Solutions

Types of Solutions
Solution
unsaturated
saturated

supersaturated

NEUTRAL
[H+] = [OH-]

BASE
[H+] < [OH-]

Increasingly Alkaline

Increasingly Acidic

B. Strong Acid or Base: dissociates completely in water

1.Strong acids - H2SO4, HNO3, HCl, HClO4, HBr,
HClO3, HI
2.Strong bases - Soluble group 1 & 2 hydroxides
C. Weak Acid or Base: only partially dissociates in
water; reaction arrow is shown going in both directions (
); at equilibrium, the degree of dissociaf an acid and Kb for a base; K indicates
tion is Ka for
dissociation (strength).
D. Ionization constant of water, Kw: water can act as a
weak acid or a weak base in solution; at 25C,
Kw = [H+][OH-] = 1.00 x 10-14 (mol/L)2
E. Neutralization reaction: reaction that occurs when
an acid and base are mixed; the acids anion(s) joins
with bases cation(s) to form a salt.
acid + base salt + water

potential energy stored in

chemical bonds
kinetic energy of atoms or
thermal
molecules motion
B. Law of Conservation of Energy and Heat Transfer
1. Law of conservation of energy: energy cannot be
created or destroyed in an ordinary chemical reaction, but the form of energy can change
2. Heat transfer: movement of thermal energy via
one of the three processes:
xconduction: objects in contact like a warm hand
melting ice
xconvection: fluid motion or current, like warm
air rising
xradiation: electromagnetic waves, like those
moving through empty space from the sun or like
those made in a kitchen microwave
C. Energy Change Calculations in Chemical Reactions
1. Standard state: reference state for a substance
(typically 1 atm, 25C or 298K, and 1 mole);
defining a property at standard state can allow it to
be intensive (independent of size); indicated by a
superscript of 0.
2. Standard Molar Enthalpy of Formation, H0f :
difference of energy that occurs when one mole of
a substance is formed from its pure element (all at
standard state conditions); H0f for any element =
0; means change or difference.
3. Enthalpy of Reaction, H: energy released or
absorbed during a chemical reaction; at standard
state, H = H0f(products) H0f(reactants), where
symbol means the sum of all (multiply each
H0f by its coefficient).
Reaction
exothermic

Enthalpy
H < 0
(negative)

Description
heat is released

endothermic

H > 0
(positive)

heat is absorbed

Exothermic

Endothermic

Example: An aqueous solution contains several

solutes. What is the pH if [OH-] = 8 x 10-5 M?
H+

H

Kw
OH-

1.25 x 10-10 M , pH= -log H+

9.9

Example 2: What salt forms when HF is mixed

with Ba(OH)2? BaF2
Solution
electrolyte

Description
contains ions; conducts electricity
does not contain ions; does not
conduct electricity

able to dissolve more solute; not

yet saturated

nonelectrolyte

contains maximum solute

amount that can dissolve at that
temperature (at equilibrium).
Contains more solute than saturated; unstable; made by cooling
or evaporating solvent from
saturated solution.

D. Molarity
moles of solute mol
1. Molarity, M: describes
M
liter of solution L
concentration of a solute
in solution; use brackets [ ].
2. Dilution of a Solution: reduction in the concentration of a solute in a solution; for dilutions made by
adding more solvent, V1M1 = V2M2.
4

Measurements
Scientific Measurement
Term

Description

average or mean

sum of values divided by number

of items

precision

closeness of values to each other

(repeatability)

accuracy

closeness to true or correct

value

percent error

See STAAR chemistry reference

materials

A. Scientific notation: a number is expressed as a factor

times the power of ten; factor must be greater than
or equal to 1 and less than 10; if a number is less
than 1, then exponent is negative.
1. Examples:
i. 0.000657 = 6.57 x 10-4
ii. 100,050,000,000,000 = 1.0005 x 1014
B. Significant figures:
1. Rules: see STAAR chemistry
reference materials
2. Examples:
14 or 14.
2 32,000
2
14.0
3
3.081 x 105
4
-9
3
0.009
1
2.00 x 10
-9
1
1.009
4
2 x 10
C. Dimensional analysis: method to convert units using
equivalent values in different units.
Example: There are 760 mm Hg in 1 atm.

