.1 inches (993 mm), by comparing the swing of a pendulum to the time it took a weight to fall a
measured distance.
• 1669: Jean Picard determined the length of the seconds pendulum at Paris, using a 1-inch (25 mm) copper ball
suspended by an aloe fiber, obtaining 39.09 inches (993 mm).[95]
• 1672: The first observation that gravity varied at different points on Earth was made in 1672 by Jean Richer, who
took a pendulum clock to Cayenne, French Guiana and found that it lost 21⁄2 minutes per day; its seconds
pendulum had to be shortened by 11⁄4 lignes (2.6 mm) shorter than at Paris, to keep correct time.[96] [97] In 1687
Isaac Newton in Principia Mathematica showed this was because the Earth had a slightly oblate shape (flattened
at the poles) caused by the centrifugal force of its rotation, so gravity increased with latitude.[97] From this time
on, pendulums began to be taken to distant lands to measure gravity, and tables were compiled of the length of the
seconds pendulum at different locations on Earth. In 1743 Alexis Claude Clairaut created the first hydrostatic
model of the Earth, Clairaut's formula,[95] which allowed the ellipticity of the Earth to be calculated from gravity
measurements. Progressively more accurate models of the shape of the Earth followed.
• 1687: Newton experimented with pendulums (described in Principia) and found that equal length pendulums with
bobs made of different materials had the same period, proving that the gravitational force on different substances
was exactly proportional to their mass (inertia).
• 1737: French mathematician Pierre Bouguer made a sophisticated
series of pendulum observations in the Andes mountains, Peru.[98]
He used a copper pendulum bob in the shape of a double pointed
cone suspended by a thread; the bob could be reversed to
eliminate the effects of nonuniform density. He calculated the
length to the center of oscillation of thread and bob combined,
instead of using the center of the bob. He corrected for thermal
expansion of the measuring rod and barometric pressure, giving
his results for a pendulum swinging in vacuum. Bouguer swung
the same pendulum at three different elevations, from sea level to
the top of the high Peruvian altiplano. Gravity should fall with the
inverse square of the distance from the center of the Earth.
Bouguer found that it fell off slower, and correctly attributed the
'extra' gravity to the gravitational field of the huge Peruvian
plateau. From the density of rock samples he calculated an
estimate of the effect of the altiplano on the pendulum, and
comparing this with the gravity of the Earth was able to make the
first rough estimate of the density of the Earth. Borda & Cassini's 1792 measurement of the length
of the seconds pendulum
• 1747: Daniel Bernoulli showed how to correct for the lengthening
of the period due to a finite angle of swing θ0 by using the first
order correction θ02/16, giving the period of a pendulum with an infinitesimal swing.[98]
• 1792: To define a pendulum standard of length for use with the new metric system, in 1792 Jean-Charles de
Borda and Jean-Dominique Cassini made a precise measurement of the seconds pendulum at Paris. They used a
11⁄2-inch (14 mm) platinum ball suspended by a 12-foot (3.7 m) iron wire. Their main innovation was a technique
called the "method of coincidences" which allowed the period of pendulums to be compared with great precision.
(Bouguer had also used this method). The time interval ΔT between the recurring instants when the two
Pendulum 168
pendulums swung in synchronism was timed. From this the difference between the periods of the pendulums, T1
and T2, could be calculated:
• 1821: Francesco Carlini made pendulum observations on top of Mount Cenis, Italy, from which, using methods
similar to Bouguer's, he calculated the density of the Earth.[99] He compared his measurements to an estimate of
the gravity at his location assuming the mountain wasn't there, calculated from previous nearby pendulum
measurements at sea level. His measurements showed 'excess' gravity, which he allocated to the effect of the
mountain. Modeling the mountain as a segment of a sphere 11 miles (18 km) in diameter and 1 mile (1.6 km)
high, from rock samples he calculated its gravitational field, and estimated the density of the Earth at 4.39 times
that of water. Later recalculations by others gave values of 4.77 and 4.95, illustrating the uncertainties in these
geographical methods
Kater's pendulum
The precision of the early gravity measurements above was limited by the difficulty of measuring the length of the
pendulum, L . L was the length of an idealized simple gravity pendulum (described at top), which has all its mass
concentrated in a point at the end of the cord. In 1673 Huygens had shown that the period of a real pendulum (called
a compound pendulum) was equal to the period of a simple pendulum with a length equal to the distance between the
pivot point and a point called the center of oscillation, located under the center of gravity, that depends on the mass
distribution along the pendulum. But there was no accurate way of determining the center of oscillation in a real
pendulum.
To get around this problem, the early researchers above approximated an ideal simple pendulum as closely as
possible by using a metal sphere suspended by a light wire or cord. If the wire was light enough, the center of
oscillation was close to the center of gravity of the ball, at its geometric center. This "ball and wire" type of
pendulum wasn't very accurate, because it didn't swing as a rigid body, and the elasticity of the wire caused its length
to change slightly as the pendulum swung.
However Huygens had also proved that in any pendulum, the pivot point and the center of oscillation were
interchangeable.[15] That is, if a pendulum were turned upside down and hung from its center of oscillation, it would
have the same period as it did in the previous position, and the old pivot point would be the new center of oscillation.
Pendulum 169
British physicist and army captain Henry Kater in 1817 realized that Huygens' principle could be used to find the
length of a simple pendulum with the same period as a real pendulum.[52] If a pendulum was built with a second
adjustable pivot point near the bottom so it could be hung upside down, and the second pivot was adjusted until the
periods when hung from both pivots were the same, the second pivot would be at the center of oscillation, and the
distance between the two pivots would be the length of a simple pendulum with the same period.
Kater built a reversible pendulum (shown at right) consisting of a brass bar with two opposing pivots made of short
triangular "knife" blades (a) near either end. It could be swung from either pivot, with the knife blades supported on
agate plates. Rather than make one pivot adjustable, he attached the pivots a meter apart and instead adjusted the
periods with a moveable weight on the pendulum rod (b,c). In operation, the pendulum is hung in front of a precision
clock, and the period timed, then turned upside down and the period timed again. The weight is adjusted with the
adjustment screw until the periods are equal. Then putting this period and the distance between the pivots into
equation (1) gives the gravitational acceleration g very accurately.
Kater timed the swing of his pendulum using the "method of coincidences" and measured the distance between the
two pivots with a microscope. After applying corrections for the finite amplitude of swing, the buoyancy of the bob,
the barometric pressure and altitude, and temperature, he obtained a value of 39.13929 inches for the seconds
pendulum at London, in vacuum, at sea level, at 62 °F. The largest variation from the mean of his 12 observations
was 0.00028 in.[100] representing a precision of gravity measurement of 7×10−6 (7 mGal or 70 µm/s2). Kater's
measurement was used as Britain's official standard of length (see below) from 1824 to 1855.
Reversible pendulums (known technically as "convertible" pendulums) employing Kater's principle were used for
absolute gravity measurements into the 1930s.
• Airy's coal pit experiments: Starting in 1826, using methods similar to Bouguer, British astronomer George Airy
attempted to determine the density of the Earth by pendulum gravity measurements at the top and bottom of a
Pendulum 170
coal mine.[102] [103] The gravitational force below the surface of the Earth decreases rather than increasing with
depth, because by Gauss's law the mass of the spherical shell of crust above the subsurface point does not
contribute to the gravity. The 1826 experiment was aborted by the flooding of the mine, but in 1854 he conducted
an improved experiment at the Harton coal mine, using seconds pendulums swinging on agate plates, timed by
precision chronometers synchronized by an electrical circuit. He found the lower pendulum was slower by 2.24
seconds per day. This meant that the gravitational acceleration at the bottom of the mine, 1250 ft below the
surface, was 1/14,000 less than it should have been from the inverse square law; that is the attraction of the
spherical shell was 1/14,000 of the attraction of the Earth. From samples of surface rock he estimated the mass of
the spherical shell of crust, and from this estimated that the density of the Earth was 6.565 times that of water.
Von Sterneck attempted to repeat the experiment in 1882 but found inconsistent results.
• Repsold-Bessel pendulum: It was time-consuming and error-prone to repeatedly swing the
Kater's pendulum and adjust the weights until the periods were equal. Friedrich Bessel
showed in 1835 that this was unnecessary.[104] As long as the periods were close together, the
gravity could be calculated from the two periods and the center of gravity of the
pendulum.[105] So the reversible pendulum didn't need to be adjustable, it could just be a bar
with two pivots. Bessel also showed that if the pendulum was made symmetrical in form
about its center, but was weighted internally at one end, the errors due to air drag would
cancel out. Further, another error due to the finite diameter of the knife edges could be made
to cancel out if they were interchanged between measurements. Bessel didn't construct such a
pendulum, but in 1864 Adolf Repsold, under contract by the Swiss Geodetic Commission
made a pendulum along these lines. The Repsold pendulum was about 56 cm long and had a
period of about 3⁄4 second. It was used extensively by European geodetic agencies, and with
the Kater pendulum in the Survey of India. Similar pendulums of this type were designed by
Charles Pierce and C. Defforges.
Repsold
pendulum, 1864
Pendulum 171
The Mendenhall pendulum was actually a more accurate timekeeper than the highest precision clocks of the
time, and as the 'world's best clock' it was used by A. A. Michelson in his 1924 measurements of the speed of
light on Mt. Wilson, California.[106]
• Double pendulum gravimeters: Starting in 1875, the increasing accuracy of pendulum measurements revealed
another source of error in existing instruments: the swing of the pendulum caused a slight swaying of the tripod
stand used to support portable pendulums, introducing error. In 1875 Charles S Peirce calculated that
measurements of the length of the seconds pendulum made with the Repsold instrument required a correction of
0.2 mm due to this error.[107] In 1880 C. Defforges used a Michelson interferometer to measure the sway of the
stand dynamically, and interferometers were added to the standard Mendenhall apparatus to calculate sway
corrections.[108] A method of preventing this error was first suggested in 1877 by Hervé Faye and advocated by
Peirce, Cellérier and Furtwangler: mount two identical pendulums on the same support, swinging with the same
amplitude, 180° out of phase. The opposite motion of the pendulums would cancel out any sideways forces on the
support. The idea was opposed due to its complexity, but by the turn of the century the Von Sterneck device and
other instruments were modified to swing multiple pendulums simultaneously.
• Gulf gravimeter: One of the last and most accurate
pendulum gravimeters was the apparatus developed
in 1929 by the Gulf Research and Development
Co.[109] [110] It used two pendulums made of fused
quartz, each 10.7 inches (272 mm) in length with a
period of 0.89 second, swinging on pyrex knife edge
pivots, 180° out of phase. They were mounted in a
permanently sealed temperature and humidity
controlled vacuum chamber. Stray electrostatic
charges on the quartz pendulums had to be
discharged by exposing them to a radioactive salt
before use. The period was detected by reflecting a
light beam from a mirror at the top of the pendulum,
Quartz pendulums used in Gulf gravimeter, 1929
Pendulum 172
recorded by a chart recorder and compared to a precision crystal oscillator calibrated against the WWV radio time
signal. This instrument was accurate to within (0.3–0.5)×10−7 (30–50 microgals or 3–5 nm/s2).[109] It was used
into the 1960s.
Relative pendulum gravimeters were superseded by the simpler LaCoste zero-length spring gravimeter, invented in
1934 by Lucien LaCoste.[106] Absolute (reversible) pendulum gravimeters were replaced in the 1950s by free fall
gravimeters, in which a weight is allowed to fall in a vacuum tank and its acceleration is measured by an optical
interferometer.[61]
Standard of length
Because the acceleration of gravity is constant at a given point on Earth, the period of a simple pendulum at a given
location depends only on its length. Additionally, gravity varies only slightly at different locations. Almost from the
pendulum's discovery until the early 19th century, this property led scientists to suggest using a pendulum of a given
period as a standard of length.
Until the 19th century, countries based their systems of length measurement on prototypes, metal bar primary
standards, such as the standard yard in Britain kept at the Houses of Parliament, and the standard toise in France,
kept at Paris. These were vulnerable to damage or destruction over the years, and because of the difficulty of
comparing prototypes, the same unit often had different lengths in distant towns, creating opportunities for fraud.[111]
Enlightenment scientists argued for a length standard that was based on some property of nature that could be
determined by measurement, creating an indestructible, universal standard. The period of pendulums could be
measured very precisely by timing them with clocks that were set by the stars. A pendulum standard amounted to
defining the unit of length by the gravitational force of the Earth, for all intents constant, and the second, which was
defined by the rotation rate of the Earth, also constant. The idea was that anyone, anywhere on Earth, could recreate
the standard by constructing a pendulum that swung with the defined period and measuring its length.
Virtually all proposals were based on the seconds pendulum, in which each swing (a half period) takes one second,
which is about a meter (39 inches) long, because by the late 1600s it had become a standard for measuring gravity
(see previous section). By the 1700s its length had been measured with sub-millimeter accuracy at a number of cities
in Europe and around the world.
