Manufacture of Steel

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pndtw0\charscalex95 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs36 THE MANUFACTURE OF STEEL \par\pa
rd\qj \li1740\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1740\ri1481\sb197\sl-280\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 Steel refers to any i
ron-carbon alloy, although steels usually contain other elements as \up0 \expndt
w-3\charscalex100 well. In New Zealand steel is made by BHP NZ at Glenbrook, wh
ere about 90% of New \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Zealand's annual steel requir
ements are produced. \par\pard\qj \li1740\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1740
\ri1481\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Iron occurs mainly as o
xide ores, though it is also found in smaller quantities as its sulfide \line \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 and carbonate. These other ores are usually first r
oasted to convert them into the oxide. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 On a
world scale the most important ore is haematite (Fe\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 2\ul0\no
supersub\cf3\f4\fs24 O\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 3\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 ), but i
n New Zealand the \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 starting materials are mag
netite (Fe\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 3\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 O\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs2
4 4\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 ) and titanomagnetite (Fe\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 2\u
l0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 TiO\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 4\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 )
. The oxides are \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 reduced with carbon from c
oal, through the intermediate production of carbon monoxide. \par\pard\qj \li174
0\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1740\ri1480\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw
-6\charscalex100 The carbon initially burns in air to give carbon dioxide and th
e heat, which is necessary for \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 the process. The c
arbon dioxide then undergoes an endothermic reaction with more \up0 \expndtw-5\c
harscalex100 carbon to yield carbon monoxide: \par\pard\li1740\sb29\sl-322\slmul
t0\fi3300\tx7920 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 C
+
O\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 2
\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs28 \u8594?\ul0\nosupers
ub\cf3\f4\fs24
CO\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 2\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \u
l0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 \u8710?\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs24 H\ul0\nosupersub\cf
3\f4\fs24 = -393 kJ mol\ul0\super\cf4\f5\fs23 -1\par\pard\li1740\sb22\sl-322\sl
mult0\fi3240\tx7920 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 C
+
CO\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24
\ul0\nosupersub\c
f5\f6\fs28 \u8594?\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24
2CO\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\chars
calex100 \u8710?\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs24 H\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 = +171
kJ mol\ul0\super\cf4\f5\fs23 -1\par\pard\li1740\sb0\sl-276\slmult0\par\pard\li1
740\sb7\sl-276\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\
fs24 The oxide ores are then principally reduced by the carbon monoxide produced
in this\par\pard\li1740\sb4\sl-276\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 re
action, the reactions involving very small enthalpy changes:\par\pard\li4260\sb5
9\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx5013\tx5328\tx8045 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 Fe\ul0\s
ub\cf4\f5\fs24 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 O\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 3\tab \up0 \ex
pndtw-8\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 +\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscal
ex100 3CO \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs28 \u8594?\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24
2Fe
+
3CO\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 2\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 \ul0\nos
upersub\cf3\f4\fs24 \u8710?\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs24 H\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\f
s24 = -22 kJ mol\ul0\super\cf4\f5\fs23 -1\par\pard\li4260\sb67\sl-276\slmult0\f
i0\tx5013\tx5328\tx8045 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs2
4 Fe\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 3\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 O\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 4\ta
b \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 +\tab \up0 \expndtw8\charscalex100 4CO \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs28 \u8594?\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4
\fs24
3Fe
+
4CO\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 2\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex10
0 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 \u8710?\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs24 H\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf3\f4\fs24 = -10 kJ mol\ul0\super\cf4\f5\fs23 -1\par\pard\qj \li1740\ri1480\
sb269\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 In
conventional ironmaking this reduction occurs in a blast furnace, whereas in Ne
w \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 Zealand a rotary kiln is employed for dire
ct reduction, followed by indirect reduction in an \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charsca
lex100 electric melter. This technology is used because the titanium dioxide pr
esent in the ore \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 produces a slag which block
s conventional blast furnaces as it has a high melting point. \par\pard\qj \li17
40\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1740\ri1480\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndt
w-3\charscalex100 The iron produced in this way always contains high levels of i
mpurities making it very \line \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 brittle. Steel mak
ing is mainly concerned with the removal of these impurities. This is \line \up
0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 done by oxidising the elements concerned by blowing pu
re oxygen through a lance \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 inserted into the
molten alloy. The KOBM (Klockner Oxygen Blown Maxhutte) used for \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 this in New Zealand is unusual because oxygen is also blow
n through holes in the base of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 the converter.
The oxides produced are either evolved as gases, or combine with \line \up0 \
expndtw-5\charscalex100 limestone to form an immiscible slag which floats on the
surface of the liquid metal and so \line \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 is easil
y separated. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb208\s
l-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 INTRODUC
TION \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1420\sb1\sl-2
80\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 Steel is a
term given to alloys containing a high proportion of iron with some carbon. Oth
er \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 alloying elements may also be present in
varying proportions. The properties of steel are \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscal
ex100 highly dependent on the proportions of alloying elements, so that their le
vels are closely \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 controlled during its manuf
acture. The properties of steel also depend on the heat treatment \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-5\charscalex100 of the metal. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \pa
r\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Steel is by fa

