1

4.0 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

4.1

INTRODUCTION

A flexible pavement is a structure composed of several layers of material placed on a sub-grade,

each of which receives the loads from the above layer, spreads and distribute them out, then
pass them on to the layer below. Thus, the further down in the pavement structure a particular
layer is, the less load (in terms of force per area) it must carry. The aim is to ensure that the
transmitted stresses are sufficiently reduced and do not exceed the capacity of the underlying
sub-grade. (refer Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1: Flexible pavement load distribution [1]

4.2

ELEMENTS OF A FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT STRUCTURE

Material layers are usually arranged within a pavement structure in order of descending load
bearing capacity with the highest load bearing capacity material (and most expensive) on the
top and the lowest load bearing capacity material (and least expensive) on the bottom. A typical
flexible pavement structure consists of:
1. Surface Course: This top structural layer usually consists of two layers: the wearing
course (at the top) and binder course (at the bottom). Wearing course is the layer in
contact with traffic loads. It provides a uniform running surface with characteristics
such as friction (skid resistance), smoothness, and deformation resistance. This wearing
course is usually impervious to prevent entrance of surface water into the pavement.
The binder course provides a smooth platform onto which the wearing course is
constructed. It not only contributes to the riding quality of the pavement but also to the
structural strength of the pavement. Surface courses are most often constructed out of
HMA.
2. Road Base: This main structural layer lies immediately beneath the surface course. Its
purpose is to distribute traffic loads so that the stresses transmitted onto are within the
capacity of the lower layers. Road base are usually the thickest layer in the pavement
and constructed out of crushed aggregate, cement stabilized, or HMA.
3. Sub-base: This is the layer between the road base and sub-grade. It functions as a load
distributing layer, minimizing the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade into the
pavement structure, and improve drainage. The materials are usually crushed aggregate
of a lower quality than the road base but better than the sub-grade soils. A sub-base
course may or may not be present in the pavement.

The overall thickness of the pavement and the individual layers depends on the traffic load to be
carried, climate, mechanical properties of the material in the layers, and the sub-grade strength.
4.3

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE DESIGN

4.3.1

Failure Mechanism

Two flexible pavement failure mechanisms that concern highway engineers are permanent
deformation of the whole structure and cracking of the bituminous layer [2]. When a wheel load
passes over a point in a flexible pavement, an applied stress pulse is transmit, resulting strain
pulse consists of a resilient and permanent component. Excessive accumulation of permanent
strains from all layers leads to failure via surface rutting. Permanent deformation in asphalt at
high temperature is not considered as a failure mode in Malaysian guide for pavement design
[3]. Figure 4.2 shows rutting that occur in the wheel paths of a vehicle traveling on a flexible
pavement.

Figure 4.2: Rutting along the wheel path [x]

Cracking is a fracture failure results from fatigue in bituminous materials. Fatigue cracking
occur when a bituminous pavement are subjected to repeated stressing under traffic loading.
Cracking originate form the bottom layer and propagate upwards to the surface. Surface
cracking unaccompanied by any deformation associated with deep-seated failure in the
pavement structure is attributed to fatigue failure in the bituminous layers. This type of crack is
the most common mode of distress in flexible pavement in Malaysia and considered as a failure
mode in Malaysian guide for pavement design [3].
4.3.2

Traffic Loading

Vehicle loads comprises tire loads and pressures, axle and wheel configurations, load repetition,
traffic distribution across the pavement and vehicle speed [1, 2]. Since one of the primary
functions of a pavement is load distribution, pavement design must account for the cumulative
traffic loading during its design life.
1. Tire Loads and Pressures: Tire loads are the fundamental loads at the actual tirepavement contact points. The total applied tire load determines the depth of pavement
required to ensure that the sub-grade is not over-stressed. Tire inflation pressure
influences the quality of the material used in the upper layer of a pavement. The higher
the tire pressure the less contact occur between tire and pavement, hence the higher the
contact pressure at the pavement surface. The effects of high tire pressure are most
obvious in the upper layer of a pavement and less at greater depths.
2. Axle and wheel configurations: While the tire contact pressure and area is of concern, the
number of contact points per vehicle and their spacing is critical. Many commercial
vehicles have axles with twin-tired wheel assemblies. As tire loads get closer together

3.