2. Temperature, T: measure of the thermal energy in

a substance; temperature change is:
T = Tfinal Tinitial

Matter & Changes

Characteristics of Matter
Changes & Properties
A. Physical Change:
Description: change in size, shape, or state; remains the same substance. (Examples: boiling
water, chopping wood)
B. Physical Property:
Description: can be observed without changing the
substance into a different substance (Examples:
boiling point, color, density, solubility)
x Extensive property: dependent on sample size
(Examples: mass, volume)
x Intensive property: independent of sample
size (Examples: boiling point, density, cp)
C. Chemical Change:
Description: new substance is made; bonds between atoms are made or broken; often see a color
change, temperature change, or the formation of
gas or precipitate (solid) (Examples: burning
wood, rusting nail)
D. Chemical Property:
p
Description:
can be observed when a substance
changes into a different substance (Examples:
reactivity with O2, flammability, combustion)

Atomic & Nuclear

Development of Modern Atomic Theory
A. Dalton: elements are made of atoms that cannot be created
or destroyed; atoms of the same/different element are the
same/different; compounds form when atoms of different
elements combine
B. Thomson: used cathode rays to estimate electrons charge-to
-mass ratio
C. Rutherford: gold foil experiment proved the existence of a
dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons in
mostly empty space
D. Bohr: electrons orbit the nucleus in distinct energy levels
E. Modern Atomic Theory: electrons (-, small) at distinct
energy levels are in an electron cloud surrounding a dense
nucleus consisting of protons (+, large) and neutrons (no
charge, large); elements defined by the number of protons
Average Atomic Mass
A. Isotope: form of element with different number of neutrons
(same protons)
B. Average Atomic Mass: weight average of masses of all of
an elements isotopes.
Example: What is the average atomic mass of element X?
Relative Abundance: 50.58% 49.43%
Element X
Mass (amu): 78.92
80.92

(78.92)(.5057) + (80.92)(.4943) = 79.91 amu

Nuclear Chemistry
A. Radiation
Particle Symbol

760 mm Hg
1 atm
=1, and
=1
1
760 mm Hg

How many mm Hg is 0.89 atm?

Decay
Example

226
88

4
Ra o222
86 Rn + 2 He

Charge

Mass

Speed

alpha

= 24 He

+2

large

slow

Penetration
low

beta

-1

small

fast

low/medium

gamma

0
1
= 00

none

fastest

very high

B. Fission: heavy unstable nucleus splits into lighter nuclei

(example: power plant)
C. Fusion: lighter nuclei combine to form heavier nucleus
(example: sun)

760 mm Hg
0.89 atm x
= 680 mm Hg
1 atm
Common Prefixes:
3
-2
-3
kilo k (10 ) centi c (10 ) milli m (10 ) micro (10-6)

Periodic Table
DEVELOPMENT & FEATURES
In 1869, Mendeleev organized known elements in order of their atomic weights, grouping those with similar properties. The current periodic table is ordered by atomic number
which was a contribution of Moseley.
A. Organization of Periodic Table:
1. Row or period: elements are in order of increasing atomic number; atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons (if neutral)
2. Column or group (family): elements in a group have the same number of valence electrons and have similar physical and chemical properties; elements closest together
in a group are most similar, like F and Cl (7A)
B. Properties of chemical families:
1. Oxidation number: number assigned to an atom or ion in a substance; represents electrons gained or lost; sum to 0 for neutral compound
Anion: F gains 1 electron
anion F- (oxidation number 1)
Cation: Ca loses 2 electrons
cation Ca2+ (oxidation number +2)
alkali metals