r the most important metal, in tonnage terms, in the modern world, with the \par
\pard\qj \li1440\ri1425\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 annual
global production of over 700 million tonnes dwarfing the approximately 17 milli
on \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 tonnes of the next most prolific, alumini
um. The low price and high strength of steel means \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charsc
alex100 that it is used structurally in many buildings and as sheet steel it is
the major component of \par\pard\ql \li8677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li86
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0 VIII-Metals-A-Steel-1
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2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2803ffd9}}}}}\pa
rd\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg2}{\bkmkend Pg2}\par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmul
t0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0
\par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb108\sl-276\slmult0
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 motor vehicles and do
mestic appliances. The major disadvantage of steel is that it will \par\pard\qj
\li1440\ri1240\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 oxidise under m
oist conditions to form rust. A typical steel would have a density of about 7.7
\up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 g cm\ul0\super\cf4\f5\fs23 -3\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\
f4\fs24 and a melting point of about 1650\ul0\super\cf4\f5\fs23 o\ul0\nosupersu
b\cf3\f4\fs24 C. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1
449\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 The New Zealand production
of about 650 000 tonnes per year at Glenbrook, 40 km south\up0 \expndtw-4\charsc
alex100 west of Auckland, is minimal on a world scale, being less than 1% the ou
tput of the major \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 producing countries. However, t
he two main stages in the production of steel in New \line \up0 \expndtw-4\chars
calex100 Zealand are both unusual, making the overall process almost unique. Ne
w Zealand is also \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 one of the few countries that ha
s increased steel production over the last decade. Its current \up0 \expndtw-5\
charscalex100 share of the domestic steel market is about 90%. \par\pard\ql \li1
440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li144
0\sb12\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24
THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS \par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\l
i1440\ri1297\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf
3\f4\fs24 Iron ore is converted to steel via two main steps. The first involves
the production of molten \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 iron and the secon
d is that of actual steel manufacture. The details of these steps are outlined
\line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 below. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmul
t0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nos
upersub\cf7\f8\fs24 Step 1 - The production of molten iron \par\pard\qj \li1440\
ri1475\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\f
s24 The Primary Concentrate is mixed with limestone and coal and heated. The ir
on oxides are \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 reduced in the solid state to metall
ic iron, which then melts, and the impurities are removed \up0 \expndtw-4\charsc
alex100 either as slag or gas. The flow diagram for this process is shown in \u
l0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 Figure 1\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 . \par\pard\li5742
\sb0\sl-218\slmult0\par\pard\li5742\sb117\sl-218\slmult0\fi0\tx8148 \up0 \expndt
w-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs19 volatile coal components\tab \dn3
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 CO and other gases\par\pard\li2224\sb0\sl-218\slmult0\p
ar\pard\li2224\sb0\sl-218\slmult0\par\pard\li2224\sb0\sl-218\slmult0\par\pard\li
2224\sb63\sl-218\slmult0\fi0\tx5756\tx7615 \dn3 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\no
supersub\cf11\f12\fs19 Coal\tab \dn3 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf
8\f9\fs19 devolatilised\tab \up5 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 CO\ul0\sub\cf9\f10\fs2
1 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs19 and\par\pard\li1633\sb0\sl-171\slmult0\fi5846 \u
p0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 waste gases\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols3\colno1\
colw2739\colsr160\colno2\colw5473\colsr110\colno3\colw3288\colsr160\ql \li1633\s
b1\sl-190\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs19 Ir
onsand\par\pard\column \ql \li1147\sb0\sl-171\slmult0\tx2908 \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs19 PC\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 coal
and PC\par\pard\ql \li299\sb15\sl-172\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul
0\nosupersub\cf10\f11\fs15 magnetic\par\pard\ql \li297\sb1\sl-171\slmult0\tx1756
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 separator\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\
nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs19 multi-hearth\par\pard\ql \li1894\sb0\sl-171\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 furnaces\par\pard\ql \li3848\sb132\sl-218\slmult0\tx493
6 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 rotary kiln\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 RP
CC\par\pard\ql \li236\sb121\sl-218\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 impurit
ies\par\pard\ql \li20\sb0\sl-212\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 (e.g. san
d, clay)\par\pard\ql \li2848\sb21\sl-218\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 l
imestone\par\pard\ql \li3868\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li3868\sb0\sl-276\
slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li3868\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li989\sb184\sl-276
\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 Figure 1 - Th
e production of molten iron\par\pard\column \ql \li10076\sb0\sl-218\slmult0 \par
\pard\ql \li10076\sb0\sl-218\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1624\sb59\sl-218\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs19 slag\par\pard\ql \li8710
\sb0\sl-218\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li258\sb29\sl-218\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 electric\par\pard\ql \li295\sb0\sl-212\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 melter\par\pard\ql \li8472\sb0\sl-218\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li8472\sb0\sl
-218\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li8472\sb0\sl-218\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li8472\sb0\sl
-218\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\sb181\sl-218\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
00 \ul0\nosupersub\cf11\f12\fs19 Molten iron \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone \ql \l
i1439\sb273\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\
fs24 The multi-hearth furnaces \par\pard\ql \li1439\ri1310\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 There are four multi-hea
rth furnaces, each of which feeds a rotary kiln. The furnaces preheat \up0 \exp
ndtw-4\charscalex100 the materials fed into the rotary kiln and reduce the amoun
t of volatile matter present in the \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 coal from abou
t 44% to about 9%. This is important because the large volumes of gas \line \up
0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 produced during the emission of the volatile matter w
ould otherwise interfere with the \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 processes
in the rotary kiln. \par\pard\qj \li1439\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1439\
ri1479\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 There are 12 hearths in
each furnace and the feedstock passes down through these. In the \line \up0 \ex
pndtw-4\charscalex100 first three hearths, hot gases from the lower stages prehe
at the material in the absence of air \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 to abo
ut 450\ul0\super\cf4\f5\fs23 o\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 C. Air is introduced
in hearths 4 to 9 to allow combustion of the volatile \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\s
l-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb12\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex

100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs20 VIII-Metals-A-Steel-2 \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\
paperw11900\paperh16840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg3}{\bkmkend Pg3}\par\pard\q
l \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\ql
\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\l
i1440\ri1447\sb89\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f3\f4\fs24 material, so as to increase the temperature to about 650\ul0\super\cf
4\f5\fs23 o\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 C. The supply of air is adjusted to \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 control the percentage of residual volatiles and
coal char in the product. In the final hearths \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscale
x100 (10 - 12) the char and the primary concentrate equilibrate and the final te
mperature is \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 adjusted to 620\ul0\super\cf4\f
5\fs23 o\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 C. The total residence time in the multi-he
arth furnace is 30 - 40 minutes. \par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pa
rd\qj\li1440\ri1241\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The multi-h
earth furnaces also have natural gas burners at various levels. These are used
to \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 restart the furnace after shutdown and to
maintain the temperature if the supply of materials is \up0 \expndtw-3\charscal
ex100 interrupted. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\s
b8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 The waste gas from the multi-hea
rth furnace contains water vapour and other volatile \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb4\sl
-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 compounds from the coal (e.g. carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide and other combustion \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1259\sb5\sl
-275\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 products) as well as suspended coal a
nd primary concentrate dust particles. These solids are \up0 \expndtw-2\charsca
lex100 removed and returned to the furnace. This gas along with gas from the me
lter (mainly carbon \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 monoxide) is mixed with air an
d burnt. The heat so produced is used to raise steam for the \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 production of electricity. As well as providing a valuable source o
f energy, this combustion \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 of the waste gases is ne
cessary to meet emission controls. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\
pard\ql\li1440\sb9\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf6\f7\fs24 The rotary kilns \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1287\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 There are four rotary kiln
s. Here about 80% of the iron of the primary concentrate is reduced \up0 \expnd
tw-4\charscalex100 to metallic iron over a 12 hour period. The kilns are 65 m l
ong and have a diameter of 4.6 m, \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 closely resembli
ng those used for cement production. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \pa
r\pard\ql\li1440\ri1302\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 The pre
-heated coal char and primary concentrate from the furnaces is mixed with limest
one \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 and fed into the kiln. In the first third of
the kiln, known as the pre-heating zone, the feed \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
from the multi-hearth furnace is further heated to 900 - 1000\ul0\super\cf4\f5\f
s23 o\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 C. This increase in temperature \up0 \expndtw4\charscalex100 is partly a result of the passage of hot gases from further alon
g the kiln and partly a result of \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 the combustion o
f the remaining volatile matter in the coal. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slm
ult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 The la
st two-thirds of the kiln is known as the reduction zone, and is where the solid
iron \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1291\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex1
00 oxides are reduced to metallic iron. In this region the air reacts with the
carbon from the coal \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 to produce carbon dioxide and
heat: \par\pard\li1440\sb31\sl-322\slmult0\fi3300\tx7920 \up0 \expndtw-4\charsc
alex100 C
+
O\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24
\ul0\nos
upersub\cf5\f6\fs28 \u8594?\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24
CO\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs
24 2\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 \u8710?\ul0\n
osupersub\cf6\f7\fs24 H\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 = -393 kJ mol\ul0\super\cf4\
f5\fs23 -1\par\pard\li1440\sb4\sl-276\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100
\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 The carbon dioxide then reacts with more carbon to p
roduce carbon monoxide, the principal\par\pard\li1440\sb4\sl-276\slmult0\fi0 \up
0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 reductant, in an exothermic reaction:\par\pard\li1440