4.
5.

6.

4.3.3

their influence areas on the pavement begin to overlap, producing combined effect of
the interacting tire loads.
Load repetition: Loads, along with the environment, damage pavement over time. Each
individual load inflicts a certain amount of unrecoverable damage. This damage is
cumulative over the life of the pavement and when it reaches certain value the
pavement is considered to have reached the end of its useful service life. Therefore the
main concern is the cumulative loads that the pavement has to carry during its design
life.
Traffic distribution: On any particular road, loads on one direction may be different from
the other. Furthermore, within this one direction, different lane may carry a different
portion of the loading. The outer most lane often carries the most heavy vehicles and
therefore is usually subjected to the heaviest loading, hence suffer greatest deformation.
Vehicle speed. In general, slower speeds and stop conditions allow a particular load to be
applied for a longer period of time resulting in greater deflection (damage) on the
pavement. This behavior is obvious at bus stops (where heavy buses stop and sit while
loading/unloading passengers), intersection approaches (where traffic stops and waits
to pass through the intersection), and uphill gradients (where heavy vehicle crawls).
The speed effects suggest that, for the same volume of traffic, greater thickness and/or
better quality of pavement materials is required in urban areas compare to rural areas
due to the lower average speeds in urban areas.
Equivalent standard axle (ESA): Also known as equivalent single axle loads (ESALs) in
the America. This approach converts wheel loads of various magnitudes and repetitions
to an equivalent number of "standard" or "equivalent" loads based on the amount of
damage they do to the pavement. The commonly used standard load is the 80 kN (8160
kg or 18,000 lb) equivalent single axle load. Using the ESA method, all loads are
converted to an equivalent number of 80 kN single axle loads, which is then used for
design. A load equivalency factor, e, represents the equivalent number of ESA for the
given weight-axle combination. Studies show that pavement damage (axle load)n. The
value of n lies in range of 3.2 to 5.6. In practice the value of n = 4 is often used [2]. Load
equivalency for a particular vehicle, e = (L/Ls)4

Environmental Factors

A pavement must function within its designed environment. Environmental variations can have
a significant impact on pavement materials and the sub-grade soil, which will affect pavement
performance. The environmental factors that significantly affect pavement performance are
temperature, and moisture [3].

In general, the performance of a bituminous pavement deteriorates with rising temperature.

There are two ways that temperature can affect the pavements. First, temperature affects the
rheology (deformation and flow characteristics) of an asphalt binder, and second, temperature
variations cause expansion and contraction in the asphalt pavement [1]. Asphalt becomes stiff
and brittle at low temperature and soft and visco-elastic at high temperature. Pavements will
expand as the temperature rises and contracts as the temperature falls. Small amounts of
expansion and contraction are typically accommodated without excessive damage, however
extreme temperature changes can cause catastrophic failures. Another factor to be considered is
problems of exposure to sunlight which will cause a pavement's surface to age more quickly
making pavement surface more brittle and prone to cracking and raveling.
Moisture (in the form of accumulated water or rainfall) can affect not only pavement design and
construction but also user safety. Certain type of soil can be highly expansive in the presence of
water. Excessive rainfall can raise sub-grade moisture content making it difficult to compact.
The strength of unbound materials and sub-grade is heavily dependent on the moisture content

of the materials. Placing HMA in wet conditions will damage the mix causing stripping problems
later in life. Rainfall and accumulation of water on the road surface reduces skid resistance and
may cause hydroplaning in severely rutted areas.
4.4

METHODS OF DESIGN FOR NEW PAVEMENTS

The objective of any structural design is to determine the number, material composition, and
thickness of the different layers in the pavement that will be able to sustain the anticipated
traffic loading and the environmental conditions. Methods of pavement design can be divided
into three main categories namely:
1. Methods based on precedent;
2. Empirical methods; and
3. Theoretical methods.
4.4 1

Methods Based on Precedent

This method might also be called design procedures by rule-of-thumb. Basically, they rely upon
standard thicknesses of pavement for a particular classification of road [2]. Thus, the same
thickness of pavement may be constructed on a weak sub-grade as on strong ones, as long as the
road class is the same. Care should be taken if this method is to be implemented over large areas
since sub-grade strength may vary widely.