The initial attraction of the pendulum length standard was that it was believed (by early scientists such as Huygens
and Wren) that gravity was constant over the Earth's surface, so a given pendulum had the same period at any point
on Earth.[111] So the length of the standard pendulum could be measured at any location, and would not be tied to
any given nation or region; it would be a truly democratic, worldwide standard. Although Richer found in 1672 that
gravity varies at different points on the globe, the idea of a pendulum length standard remained popular, because it
was found that gravity only varies with latitude. Gravitational acceleration increases smoothly from the equator to
the poles, due to the oblate shape of the Earth. So at any given latitude (east-west line), gravity was constant enough
that the length of a seconds pendulum was the same within the measurement capability of the 18th century. So the
unit of length could be defined at a given latitude and measured at any point at that latitude. For example, a
pendulum standard defined at 45° north latitude, a popular choice, could be measured in parts of France, Italy,
Croatia, Serbia, Romania, Russia, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, the United States and Canada. In addition, it could
be recreated at any location at which the gravitational acceleration had been accurately measured.
By the mid 19th century, increasingly accurate pendulum measurements by Edward Sabine and Thomas Young
revealed that gravity, and thus the length of any pendulum standard, varied measurably with local geologic features
such as mountains and dense subsurface rocks.[112] So a pendulum length standard had to be defined at a single point
on Earth and could only be measured there. This took much of the appeal from the concept, and efforts to adopt
pendulum standards were abandoned.
Pendulum 173
Early proposals
One of the first to suggest defining length with a pendulum was Flemish scientist Isaac Beeckman[113] who in 1631
recommended making the seconds pendulum "the invariable measure for all people at all times in all places".[114]
Marin Mersenne, who first measured the seconds pendulum in 1644, also suggested it. The first official proposal for
a pendulum standard was made by the British Royal Society in 1660, advocated by Christiaan Huygens and Ole
Rømer, basing it on Mersenne's work,[115] and Huygens in Horologium Oscillatorum proposed a "horary foot"
defined as 1/3 of the seconds pendulum. Christopher Wren was another early supporter. The idea of a pendulum
standard of length must have been familiar to people as early as 1663, because Samuel Butler satirizes it in
Hudibras:[116]
Upon the bench I will so handle ‘em
That the vibration of this pendulum
Shall make all taylors’ yards of one
Unanimous opinion
In 1671 Jean Picard proposed a pendulum defined 'universal foot' in his influential Mesure de la Terre.[117] Gabriel
Mouton around 1670 suggested defining the toise either by a seconds pendulum or a minute of terrestrial degree. A
plan for a complete system of units based on the pendulum was advanced in 1675 by Italian polymath Tito Livio
Burratini. In France in 1747, geographer Charles Marie de la Condamine proposed defining length by a seconds
pendulum at the equator; since at this location a pendulum's swing wouldn't be distorted by the Earth's rotation.
British politicians James Steuart (1780) and George Skene Keith were also supporters.
By the end of the 18th century, when many nations were reforming their weight and measure systems, the seconds
pendulum was the leading choice for a new definition of length, advocated by prominent scientists in several major
nations. In 1790, then US Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson proposed to Congress a comprehensive decimalized
US 'metric system' based on the seconds pendulum at 38° North latitude, the mean latitude of the United States.[118]
No action was taken on this proposal. In Britain the leading advocate of the pendulum was politician John Riggs
Miller.[119] When his efforts to promote a joint British–French–American metric system fell through in 1790, he
proposed a British system based on the length of the seconds pendulum at London. This standard was adopted in
1824 (below).
The meter
In the discussions leading up to the French adoption of the metric system in 1791, the leading candidate for the
definition of the new unit of length, the meter, was the seconds pendulum at 45° North latitude. It was advocated by
a group led by French politician Talleyrand and mathematician Antoine Nicolas Caritat de Condorcet. This was one
of the three final options considered by the French Academy of Sciences committee. However on March 19, 1791
the committee instead chose to base the meter on the length of the meridian through Paris. A pendulum definition
was rejected because of its variability at different locations, and because it defined length by a unit of time.
(Ironically, since 1983 the meter has been officially defined in terms of the length of the second and the speed of
light.) A possible additional reason is that the radical French Academy didn't want to base their new system on the
second, a traditional and nondecimal unit from the ancien regime.
Although not defined by the pendulum, the final length chosen for the meter, 10−7 of the pole-to-equater meridian,
was very close to the length of the seconds pendulum (0.9937 m), within 0.63%. Although no reason for this
particular choice was given at the time, it was probably to facilitate the use of the seconds pendulum as a secondary
standard, as was proposed in the official document. So the modern world's standard unit of length is certainly closely
linked historically with the seconds pendulum.
Pendulum 174
Other uses
Seismometers
A pendulum in which the rod is not vertical but almost horizontal was used in early seismometers for measuring
earth tremors. The bob of the pendulum does not move when its mounting does, and the difference in the movements
is recorded on a drum chart.
Schuler tuning
As first explained by Maximilian Schuler in a 1923 paper, a pendulum whose period exactly equals the orbital period
of a hypothetical satellite orbiting just above the surface of the earth (about 84 minutes) will tend to remain pointing
at the center of the earth when its support is suddenly displaced. This principle, called Schuler tuning, is used in
inertial guidance systems in ships and aircraft that operate on the surface of the Earth. No physical pendulum is used,
but the control system that keeps the inertial platform containing the gyroscopes stable is modified so the device acts
as though it is attached to such a pendulum, keeping the platform always facing down as the vehicle moves on the
curved surface of the Earth.
Coupled pendulums
In 1665 Huygens made a curious observation about pendulum clocks. Two clocks had been placed on his
mantlepiece, and he noted that they had acquired an opposing motion. That is, their pendulums were beating in
unison but in the opposite direction; 180° out of phase. Regardless of how the two clocks were started, he found that
they would eventually return to this state, thus making the first recorded observation of a coupled oscillator.[123]
The cause of this behavior was that the two pendulums were affecting each other through slight motions of the
supporting mantlepiece. Many physical systems can be mathematically described as coupled oscillation. Under
certain conditions these systems can also demonstrate chaotic motion.
Pendulum 175
Religious practice
Pendulum motion appears in religious ceremonies as well. The swinging incense burner called a censer, also known
as a thurible, is an example of a pendulum.[124] Pendulums are also seen at many gatherings in eastern Mexico where
they mark the turning of the tides on the day which the tides are at their highest point. See also pendula for divination
and dowsing.
Execution
Using the basic principal of the pendulum, the weight (bob) is replaced by an axe head. The victim is strapped to a
table below, the device is activated, and the axe begins to swing back and forth through the air. With each pass, or
return, the pendulum drops, gradually coming into closer proximity of the victim's torso, until finally cleaved.
Because of the time required before the mortal action of the axe is complete, the pendulum is considered a method of
torturing the victim before their demise.[125]
See also
• Pendulum (mathematics)
• Pendulum clock
• Gridiron pendulum
• Simple harmonic motion
• Conical pendulum
• Spherical pendulum
• Double pendulum
• Foucault pendulum
• Kater's pendulum
• Harmonograph (a.k.a. "Lissajous pendulum")
• Metronome
• Seconds pendulum
• Torsional pendulum
• Inverted pendulum
• Furuta pendulum
External links
• NAWCC National Association of Watch & Clock Collectors Museum [126]
• Graphical derivation of the time period for a simple pendulum [127]
• A more general explanation of pendula [128]
• Web-based calculator of pendulum properties from numerical inputs [129]
• FORTRAN code for a numerical model of a simple pendulum [130]
• FORTRAN code for modeling of a simple pendulum using the Euler and Euler-Cromer methods [131]
• Simple Pendulum Applet [132]
• Interrupted Pendulum [133] Java Applet
Pendulum 176
Further reading
• Michael R. Matthews, Arthur Stinner, Colin F. Gauld (2005)The Pendulum: Scientific, Historical, Philosophical
and Educational Perspectives, Springer
• Michael R. Matthews, Colin Gauld and Arthur Stinner (2005) The Pendulum: Its Place in Science, Culture and
Pedagogy. Science & Education, 13, 261-277.
• Matthys, Robert J. (2004). Accurate Pendulum Clocks [134]. UK: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 0198529716.
• Nelson, Robert; M. G. Olsson (February 1986). "The pendulum - Rich physics from a simple system" [135].
American Journal of Physics 54 (2): 112–121. doi:10.1119/1.14703 [136]. Retrieved 2008-10-29.
References
Note: most of the sources below, including books, are viewable online through the links given.
[1] "Pendulum". Miriam Webster's Collegiate Encyclopedia. Miriam Webster. 2000. pp. 1241. ISBN 0877790175.
[2] Marrison, Warren (1948). "The Evolution of the Quartz Crystal Clock" (http:/ / www. ieee-uffc. org/ main/ history. asp?file=marrison). Bell
System Technical Journal 27: 510–588. .
[3] Morris, William, Ed. (1979). The American Heritage Dictionary, New College Ed.. New York: Houghton-Mifflin. pp. 969. ISBN
0395203600.
[4] defined by Christiaan Huygens: Huygens, Christian (1673). "Horologium Oscillatorium" (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com/ contents/
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17thcenturymaths.com. . Retrieved 2009-03-01., Part 4, Definition 3, translated July 2007 by Ian Bruce
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[8] Milham, Willis I. (1945). Time and Timekeepers. MacMillan., p.188-194
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[15] Huygens (1673) Horologium Oscillatorium (http:/ / www. 17centurymaths. com/ contents/ huygenscontents. html), Part 4, Proposition 20
[16] Morton, 70.
[17] Needham, Volume 3, 627-629
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Pendulum 177
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[42] The constellation of Horologium was later named in honor of this book.
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[47] "...it is affected by either the intemperance of the air or any faults in the mechanism so the crutch QR is not always activated by the same
force... With large arcs the swings take longer, in the way I have explained, therefore some inequalities in the motion of the timepiece exist
from this cause...", Huygens, Christiaan (1658). Horologium (http:/ / www. antique-horology. org/ _Editorial/ Horologium/ Horologium. pdf).
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[50] Beckett, Edmund (Lord Grimsthorpe) (1874). A Rudimentary Treatise on Clocks and Watches and Bells, 6th Ed. (http:/ / books. google.
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(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uaQOAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA83& lpg=PA83& dq="Henry+ Kater"+ kater+ pendulum& source=web&
ots=TLNlFK_vHl& sig=Iq-S7UQ4apQbADjSSQOblhe0Sfc& hl=en). Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (London) 104 (33): 109. . Retrieved 2008-11-25.
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Pendulum: Scientific, Historical, Educational, and Philosophical Perspectives (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3GV2NgDwtjMC&
pg=PA177& sig=3hYk1zgtE3_UIT0EFAxE7mlnLqw& hl=en& ). Springer. pp. 177. ISBN 140203525X. .
[55] Giovannangeli, Françoise (November 1996). "Spinning Foucault's Pendulum at the Panthéon" (http:/ / www. paris. org/ Kiosque/ nov96/
foucault. html). The Paris Pages. . Retrieved 2007-05-25.
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google. com/ books?id=LqdgUcm03A8C). UK: Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 83. ISBN 0521003970. .
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[62] Milham 1945, p.334
[63] calculated from equation (1)
[64] Glasgow, David (1885). Watch and Clock Making (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=9wUFAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA279). London:
Cassel & Co.. pp. 279–284. .
[65] Matthys, Robert J. (2004). Accurate Pendulum Clocks (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA4&
sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk). UK: Oxford Univ. Press. pp. 4. ISBN 0198529716. .
[66] Matthys 2004 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA91), p.91-92
[67] Beckett 1874 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OvQ3AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA48), p.48
[68] "Regulation" (http:/ / www. oldandsold. com/ articles02/ clocks-r. shtml). Encyclopedia of Clocks and Watches. Old and Sold antiques
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[71] Matthys 2004 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA3& sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk), p.3
[72] "Clock" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cLsUAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA539). Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Ed.. 6. The
Encyclopaedia Britannica Publishing Co.. 1910. pp. 539–540. . Retrieved 2009-03-04.
[73] Huygens, Christiaan (1658). Horologium (http:/ / www. antique-horology. org/ _Editorial/ Horologium/ Horologium. pdf). The Hague:
Adrian Vlaqc. ., translation by Ernest L. Edwardes (December 1970) Antiquarian Horology, Vol.7, No.1
[74] Zupko, Ronald Edward (1990). Revolution in Measurement: Western European Weights and Measures since the Age of Science (http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=twUNAAAAIAAJ& printsec=frontcover#PPA131,M1). Diane Publishing. pp. 131. ISBN 0871691868. .
