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3.

2 Chromosomes
Essential Idea: Chromosomes carry genes in a linear sequence that
is shared by members of a species.

Prokaryotes
-Prokaryotes have 1 circular DNA molecule containing all the genes needed
for basic life processes of the cell
-there is usually only one copy of each gene
-have plasmids, which are small circular DNA molecules
-Plasmids contain a few genes that may be useful to the cell but are not
necessary for basic life processes, eg: genes for antibiotic resistance
-Copies of plasmids can be transferred from one cell to another
-May even transfer between species if they are absorbed from a dead cell
-Artificial transfer of plasmids is used by scientists as a research tool

Eukaryotes

-Eukaryotes have long linear DNA molecules that is associated with histone
protein
-histones are globular proteins with the DNA molecule wound around them
-adjacent histones are separated by short stretches of DNA, gives the
appearance of beads on a string

-Eukaryotes have different types of chromosomes that differ in length.

Homologous Chromosomes
-Homologous chromosomes carry the same sequence of genes but not
necessarily the same alleles of those genes
-they are not usually identical to each other
-2 eukaryotes that are members of the same species have at least 1
homologous chromosome
-allows members of a same species to interbreed

Haploid nuclei:
-A haploid nucleus has 1 chromosome of each type
-It has 1 full set of chromosomes found in its species
-a haploid nucleus in humans contains 23 chromosomes
-Gametes are sex cells that fuse together, eg: sperm and egg each contain
23 chromosomes before joining
-Germ cells are the cells that give rise to gametes
Diploid Nuclei

-A diploid nucleus has 2 chromosomes of each type


-It has 2 full sets of chromosomes
-When haploid gametes fuse during sexual reproduction, a zygote with a
diploid nucleus is produced

Chromosome Numbers
-The number of chromosomes is a characteristic feature of a species
-organisms with a different chromosome number are unlikely to be able to
interbreed
-The number of chromosomes can change during evolution of a speciesthough highly unlikely

Sexual Determination
-Sex chromosomes determines sex
-Autosomes do not determine sex
-X chromosome: relatively large with a centromere near the center
-Y chromosome: much smaller with centromere near the end
-The X and Y chromosomes are called sex chromosomes since they
determine sex. All other chromosomes (autosomes) do not affect whether a
fetus develops as male or female.
-X chromosome has genes that are essential to both males and females.
-therefore, all humans must have at least 1 X chromosome
-Y chromosomes has a small number of genes

Females-2 X chromosomes
-1 of the 2 X chromosomes is passed to each egg cell, so all offspring
inherit an X chromosome from their mother
-The gender of a human is determined at the moment of fertilization
-Daughters inherit their fathers X chromosome, sons inherit Y chromosome

Punnett Square (genetic cross):


-A Punnett Square simple graphical way of expressing all potential genotypic
combinations that can occur in progeny, given the genotype of their parents
-Genotype-genes
-Phenotype-physical trait

Karyograms
-A karyogram shows the chromosomes of an organism in homologous pairs
of decreasing length
-diving cells are stained and carefully searched to find a section with no
overlapping chromosomes
-chromosomes are arranged according to their size and structure
-Since most cells are diploid, chromosomes are usually in homologous pairs

-Information for karyograms are found through 2 main ways

Amniocentesis:
-During pregnancy, the fetus is surrounded by amniotic fluid, a substance
much like water
-amniotic fluid contains live fetal skin cells and other substances that
contribute to a babys health before birth
-Amniocentesis is a prenatal test in which a small amount of amniotic fluid is
collected
-Can be used as an attempt to detect possible conditions, as well as gender
-There is a small risk that amniocentesis can cause miscarriage, injury,
inflection, or other complications

Chorionic Villus Sampling:

-A small sample of placental tissue (chorionic villus) is collected through the


abdomen or through the cervix (risks are similar but slightly higher than
amniocentesis)
Applications
-John Cairns: developed an autoradiographic technique to visualize labelled
DNA fibers under a light microscope
-This technique was used to observe that the chromosomes of E. coli consists
of one circular double stranded molecule
-A plasmid has one origin point

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