4.4.2

Empirical Design Method

Empirical methods may be based on either soil classification (Group Index), or soil strength test
(CBR, R-value) methods. Many pavement structural design procedures use an empirical
approach. This means that the relationships between design inputs (e.g., loads, materials, layer
configurations and environment) and pavement failure were determined using experience,
experimentation or a combination of both. This method can be used with confidence as long as
the limitations with such an approach are recognized [1]. Soil strength test method is the basis
of pavement design described in UK Road Note 29 and Road Note 31, 1993 AASHTO Design
Method and California Design Method.
4.4.3

Theoretical Methods

This method can be divided into two categories, theoretical (also known as analytical or
mechanistic) and semi-theoretical (mechanistic-empirical) methods. Theoretical methods are
based on mechanical models and still need practical verification. The most advanced pavement
structural design uses a mechanistic-empirical approach. Unlike an empirical approach, a
mechanistic approach seeks to relate pavement parameters to physical causes. In pavement
design, the parameters are the stresses, strains and deflections within a pavement structure,
and the physical causes are the loads and pavement material properties. The relationship
between these parameters and their physical causes is typically described using a mathematical
model. Along with this mechanistic approach, empirical elements are used when determining
what values of the calculated stresses, strains and deflections result in pavement failure. The
relationship between physical causes and pavement failure is described by empirically derived
equations that compute the number of loading cycles to failure [1].

The advantages of a mechanistic-empirical design method over an empirical one are [1]:
1.
It can be used for designing both new pavement construction and rehabilitation of
existing pavement;
2.
It accommodates various load types;
3.
It uses material properties that relate to the actual pavement providing more
reliable performance predictions; and
4.
It accommodates environmental and aging effects on materials.
4.4.4

General Design Process

In general the design process involved in designing the structural pavement thickness can be
summarized in Figure 4.3 [4].
Select design life of
pavement (1)

Assess annual traffic

growth rate (2)

Assess cumulative traffic loading

over the design period (4)

Select material to be used in

each layer (6)

Assess number of
commercial vehicles per
day in each direction (3)

Assess type and strength of

sub-grade (5)

Calculate thickness of
pavement layers (7)

Specify structural
design of pavement
(8)

Figure 4.3 General design process

4.5

MALAYSIAN DESIGN METHODS

Malaysia adopt design method based on AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures, and
catalogue of structures method, which consist of a series of discrete design for a limited number
of categories of traffic, sub-grade and material types [3].
4.5.1

Arahan Teknik Jalan 5/85 [5]

Arahan Teknik Jalan 5/85 manual, introduced in 1985 was based on AASHO Road Test results
but the design method is developed using multi-layered elastic theory through the use of
Chevron N-layer computer program. This manual is suitable for the design of major roads where
the traffic is medium or heavy. The thickness design is based on the CBR of the sub-grade and

the total number of 8160 kg standard axle application for a specific design period. The
commercial vehicles are defined as medium and heavy goods vehicles with unladen weight
exceeding 1500 kg.
Data required in the design are:
1. Design period, n (JKR suggest to use 10 years)
2. Class of road (e.g R5, R4)
3. Initial average daily traffic, ADT
4. Percentage of commercial vehicles, P c
5. Average annual traffic growth, r
6. Sub-grade CBR
7. Terrain condition

Design process:
1. Calculate the initial annual commercial vehicle for one direction:
V 0 = ADT x (1/2) x 365 x (P c /100)

2. Calculate the total number fo commercial vehicles for the design period in one direction:
V c = V 0 [(1 + r)n - 1] / r

3. Calculate the total cumulative equivalent standard axle load application for the design
period:
ESA = V c x e
Table 4.1 Guide for equivalent factor, e

Percentage of selected
heavy goods vehicles
0 15 %
16 50 %
51 100 %
Type of road
Local
Trunk
3.0
3.7
Equivalence factor, e
1.2
2.0
Note: In the absence of axle load study, an equivalence factor, e of 2.52 shall
be used [3].