\sb21\sl-322\slmult0\fi3240\tx7920 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 C
+
CO\ul
0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24
\ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs28 \
u8594?\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24
2CO\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \u87
10?\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs24 H\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 = +171 kJ mol\ul0\s
uper\cf4\f5\fs23 -1\par\pard\li1440\sb4\sl-276\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw-3\chars
calex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 Some of the carbon monoxide burns with the
oxygen to produce heat, whilst the remainder\par\pard\li1440\sb3\sl-276\slmult0\
fi0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 reduces the magnetite\ul0\super\cf4\f5\fs23 1\
ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 to iron in a reaction that is almost thermochemicall
y neutral.\par\pard\li4140\sb21\sl-322\slmult0\fi540\tx7920 \up0 \expndtw-8\char
scalex100 2CO
+
O\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24
\ul0
\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs28 \u8594?\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24
2CO\ul0\sub\cf4\
f5\fs24 2\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 \u8710?\
ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs24 H\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 = -564 kJ mol\ul0\super
\cf4\f5\fs23 -1\par\pard\li4140\sb59\sl-276\slmult0\fi0\tx4893\tx5208\tx7920 \up
0 \expndtw-7\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 Fe\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 3\
ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 O\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 4\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscale
x100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 +\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 4CO \ul0\
nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs28 \u8594?\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24
3Fe
+
4CO\u
l0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 2\tab \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs
24 \u8710?\ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs24 H\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 = -10 kJ mol
\ul0\super\cf4\f5\fs23 -1\par\pard\li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li1440\sb0
\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li1440\sb0\sl-230\sl
mult0\par\pard\li1440\sb75\sl-230\slmult0\fi719 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 1\
ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs20 Magnetite can be regarded as 1:1 combination of wusti
te (FeO) and haematite (Fe\ul0\sub\cf12\f13\fs19 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs20 O\
ul0\sub\cf12\f13\fs19 3\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs20 ). The separate\par\pard\li
1440\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 reduction processes f
rom these two components are:\par\pard\li3720\sb57\sl-230\slmult0\fi189\tx4405\t
x7200 \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 FeO\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 +
C
O \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 \u8594?\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs20
Fe
+
CO\ul0\sub\cf12\f13\fs19 2\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\
cf1\f2\fs20 \u8710?\ul0\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 H\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs20 =
-10 kJ mol\ul0\super\cf12\f13\fs19 -1\par\pard\li3720\sb64\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\t
x4343\tx4607\tx5145\tx7200 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\
fs20 Fe\ul0\sub\cf12\f13\fs19 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs20 O\ul0\sub\cf12\f13\fs
19 3\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs20 +\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw-6\charscalex100 3CO\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3
\f4\fs24 \u8594?\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs20
2Fe
+
3CO\ul0\sub\cf12\f13\
fs19 2\tab \up0 \expndtw-6\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs20 \u8710?\ul0
\nosupersub\cf13\f14\fs20 H\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs20 = -22kJ mol\ul0\super\cf
12\f13\fs19 -1\par\pard\ql \li8677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb0\sl
-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb0\sl-2
30\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb123\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex10
0 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs20 VIII-Metals-A-Steel-3
}
}}\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart P
g4}{\bkmkend Pg4}\par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0
\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\s
l-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1255\sb89\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\cha

rscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 In a similar manner the titanomagnetite i
s reduced to iron and titanium dioxide. The product \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex1
00 from the kiln is known as \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 R\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4
\fs24 educed \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 P\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 rimary \ul
0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 C\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 oncentrate and \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf7\f8\fs24 C\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 har (RPCC) and is nearly 70% \up0
\expndtw-4\charscalex100 metallic iron. Unchanged ore, unburnt char, titanium o
xide and coal ash accout for the rest of \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the mixtu
re. This hot (950\ul0\super\cf4\f5\fs23 o\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 C) mixture
is then discharged to the melters. \par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par
\pard\qj\li1440\ri1329\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 In this
latter part of the kiln the temperatures can reach 1100\ul0\super\cf4\f5\fs23 o\
ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 C. Higher temperatures would \up0 \expndtw-4\charsca
lex100 lead to an increase in the percentage reduction of the concentrate, but u
nfortunately they also \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 produce accretions of solid
s on the walls of the kiln which reduce its efficiency and damage \up0 \expndtw5\charscalex100 the refractory lining. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \
par\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Air is injec
ted into the kiln at nine evenly spaced points along its length. In the kiln th
e \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1408\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 l
imestone is converted to lime (calcium oxide) which then acts as a flux in the m
elters. The \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 waste gases from the kiln are scrubbe
d to remove solids and burnt to remove any flammable \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex1
00 compounds before being vented to the air. There are currently plans to use t
he energy from \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 this process for the co-generation
of electricity. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\
sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs24 The mel
ters \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1333\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex10
0 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 The hot reduced primary concentrate from the kilns
is fed into two melters. These are about \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 27 m by
12 m and hold a total charge of 1000 tonnes of iron and 900 tonnes of slag. Li
me \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 and primary concentrate may also be added
to control the composition of liquid iron in the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscal
ex100 melter. The lime reacts predominantly with sulfur from the coal. Power i
s supplied by three \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 continuously renewed carbon el
ectrode pairs, which pass a large three-phase a.c. current \line \up0 \expndtw-4
\charscalex100 through the contents of the melter. The potential difference acr
oss an electrode pair is 300 V \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 and current is typi
cally 60 kA. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb265\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscale
x100 The temperature in the melters rises to 1500\ul0\super\cf4\f5\fs23 o\ul0\no
supersub\cf3\f4\fs24 C, and this causes the reduced primary \par\pard\ql \li1440
\sb4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 concentrate to melt and form t
wo layers. The lower layer is of molten iron with some \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb4
\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 elements, especially carbon, disso
ved in it. The upper layer is liquid oxide slag and this \par\pard\ql \li1440\s
b4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 supports the solid feed. During
the melting process reduction of the remaining iron \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1391
\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 containing compounds occurs.
The electrodes are immersed in the molten slag and, becasue \line \up0 \expndtw4\charscalex100 its electrical resistance is much greater than that of iron, mos
t of the heat is generated in this \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 layer. \p
ar\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up
0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 One problem affecting the melters is that the refract
ory lining is subject to attack by the \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1361\sb1\sl-280\sl
mult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 molten slag. In order to combat this, the s
olid feed in introduced around the perimeter of the \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex10
0 melter to provide a protective barrier. The gas produced in the melter is mai
nly carbon \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 monoxide and this presents both t
oxic and explosion hazards. It is recovered and burnt for \up0 \expndtw-5\chars
calex100 co-generation of electricity. \par\pard\qj \li1439\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \

par\pard\qj\li1439\ri1512\sb1\sl-280\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 M
olten iron and slag are both tapped periodically by drilling a hole through the
refractory \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 sidewalls at special tapping points, hi
gher up for the slag and lower down on the opposite \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex10
0 side for the molten iron. The slag from the melter is approximately 40% TiO\u
l0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 , 20% Al\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 2\u
l0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 O\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 3\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 , \
up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 15% MgO, 10% CaO and 10% SiO\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 2\
ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 with smaller amounts of sulfides and oxides of iron,
\up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 manganese and vanadium. \par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\
sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1312\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\cha
rscalex100 After cooling and the recovery of the metal trapped in it, the slag i
s sold. It is mainly used as \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 a substitute for qua
rried rock in applications such as road construction. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\s
l-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb182\sl230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs20 VIII-Metal
s-A-Steel-4 \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16840{\shp
{\*\shpinst\shpleft0\shptop0\shpright11900\shpbottom16840\shpwr3\shpfblwtxt0\shp
z-10000\shplid4
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7e027c1ff81b6fe309f4a4d066f15c3f097e1ef877c03178966d0e3d43578f46975d4f0faea92694
9aaea69a73dd1b35d42f4422e65f7ba2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2803f3fff00688ff93edff827
4ffdddd7fea9dd12bf402bf3ff00f688ff0093edff008274ff00dddd7fea9dd12bf402800a28a280
0a28a2803e00f8afff002935fd88ff00ecd03fe0a1ff00fab3ff00e09df5f7fd7c01f15ffe526bfb
11ff00d9a07fc143ff00f567ff00c13bebeffa0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a00
28a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a0028a28a00fcff00fda23fe4fb7fe09d3ff7775ffa
a7744afd00afcfff00da23fe4fb7fe09d3ff007775ff00aa7744afd00a0028a28a0028a28a00f803
e2bffca4d7f623ff00b340ff008287ff00eacfff008277d7dff5f007c57ff949afec47ff006681ff
00050fff00d59fff0004efafbfe800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2800a2
8a2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2803e69fda13f652f865fb4a5f7c39d67c6fac7c56f0af
89fe13ea5e23d4fc09e30f83bf17fe227c1af1768cfe2ed19740f12d99f107c3af10f87f50bdd375
8d322820bbb0bd967b72608de358dbccdfe2dff0eecf875ff471bfb7ff00fe27bfed4dff00cf2ebe
ff00a2803e00ff0087767c3aff00a38dfdbfff00f13dff006a6ffe79747fc3bb3e1d7fd1c6fedfff
00f89eff00b537ff003cbafbfe8a00f803fe1dd9f0ebfe8e37f6ff00ff00c4f7fda9bff9e5d1ff00
0eecf875ff00471bfb7fff00e27bfed4dffcf2ebeffa2803e36f849fb0dfc24f843f16b49f8df67e
35fda2be23fc45f0ef817c69f0e7c33aafc71fda47e337c69b2f0c7857e226b3e04d7bc6b69e1ed1
7e2278c35ed234abaf10ea3f0d3c12f7fa8dad9a5ebc5a15b40b32c46456fb268a2800a28a2800a2
8a2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2800a28a2803ffd9}}}}}\pard\sb0\sl-240{
\bkmkstart Pg5}{\bkmkend Pg5}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw3756\
colsr160\colno2\colw7844\colsr160\ql \li2919\sb0\sl-218\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li
2919\sb0\sl-218\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2919\sb0\sl-218\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li
2919\sb69\sl-218\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\
fs19 O\ul0\sub\cf15\f16\fs22 2\par\pard\ql \li2157\sb0\sl-218\slmult0 \par\pard\
ql \li2157\sb52\sl-218\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1
6\f17\fs19 Molten iron\par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li14
40\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li14
40\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb268\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\
charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 Step 2 - Steel making\par\pard\column
\ql \li5528\sb0\sl-218\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li5528\sb0\sl-218\slmult0 \par\pard
\ql \li1632\sb140\sl-218\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f14\f15\fs19 vanadium-rich slag\par\pard\ql \li20\sb105\sl-218\slmult0 \up0 \exp
ndtw-2\charscalex100 vanadium\par\pard\ql \li62\sb4\sl-218\slmult0\tx1886 \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 recovery\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 O\ul0\sub\cf1
5\f16\fs22 2\par\pard\ql \li4488\sb0\sl-218\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li4488\sb0\sl218\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li3127\sb62\sl-218\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex1
00 \ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs19 slag\par\pard\ql \li1632\sb119\sl-218\slmult0 \