[75] Matthys 2004 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA7& sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk), p.7-12
[76] Milham 1945, p.335
[77] Milham 1945, p.331-332
[78] Matthys 2004 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA153& sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk), Part 3,
p.153-179
[79] Poynting & Thompson, 1907, p.13-14 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA13#)
[80] Updegraff, Milton (February 7, 1902). "On the measurement of time" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=O44CAAAAYAAJ&
pg=RA1-PA219& lpg=RA1-PA219& dq=tiede+ clock+ observatory& source=bl& ots=q6fI9H-21l&
sig=O6Y_1qEGot1UXoKsOCyDXxbRHo8). Science (American Assoc. for the Advancement of Science) 15 (371): 218–219. . Retrieved
2009-07-13.
Pendulum 179
[81] Dunwoody, Halsey (1917). Notes, Problems, and Laboratory Exercises in Mechanics, Sound, Light, Thermo-Mechanics and Hydraulics, 1st
Ed. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ZDe5XCIug_0C& pg=PA87). New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 87. .
[82] "Resonance Width" (http:/ / tf. nist. gov/ general/ enc-re. htm). Glossary. Time and Frequency Division, US National Institute of Standards
and Technology. 2009. . Retrieved 2009-02-21.
[83] Jespersen, James; Fitz-Randolph, Jane; Robb, John (1999). From Sundials to Atomic Clocks: Understanding Time and Frequency (http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=Z7chuo4ebUAC& pg=PA42& dq=clock+ resonance+ pendulum& lr=& sig=iBunChocEtJoeKS5p5IgJ1oyl4U).
New York: Courier Dover. pp. 41–50. ISBN 0486409139. . p.39
[84] Matthys, Robert J. (2004). Accurate Pendulum Clocks (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA27&
sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk). UK: Oxford Univ. Press. pp. 27–36. ISBN 0198529716. . has an excellent comprehensive discussion
of the controversy over the applicability of Q to the accuracy of pendulums.
[85] "Quality Factor, Q" (http:/ / tf. nist. gov/ general/ enc-q. htm). Glossary. Time and Frequency Division, US National Institute of Standards
and Technology. 2009. . Retrieved 2009-02-21.
[86] Matthys, 2004, p.32, fig. 7.2 and text (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA32&
sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk)
[87] Matthys, 2004, p.81 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA81& sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk)
[88] "Q, Quality Factor" (http:/ / www. orologeria. com/ english/ magazine/ magazine4. htm). Watch and clock magazine. Antica Orologeria
Lamberlin website (http:/ / www. orologeria. com/ english/ index. htm). . Retrieved 2009-02-21.
[89] Milham 1945, p.615
[90] "The Reifler and Shortt clocks" (http:/ / www. clockvault. com/ heritage/ index. htm). JagAir Institute of Time and Technology (http:/ /
www. clockvault. com/ index. html). . Retrieved 2009-12-29.
[91] Betts, Jonathan (May 22, 2008). "Expert's Statement, Case 6 (2008-09) William Hamilton Shortt regulator" (http:/ / www. mla. gov. uk/
what/ cultural/ export/ reviewing_cttee/ ~/ media/ Files/ word/ 2009/ RCEWA/ Cases 2008-09/ Case 6 2008-09 Regulator/ internet experts
statement shortt. ashx) (DOC). Export licensing hearing, Reviewing Committee on the Export of Works of Art and Objects of Cultural Interest.
UK Museums, Libraries, and Archives Council (http:/ / www. mla. gov. uk/ ). . Retrieved 2009-12-29.
[92] Airy, George Biddle (November 26, 1826). "On the Disturbances of Pendulums and Balances and on the Theory of Escapements" (http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=xQEBAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA105). Trans. Of the Cambridge Philosophical Society (University Press) 3 (Part
1): 105. . Retrieved 2008-04-25.
[93] Beckett 1874 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OvQ3AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA75), p.75-79
[94] Baker, Lyman A. (Spring 2000). "Chancellor Bacon" (http:/ / www-personal. ksu. edu/ ~lyman/ english233/ Voltaire-Bacon. htm). English
233 - Introduction to Western Humanities. English Dept., Kansas State Univ.. . Retrieved 2009-02-20.
[95] Poynting & Thompson 1907, p.9 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA9)
[96] Poynting, John Henry; Joseph John Thompson (1907). A Textbook of Physics, 4th Ed. (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA20#). London: Charles Griffin & Co.. pp. 20. .
[97] Victor F., Lenzen; Robert P. Multauf (1964). "Paper 44: Development of gravity pendulums in the 19th century" (http:/ / books. google.
com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA307). United States National Museum Bulletin 240: Contributions from the Museum of
History and Technology reprinted in Bulletin of the Smithsonian Institution. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 307. . Retrieved
2009-01-28.
[98] Poynting & Thompson, 1907, p.10 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA10)
[99] Poynting, John Henry (1894). The Mean Density of the Earth (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dg0RAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA23).
London: Charles Griffin. pp. 22–24. .
[100] Cox, John (1904). Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=EXQLAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA311). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
Univ. Press. pp. 311–312. .
[101] Poynting & Thomson 1904, p.23 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA23)
[102] Poynting, John Henry (1894). The Mean Density of the Earth (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dg0RAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA24).
London: Charles Griffin & Co.. pp. 24–29. .
[103] "Gravitation" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=DgTALFa3sa4C& pg=PA386). Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Ed.. 7. The
Encyclopaedia Britannica Co.. 1910. pp. 386. . Retrieved 2009-05-28.
[104] Lenzen & Multauf 1964, p.320 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA320)
[105] Poynting & Thompson 1907, p.18 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA18)
[106] "The downs and ups of gravity surveys" (http:/ / celebrating200years. noaa. gov/ foundations/ gravity_surveys/ welcome. html#at). NOAA
Celebrates 200 Years. US NOAA (National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration) (http:/ / noaa. gov). 2007-07-09. .
[107] Lenzen & Multauf 1964, p.324 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA324)
[108] Lenzen & Multauf 1964, p.329 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA329)
[109] Woolard, George P. (June 28-29, 1957). "Gravity observations during the IGY" (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=dUIrAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA200). Geophysics and the IGY: Proceedings of the symposium at the opening of the International
Geophysical Year. Washington DC: American Geophysical Union, Nat'l Academy of Sciences. pp. 200. . Retrieved 2009-05-27.
[110] Lenzen & Multauf 1964, p.336, fig.28 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA336)
[111] Michael R., Matthews (2001). "Methodology and Politics in Science: The fate of Huygens 1673 proposal of the pendulum as an
international standard of length and some educational suggestions" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6Mk3YwBe5L4C& pg=PA296).
Pendulum 180
Science, Education, and Culture: The contribution of history and philosophy of science. Springer. pp. 296. ISBN 0792369726. .
[112] Renwick, James (1832). The Elements of Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=gOEJAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA286). Philadelphia:
Carey & Lea. pp. 286–287. .
[113] Alder, Ken (2003). The measure of all things: The seven-year odyssey and hidden error that transformed the world (http:/ / books. google.
com/ books?id=jwsDERPMPhsC& pg=RA1-PT27& dq=marin+ mersenne+ second+ pendulum& as_brr=3). US: Simon and Schuster. pp. 88.
ISBN 0743216768. .
[114] cited in Jourdan, Louis (Mon, 22 Oct 2001 06:59:02). "Re: SI and dictionaries" (http:/ / www. mail-archive. com/ usma@colostate. edu/
msg07023. html). USMA mailing list. . Retrieved 2009-01-27.
[115] Agnoli, Paolo; Giulio D'Agostini (December 2004). "Why does the meter beat the second?" (http:/ / www. citebase. org/
fulltext?format=application/ pdf& identifier=oai:arXiv. org:physics/ 0412078). Arxiv database. . Retrieved 2009-01-27., p.6
[116] quoted in LeConte, John (August 1885). "The Metric System" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=sFQ4AAAAIAAJ& pg=PA178). The
Overland Monthly (San Francisco: Bacon and Co.) 6 (2): 178. . Retrieved 2009-03-04.
[117] Zupko, 1990, p.131 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=twUNAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA131& source=gbs_selected_pages& cad=0_1)
[118] Zupko, 1990, p.140-141 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=twUNAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA131& source=gbs_selected_pages& cad=0_1)
[119] Zupko, 1990, p.93 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=twUNAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA131& source=gbs_selected_pages& cad=0_1)
[120] Schumacher, Heinrich (1821). "Danish standard of length" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=KwEXAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA184). The
Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature and the Arts (London: The Royal Institution of Great Britain) 11 (21): 184–185. . Retrieved
2009-02-17.
[121] "Schumacher, Heinrich Christian" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OlJMAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA686& lpg=PA686). The American
Cyclopedia. 14. D. Appleton & Co., London. 1883. pp. 686. . Retrieved 2009-02-17.
[122] Trautwine, John Cresson (1907). The Civil Engineer's Pocket-Book, 18th Ed. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=qg41AAAAMAAJ&
pg=PA216). New York: John Wiley. pp. 216. .
[123] Toon, John (September 8, 2000). "Out of Time: Researchers Recreate 1665 Clock Experiment to Gain Insights into Modern Synchronized
Oscillators" (http:/ / gtresearchnews. gatech. edu/ newsrelease/ PENDULUM. html). Georgia Tech. . Retrieved 2007-05-31.
[124] An interesting simulation of thurible motion can be found at this site (http:/ / www. sciences. univ-nantes. fr/ physique/ perso/ gtulloue/
Meca/ Oscillateurs/ botafumeiro. html#manip).
[125] R.D. Melville (1905), "The Use and Forms of Judicial Torture in England and Scotland," The Scottish Historical Review, vol. 2, p. 228;
Geoffrey Abbott (2006) Execution: the guillotine, the Pendulum, the Thousand Cuts, the Spanish Donkey, and 66 Other Ways of Putting
Someone to Death, MacMillan, ISBN 0312352220, p. 213. Both refer to the use of the pendulum (pendola)by inquisitorial tribunals. Melville,
however, refers only to its use as a torture method, while Abbott suggests that the device was purposely allowed to kill the victim if he refused
to confess.
[126] http:/ / www. nawcc. org
[127] http:/ / www. sque. co. uk/ physics/ simple-pendulum/
[128] http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ physics/ Pendulum. html
[129] http:/ / www. calctool. org/ CALC/ phys/ newtonian/ pendulum
[130] http:/ / www. phy. ilstu. edu/ ~mnorton/ CL-2. txt
[131] http:/ / www. phy. ilstu. edu/ ~mnorton/ Cl-3. txt
[132] http:/ / www. physics-lab. net/ applets/ simple-pendulum
[133] http:/ / phy. hk/ wiki/ englishhtm/ Pendulum. htm
[134] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA27& sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk
[135] http:/ / fy. chalmers. se/ ~f7xiz/ TIF080/ pendulum. pdf
[136] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1119%2F1. 14703
Precession 181
Precession
Precession is a change in the orientation of the rotation axis of a
rotating body. It can be defined as a change in direction of the rotation
axis in which the second Euler angle (nutation) is constant. In physics,
there are two types of precession: torque-free and torque-induced.
In astronomy, "precession" refers to any of several slow changes in an
astronomical body's rotational or orbital parameters, and especially to
the Earth's precession of the equinoxes. See Precession (astronomy).
Torque-free
Torque-free precession occurs when the axis of rotation differs slightly
from an axis about which the object can rotate stably: a maximum or Precession of a gyroscope
minimum principal axis. Poinsot's construction is an elegant
geometrical method for visualizing the torque-free motion of a rotating rigid body. For example, when a plate is
thrown, the plate may have some rotation around an axis that is not its axis of symmetry. This occurs because the
angular momentum (L) is constant in absence of torques. Therefore it will have to be constant in the external
reference frame, but the moment of inertia tensor (I) is non-constant in this frame because of the lack of symmetry.
Therefore the spin angular velocity vector ( ) about the spin axis will have to evolve in time so that the matrix
product L = I . remains constant.
When an object is not perfectly solid, internal vortices will tend to damp torque-free precession, and the rotation axis
will align itself with one of the inertia axes of the body.
The torque-free precession rate of an object with an axis of symmetry, such as a disk, spinning about an axis not
aligned with that axis of symmetry can be calculated as follows:
where is the precession rate, is the spin rate about the axis of symmetry, is the angle between the axis of
symmetry and the axis about which it precesses, is the moment of inertia about the axis of symmetry, and is
moment of inertia about either of the other two perpendicular principal axes. They should be the same, due to the
symmetry of the disk.[1]
Another type of torque-free precession can occur when there are multiple reference frames at work. For example, the
earth is subject to local torque induced precession due to the gravity of the sun and moon acting upon the earth’s
axis, but at the same time the solar system is moving around the galactic center. Consequently, an accurate
measurement of the earth’s axial reorientation relative to objects outside the frame of the moving galaxy (such as
distant quasars commonly used as precession measurement reference points) must account for a minor amount of
non-local torque-free precession, due to the solar system’s motion.