4. Check daily capacity at the end of the design period:

Total one way traffic at the end of x years
V x = V i (1 + r)x
Maximum one way hourly flow
c=IxRxT
where,
I = ideal hourly capacity
R = roadway reduction factor
T = traffic reduction factor

Table 4.2: Maximum hourly capacity under ideal conditions, I

Road type

Passenger vehicle unit per hour

3 lane (both ways)

4000 total for both ways

Multilane

2 lane (both ways)

2000 per lane

2000 total for both ways

Table 4.3: Carriageway roadway reduction factor, R

Carriageway
width (m)
7.5
7.0
6.0
5.0

2.00
1.00
0.88
0.81
0.72

Shoulder width (m)

1.50
1.25
0.97
0.86
0.78
0.70

0.94
0.83
0.76
0.67

Table 4.4: Traffic reduction factor, T

Type of terrain
Factor
Flat

Rolling

Mountainous

1.00
0.90
0.79
0.73
0.64

T = 100/(100 + P c )

T = 100/(100 + 2P c )
T = 100/(100 + 5P c )

One way daily capacity

C = 10 x c
Check if C > V x , then the number of years, n, required to reach the daily capacity
is:
n = log (C/V i ) / log (1 + r)

5. Determine the sub-grade CBR

In the case of varying CBR within a meter depth of sub-grade, the mean CBR is
determined as follows:
CBR m = [(h 1 CBR 1 1/3 + h 2 CBR 2 1/3 + + h n CBR n 1/3) / (1000)]3
where:
= mean CBR value for that location
CBR m
CBR 1 , CBR 2 , CBR n = CBR value of each layer
= thickness of each layer (mm)
h1, h2, hn
h1 + h2 + + hn
= 1000 mm

6. Obtain the equivalent thickness, TA, from the Nomograph

7. Calculate the thickness for each layer:

TA = S N = a 1 D 1 + a 2 D 2 + ... + a n D n
where:
a 1 , a 2 a n are structural coefficients as shown in Table 4.5
D 1 , D 2 D n are the thickness of each layer as shown in Table 4.6

8. Sketch the designed thickness.

Component
Wearing and
Binder Course

Road Base

Sub-base

Table 4.5: Structural Layer Coefficients, a

Type of Layer
Property
Asphaltic Concrete
Dense Bituminous
Macadam
Cement stabilized
Mechanically stabilized
crushed aggregate
Sand, laterite, etc.
Crushed aggregate
Cement stabilized

Type 1:
Stability > 400 kg
Type 2:
Stability > 300 kg
Unconfined Compressive
strength (7 days)
30 40 kg/cm2
CBR > 80 %
CBR > 20 %
CBR > 30 %
CBR > 60 %