up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 KOBM\par\pard\ql \li592\sb17\sl-218\slmult0\tx1637\
tx3455 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 O\ul0\sub\cf15\f16\fs22 2\tab \up0 \expndtw
-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs19 process\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\chars
calex100 alloying element\par\pard\ql \li3629\sb0\sl-171\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 (if required)\par\pard\ql \li2292\sb196\sl-218\slmult0 \up0 \expn
dtw-2\charscalex100 molten steel\par\pard\ql \li3833\sb76\sl-218\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw-2\charscalex100 ladle\par\pard\ql \li3655\sb4\sl-218\slmult0\tx5200 \up0
\expndtw-2\charscalex100 treatment\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf16\f17\fs19 Steel\par\pard\ql \li6466\sb0\sl-218\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li
6466\sb0\sl-218\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2570\sb32\sl-218\slmult0\tx5223 \up0 \ex
pndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs19 Argon\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\ch
arscalex100 casting\par\pard\ql \li5165\sb77\sl-218\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\char
scalex100 machine\par\pard\ql \li4137\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li241\sb2
4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 Figur
e 2 - The steel making process \par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone \ql \li1440\sb0\sl-2
73\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 The steel m
aking process is shown in \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 Figure 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf
3\f4\fs24 . \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb9\sl-2
76\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs24 Vanadium re
covery \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul
0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 Before conversion into steel, vanadium is recovered fro
m the molten iron. This is done \par\pard\qj \li1439\ri1325\sb1\sl-280\slmult0\
fi0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 firstly because of the value of the vanadium r
ich slag produced (15% vanadium as V\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4
\fs24 O\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 5\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 ) and \up0 \expndtw-5\c
harscalex100 secondly because a high vanadium content can make the steel too har
d. \par\pard\qj \li1439\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1439\ri1257\sb1\sl-280
\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 In the vanadium recovery unit a ladle con
taining 75 tonnes of molten iron has oxygen blown \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscal
ex100 over the surface, where it oxidises silicon, titanium, manganese and vanad
ium to form a slag \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 that floats on the surfac
e. At the same time argon is blown through the molten metal to stir it. \par\pa
rd\qj \li1439\ri1347\sb1\sl-280\slmult0\fi60 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 When
the composition of the molten metal has reached the required vanadium specificat
ion, \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 the slag is scraped off, cooled and crushed.
\par\pard\ql \li1439\sb0\sl-270\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1439\ri1532\sb19\sl-270\s
lmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Additional advantages of this pre-treatment
are that it causes the molten metal to reheat, so \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
permitting temperature control, and, if required, the procedure can be modified
by the \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 addition of lime to reduce sulfur le
vels. \par\pard\ql \li1439\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1439\sb10\sl-276\sl
mult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs24 The Klockner Oxy
gen Blown Maxhutte process \par\pard\ql \li1439\ri1396\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \
expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 The KOBM steel making proces
s, like most modern processes involves oxidising dissolved \up0 \expndtw-4\chars
calex100 impurities by blowing oxygen through the molten metal. The KOBM is unu
sual in that it \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 blows oxygen through the bot
tom of the furnace as well as through a lance inserted from the \up0 \expndtw-4\
charscalex100 top. This type of furnace was selected for Glenbrook becasue of i
ts capacity to cope with \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 high levels of tita
nium and vanadium coupled with its very fast turn round time. The \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 disadvantage of this type of furnace is that it is techni
cally rather more complex than those \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 that ar
e blown only by a lance. \par\pard\qj \li1439\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li
1439\ri1251\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 The KOBM is initial
ly charged with about 6 tonnes of scrap steel. 70 tonnes of molten metal \line
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 from the vanadium recovery unit is then added. O
xygen is then blown through six holes in \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the
base of the furnace, at a total rate of about 1500 litres per second. Oxygen i
s also blown \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 through a lance inserted from t

he top of the furnace at a rate of over 2500 litres per second. \par\pard\ql \li
8677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb112\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2
\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs20 VIII-Metals-A-Steel-5 \par\pard\sect\
sectd\fs24\paperw11900\paperh16840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg6}{\bkmkend Pg6}
\par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \
par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \pa
r\pard\ql\li1440\ri1255\sb89\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 The oxygen oxidises the elements other than iron (includin
g any free carbon) to their oxides. \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 In this
way contaminants are removed as the oxides form a slag which floats on the surfa
ce of \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the molten metal. Powdered lime is bl
own in to help with slag formation and this particularly \line \up0 \expndtw-4\c
harscalex100 reduces the levels of sulfur and phosphorous by combining with thei
r acidic oxides. Due to \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 its low melting poi
nt, iron(II) sulfide (FeS) is particularly harmful to the high temperature \line
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 properties of steel. So sulfur level must be red
uced before further processing. Typical levels \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex1
00 of the major elements in the metal fed into the furnace and in a typical stee
l are shown in \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 T
able 1\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 . \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par
\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub
\cf7\f8\fs24 Table 1 - Compositions of steel and the metal from which it is made
\par\pard\li1560\sb150\sl-276\slmult0\fi1724\tx4593\tx5874\tx7122\tx8424\tx9724
\up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 C\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 S\tab \up0 \e
xpndtw-3\charscalex100 P\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 Ti\tab \up0 \expndtw3\charscalex100 Si\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 V\par\pard\li1560\sb199\sl276\slmult0\fi0\tx3211\tx4350\tx5637\tx6985\tx8214\tx9561 \dn2 \expndtw-3\charsc
alex100 Hot metal\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24
3%\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 0.04%\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 0.0
7%\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 0.8%\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 0.08
%\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 0.3%\par\pard\li1560\sb200\sl-276\slmult0\fi
0\tx3061\tx4350\tx5637\tx7107\tx8396\tx9441 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\n
osupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 Steel\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf
3\f4\fs24 0.03%\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 0.02%\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\char
scalex100 0.01%\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 nil\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charsc
alex100 nil\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 0.005%\par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl280\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1300\sb64\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\chars
calex100 The molten iron is analysed just before being added to the furnace and
the temperature taken. \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 This determines the length
of the oxygen blow and it also to a certain extent affects the \line \up0 \expnd
tw-4\charscalex100 amount and composition of the scrap added. The length of the
oxygen blow required is also \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 judged by moitoring
the CO:CO\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 ration in the gases
from the furnace. Blow times vary, but \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 15 minutes
would be typical. During the oxygen blow the temperature would typically rise
\up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 from 1500\ul0\super\cf4\f5\fs23 o\ul0\nosupersub\c
f3\f4\fs24 C to 1700\ul0\super\cf4\f5\fs23 o\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 C owing
to the exothermic reactions that are occuring. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-280\s
lmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1461\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex1
00 The slag is firstly tipped off and, after cooling, it is broken up so that th
e iron trapped in it \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 can be recovered magnet
ically. The slag, which contains sulfur and phosphorous and has a \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-4\charscalex100 high lime content, is then sold for agricultural use. Al
uminium, which removes excess \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 dissolved oxyg
en, and alloying materials, such as ferro-silicon and ferro-manganese (which \li
ne \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 increase the hardness of the steel) are added a
t this point so that they are well mixed as the \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex
100 molten metal is tipped into a ladle. The whole cycle in the KOBM takes abou
t 30 minutes. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1355
\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 The Glenbrook site also has an