Torque-induced
Torque-induced precession (gyroscopic precession) is the phenomenon in which the axis of a spinning object (e.g. a
part of a gyroscope) "wobbles" when a torque is applied to it. The phenomenon is commonly seen in a spinning toy
top, but all rotating objects can undergo precession. If the speed of the rotation and the magnitude of the torque are
constant the axis will describe a cone, its movement at any instant being at right angles to the direction of the torque.
In the case of a toy top, if the axis is not perfectly vertical the torque is applied by the force of gravity tending to tip
it over.
Precession 182
The device depicted on the right here is gimbal mounted. From inside
to outside there are three axes of rotation: the hub of the wheel, the
gimbal axis and the vertical pivot.
To distinguish between the two horizontal axes, rotation around the
wheel hub will be called 'spinning', and rotation around the gimbal axis
will be called 'pitching.' Rotation around the vertical pivot axis is
called 'rotation'.
First, imagine that the entire device is rotating around the (vertical)
pivot axis. Then, spinning of the wheel (around the wheelhub) is
added. Imagine the gimbal axis to be locked, so that the wheel cannot
pitch. The gimbal axis has sensors, that measure whether there is a
torque around the gimbal axis. The response of a rotating system to an applied
torque. When the device swivels, and some roll is
In the picture, a section of the wheel has been named dm1. At the added, the wheel tends to pitch.
depicted moment in time, section dm1 is at the perimeter of the rotating
motion around the (vertical) pivot axis. Section dm1 therefore has a lot of angular rotating velocity with respect to the
rotation around the pivot axis, and as dm1 is forced closer to the pivot axis of the rotation (by the wheel spinning
further), due to the Coriolis effect dm1 tends to move in the direction of the top-left arrow in the diagram (shown at
45°) in the direction of rotation around the pivot axis. Section dm2 of the wheel starts out at the vertical pivot axis,
and thus initially has zero angular rotating velocity with respect to the rotation around the pivot axis, before the
wheel spins further. A force (again, a Coriolis force) would be required to increase section dm2's velocity up to the
angular rotating velocity at the perimeter of the rotating motion around the pivot axis. If that force is not provided,
then section dm2's inertia will make it move in the direction of the top-right arrow. Note that both arrows point in the
same direction.
The same reasoning applies for the bottom half of the wheel, but there the arrows point in the opposite direction to
that of the top arrows. Combined over the entire wheel, there is a torque around the gimbal axis when some spinning
is added to rotation around a vertical axis.
It is important to note that the torque around the gimbal axis arises without any delay; the response is instantaneous.
In the discussion above, the setup was kept unchanging by preventing pitching around the gimbal axis. In the case of
a spinning toy top, when the spinning top starts tilting, gravity exerts a torque. However, instead of rolling over, the
spinning top just pitches a little. This pitching motion reorients the spinning top with respect to the torque that is
being exerted. The result is that the torque exerted by gravity - via the pitching motion - elicits gyroscopic precession
(which in turn yields a counter torque against the gravity torque) rather than causing the spinning top to fall to its
side.
Precession or gyroscopic considerations have an effect on bicycle performance at high speed. Precession is also the
mechanism behind gyrocompasses.
Gyroscopic precession also plays a large role in the flight controls on helicopters. Since the driving force behind
helicopters is the rotor disk (which rotates), gyroscopic precession comes into play. If the rotor disk is to be tilted
forward (to gain forward velocity), its rotation requires that the downward net force on the blade be applied roughly
90 degrees (depending on blade configuration) before, or when the blade is to one side of the pilot and rotating
forward.
To ensure the pilot's inputs are correct, the aircraft has corrective linkages which vary the blade pitch in advance of
the blade's position relative to the swashplate. Although the swashplate moves in the intuitively correct direction, the
blade pitch links are arranged to transmit the pitch in advance of the blade's position.
Precession 183
Classical (Newtonian)
Precession is the result of the angular
velocity of rotation and the angular velocity
produced by the torque. It is an angular
velocity about a line which makes an angle
with the permanent rotation axis, and this
angle lies in a plane at right angles to the
plane of the couple producing the torque.
The permanent axis must turn towards this
line, since the body cannot continue to rotate
about any line which is not a principal axis
of maximum moment of inertia; that is, the
permanent axis turns in a direction at right
angles to that in which the torque might be
expected to turn it. If the rotating body is
symmetrical and its motion unconstrained,
and if the torque on the spin axis is at right
angles to that axis, the axis of precession
will be perpendicular to both the spin axis
and torque axis.
The torque caused by the two opposing forces Fg and -Fg causes a change in the
angular momentum L in the direction of that torque. This causes the top to precess.
Under these circumstances the angular
velocity of precession is given by:
In which Is is the moment of inertia, is the angular velocity of spin about the spin axis, and m*g*r are the force
and radius that comes from the torque.The torque vector originates at the center of mass. Using = , we find
In which Is is the moment of inertia, Ts is the period of spin about the spin axis, and is the torque. In general the
problem is more complicated than this, however.
Relativistic
The special and general theories of relativity give three types of corrections to the Newtonian precession, of a
gyroscope near a large mass such as the earth, described above. They are:
• Thomas precession a special relativistic correction accounting for the observer being in a rotating non-inertial
frame.
• de Sitter precession a general relativistic correction accounting for the schwarzschild metric of curved space near
a large non-rotating mass.
• Lense-Thirring precession a general relativistic correction accounting for the frame dragging by the Kerr metric
of curved space near a large rotating mass.
Precession 184
Astronomy
In astronomy, precession refers to any of several gravity-induced, slow and continuous changes in an astronomical
body's rotational axis or orbital path.
Perihelion precession
The orbit of a planet around the Sun is not really an ellipse but a flower-petal shape because the major axis of each
planet's elliptical orbit also precesses within its orbital plane, partly in response to perturbations in the form of the
changing gravitational forces exerted by other planets. This is called perihelion precession or apsidal precession.
Discrepancies between the observed perihelion precession rate of the planet Mercury and that predicted by classical
mechanics were prominent among the forms of experimental evidence leading to the acceptance of Einstein's Theory
of Relativity (in particular, his General Theory of Relativity), which accurately predicted the anomalies.[3] [4]
These periodic changes of Earth's orbital parameters, combined with the precession of the equinoxes and of the
inclination of the Earth's axis on its orbit, are an important part of the astronomical theory of ice ages. See also nodal
precession. For precession of the lunar orbit see lunar precession.
Precession 185
See also
• De Sitter precession
• Larmor precession
• Lense-Thirring precession
• Nutation
• Polar motion
• Precession (mechanical)
• Thomas precession
• Euler angles
References
[1] Boal, David (2001). "Lecture 26 - Torque-free rotation - body-fixed axes" (http:/ / www. sfu. ca/ ~boal/ 211lecs/ 211lec26. pdf). . Retrieved
2008-09-17.
[2] Cook, David R. (1999). "Tilt of Earth's Axis" (http:/ / www. newton. dep. anl. gov/ askasci/ env99/ env154. htm). Environmental Earth
Science Archive, Ask A Scientist. United States Department of Energy. . Retrieved 2006-05-24.
[3] Max Born (1924), Einstein's Theory of Relativity (The 1962 Dover edition, page 348 lists a table documenting the observed and calculated
values for the precession of the perihelion of Mercury, Venus, and Earth.)
[4] An even larger value for a precession has been found, for a black hole in orbit around a much more massive black hole, amounting to 39
degrees each orbit. (http:/ / www. dailygalaxy. com/ my_weblog/ 2008/ 03/ 18-billion-suns. html)
• "Moon and Spica", StarDate July 14, 2005, University of Texas McDonald Observatory, (http://stardate.org/
radio/program.php?f=detail&id=20050714)
External links
• Explanation and derivation of formula for precession of a top (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/top.
html)
Larmor precession 186
Larmor precession
In physics, Larmor precession (named after Joseph Larmor) is the
precession of the magnetic moments of electrons, atomic nuclei, and atoms
about an external magnetic field. The magnetic field exerts a torque on the
magnetic moment,
where is the torque, is the magnetic dipole moment, is the angular momentum vector, is the external
magnetic field, is the cross product, and is the gyromagnetic ratio which gives the proportionality constant
between the magnetic moment and the angular momentum.
Larmor frequency
The angular momentum vector precesses about the external field axis with an angular frequency known as the
Larmor frequency,
where is the angular frequency,[1] is the gyromagnetic ratio, and is the magnitude of the magnetic
Applications
A famous 1935 paper published by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz predicted the existence of ferromagnetic
resonance of the Larmor precession, which was verified experimentally and independently by J. H. E. Griffiths (UK)
and E. K. Zavoiskij (USSR) in 1946.
Larmor precession is important in nuclear magnetic resonance, electron paramagnetic resonance and muon spin
resonance.
To calculate the spin of a particle in a magnetic field, one must also take into account Thomas precession.
Larmor precession 187
See also
• Rabi cycle
• Georgia State University HyperPhysics page on Larmor Frequency [4]
References
[1] Spin Dynamics, Malcolm H. Levitt, Wiley, 2001
[2] Louis N. Hand and Janet D. Finch. (1998). Analytical mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=1J2hzvX2Xh8C& pg=PA192&
lpg=PA192& dq=Larmor's+ Theorem& source=bl& ots=AWrslwM4Iw& sig=Pc_sZdUja2NZm0RvRUbRjAEH6eA& hl=en&
ei=oAhcSuisApCy8AT9yZXVDQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
p. 192. ISBN 9780521575720. .
[3] http:/ / www-lcs. ensicaen. fr/ pyPulsar/ index. php/ List_of_NMR_isotopes
[4] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ nuclear/ larmor. html
Thomas precession
In physics the Thomas precession, named after Llewellyn Thomas, is a special relativistic correction that applies to
the spin of an elementary particle or the rotation of a macroscopic gyroscope and relates the angular velocity of the
spin of a particle following a curvilinear orbit to the angular velocity of the orbital motion. It can be understood
geometrically as a consequence of the fact that the space of velocities in relativity is hyperbolic, and so parallel
transport of a vector (the gyroscope's angular velocity) around a circle (its linear velocity) leaves it pointing in a
different direction, or understood algebraically as being a result of the non-associativity of the relativistic
velocity-addition formula.
It gives a correction to the spin-orbit interaction in quantum mechanics, which takes into account the relativistic time
dilation between the electron and the nucleus of an atom.
The composition of two Lorentz boosts which are non-colinear, results in a Lorentz transformation that is not a pure
boost but is the product of a boost and a rotation. This rotation is called Thomas rotation, Thomas-Wigner
rotation or Wigner rotation. The rotation was discovered by Thomas in 1926[1] , and derived by Wigner in 1939[2] .
If a sequence of non-colinear boosts returns the spatial origins of a sequence of inertial frame to the starting point,
then the sequence of Wigner rotations combine to produce a net rotation called the Thomas precession[3] .
Thomas precession is a kinematic effect in the flat spacetime of special relativity. In the curved spacetime of general
relativity, Thomas precession combines with a geometric effect to produce de Sitter precession. Although Thomas
precession (net rotation after a trajectory that returns to its starting point) is a purely a kinematic effect, it only
occurs in curvilinear motion and therefore cannot be observed independently of some centripetal force causing the
curvilinear motion such as that caused by an electromagnetic field, gravitational field or mechanical force so Thomas
precession is always accompanied by dynamical effects.[4] That being said, a single discrete Thomas rotation (as
opposed to the series of infinitesimal rotations that add up to Thomas precession) is present in non-dynamical
situations whenever you have 3 or more inertial frames in non-colinear motion - see the velocity composition section
below.
To calculate the spin of a particle in a magnetic field, one must also take into account Larmor precession.
Thomas precession 188
History
Thomas precession in relativity was already known to Ludwik Silberstein,[5] in 1914. But the only knowledge
Thomas had of relativistic precession came from de Sitter's paper on the relativistic precession of the moon, first
published in a book by Eddington[6] .
In 1925 Thomas relativistically recomputed the precessional frequency of the doublet separation in the fine structure
of the atom. He thus found the missing factor 1/2 which came to be known as the Thomas half.
This discovery of the relativistic precession of the electron spin led to the understanding of the significance of the
relativistic effect. The effect was therefore named Thomas precession
Conflicting results
In a 2006 survey of the literature Malykin[4] notes that there are numerous conflicting expressions for Thomas
precession. This is partly explained by the fact that different authors use "Thomas precession" to refer to different
things, often without saying what they are referring to and subsequent authors then misinterpret the results and apply
them to other things, but, even taking this into account, some of the expressions in the literature are just plain wrong.
Malykin explains the source of some of these errors: "We emphasize that Thomas considered the rotation of the axes
of the coordinate system accompanying the electron in its motion rather than the electron spin rotation.