D. Specific Heat, Heat Calculations, and Calorimetry

1. Mass, m: amount of matter in an object; usually
measured in grams (g)

1.00 x 10-14 (mol/L)2

8 x 10-5 mol/L

Example 1: What salt forms when NaOH neutralizes HCl? NaCl

Description

energy of motion, like a rock

rolling down a hill

kinetic
chemical

pH: indicates concentration of hydrogen ions in

solution pH = -log[H+]; in aqueous solutions, pH
ranges
Example: Find the pH of solution if
from 0
[H+] = 2.9 x10-13 M. Is it acidic?
(most
acidic)
pH = -log (2.9 x10-13) = 12.54 No,
to 14
it is basic since 12.54 > 7.
(most
basic);
neutral solutions pH is 7 (like pure water, where
[H+] = [OH-], neither acidic nor basic).
ACID
[H+] > [OH-]

A. Forms of Energy
Energy: ability to change matter or do work; exists
in different forms
Form of Energy
Description
stored energy, like a rock
potential
resting on a hill

noble gases
alkali
earth
metals

halogens

Trends moving down a column

atomic radius increases
electronegativity decreases
ionization energy decreases

Solubility
Curves
The relationship
between solubility
and temperature
can be expressed
by a solubility
curve.

A.

Booklet #

x
x
x

no effect

proton
acceptor

Strong base

surface area

proton donor

BronstedLowry

Ammonia

no effect

Base
Definition
adds OH- ions
to solution

Antacids

agitation

Effect on Rate
of Dissolution
rate of
dissolution
rate of
dissolution
rate of
dissolution

Arrhenius

Acid
Definition
adds H3O+ ions to
solution

Pure water

temperature

Effect on
Solubility
solubility
(usually)

Theory

Vinegar

Factors That Influence Solubility and Rate of Dissolution

aqueous solutions have [H+] > [OH-] and turn

blue litmus paper red.
+
xBasic aqueous solutions have [H ] < [OH ] and turn
red litmus paper blue.
xAcidic

Strong acid

A. Polar vs. Non-Polar

1. Polar Molecule: molecule, like H2O, that has a
slightly negative end and a slightly positive end
due to unequal electron sharing
2. Non-Polar molecule: like N2, has equal sharing of
electrons
B. Unique Role of Water
1. Universal Solvent: waters polarity helps it dissolve many substances; water carries substances as
it moves, like blood carrying nutrients.
2. Cohesion: water is attracted to itself; waters
surface tension (force of attraction at the surface)
causes it to bead up when placed on wax paper (a
non-polar surface); enables insects to walk on
water.
3. Adhesion: water is attracted to other polar materials, like plant roots, which causes capillary action
(water rises inside the roots thin tubes).
4. High Specific Heat: water can absorb or release
heat with little change in temperature; oceans help
moderate atmospheric temperatures
5. Lower Density Solid than Liquid: water expands
as it freezes, causing weathering of rocks; ice
floats, reducing risk of entire lakes freezing.
C. Solubility
1. Solution: mixture blended so that properties are
the same throughout; one substance (solute) dissolves in another substance (solvent); solvent is
often a liquid, but solutes and solvents can be
solid, liquid, or gas; adding a solute(s) to a liquid
solution elevates (increases) the solutions boiling
point and depresses (decreases) the solutions
freezing point.
2. Aqueous solution (aq): solution in which the
solvent is liquid water.
3. Dissociation: occurs when ionic compound dissolves and forms ions Example: NaCl dissociates
to form Na+ and Cl-, but C6H12O6 does not..
4. Solubility: maximum amount of solute that can
dissolve in a solvent.
5. General Solubility Rules: like dissolves like
means that nonpolar compounds dissolve best in
nonpolar solvents, whereas polar and ionic compounds (like salt) dissolve best in polar solvents
(like water); a compound is said to be water soluble if a reasonable amount can be dissolved in
water. Example: Oil is non-polar and not soluble
in water
6. Water Solubility Rules for Ions: guidelines to
help predict which ionic compounds are soluble
based on the identify of anion/cation.
see STAAR chemistry reference materials.