electric arc furnace for steel making, the feed for this being \line \up0 \expn
dtw-4\charscalex100 mainly scrap steel. The cycle time for the final charge of
75 tonne is about 3 hours, so that \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 is is only
responsible for a small fraction of the total steel production. It is, however
, a very \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 flexible process and it may be econ
omically used to produce small batches of specialised \line \up0 \expndtw-5\char
scalex100 steel. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb264\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\chars
calex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs24 Ladle treatment \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1245
\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 Th
e final stage of steel making is the ladle treatment. This is when fine adjustm
ents are made \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 to bring the composition of th
e molten steel, from either furnace, into line with the required \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-4\charscalex100 composition. The bulk of the alloying elements are added i
n the furnace and, after blowing \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 argon hroug
h the molten metal to ensure homogeneity, the temperature is measured and a \lin
e \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 sample removed for analysis after stirring. The
analysis by optical emission spectrometry, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
which measures the levels of 15 elements, takes about five minutes. Alloying ma
terials are \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 added to adjust the composition.
If the metal requires cooling, scrap steel is added. If the \line \up0 \expnd
tw-4\charscalex100 temperature is too low, aluminium is added and oxygen blown t
hrough. When all \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 adjustments are complete a
rgon is blown through once again to ensure mixing and the ladle \line \up0 \expn
dtw-4\charscalex100 taken to the continuous casting machine. Here it is cast in
to slabs of 210 mm thickness and a \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 width of
between 800 and 1550 mm. This slab is cut into lengths of from 4.5 m to 10 m an
d \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 sent for further processing. Most of the
production is converted to steel coil. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \
par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb42\sl-230\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs20 VIII-Metals-A-Steel-6
}
}}
}
}}

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}}

}
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}}

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}}

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}
g7}{\bkmkend Pg7}\par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0
\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\s
l-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb112\s
l-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 ANCILLAR
Y PROCESSES \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1333\s
b1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 The
major ancillary processes carried out by the plant involve the supply of raw mat
erials, \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 the processing of waste and the production
of electricity. Even though waste heat is used to \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex10
0 co-generate electricity on site, this only amounts to about 12% of total consum
ption, so \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 large amounts of electricity are purchas
ed. Natural gas is also used as a minor energy source \up0 \expndtw-5\charscale
x100 and this is brought to the site from Taranaki through a pipeline. \par\pard
\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expn
dtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 Iron primary concentrate mining
\par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1268\sb3\sl-278\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul
0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 This is obtained from the ironsand mine at Waikato Nort
h Head and is a mixture of magnetite \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 (Fe\ul0

\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 3\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 O\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 4\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf3\f4\fs24 ) and titanomagnetite (Fe\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 2\ul0\nosupersub\
cf3\f4\fs24 TiO\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 4\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 ), and is thoug
ht to originate from the volcanic \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 eruptions
of Mt. Taranaki. It is mined by standard open cast methods and suspended as an
\line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 aqueous slurry. The ironsand is a low grade
ore, with sand and clay being the major \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 imp
urities. The concentrated material typically contains 58% iron (i.e. 80% Fe\ul0
\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 3\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 O\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 4\ul0\nosupe
rsub\cf3\f4\fs24 ), 8% TiO, \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 4% Al\ul0\sub\cf
4\f5\fs24 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 O\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 3\ul0\nosupersub\cf
3\f4\fs24 , 3% SiO\ul0\sub\cf4\f5\fs24 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 and 3% MgO b
y mass with smaller quantites of calcium, phophorous \line \up0 \expndtw-4\chars
calex100 and sulfur. Initial separation is effected by magnetic separators whic
h rely on the magnetic \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 properties of magneti
te and tintanomagnetite. Further concentration is then achieved by \line \up0 \
expndtw-4\charscalex100 gravity separators because these minerals are denser tha
n most impurities. The slurry is then \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 pumpe
d though a 21 km long, 200 mm diameter pipeline to Glenbrook at a rate of 300 to
nnes \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 per hour. Here it is dewatered to a mo
isture level of ca. 5% and discharged onto a stockpile. \line \up0 \expndtw-4\ch
arscalex100 Annual production of this material, known as Primary Concentrate (PC
), is about 1.2 million \line \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 tonnes. \par\pard\ql
\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb28\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndt
w-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 Coal preparation \par\pard\ql \li1
440\ri1344\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\
f4\fs24 This is sub-bituminous B and C grade mined by both open cast and undergr
ound methods at \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Huntly. The annual consumpt
ion of 750 000 tonnes per year is delivered by rail to \line \up0 \expndtw-4\cha
rscalex100 Glenbrook. Here it is stored on a stockpile and then blended with pr
imary concentrate as the \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 feedstock for the multihe
arth furnaces. The aim of the blending is to achieve a consistent \line \up0 \e
xpndtw-5\charscalex100 carbon-iron ratio. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult
0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb9\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosu
persub\cf7\f8\fs24 Scrap steel recycling \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1367\sb0\sl-280\
slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 Much of the sc
rap steel used is waste from the production process. Steel is also purchased \u
p0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 from scrap metal dealers, though it must be free fro
m copper which is difficult to remove \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 from molten
steel and adversely affects its properties. The scrap steel is sorted into diff
erent \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 grades according to alloy content. \par\pard
\ql \li1440\sb265\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\c
f7\f8\fs24 Limestone mining \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndt
w-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 This is mined near Otorohanga. Li
mestone chip is blended with the coal and primary \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1561\sb
1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 concentrate to help form a slag i
n the reduction of the iron oxide. Some is also supplied in \up0 \expndtw-5\cha
rscalex100 the form of lime (calcium oxide) for use in steel making. \par\pard\q
l \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndt
w-5\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 Oxygen production \par\pard\ql \li
1440\ri1376\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3
\f4\fs24 This is manufactured by the fractional distillation of liquid air, whic
h also produces nitrogen \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 and argon. About 4000 m\
ul0\super\cf4\f5\fs23 3\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 of oxygen is consumed for ea
ch 75 tonne load of steel, giving an \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 annual consum
ption of about 75 000 tonnes. Some of the nitrogen and argon is used in \line \
up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 steelmaking. The excess liquid nitrogen is sold fo
r freeze drying foods and the excess argon \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 is main
ly sold for use as a gas shield for welding processes. \par\pard\ql \li8677\sb0\
sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb0\sl