Subsequently, this led to a misunderstanding and the emergence of incorrect work on the TP problem. It is possible
to introduce three different reference frames accompanying the electron motion around a circular orbit and, in the
most general case, along a curvilinear trajectory: (i) a reference frame whose coordinate axes remain parallel or
retain their angular position relative to the axes of a laboratory IRF, (ii) a reference frame one of whose coordinate
axes is always coincident with the electron velocity vector, and (iii) a reference frame in which the electron spin
vector retains its orientation relative to the coordinate axes. It is evident that the electron spin vector precesses
relative to the coordinate axes of the two first systems, but the angular velocity of its precession is different in these
systems. ... In several papers concerned with the TP, calculations are performed in the first approximation in
v^2/c^2, where v is the speed of an elementary particle in the laboratory IRF and c is the speed of light. In this case,
all authors arrive at the same expression first derived by Thomas, this being so irrespective of whether they consider
the relativistic rotation of the particle spin or the relativistic rotation of the axes of the coordinate system comoving
with the particle. In the most general case, however, the expressions for the TP obtained by different authors are
radically different. As noted above, the problem is complicated by the fact that different authors assign different
meaning to this expression: some imply the relativistic rotation of the particle spin in the laboratory IRF, some in the
comoving reference frame (in this case, as noted above, the rotation law for the axes of this system may be defined in
three ways), while others refer to the relativistic rotation of the axes of the coordinate system accompanying the
particle in motion. ... As noted above, the expression for the TP in Thomas's first paper was obtained in the first
approximation in v^2/c^2 and is always correct when this condition is fulfilled. In his subsequent work, on
performing calculations for an arbitrary electron velocity v, Thomas derived an expression that correctly describes
the relativistic rotation of the axes of the comoving coordinate system relative to the rest-frame (laboratory) system.
However, because the majority of authors use the term TP in reference to the precession of the spin of an elementary
particle, this subsequently led to several errors and misunderstandings. ... In 1952, in his famous monograph [78],
the Danish scientist C Møller (1904-1980), an acknowledged expert on the theory of relativity, derived an expression
for the TP that coincides, up to a sign, with the corresponding Thomas expression and is correct in the comoving
frame of reference. However, it was stated in Ref. [78] that this expression was written for the laboratory IRF, which
is incorrect. Møller's immense scientific prestige played a negative role in this case: since then, the majority of
authors of papers, monographs, and lecture courses started using the expression for the TP from Ref. [78] or, in the
derivation of suchlike expressions, tried to make them coincident with that given in Ref. [78]. ... At the same time,
because the experimentally observed particle spin precession is caused by the sum of two effects, the TP and the LP,
it is possible to choose different expressions for each of these effects, only provided that these expressions add up to
Thomas precession 189
correspond to expression (14). we conclude that the preferred method is the above-discussed method of recording
the TP with the aid of mechanical gyroscopes in their orbital motion because quantum mechanical effects in
experiments on charged elementary particles partly complicate the interpretation of experimental data."
Applications
In Quantum Mechanics
In quantum mechanics Thomas precession is a correction to the spin-orbit interaction, which takes into account the
relativistic time dilation between the electron and the nucleus in hydrogenic atoms.
Basically, it states that spinning objects precess when they accelerate in special relativity because Lorentz boosts do
not commute with each other.
In a Foucault pendulum
Thomas precession gives a correction to the precession of a Foucault pendulum. For a Foucault pendulum located in
the city of Nijmegen in the Netherlands the correction is:
Velocity composition
Einstein velocity addition is associative and commutative only when and are parallel. In fact,
,where gyr is the mathematical abstraction of Thomas precession into an operator called Thomas gyration and given
by
for all w.
The gyr operator forms the foundation of gyrovector spaces.[7]
Textbooks
• Rindler, Wolfgang (2006). "9". Relativity Special, General and Cosmological (second edition ed.). Dallas: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-856732-5.
External links
• Mathpages article on Thomas Precession [8]
• Alternate, detailed derivation of Thomas Precession [9] (by Robert Littlejohn)
References
[1] L. H. Thomas, "Motion of the spinning electron", Nature 117, 514, 1926
[2] E. P. Wigner, "On unitary representations of the inhomogeneous Lorentz group", Ann. Math. 40, 149–204 (1939).
[3] Relativistic velocity space, Wigner rotation and Thomas precession (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ gr-qc/ 0501070v1), John A. Rhodes, Mark D.
Semon (2005)
[4] G B Malykin, "Thomas precession: correct and incorrect solutions", Physics-Uspekhi 49 (8) 837-853 (2006)
[5] L. Silberstein, The Theory of Relativity (MacMillan London 1914), page 169
[6] A.S. Eddington, The Mathematical Theory of Relativity (Cambridge 1924)
[7] A.A. Ungar, Beyond the Einstein Addition Law and its Gyroscopic Thomas Precession: The Theory of Gyrogroups and Gyrovector Spaces,
Kluwer, 2002.
[8] http:/ / www. mathpages. com/ rr/ s2-11/ 2-11. htm
Thomas precession 190
[9] http:/ / bohr. physics. berkeley. edu/ classes/ 221/ 0708/ notes/ thomprec. pdf
Gyroscope
A gyroscope is a device for measuring or maintaining
orientation, based on the principles of conservation of
angular momentum.[1] A mechanical gyroscope is
essentially a spinning wheel or disk whose axle is free
to take any orientation. This orientation changes much
less in response to a given external torque than it would
without the large angular momentum associated with
the gyroscope's high rate of spin. Since external torque
is minimized by mounting the device in gimbals, its
orientation remains nearly fixed, regardless of any
motion of the platform on which it is mounted. Solid
state devices also exist, such as the ring laser
gyroscope. A gyroscope
Applications of gyroscopes include navigation (INS) when magnetic compasses do not work (as in the Hubble
telescope) or are not precise enough (as in ICBMs) or for the stabilization of flying vehicles like Radio-controlled
helicopters or UAVs. Due to higher precision, gyroscopes are also used to maintain direction in tunnel mining [2].
In some special cases, the outer gimbal (or its equivalent) may be omitted so that the rotor has only two degrees of
freedom. In other cases, the center of gravity of the rotor may be offset from the axis of oscillation, and thus the
center of gravity of the rotor and the center of suspension of the rotor may not coincide.
History
The earliest known gyroscope was made by German Johann
Bohnenberger, who first wrote about it in 1817. At first he called it the
"Machine".[3] [4] Bohnenberger's gyroscope was based on a rotating
massive sphere.[5] In 1832, American Walter R. Johnson developed a
gyroscope that was based on a rotating disk.[6] [7] The French
mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace, working at the École
Polytechnique in Paris, recommended the machine for use as a
teaching aid, and thus it came to the attention of Léon Foucault.[8] In
1852, Foucault used it in an experiment involving the rotation of the
Earth.[9] [10] It was Foucault who gave the device its modern name, in
an experiment to see (Greek skopeein, to see) the Earth's rotation
(Greek gyros, circle or rotation), although the experiment was
unsuccessful due to friction, which effectively limited each trial to 8 to
10 minutes, too short a time to observe significant movement.
In the 1860s, electric motors made the concept feasible, leading to the
first prototype gyrocompasses; the first functional marine gyrocompass
was patented in 1908 by German inventor Hermann Gyroscope invented by Léon Foucault, and built
by Dumoulin-Froment, 1852. National
Anschütz-Kaempfe. The American Elmer Sperry followed with his
Conservatory of Arts and Crafts museum, Paris.
own design later that year, and other nations soon realized the military
importance of the invention—in an age in which naval might was the
most significant measure of military power—and created their own gyroscope industries. The Sperry Gyroscope
Company quickly expanded to provide aircraft and naval stabilizers as well, and other gyroscope developers
followed suit.[11]
In 1917, the Chandler Company of Indianapolis, Indiana, created the "Chandler gyroscope," a toy gyroscope with a
pull string and pedestal. It has been in continuous production ever since and is considered a classic American toy.
MEMS gyroscopes take the idea of the Foucault pendulum and use a vibrating element, known as a MEMS (Micro
Electro-Mechanical System). The MEMS-based gyro was initially made practical and producible by Systron Donner
Inertial (SDI). Today, SDI is a large manufacturer of MEMS gyroscopes.
Gyroscope 192
In the first several decades of the 20th century, other inventors attempted (unsuccessfully) to use gyroscopes as the
basis for early black box navigational systems by creating a stable platform from which accurate acceleration
measurements could be performed (in order to bypass the need for star sightings to calculate position). Similar
principles were later employed in the development of inertial guidance systems for ballistic missiles.[12]
Properties
A gyroscope exhibits a number of behaviours including precession and
nutation. Gyroscopes can be used to construct gyrocompasses which
complement or replace magnetic compasses (in ships, aircraft and
spacecraft, vehicles in general), to assist in stability (bicycle, Hubble
Space Telescope, ships, vehicles in general) or be used as part of an
inertial guidance system. Gyroscopic effects are used in toys like
tops,boomerangs,yo-yos, and Powerballs. Many other rotating devices,
such as flywheels, behave gyroscopically although the gyroscopic
effect is not used.
where the vectors τ and L are, respectively, the torque on the gyroscope and its angular momentum, the scalar I is its
moment of inertia, the vector ω is its angular velocity, and the vector α is its angular acceleration.
It follows from this that a torque τ applied perpendicular to the axis of rotation, and therefore perpendicular to L,
results in a rotation about an axis perpendicular to both τ and L. This motion is called precession. The angular
velocity of precession ΩP is given by the cross product:
Under a constant torque of magnitude τ, the gyroscope's speed of precession ΩP is inversely proportional to L, the
magnitude of its angular momentum:
where θ is the angle between the vectors ΩP and L. Thus if the gyroscope's spin slows down (for example, due to
friction), its angular momentum decreases and so the rate of precession increases. This continues until the device is
unable to rotate fast enough to support its own weight, when it stops precessing and falls off its support, mostly
because friction against precession cause another precession that goes to cause the fall.
By convention, these three vectors, torque, spin, and precession, are all oriented with respect to each other according
to the right-hand rule.
To easily ascertain the direction of gyro effect, simply remember that a rolling wheel tends, when entering a corner,
to turn over to the inside.
Gyrostat
A gyrostat is a variant of the gyroscope. The first gyrostat was designed by Lord Kelvin to illustrate the more
complicated state of motion of a spinning body when free to wander about on a horizontal plane, like a top spun on
the pavement, or a hoop or bicycle on the road. It consists of a massive flywheel concealed in a solid casing. Its
behaviour on a table, or with various modes of suspension or support, serves to illustrate the curious reversal of the
ordinary laws of static equilibrium due to the gyrostatic behaviour of the interior invisible flywheel when rotated
rapidly.
US patents
In the USPTO classification scheme, the generic locus for gyroscope patents is Class 74, Machine element or
mechanism, and Subclass 5R. Every rotating body has gyroscopic action, but such devices are not included unless at
least one axis of oscillation is present. The combinations of gyroscopes with other devices are placed in subclass
5.22.
Numbers
• U.S. Patent 839,161 [13], "Steering apparatus for automobile torpedoes".
• U.S. Patent 795,045 [14], "Gyroscopic control apparatus".
• U.S. Patent 785,587 [15], "Mechanical speed governor".
• U.S. Patent 785,425 [16], "Steering mechanism for torpedoes".
• U.S. Patent 751,888 [17], "Governing mechanism for turbines".
• U.S. Patent 738,823 [18], "Electrical apparatus".
• U.S. Patent 730,613 [19], "Meter".
• U.S. Patent 662,484 [20], "Electric top for gyroscopes".
• U.S. Patent 648,878 [21], "Gyroscope for torpedo steering mechanism".
• U.S. Patent 642,704 [22], "Roller bearing car wheel".
• U.S. Patent 484,960 [23], "Gyroscopic top".
• U.S. Patent 461,948 [24], "Gyroscope or revolving toy".
• U.S. Patent 365,530 [25], "Lumber cart".
• U.S. Patent 312,692 [26], "Vehicle wheel".
• U.S. Patent 220,867 [27], "Engine-governor and speed-regulator".
• U.S. Patent 162,446 [28], "Governor for steam engine".
• U.S. Patent 34,298 [29], "Levelling instrument".
Reissued
• U.S. Patent RE024880 [30], "Rate Gyroscope with torsional suspension"
Gyroscope 194
See also
• Aerotrim
• Anti-rolling gyro — Ship gyroscopic roll stabilisers.
• Balancing machine
• Control moment gyroscope
• Countersteering
• Euler angles
• Eric Laithwaite
• Fibre optic gyroscope
• Gimbal lock
• Gyro monorail
• Gyrocar
• Gyrocompass
• Gyroscopic exercise tool
• Inertial navigation system
• Momentum wheel
• Precession
• Quantum gyroscope
• Rate integrating gyroscope
• Rifling
• Ring laser gyroscope
• Segway
• Top
• Vibrating structure gyroscope
Further reading
• Felix Klein and Arnold Sommerfeld, "Über die Theorie des Kreisels" (Tr., About the theory of the gyroscope).