Factor

Thermochemistry

Acids & Bases

transition metals

3. Heat, Q: amount of energy that flows into a system (via conduction, convection, or radiation);
usually measured in Joules (J) or calories (cal).
4. Specific heat, cp: amount of heat needed to increase the temperature of 1 gram of a particular
substance by 1C (with no change in state); typical
units are J/gC .
Q = mcpT c p Q
m T

Example: Given that cp(Cu) = 0.385 J/gC, calculate

the heat absorbed by a 0.020 kg piece of copper metal
that is heated from 25C to 125C.
First, convert kg to g
Q=mcpT=(20 g)(0.385 J/gC)(125C 25C)=770 J
5. Calorimeter: tool used to measure heat of a chemical process (H); heat flows into a substance with
known cp and the temperature change is recorded.
(H) = Q

Trends from left to right (across)

x atomic radius decreases
x electronegativity increases (excluding noble gases)
x ionization energy increases
1

Example: F is the most electronegative.

oxidation number = -1 (always)

Nomenclature

Chemical Quantities: Moles

A. Mole (mol): unit of quantity (Avogadros number):
1 mole = 6.02 x 1023 atoms, ions, or molecules
1 mole = molar mass in grams of any substance
1 mole of any gas at STP = 22.4 L
Example: How many molecules are in 7.1 g H2O?

CHEMICAL FORMULAS & NAMES

First Name
Binary ionic
compounds

Second Name
Formula

Name cation using its

element name
*For transition metals, add
Roman numerals for charge

Name anion with ide

suffix

Name

CaS
Al2O3
FeCl2

Calcium sulfide
Aluminum oxide
*Iron (II) chloride

Name the polyatomic anion

Polyatomic ionic Name cation using same

rules as binary ionic comcompounds
pound

Binary covalent
compounds

Examples

Ba(OH)2
Na3PO4
see STAAR chemistry referPb(CO3)2
ence materials
Name second element with
ide suffix
*mono only used in second name

Name the first element

23

7.1 g H 2 O x

2.4 x1023 molecules H 2O

Barium hydroxide
Sodium phosphate
Lead (IV) carbonate

Carbon monoxide*
Dinitrogen monoxide
Boron trifluoride

CO
N2O
BF3

For Binary Covalent Compounds: Add Greek prefix for number of atoms
di- (2), tri- (3), tetra- (4), penta- (5), hexa- (6), hepta- (7), octa- (8), nona- (9), deca- (10)
Acid (binary)

Acid
(polyatomic)

Base

B. Percent composition (by mass): mass percent of

each element in a compound
Example: Find the percent composition of H in H2O.
atomic mass of H: 1.008 g atomic mass of O: 15.999g
molar mass of H2O: (2 x 1.008) g + 15.999 g =18.015 g
%H=

mass of H
mass of H2O

Add ic suffix, then the

word acid

HCl
H2S

Hydrochloric acid
Hydrosulfuric acid

No hydro- prefix

Replace suffix ite with

ous, or replace suffix ate
with ic, then add the word
acid

HNO2
H2SO4

Nitrous acid
Sulfuric acid

Mg(OH)2
NaOH
NH3

Magnesium hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide
Ammonia

Writing Chemical Formulas for Ionic Compounds:

x Cation symbol, followed by anion
x Use subscripts to denote how many of each ion is present.
x Sum of combined charges must equal zero.