Coefficients
1.00
0.80
0.55
0.45
0.32
0.23
0.25
0.28

Table 4.6: Standard & Construction Layer Thickness

Type of Layer
Standard Thickness
One Layer Lift
(cm)
(cm)
Wearing Course
45
45
Binder Course
5 10
5 10
Road Base
Bituminous
5 20
5 15
Wet Mix
10 20
10 15
Cement Stabilized
10 20
10 20
Sub-base
Granular
10 30
10 20
Cement Stabilized
15 20
10 20
Table 4.7: Minimum Thickness of Bituminous Layer
TA (cm)
Total Thickness of bituminous Layer (cm)
< 17.5
5.0
17.5 22.5
10.0
23.0 29.5
15.0
> 30.0
17.5
Worked Example:
Determine the required thickness for a JKR 05 road based on these data:
Carriageway width = 7.5 m
Layer materials:
Shoulder width = 2.0 m
Surfacing = Asphaltic concrete
ADT, both ways = 6,600
Road base = Wet Mix Macadam
Percentage of commercial vehicles = 15 %
Sub-base = Sand
Traffic growth rate = 7 %
Sub-grade CBR = 5 %
Terrain = rolling
Solution:
1)
Initial annual commercial traffic for one way:
Vo = 6600 x 0.5 x 0.15 x 365 = 181,000

2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

8)

Cumulative commercial traffic for the design period:

Vc = 181,000[(1 + 0.07)10 1] = 2.5 x 106
0.07

Since Pc = 15% and JKR 05 road, therefore e = 2.0. Cumulative equivalent standard axles
for the design life:
ESA = 2.5 x 106 x 2.0 = 5.0 x 106

Estimated daily traffic per direction per lane after 10 years is:
6600 (1 + 0.07)10 = 6492
2

With I = 1000, R = 1.0, and T = 0.77; Maximum hourly one way traffic flow:
c = 1000 x 1.0 x 0.77 = 770 veh/hour/lane
Maximum daily capacity per lane per direction is:
C = 10 x 770 = 7700 veh/day/lane

Since 6492 < 7700, hence capacity have not been reached after 10 years

From the Nomograph, with ESA = 5 x 106 and CBR = 5%, the required TA is 26 cm.

Layer coefficients and minimum thickness:

Layer
a1
a2

a3

Material

Asphaltic Concrete
Mechanically stabilized
crushed aggregate
Sand

Coefficient
1.00
0.32
0.23

Minimum thickness
(cm)
9

First trial:,
Nominate D 1 = 12.5 cm, D 2 = 18.0 cm , D 3 = 20.0 cm
Then, SN = 1.00 x 12.5 + 0.32 x 18 + 0.23 x 20 = 22.86 < TA

10
10

Second trial:
Nominate D 1 = 15 cm, D 2 = 20 cm, D 3 = 20 cm
Then, SN = 1.00 x 15 + 0.32 x 20 + 0.23 x 20 = 26 = TA

Taking into consideration the minimum thickness requirements, the pavement structure then
consists of the following thickness:
Wearing Course
= 5 cm
Binder Course = 10 cm
Road base
= 20 cm
Sub-base
= 20 cm

4.5.2

Overseas Road Note 31 [6]

This design method is based principally on research conducted in 30 tropical and sub-tropical
countries throughout the world by Overseas Development Administration. This method is
suitable for design of roads to cater for traffic up to 30 million cumulative equivalent standard
axles in one direction. It takes into account the variability in material properties and
construction control, the uncertainty in traffic forecasts, the effects of climate and high axle
loads and the overall statistical variability in road performance. Heavy vehicles are defined as
those having an unladen weight of 3000 kg or more. The equivalence factor, e = (L/Ls)4.5 is used
for determination of cumulative equivalent standard axles.

There are three main steps in determining the required structural thickness for a new
pavement:
1. Estimating the amount of traffic and the cumulative number of equivalent standard
axles that will use the road over the design life. Determine traffic class (T) based on
the CSA obtained;

10

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
CBR = 3
ESA
TA for CBR = 3
Design CBR
Required TA

Figure 4.4 Design Nomograph

11

CORRECTED EQUIVALENT THICKNESS TA (cm)

EQUIVALENT THICKNESS TA (cm)

EQUIVALENT AXLE LOAD, ESA

SUB-GRADE CBR (%)

2. Assessing the strength of the sub-grade over which the road to be build. Determine
the sub-grade strength (S) based on CBR value, or from plasticity index and depth of
water table; and
3. Selecting the most economical combination of pavement materials and thickness
from the structure catalogue that will provide satisfactory service over the design
life based on T and S value.