Leipzig, Berlin, B.G. Teubner, 1898-1914. 4 v. illus. 25 cm.
• Audin, M. Spinning Tops: A Course on Integrable Systems. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
External links
• The Precession and Nutation of a Gyroscope [31]
• Theory and Design of Micromechanical Vibratory Gyroscopes [32] Vladislav Apostolyuk
• The Royal Institution’s 1974–75 Christmas Lecture [33] Professor Eric Laithwaite
Gyroscope 195
References
[1] " Gyroscope (http:/ / demonstrations. wolfram. com/ Gyroscope/ )" by Sándor Kabai, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.
[2] http:/ / discovermagazine. com/ 2009/ may/ 20-things-you-didnt-know-about-tunnels
[3] Johann G. F. Bohnenberger (1817) "Beschreibung einer Maschine zur Erläuterung der Gesetze der Umdrehung der Erde um ihre Axe, und der
Veränderung der Lage der letzteren" [Description of a machine for the explanation of the laws of rotation of the Earth around its axis, and of
the change of the orientation of the latter] Tübinger Blätter für Naturwissenschaften und Arzneikunde, vol. 3, pages 72-83. Available on-line
at: http:/ / www. ion. org/ museum/ files/ File_1. pdf .
[4] The French mathematician Poisson mentions Bohnenberger's gyroscope as early as 1813: Simeon-Denis Poisson (1813) "Mémoire sur un cas
particulier du mouvement de rotation des corps pesans" [Memoir on a special case of rotational movement of massive bodies], Journal de
l'École Polytechnique, vol. 9, pages 247-262. Available on-line at: http:/ / www. ion. org/ museum/ files/ File_2. pdf .
[5] A photograph of Bohnenberger's gyroscope is available on-line here: http:/ / www. ion. org/ museum/ item_view. cfm?cid=5& scid=12&
iid=24 .
[6] Walter R. Johnson (January 1832) "Description of an apparatus called the rotascope for exhibiting several phenomena and illustrating certain
laws of rotary motion," The American Journal of Science and Art, 1st series, vol. 21, no. 2, pages 265-280. Available on-line at: http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=BjwPAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA265& lpg=PR5& dq=Johnson+ rotascope& ie=ISO-8859-1& output=html .
[7] Illustrations of Walter R. Johnson's gyroscope ("rotascope") appear in: Board of Regents, Tenth Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution.... (Washington, D.C.: Cornelius Wendell, 1856), pages 177-178. Available on-line at: http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=fEyT4sTd7ZkC& pg=PA178& dq=Johnson+ rotascope& ie=ISO-8859-1& output=html .
[8] Wagner JF, "The Machine of Bohnenberger," The Institute of Navigation (http:/ / www. ion. org/ museum/ item_view. cfm?cid=5&
scid=12& iid=24)
[9] L. Foucault (1852) "Sur les phénomènes d’orientation des corps tournants entraînés par un axe fixe à la surface de la terre," Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de l’Académie des Sciences (Paris), vol. 35, pages 424-427. Available on-line (in French): http:/ / www.
bookmine. org/ memoirs/ pendule. html . Scroll down to "Sur les phénomènes d’orientation ..."
[10] Circa 1852, Friedrich Fessel, a German mechanic and former secondary school teacher, independently developed a gyroscope. See: (1)
Julius Plücker (September 1853) "Über die Fessel'sche rotationsmachine," Annalen der Physik, vol. 166, no. 9, pages 174-177; (2) Julius
Plücker (October 1853) "Noch ein wort über die Fessel'sche rotationsmachine," Annalen der Physik, vol. 166, no. 10, pages 348-351; (3)
Charles Wheatstone (1864) "On Fessel's gyroscope," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, vol. 7, pages 43-48. Available on-line at:
http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=CtGEAAAAIAAJ& pg=RA1-PA307& lpg=RA1-PA307& dq=Fessel+ gyroscope& source=bl&
ots=ZP0mYYrp_d& sig=DGmUeU4MC8hAMuBtDSQn4GpAyWc& hl=en& ei=N4s9SqOaM5vKtgf62vUH& sa=X& oi=book_result&
ct=result& resnum=9 .
[11] MacKenzie, Donald. Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990. pp. 31–40.
ISBN 0-262-13258-3
[12] MacKenzie, pp. 40–42.
[13] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=839,161
[14] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=795,045
[15] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=785,587
[16] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=785,425
[17] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=751,888
[18] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=738,823
[19] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=730,613
[20] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=662,484
[21] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=648,878
[22] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=642,704
[23] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=484,960
[24] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=461,948
[25] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=365,530
[26] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=312,692
[27] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=220,867
[28] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=162,446
[29] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=34,298
[30] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=RE024880
[31] http:/ / www. integerspin. co. uk/ gyro1. htm
[32] http:/ / www. astrise. com/ research/ library/ memsgyro. pdf
[33] http:/ / www. gyroscopes. org/ 1974lecture. asp
Orbit 196
Orbit
In physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved path of one object
around a point or another body, for example the gravitational orbit
of a planet around a star.[1]
Historically, the apparent motions of the planets were first
understood geometrically (and without regard to gravity) in terms
of epicycles, which are the sums of numerous circular motions.[2]
Theories of this kind predicted paths of the planets moderately
well, until Johannes Kepler was able to show that the motion of
the planets were in fact (at least approximately) elliptical
motions.[3] In Isaac Newton's Principia (1687), Newton derived
the relationships now known as Kepler's laws of planetary motion
from a force-based theory of universal gravitation.[4] Albert
Einstein's later general theory of relativity was able to account for Two bodies with a slight difference in mass orbiting
gravity as due to curvature of space-time, with orbits following around a common barycenter. The relative sizes and
geodesics. type of orbit are similar to the Pluto–Charon system.
History
In the geocentric model of the solar system, the celestial spheres model was originally used to explain the apparent
motion of the planets in the sky in terms of perfect spheres or rings, but after measurements of the exact motion of
the planets theoretical mechanisms such as the deferent and epicycles were later added. Although it was capable of
accurately predicting the planets position in the sky, more and more epicycles were required over time, and the
model became more and more unwieldy.
The basis for the modern understanding of orbits was first formulated by Johannes Kepler whose results are
summarised in his three laws of planetary motion. First, he found that the orbits of the planets in our solar system are
elliptical, not circular (or epicyclic), as had previously been believed, and that the sun is not located at the center of
the orbits, but rather at one focus.[5] Second, he found that the orbital speed of each planet is not constant, as had
previously been thought, but rather that the speed of the planet depends on the planet's distance from the sun. And
third, Kepler found a universal relationship between the orbital properties of all the planets orbiting the sun. For the
planets, the cubes of their distances from the sun are proportional to the squares of their orbital periods. Jupiter and
Venus, for example, are respectively about 5.2 and 0.723 AU distant from the sun, their orbital periods respectively
about 11.86 and 0.615 years. The proportionality is seen by the fact that the ratio for Jupiter, 5.23/11.862, is
practically equal to that for Venus, 0.7233/0.6152, in accord with the relationship.
While the planetary bodies do have elliptical orbits about the Sun, the eccentricity of the orbits is often not large. A
circle has an eccentricity of zero, Earth's orbit's eccentricity is 0.0167 meaning that the ratio of its semi-minor (b) to
semi-major axis (a) is 99.99%. Mercury has the largest eccentricity of the planets with an eccentricity of 0.2056,
b/a=97.86%. (Eris has an eccentricity of 0.441 and Pluto 0.249. For the values for all planets in one table, see Table
of planets in the solar system.)
Orbit 197
Isaac Newton demonstrated that Kepler's laws were derivable from his
theory of gravitation and that, in general, the orbits of bodies subject to
gravity were conic sections, if the force of gravity propagated
instantaneously. Newton showed that, for a pair of bodies, the orbits'
sizes are in inverse proportion to their masses, and that the bodies
revolve about their common center of mass. Where one body is much
more massive than the other, it is a convenient approximation to take
the center of mass as coinciding with the center of the more massive
body. The lines traced out by orbits dominated by the
gravity of a central source are conic sections: the
Albert Einstein was able to show that gravity was due to curvature of shapes of the curves of intersection between a
plane and a cone. Parabolic (1) and hyperbolic (3)
space-time and was able to remove the assumption of Newton that
orbits are escape orbits, whereas elliptical and
changes propagate instantaneously. In relativity theory orbits follow circular orbits (2) are captive.
geodesic trajectories which approximate very well to the Newtonian
predictions. However there are differences that can be used to determine which theory describes reality more
accurately. Essentially all experimental evidence that can distinguish between the theories agrees with relativity
theory to within experimental measuremental accuracy, but the differences from Newtonian mechanics are usually
very small (except where there are very strong gravity fields and very high speeds).
However, Newtonian mechanics is still used for most purposes since Newtonian mechanics is significantly easier to
use.
Planetary orbits
Within a planetary system; planets, dwarf planets, asteroids (a.k.a. minor planets), comets, and space debris orbit the
central star in elliptical orbits. A comet in a parabolic or hyperbolic orbit about a central star is not gravitationally
bound to the star and therefore is not considered part of the star's planetary system. To date, no comet has been
observed in our solar system with a distinctly hyperbolic orbit. Bodies which are gravitationally bound to one of the
planets in a planetary system, either natural or artificial satellites, follow orbits about that planet.
Owing to mutual gravitational perturbations, the eccentricities of the orbits of the planets in our solar system vary
over time. Mercury, the smallest planet in the Solar System, has the most eccentric orbit. At the present epoch, Mars
has the next largest eccentricity while the smallest eccentricities are those of the orbits of Venus and Neptune.
As two objects orbit each other, the periapsis is that point at which the two objects are closest to each other and the
apoapsis is that point at which they are the farthest from each other. (More specific terms are used for specific
bodies. For example, perigee and apogee are the lowest and highest parts of an Earth orbit, respectively.)
In the elliptical orbit, the center of mass of the orbiting-orbited system will sit at one focus of both orbits, with
nothing present at the other focus. As a planet approaches periapsis, the planet will increase in speed, or velocity. As
a planet approaches apoapsis, the planet will decrease in velocity.
See also:
• Kepler's laws of planetary motion
• Secular variations of the planetary orbits
Orbit 198
Understanding orbits
There are a few common ways of understanding orbits.
• As the object moves sideways, it falls toward the central body. However, it moves so quickly that the central body
will curve away beneath it.
• A force, such as gravity, pulls the object into a curved path as it attempts to fly off in a straight line.
• As the object moves sideways (tangentially), it falls toward the central body. However, it has enough tangential
velocity to miss the orbited object, and will continue falling indefinitely. This understanding is particularly useful
for mathematical analysis, because the object's motion can be described as the sum of the three one-dimensional
coordinates oscillating around a gravitational center.
As an illustration of an orbit around a planet, the Newton's cannonball model may prove useful (see image below).
This is a 'thought experiment', in which a cannon on top of a tall mountain is supposed to be able to fire a cannonball
horizontally at any chosen muzzle velocity. The effects of air friction on the cannonball are ignored (or perhaps the
mountain is high enough that the cannon will be above the Earth's atmosphere, which comes to the same thing.)[6]
If the cannon fires its ball with a low initial
velocity, the trajectory of the ball curves
downward and hits the ground (A). As the
firing velocity is increased, the cannonball
hits the ground farther (B) away from the
cannon, because while the ball is still falling
towards the ground, the ground is
increasingly curving away from it (see first
point, above). All these motions are actually
"orbits" in a technical sense — they are
describing a portion of an elliptical path
around the center of gravity — but the orbits
are interrupted by striking the Earth.
As the firing velocity is increased beyond this, a range of elliptic orbits are produced; one is shown in (D). If the
initial firing is above the surface of the Earth as shown, there will also be elliptical orbits at slower velocities; these
will come closest to the Earth at the point half an orbit beyond, and directly opposite, the firing point.
At a specific velocity called escape velocity, again dependent on the firing height and mass of the planet, an open
orbit such as (E) results — a parabolic trajectory. At even faster velocities the object will follow a range of
hyperbolic trajectories. In a practical sense, both of these trajectory types mean the object is "breaking free" of the
planet's gravity, and "going off into space".