1 mol N
0.65 mol N
14.007 g N
1 mol H
1.3 g H x
1.3 mol H
1.008 g H

molar mass of N: 14.007 g molar mass of H: 1.008 g

Answer: NH2
D. Molecular formula: indicates an actual number of
atoms in a molecule.
Example: The empirical formula for a molecule is
NH2. If its molecular mass is 32 g/mol, what is the
compounds molecular formula?
formula mass of NH2: 14.007 + (2 x 1.008) =16.023
actual molecular mass
32 g/mol
2
empirical formula mass 16.023 g/mol
Multiply both subscripts of NH 2 by 2, to get the molecular formula: N 2 H 4

Example: Lewis dots of ionic bond formation of KCl

C
Cl

3. Covalent bond: chemical bond created when atoms share electron pairs
Example: Lewis dots of covalent bond formation of NH3

o K

H
H

Cl

H
H

bonding
pair
H

lone
pair

Octet rule: atoms tend to react in a way that results in eight valence electrons in their outer level or shell (to
create a configuration like a stable noble gas)
C. Molecular Structure Using VSEPR Theory
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR): model used to predict 3-D molecular structure. Because
electrons repel each other, it predicts how electron pairs arrange themselves in a way that provides maximum
separation from other electron pairs.
4.

Example
O

Linear

Electrons

Tetrahed
h r
Tetrahedral

nf, energy / p o p f, energy / n

2

A. Kinetic Molecular Theory

Postulates of kinetic molecular theory perfectly
describe an ideal gas:
1. gases are made of molecules or atoms in constant,
random motion.
2. the volume of these molecules or atoms is negligibly small.
3. collisions among these molecules, atoms, and the
container walls are elastic (no net energy loss or
gain).
4. attractive or repulsive forces among these molecules or atoms are negligibly small.
5. the average kinetic energy of these molecules or
atoms is proportional to the absolute temperature
of the gas in Kelvin (K).
B. Gas Laws
The following gas laws describe an ideal gas, where
P = pressure of gas (atm), V = volume of gas (L), n=
moles of gas, T = absolute temperature of gas (K)
K = C + 273, and R = the gas constant, 0.0821
Latm/molK.
see STAAR chemistry reference materials

Example: CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

If 4 H atoms are in the reactants, then 4 H atoms are
in the products.
B. Coefficient:
Example: 3H2O as 6 H and 3 O
number to left
of element or compound in a chemical equation; to
determine the number of a particular atom in any
compound, multiply the compounds coefficient by
the atoms subscript.
C. Balanced Chemical Equation: gives the number
and kind of substances in a reaction; reactants are
starting materials (left of arrow) and products are
final materials (right of arrow); number and type of
atoms remain the same from left to right of arrow.
Example: Balance the chemical equation
___H2 + ___N2 ___NH3
At the start, there are 2 H on the left and 3 H on the
right. Insert coefficients so that there are same
number on each side (6 H on each side):
3H2 + ___N2 2NH3
Now check N. There are 2 N on the left and 2 N on
the right. Is it balanced with a coefficient of 1 on
N2: 3H2 + N2 2NH3
left side: 3H2 = 6 H and N2 = 2 N
right side: 2NH3 = 2 N and 6 H (left = right)
D. Types of Reactions: Three important types of reactions are acid-base reactions, precipitation reactions,
and oxidation-reduction reactions. These reactions
commonly take place in aqueous solutions.
Reaction

Acid-base

Description
double replacement reaction
Example:
acid + base salt + water
HCl + LiOH LiCl + H2O
Explanation: H+ pairs with OH-,
and Li+ pairs with Cl .
double replacement reaction; product of the reaction is an insoluble
compound that settles as a solid
called a precipitate; (s) means
solid; can use solubility rules to
predict precipitation;

Precipitation

Oxidationreduction
(redox)

see STAAR chemistry

reference materials
NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq)
NaNO3 (aq) + AgCl (s)
Explanation: Solubility rule for Clwith a cation of Ag+ is that it is not
soluble (forms precipitate).
an electron(s) from one reactant is
given to the other reactant changes
some oxidation numbers in the
reactants
Fe + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2
Explanation: Oxidation number of
Fe changes from 0 in the reactant
(elemental) to +2 in ionic compound FeCl2. H changes from +1
in reactant (HCl) to 0 in H2. Fe is
oxidized and H is reduced.
Fe Fe2+ + 2e- & 2H+ + 2e- H2
oxidized
half-reaction

A. Reactant and Product Relationships: a balanced

chemical equation shows mole ratios (denoted by the
coefficients) among substances in a reaction
(reactants or products); use molar mass values to
convert from moles to grams or from grams to moles.
B. Molar Mass: mass (in grams) of 1 mole of a substance; determined by summing the atomic mass for
the elements of a compound.