Five aspects that are major significance in design of road in tropical and sub-tropical have been
specially emphasized, which are:
1. The influence of tropical climates on moisture conditions in road sub-grades;
2. The severe conditions imposed on exposed bituminous surfacing by tropical climates
and their implication on the design;
3. The interrelationships between design and maintenance;
4. The high axle loads and tire pressures; and
5. The influence of tropical climates on the nature of soils and rocks used in the road
building.
Table 4.8: Traffic classes

Traffic classes
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8

Range (106 ESA)

< 0.3
0.3 0.7
0.7 1.5
1.5 3.0
3.0 6.0
6.0 10
10 17
17 30

Table 4.9: Sub-grade strength classes

Class
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6

Range (CBR %)
2
34
57
8 14
15 29
30+

12

Table 4.10: Estimated design sub-grade strength class under sealed road in the presence of a
water table
Depth of water
table from
formation (m)
0.5
1
2
3

Non-plastic
sand
S4
S5
S5
S6

Sub-grade strength class

Sandy clay
Sandy clay
Silty clay
PI = 10
PI = 20
PI = 30
S4
S2
S2
S4
S3
S2
S5
S4
S3
S5
S4
S3

Heavy clay
PI > 40
S1
S1
S2
S2

Double surface dressing, SD

Flexible bituminous surfacing

Bituminous surface (Wearing and binder course)

Road base, RB

Granular road base, GB1 GB3

Granular sub-base, GS

Granular capping layer or selected sub-grade fill, GC

Cement or lime stabilized road base 1, CB1
Cement or lime stabilized road base 2, CB2
Cement or lime stabilized sub-base, CS
Figure 4.5: Material Definitions

13

S1

S2

T1

T2

150
175
300

150
225
300

SD

SD
150
150
200

T3

T4

T5

200
200
300

200
250
300

200
300
300

SD

SD

SD
150
200
200

SD
200
175
200

SD

SD
200
225
200

SD

SD
200
275
200

T6

SD

SD
225
300
200

SD
150
200

SD
150
250

SD
200
225

SD
200
275

SD
200
325

SD
225
350

S4

SD
150
125

SD
150
175

SD
200
150

SD
200
200

SD
200
250

SD
225
275

SD
150

SD
150

SD
175

SD
200

SD
225

SD
250

S6

SD
150
100

SD
150
100

SD
175
100

SD
200
125

SD
225
150

T8

225
325
300

S3

S5

T7

SD
250
175

Figure 4.6: Structure catalogue: Granular road base/surface dressing

14

T1
S1

S2

T2

T3

T4

T5

T6

100
200
225
350
100
200
225
200

T7

125
225
225
350
125
225
225
200

T8

150
250
250
350
150
250
250
200

S3

100
200
250

125
225
250

150
250
275

S4

100
200
175

125
225
175

150
250
175

100
200

125
225

150
250

S5
S6

100
200
100

125
225
100

150
250
100

Figure 4.7: Structure catalogue: Granular road base/structural surface

15

REFERENCES
1. www.hawaiiasphalt.com/HAPI/modules/08_structural_design/08_pavement_structure.htm
2. OFlaherty, C. A.(1988). Highways: Volume 2: Highway Engineering. Third Edition. Great
Britain: Edward Arnold
3. Road Engineering Association of Malaysia & Jabatan Kerja Raya Malaysia (1998). Structural
Design of Flexible Pavement. Third Malaysian Road Conference, 16-17 November 1998,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: REAM & JKR
4. Wignall, A., Kendrick, P. S., and Ancill, R. (1991), Roadwork Theory and Practice. Third
edition. Oxford, England: Newnes.
5. Jabatan Kerja Raya Malaysia (1985). Manual on Pavement Design. Arahan Teknik Jalan
5/85. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: JKR
6. Overseas Development Administration (1993). A Guide to The Structural Design of
Bitumen-Surfaced Roads in Tropical and Sub-Tropical Countries. Overseas Road Note 31
(4th Edition 1993). Crowthorne, England: ODA

16