The velocity relationship of two moving objects with mass can thus be considered in four practical classes, with
subtypes:
1. No orbit
Orbit 199
2. Suborbital trajectories
• Range of interrupted elliptical paths
3. Orbital trajectories (or simply "orbits")
• Range of elliptical paths with closest point opposite firing point
• Circular path
• Range of elliptical paths with closest point at firing point
4. Open (or escape) trajectories
• Parabolic paths
• Hyperbolic paths
Orbiting bodies in closed orbits repeat their path after a constant period of time. This motion is described by the
empirical laws of Kepler, which can be mathematically derived from Newton's laws. These can be formulated as
follows:
1. The orbit of a planet around the Sun is an ellipse, with the Sun in one of the focal points of the ellipse. Therefore
the orbit lies in a plane, called the orbital plane. The point on the orbit closest to the attracting body is the
periapsis. The point farthest from the attracting body is called the apoapsis. There are also specific terms for orbits
around particular bodies; things orbiting the Sun have a perihelion and aphelion, things orbiting the Earth have a
perigee and apogee, and things orbiting the Moon have a perilune and apolune (or, synonymously, periselene and
aposelene). An orbit around any star, not just the Sun, has a periastron and an apastron.
2. As the planet moves around its orbit during a fixed amount of time, the line from Sun to planet sweeps a constant
area of the orbital plane, regardless of which part of its orbit the planet traces during that period of time. This
means that the planet moves faster near its perihelion than near its aphelion, because at the smaller distance it
needs to trace a greater arc to cover the same area. This law is usually stated as "equal areas in equal time."
3. For a given orbit, the ratio of the cube of its semi-major axis to the square of its period is constant.
Note that that while the bound orbits around a point mass, or a spherical body with an ideal Newtonian gravitational
field, are all closed ellipses, which repeat the same path exactly and indefinitely, any non-spherical or
non-Newtonian effects (as caused, for example, by the slight oblateness of the Earth, or by relativistic effects,
changing the gravitational field's behavior with distance) will cause the orbit's shape to depart to a greater or lesser
extent from the closed ellipses characteristic of Newtonian two body motion. The 2-body solutions were published
by Newton in Principia in 1687. In 1912, Karl Fritiof Sundman developed a converging infinite series that solves the
3-body problem; however, it converges too slowly to be of much use. Except for special cases like the Lagrangian
points, no method is known to solve the equations of motion for a system with four or more bodies.
Instead, orbits with many bodies can be approximated with arbitrarily high accuracy. These approximations take two
forms.
One form takes the pure elliptic motion as a basis, and adds perturbation terms to account for the gravitational
influence of multiple bodies. This is convenient for calculating the positions of astronomical bodies. The equations
of motion of the moon, planets and other bodies are known with great accuracy, and are used to generate tables for
celestial navigation. Still there are secular phenomena that have to be dealt with by post-newtonian methods.
The differential equation form is used for scientific or mission-planning purposes. According to Newton's laws, the
sum of all the forces will equal the mass times its acceleration (F = ma). Therefore accelerations can be expressed in
terms of positions. The perturbation terms are much easier to describe in this form. Predicting subsequent positions
and velocities from initial ones corresponds to solving an initial value problem. Numerical methods calculate the
positions and velocities of the objects a tiny time in the future, then repeat this. However, tiny arithmetic errors from
the limited accuracy of a computer's math accumulate, limiting the accuracy of this approach.
Differential simulations with large numbers of objects perform the calculations in a hierarchical pairwise fashion
between centers of mass. Using this scheme, galaxies, star clusters and other large objects have been simulated.
To analyze the motion of a body moving under the influence of a force which is always directed towards a fixed
point, it is convenient to use polar coordinates with the origin coinciding with the center of force. In such coordinates
the radial and transverse components of the acceleration are, respectively:
and
Since the force is entirely radial, and since acceleration is proportional to force, it follows that the transverse
acceleration is zero. As a result,
which is actually the theoretical proof of Kepler's 2nd law (A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas
during equal intervals of time). The constant of integration, h, is the angular momentum per unit mass. It then
follows that
The radial force ƒ(r) per unit mass is the radial acceleration ar defined above. Solving the above differential equation
with respect to time[8] yields:
In the case of gravity, Newton's law of universal gravitation states that the force is proportional to the inverse square
of the distance:
where G is the constant of universal gravitation, m is the mass of the orbiting body (planet), and M is the mass of the
central body (the Sun). Substituting into the prior equation, we have
So for the gravitational force — or, more generally, for any inverse square force law — the right hand side of the
equation becomes a constant and the equation is seen to be the harmonic equation (up to a shift of origin of the
dependent variable). The solution is:
where e is:
In general, this can be recognized as the equation of a conic section in polar coordinates (r, θ). We can make a
further connection with the classic description of conic section with:
If parameter e is smaller than one, e is the eccentricity and a the semi-major axis of an ellipse.
Orbital planes
The analysis so far has been two dimensional; it turns out that an unperturbed orbit is two dimensional in a plane
fixed in space, and thus the extension to three dimensions requires simply rotating the two dimensional plane into the
required angle relative to the poles of the planetary body involved.
The rotation to do this in three dimensions requires three numbers to uniquely determine; traditionally these are
expressed as three angles.
Orbital period
The orbital period is simply how long an orbiting body takes to complete one orbit.
Specifying orbits
It turns out that it takes a minimum 6 numbers to specify an orbit about a body, and this can be done in several ways.
For example, specifying the 3 numbers specifying location and 3 specifying the velocity of a body gives a unique
orbit that can be calculated forwards (or backwards). However, traditionally the parameters used are slightly
different.
The traditionally used set of orbital elements is called the set of Keplerian elements, after Johannes Kepler and his
Kepler's laws. The Keplerian elements are six:
• Inclination ( )
• Longitude of the ascending node ( )
• Argument of periapsis ( )
• Eccentricity ( )
• Semimajor axis ( )
• Mean anomaly at epoch ( )
In principle once the orbital elements are known for a body, its position can be calculated forward and backwards
indefinitely in time. However, in practice, orbits are affected or perturbed, by forces other than gravity due to the
central body and thus the orbital elements change over time.
Orbit 203
Orbital perturbations
An orbital perturbation is when a force or impulse which is much smaller than the overall force or average impulse
of the main gravitating body and which is external to the two orbiting bodies causes an acceleration, which changes
the parameters of the orbit over time.
Orbital decay
If an orbit is about a planetary body with significant atmosphere, its orbit can decay because of drag. Particularly at
each periapsis, the object experiences atmospheric drag, losing energy. Each time, the orbit grows less eccentric
(more circular) because the object loses kinetic energy precisely when that energy is at its maximum. This is similar
to the effect of slowing a pendulum at its lowest point; the highest point of the pendulum's swing becomes lower.
With each successive slowing more of the orbit's path is affected by the atmosphere and the effect becomes more
pronounced. Eventually, the effect becomes so great that the maximum kinetic energy is not enough to return the
orbit above the limits of the atmospheric drag effect. When this happens the body will rapidly spiral down and
intersect the central body.
The bounds of an atmosphere vary wildly. During solar maxima, the Earth's atmosphere causes drag up to a hundred
kilometres higher than during solar minima.
Some satellites with long conductive tethers can also decay because of electromagnetic drag from the Earth's
magnetic field. Basically, the wire cuts the magnetic field, and acts as a generator. The wire moves electrons from
the near vacuum on one end to the near-vacuum on the other end. The orbital energy is converted to heat in the wire.
Orbits can be artificially influenced through the use of rocket motors which change the kinetic energy of the body at
some point in its path. This is the conversion of chemical or electrical energy to kinetic energy. In this way changes
in the orbit shape or orientation can be facilitated.
Another method of artificially influencing an orbit is through the use of solar sails or magnetic sails. These forms of
propulsion require no propellant or energy input other than that of the sun, and so can be used indefinitely. See statite
for one such proposed use.
Orbital decay can also occur due to tidal forces for objects below the synchronous orbit for the body they're orbiting.
The gravity of the orbiting object raises tidal bulges in the primary, and since below the synchronous orbit the
orbiting object is moving faster than the body's surface the bulges lag a short angle behind it. The gravity of the
bulges is slightly off of the primary-satellite axis and thus has a component along the satellite's motion. The near
bulge slows the object more than the far bulge speeds it up, and as a result the orbit decays. Conversely, the gravity
of the satellite on the bulges applies torque on the primary and speeds up its rotation. Artificial satellites are too
small to have an appreciable tidal effect on the planets they orbit, but several moons in the solar system are
undergoing orbital decay by this mechanism. Mars' innermost moon Phobos is a prime example, and is expected to
either impact Mars' surface or break up into a ring within 50 million years.
Finally, orbits can decay via the emission of gravitational waves. This mechanism is extremely weak for most stellar
objects, only becoming significant in cases where there is a combination of extreme mass and extreme acceleration,
such as with black holes or neutron stars that are orbiting each other closely.
Orbit 204
Oblateness
The standard analysis of orbiting bodies assumes that all bodies consist of uniform spheres, or more generally,
concentric shells each of uniform density. It can be shown that such bodies are gravitationally equivalent to point
sources.
However, in the real world, many bodies rotate, and this introduces oblateness and distorts the gravity field, and
gives a quadrupole moment to the gravitational field which is significant at distances comparable to the radius of the
body.
The general effect of this is to change the orbital parameters over time; predominantly this gives a rotation of the
orbital plane around the rotational pole of the central body (it perturbs the argument of perigee) in a way that is
dependent on the angle of orbital plane to the equator as well as altitude at perigee.
Astrodynamics
Orbital mechanics or astrodynamics is the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical
problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. The motion of these objects is usually calculated
from Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation. It is a core discipline within space mission
design and control. Celestial mechanics treats more broadly the orbital dynamics of systems under the influence of
gravity, including both spacecraft and natural astronomical bodies such as star systems, planets, moons, and comets.
Orbital mechanics focuses on spacecraft trajectories, including orbital maneuvers, orbit plane changes, and
interplanetary transfers, and is used by mission planners to predict the results of propulsive maneuvers. General
relativity is a more exact theory than Newton's laws for calculating orbits, and is sometimes necessary for greater
accuracy or in high-gravity situations (such as orbits close to the Sun).
Scaling in gravity
The gravitational constant G is measured to be the following (shown with the 3 most common units):
• (6.6742 ± 0.001) × 10−11 N·m2/kg2
• (6.6742 ± 0.001) × 10−11 m3/(kg·s2)
• (6.6742 ± 0.001) × 10−11 (kg/m3)−1s−2.
Thus the constant has dimension density−1 time−2. This corresponds to the following properties.
Scaling of distances (including sizes of bodies, while keeping the densities the same) gives similar orbits without
scaling the time: if for example distances are halved, masses are divided by 8, gravitational forces by 16 and
gravitational accelerations by 2. Hence orbital periods remain the same. Similarly, when an object is dropped from a
tower, the time it takes to fall to the ground remains the same with a scale model of the tower on a scale model of the
earth.
Orbit 205
When all densities are multiplied by four, orbits are the same, but with orbital velocities doubled.
When all densities are multiplied by four, and all sizes are halved, orbits are similar, with the same orbital velocities.
These properties are illustrated in the formula (derived from the formula for the orbital period)
for an elliptical orbit with semi-major axis a, of a small body around a spherical body with radius r and average
density σ, where T is the orbital period.
See also
• Artificial satellite orbit
• Escape velocity
• Gravity
• Kepler orbit
• Kepler's laws of planetary motion
• Molniya orbit
• Orbit (dynamics)
• Orbital spaceflight/Sub-orbital spaceflight
• Perifocal coordinate system
• Rosetta (orbit)
• Klemperer rosette
• Trajectory, Hyperbolic trajectory and Parabolic trajectory
External links
• CalcTool: Orbital period of a planet calculator [9]. Has wide choice of units. Requires JavaScript.
• Browser Based Three Dimension Simulation of Orbital Motion [10]. Objects and distance are drawn to scale. Run
on JavaScript-enabled browser such as Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox and Opera.
• Java simulation on orbital motion [11]. Requires Java.
• NOAA page on Climate Forcing Data [12] includes (calculated) data on Earth orbit variations over the last 50
million years and for the coming 20 million years
• On-line orbit plotter [13]. Requires JavaScript.
• Orbital Mechanics [14] (Rocket and Space Technology)
• Orbital simulations by Varadi, Ghil and Runnegar (2003) [15] provide another, slightly different series for Earth
orbit eccentricity, and also a series for orbital inclination. Orbits for the other planets were also calculated[16] , but
only the eccentricity data for Earth and Mercury [17] are available online.
• Understand orbits using direct manipulation [18]. Requires JavaScript and Macromedia
• Linton, Christopher (2004). From Eudoxus to Einstein [19]. Cambridge: University Press. ISBN 0521827507
• Swetz, Frank; et al. (1997). Learn from the Masters! [20]. Mathematical Association of America. ISBN
0883857030
Orbit 206
References
• Abell, Morrison, and Wolff (1987). Exploration of the Universe (fifth ed.). Saunders College Publishing.
[1] orbit (astronomy) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 431123/ orbit)
[2] Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1968, vol. 2, p. 645.
[3] M Caspar, Kepler (1959, Abelard-Schuman), at pp.131–140; A Koyré, The Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus, Kepler, Borelli (1973,
Methuen), at pp.277–279.