Nonmetal

Metalloid

Metal

Example 1: What is the mole ratio of MgCl2 to HCl

in this reaction?
2HCl + Mg(OH)2 2H2O + MgCl2
There is 1 mole of MgCl2 for every 2 moles of HCl
(the mole ratio is 1:2).
Example 2: What mass of HCl was consumed if 9.7 g of
MgCl2 is produced?
2HCl + Mg(OH)2 2H2O + MgCl2
9.7 g MgCl2

1 mol MgCl2
2 mol HCl 36.461 g HCl
x
x
7.4 g HCl
95.211 g MgCl2 1 mol MgCl2 1 mol HCl

C. Limiting reagent: reactant that is consumed first

triggering the reaction to stop (other reactants are
said to be in excess); limits the amount of product.
Example: Identify the limiting reagent and predict
the mass of H2O produced by reacting 36 g CH4 and
98 g O2.
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
Molar mass of CH4: 16 g
Molar mass of O2: 32g
Molar moss of H2O: 18 g
36 g CH 4 1 mol CH 4 2 mol H 2O 18 g H 2O
x
x
x
81 g H 2O
16 g CH 4 1 mol CH 4 1 mol H 2O
98 g O2 1 mol O2 2 mol H 2O 18 g H 2O
x
x
x
55 g H 2O
32 g O2 2 mol O2 1 mol H 2O

There is only enough O2 to make 55 g H2O. Thus, O2

is the limiting reagent.
D. Theoretical yield: mass of products determined
from the mass of reactants, molar mass, and balanced
equation.
E. Actual yield: mass of products recovered from
chemical experiment.
F. Percent yield: describes %yield= actual yield (100)
theoretical yield
the portion of the theoretical yield that is actually recovered.
Example: As calculated in the prior example, the
theoretical yield is 55 g H2O. Find the percent yield
if 48.8 g H2O is actually recovered.
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

C. Standard temperature and pressure, STP:

conditions of 0C (273 K) and 1 atm (760 mmHg); at
STP, 1 mole of an ideal gas has a volume of 22.4 L.
Example: Calculate the pressure exerted by 1.0 mole
of helium in a 3000 mL vessel at 27C. Convert
units as needed.

use ideal gas law to solve for P

nRT
V
Convert o C to K T = 27 + 273 = 300 K
Convert mL to L V = 3000 mL = 3 L
PV = nRT so

P=

(1 mol)(0.0821 Lgatm / molgK)(300K)

= 8.2 atm
3L

D. Stoichiometric Calculations Involving Gases:

Reactant and product relationships, including determination of mass and volume relationships, can be
found for reactions involving gases.
Example: Calculate volume of O2 (at STP) produced
from the reaction of 56 g KClO3 (molar mass = 122.6 g).
2KClO3 (s) 2KCl (s) + 3O2 (g)
56 g KClO3

48.8 g
x 100% 89%
55 g

1 mol KClO3
3 mol O2
22.4 L O2
x
x
15 L O2
122.6 g KClO3 2 mol KClO3 1 mol O2

Gas Law

Equation

Description

Daltons Law of Partial

Pressure

PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + . . .

Total pressure of a mixture of gases equal the sum of

the individual gas pressures

Boyles Law

P1V1 = P2 V2

P is inversely proportional to V at constant T (and at

constant n)

Charles Law

V1
T1

V2
T2

V is directly proportional to T at constant P (and a

constant n)

Avogadros Law

V1
n1

V2
n2

V is directly proportional to n at a constant T and P

P2 V2
n 2T2

PV is inversely proportional to nT

Combined Gas Law

P1V1
n1T1

Ideal Gas Law

PV = nRT

reduction
half-reaction

Other Types of Redox Reactions

Synthesis: simple to complex
Example: 2Mg + O2 2MgO
Decomposition: complex to simple
Example: 2HgO 2Hg + O2
3

PV is directly proportional to nT
Avogadros

E. Lewis valence electron dot structures: uses dots to

represent atoms valence electrons (highest energy
electrons in outermost level); predict using group
numbers.

Gases

Charles

F. Electromagnetic spectrum: shows

waves types from shortest wavelength (), frequency (f) decreases
as wavelength increases, where the
speed of light, c=f (c=3.00 x 108
m/s); calculate a photons energy
using Plancks constant (h = 6.63x
10-34 Js) in formula Ephoton hc

A. Energy level, n: designated with a number between

1 and 7. Level n = 1 has lowest energy electrons;
energy of levels: 1<2<3<4<
B. Sublevel, : electron-containing sublevels within
main energy
Maximum
level; designated
# of
# of
Sublevel
with the letter s,
orbitals
electrons
p, d, or f;
s
1
2
sublevel s has
p
3
6
lowest energy
d
5
10
electrons; energy
f
of sublevels:
14
7
s<p<d<f
C. Orbital: region where an electron can contain 0, 1,
or 2 electrons; number of orbitals varies by sublevel.
D. Electron configuration: arrangement of any atoms
electrons; fills lowest energy orbitals first; exception
to pattern is 4s orbitals are lower energy than 3d
orbitals.
Level
Sublevel
1s2
n=1
1s
principal
Number of
n=2
2s, 2p
energy sublevel electrons
n=3
3s, 3p, 3d
level
n=4
4s, 4p, 4d, 4f
(s,p,d,f)
n=5
5s, 5p, 5d, 5f

Stoichiometry

B oy l e s

F
Trigonal Planar

0.65 mol
1N
0.65 mol
1.3 mol
2H
.65 mol

subscript multiplier =

Chemical Bonding
A. Metallic Bonding
In a metal, outer shell electrons move freely among the outer orbitals of several metal atoms. Densely packed
atoms form a lattice-like structure (equal spacing to surrounding atoms). The interaction between this sea of
electrons and the positively charged nuclei of several metal atoms is called metallic bonding.
Common Metallic Properties:
1. Conductivity - metals can quickly carry heat (thermal energy) and charge (electricity) because the electrons
are mobile and can move quickly
2. Malleability - metals can be flattened or rolled because the structure allows atoms to easily reposition (move
and form new metallic bonds)
3. Ductility - metals can be pulled or stretched into wires because the structure allows atoms to easily reposition and form new metallic bonds
B. Ionic and Covalent Bonds:
1. Ion: atoms that gains electron(s) to form a negatively charged anion, like Br, or loses electron(s) to become
a positively charged cation, like Mg2+
2. Ionic bond: chemical attraction between a cation and an anion; an ionic bond forms when an electron(s)

transfers from a metal to a nonmetal

Geometry

2.016
11.19% H
18.015

C. Empirical formula: smallest whole number ratio of

atoms in a compound; the formula of an ionic compound is always equal to the empirical formula.
Example: Find a compounds empirical formula if it
has 9.1 g of N and 1.3 g H.

Bonding

Structure
linear, AX2
2 atoms bonded to A,
No lone pairs
trigonal planar, AX3
3 atoms bonded to A,
No lone pairs
tetrahedral, AX4
4 atoms bonded to A,
No lone pairs

(2 x1.008)
18.015

9.1 g N x

Add prefix hydro- to anion

root

Compound that produces OH anions when added to water

6.02 x10 molecules H 2O

1 mol H2O
x
18.015 g H 2O
1 mole H 2O

Chemical Reactions
A. Law of Conservation of Mass: matter is not created
or destroyed in an ordinary chemical reaction (atoms
are not created or destroyed)
total mass of reactants = total mass of products