[4] Kuhn, The Copernican Revolution, pp 238, 246–252
[5] Jones, Andrew. "Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion" (http:/ / physics. about. com/ od/ astronomy/ p/ keplerlaws. htm) (in en). about.com. .
Retrieved 2008-06-01.
[6] See pages 6 to 8 in Newton's "Treatise of the System of the World" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rEYUAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA6)
(written 1685, translated into English 1728, see Newton's 'Principia' - A preliminary version), for the original version of this 'cannonball'
thought-experiment.
[7] Pogge, Richard W.; “Real-World Relativity: The GPS Navigation System” (http:/ / www. astronomy. ohio-state. edu/ ~pogge/ Ast162/ Unit5/
gps. html). Retrieved 25 January 2008.
[8] Fitzpatrick, Richard (2006-02-02). "Planetary orbits" (http:/ / web. archive. bibalex. org/ web/ 20060523200517/ farside. ph. utexas. edu/
teaching/ 301/ lectures/ node155. html). Classical Mechanics – an introductory course. The University of Texas at Austin. Archived from the
original (http:/ / farside. ph. utexas. edu/ teaching/ 301/ lectures/ node155. html) on 2006-05-23. . Retrieved 2009-01-14.
[9] http:/ / www. calctool. org/ CALC/ phys/ astronomy/ planet_orbit
[10] http:/ / orinetz. com/ planet/ animatesystem. php?sysid=QUQTS2CSDQ44FDURR3XD6NUD6& orinetz_lang=1
[11] http:/ / www. phy. hk/ wiki/ englishhtm/ Motion. htm
[12] http:/ / www. ncdc. noaa. gov/ paleo/ forcing. html
[13] http:/ / www. bridgewater. edu/ ~rbowman/ ISAW/ PlanetOrbit. html
[14] http:/ / www. braeunig. us/ space/ orbmech. htm
[15] http:/ / astrobiology. ucla. edu/ OTHER/ SSO/
[16] F. Varadi, B. Runnegar, M. Ghil (2003). "Successive Refinements in Long-Term Integrations of Planetary Orbits". The Astrophysical
Journal 592: 620–630. doi: 10.1086/375560 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1086/ 375560).
[17] http:/ / www. astrobiology. ucla. edu/ OTHER/ SSO/ Misc/
[18] http:/ / www. lri. fr/ ~dragice/ gravity/
[19] http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=B4br4XJFj0MC& pg=PA285& lpg=PA285& dq=Leibnitz+ on+ centrifugal+ force& source=bl&
ots=ul5sM-8hez& sig=3eV8RZGxy6Czk3uZZ4_6nxhr3gQ& hl=en& ei=VYT_SaDtOsmrjAfv44iIBw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result&
resnum=5
[20] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=gqGLoh-WYrEC& pg=PA269& dq=reaction+ fictitious+ rotating+ frame+ %22centrifugal+
force%22& lr=& as_brr=3& as_pt=ALLTYPES& ei=JUH7SYr3GIzckQSSx4XVBA#PPA269,M1
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Angular momentum Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342242425 Contributors: .:Ajvol:., 165.123.179.xxx, 6birc, Abhishek727, Adam Rock, Alan Smithee 87, Alansohn,
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Rotation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342832776 Contributors: -- April, Abc518, Adam78, Algebraist, Allendaves, Altenmann, AndrewHowse, Andycjp, Antandrus,
AstroHurricane001, AstroNomer, AugPi, Badgernet, BenFrantzDale, Bobo192, BorisFromStockdale, Bremerenator, CALR, CLW, Calculus HK, Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Chuckiesdad, Corvus
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Article Sources and Contributors 210
Rigid body Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=340523351 Contributors: Abdull, Abdullah Köroğlu, Aboeing, Albedo, Algebraist, AndrewDressel, AndrewHowse, Borgx,
Brews ohare, Charles Matthews, Da Joe, E mraedarab, Equendil, Fropuff, Giftlite, Ideal gas equation, J04n, Jalexiou, JimR, Juansempere, Kubigula, Laurascudder, Linas, M samadi,
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Be, Thurth, XCelam, XJamRastafire, ZeroOne, 31 anonymous edits
Moment of inertia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=341729593 Contributors: 01001, ABCD, Ablewisuk, Aiden1983, Alansohn, AlphaPyro, Ameliorate!, Anarchic Fox,
Andres, Andy120, AquaDTRS, AugPi, Baccyak4H, Backpackadam, Basiliasayoto, BenFrantzDale, Bobo192, Boompiee, Bradjamesbrown, Budgie31, Burn, Camw, Cataphract, Charles
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YellowMonkey, Yevgeny Kats, Yoshigev, Zaidpjd, Zedall, 345 anonymous edits
Radius of gyration Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=340525792 Contributors: Basar, Bryan Derksen, Cardamon, Charles Matthews, Cyprus2k1, Davehi1, Dger, Dimsa,
Giftlite, Infovaeuniversis, John Vandenberg, Jshadias, Keilana, Keizo, Mathmoclaire, Michael zh, MitchamusB, Mpfiz, MyNameIsNotBob, Oleg Alexandrov, Safalra, SebastianHelm, Selkem,
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Rotational energy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=318827670 Contributors: Andries, BenRG, Bernard Marx, Bryan Derksen, CMD Beaker, Dynabee, Evil saltine,
Fresheneesz, Gene Nygaard, Glenn, Icairns, Jbergquist, JeLuF, Julleras, Krea, MarcusMaximus, Master of Puppets, Mnmngb, P.wormer, Passw0rd, Patrick, Rich Farmbrough, Salsb, Seandop,
SebastianHelm, Segv11, Thurth, Urhixidur, Xp54321, Zaidpjd, 18 anonymous edits
Rotation around a fixed axis Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=338811238 Contributors: AdjustShift, Andreworkney, Brews ohare, Caitlanandrew, Cardamon, Casmith 789,
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Wookiepower2, Zbayz, Лев Дубовой, 43 anonymous edits
Parallel axis theorem Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=340204897 Contributors: Ablewisuk, Acidwillburnyou, Currir55, Dbfirs, Deeptrivia, Dger, Giftlite, Gombang,
Hean.excogitate, Ideal gas equation, Keenan Pepper, Loodog, MagneticFlux, Mercury, Michael Hardy, Mykar15, Nebojsapajkic, Nk, Pkbharti, RG2, Salgueiro, Siddhant, SimpsonDG, StarLight,
Thurth, Tom.Reding, Umbertoumm, Vsmith, YellowMonkey, 34 anonymous edits
Perpendicular axis theorem Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=335169134 Contributors: Capricorn42, Dbfirs, Giftlite, Ideal gas equation, Pkbharti, Pol098, SimpsonDG,
Stephen, YellowMonkey, Zhen Lin, 4 anonymous edits
List of moment of inertia tensors Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=313141779 Contributors: Altkll, Da Joe, Eteq, Fedor Chelnokov, Glome83, Headbomb,
Jalexiou@hotmail.com, Jxmallett, Lantonov, Nimur, Qef, 17 anonymous edits
List of moments of inertia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342609437 Contributors: 11kravitzn, A19grey, AquaDTRS, ArnoldReinhold, Ave matthew, Baccyak4H,
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Simple harmonic motion Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342727977 Contributors: 190319m9, Ajl772, Alberto Orlandini, Algofoogle, AnarchMonarch, Anarchic Fox,
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Pendulum Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342658814 Contributors: -- April, 0, 19.7, 2D, A3RO, Abeg92, AdjustShift, Afterguide, Ahoerstemeier, Ahudson, Aitias,
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tribal, Zocky, Περίεργος, 863 anonymous edits
Precession Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=341496443 Contributors: 200.191.188.xxx, Abel Cavaşi, AcePilot101, Adam37, Akhen3sir, AlexDusty, AllanBz, Ancheta Wis,
Andre Engels, AndrewDressel, Angelobear, Aramael, AxelBoldt, B00P, Benet Allen, Big Brother 1984, BlueMoonlet, Bryan Derksen, CSWarren, Cacycle, Caid Raspa, Canderson7,
CardinalDan, Charles Matthews, Chenzw, Cleonis, Conversion script, Crastinbic, Cwolfsheep, Cyde, Daniel Arteaga, DavidGPeters, Deadstar, Dfan, Dhaluza, Dmh, Dougweller, Doverbeach01,
Dr Dec, Drake144, Eclecticology, Edward321, Ekhalom, Enochlau, Ewlyahoocom, Fuchsias, Gazouille, Gdr, Giftlite, Glenn, Graymornings, GregBenson, Harp, HeikoEvermann, Henrygb,
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Palmen, Karol Langner, KasugaHuang, Kbdank71, Ke6jjj, Kegrad, Kieff, Kingpin13, Kjkolb, Kungfuadam, Kwekubo, La goutte de pluie, Leighxucl, Lemontea, Linas, Lir, Littlealien182, Livajo,
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W.F.Galway, WISo, Wereon, Wetman, Whosasking, William M. Connolley, WolfmanSF, Worldtraveller, XDanielx, Xmnemonic, Xp54321, Zbayz, 224 anonymous edits
Article Sources and Contributors 211
Larmor precession Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=336607062 Contributors: Bauleaf, Berland, Charvest, Choij, Chutznik, Csigabi, Dchristle, Dirac66, G-W, Gillen, Henry
Delforn, Karol Langner, Linas, Michael Hardy, Nephron, Nyctea, Pegship, SciYann, Stone, Tdonoughue, WISo, Yamavu, 20 anonymous edits
Thomas precession Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=333993713 Contributors: AndrewDressel, BenRG, Charles Matthews, Charvest, Conscious, Delaszk, GregorB,
Jjalexand, KasugaHuang, Lantonov, Linas, Marasmusine, Mushin, NSH001, Oxnard28, P.Schellart, Pegship, Phys, Pt, Rgdboer, Sbyrnes321, Sinik, Star-Algebra, Tim Starling, YK Times,
Yill577, 16 anonymous edits
Gyroscope Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342611690 Contributors: .:Ajvol:., AGToth, Abhilashharpale, Ahoerstemeier, Airdoo0, Ale jrb, Alexmcfire, Amir198332,
Anclation, Andres, AndrewDressel, Angellcruz, Apostolyuk, Arnero, Ars17, Arydberg, Attilios, Audriusa, AxelBoldt, BarretBonden, Bigbluefish, Bob, Bovineone, Brenont, Bryan Derksen,
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 212
Image:moment of inertia thin cylinder.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moment_of_inertia_thin_cylinder.png License: Public Domain Contributors:
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Image:moment of inertia rod end.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moment_of_inertia_rod_end.png License: Public Domain Contributors:
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Image:torus cycles.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Torus_cycles.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Fropuff
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Image:Gaussian 2d.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gaussian_2d.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Michael Hardy
Image:Simple harmonic motion animation.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Simple_harmonic_motion_animation.gif License: GNU Free Documentation License
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File:Grandfather clock pendulum.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grandfather_clock_pendulum.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Charles H. Henderson
and John F. Woodhull
File:Mercury pendulum.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mercury_pendulum.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Augustin-Privat Deschanel
File:Tidens naturlære fig22.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tidens_naturlære_fig22.png License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Bisgaard
File:Ellicott pendulum.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ellicott_pendulum.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Augustin-Privat Deschanel
File:Riefler clock NIST.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Riefler_clock_NIST.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Michael A. Lombardi, Thomas P. Heavner,
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File:Pendulum-with-Escapement.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pendulum-with-Escapement.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Silas Ellsworth Coleman
File:Howard astronomical regulator clock.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Howard_astronomical_regulator_clock.png License: Public Domain Contributors:
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File: Shortt Synchronome free pendulum clock.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shortt_Synchronome_free_pendulum_clock.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Not known
File:Borda and Cassini pendulum experiment.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Borda_and_Cassini_pendulum_experiment.png License: Public Domain
Contributors: Jean-Charles de Borda and Jean-Dominique Cassini
File:Kater pendulum vertical.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kater_pendulum_vertical.png License: Public Domain Contributors: William Watson
File:Kater pendulum use.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kater_pendulum_use.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Henry Kater
File:Using Kater pendulum in India.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Using_Kater_pendulum_in_India.png License: Public Domain Contributors: John
Goldingham
File:Repsold pendulum.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Repsold_pendulum.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Halsey Dunwoody
File:Mendenhall gravimeter pendulums.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mendenhall_gravimeter_pendulums.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: G. R.
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File:Quartz gravimeter pendulums.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Quartz_gravimeter_pendulums.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: US Coast and
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Image:Gyroscope precession.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gyroscope_precession.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Hu Totya, Kieff, Newone, SharkD,
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Image:3D Gyroscope.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:3D_Gyroscope.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Kieff, Snaily, 1 anonymous edits
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Image:Gyroscope operation.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gyroscope_operation.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Juiced lemon, Kieff, Roomba, SharkD,
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License 215
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