-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb132\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex
100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs20 VIII-Metals-A-Steel-7 \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\
paperw11900\paperh16840\pard\sb0\sl-240{\bkmkstart Pg8}{\bkmkend Pg8}\par\pard\q
l \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql
i1440\sb108\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\
fs24 Electricity \par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1584\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\
charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 The total annual consumption of electr
icity is 1000 GWh, the typical power demand being \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100
130 MW. This is purchased from Electrocorp and brought to the site through over
head \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 power lines operating at 110 kV. \par\pard\qj
\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1273\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \
expndtw-2\charscalex100 The waste gases from various processes, particularly the
multi-hearth furnaces and the melter \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 are burnt to
raise steam in four boilers. The steam is used to power two turbines each rate
d at \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 18 MW, which produce 12 % of the electricity n
eeded by the plant. \par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\
ri1596\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 In the near future the o
n site generation of electrical power is to be considerably expanded \up0 \expnd
tw-2\charscalex100 and greater use made of waste gases from the rotary kilns. T
his will enable the plant to \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 produce over half the
total electrical power consumed. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\p
ard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb12\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \e
xpndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 THE ROLE OF THE LABORATORY \p
ar\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\ri1321\sb8\sl-276\slmu
lt0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 In general the lab
oratory is responsible for quality control of the various stages of production \
up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 and of the end product. The laboratory uses optica
l emission spectroscopy\ul0\super\cf4\f5\fs23 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 to d
etermine the \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 sample composition of the molten meta
l in the melter, vanadium recovery unit, K.O.B.M. \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
unit and casting machine and during the ladle treatment stage. The levels of ca
rbon, silicon, \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 manganese, tin, vanadium, sulfur, p
hosphorus, aluminium and nitrogen are closely \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex10
0 monitored. The test only takes four minutes, enabling operators to adjust pro
cess parameters \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 on the basis of test reports befor
e problems become serious. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\
li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 The nitrogen content in
steel can also be found by heating the steel in a helium flushed \par\pard\ql \l
i1440\sb4\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 electric furnace. As the
temperature increases any nitrogen in the sample comes off and \par\pard\qj \li
1440\ri1267\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 mixes with the heli
um carrier gas. The gas mixture is analysed by a thermal conductivity cell \up0
\expndtw-5\charscalex100 at the gas outlet. \par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slm
ult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1502\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100
Samples of ironsand and slag are analysed with X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy.
The slag \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 samples are fused with boron before tes
ting. \par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1875\sb1\sl280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 The laboratory is also involved in dai
ly testing of effluent water to ensure that all water \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex
100 released into the environment is safe. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmul
t0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb12\sl-276\slmult
0 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs24 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLIC
ATIONS \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\sl
mult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 Due to the natur
e of the steel making process, large amounts of solid, liquid and gaseous \par\p
ard\qj \li1440\ri1409\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 wastes ar
e generated in the steel plant. Careful planning is necessary to ensure that th
ese do \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 not have a negative impact on the environme
nt. \par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmul

t0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0
\par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \
par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1213\sb41\sl-280\slmult0\fi719 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex10
0 \ul0\super\cf4\f5\fs23 2\ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs20 Optical emission spectrome
try is also called atomic emission spectroscopy and is described in the sewage \
up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 treatment article\ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 . \par
\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\
pard\ql\li1440\sb42\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub
\cf1\f2\fs20 VIII-Metals-A-Steel-8
}
g9}{\bkmkend Pg9}\par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0
\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\s
l-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1483\sb89\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\cha
rscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs24 The steel mill requires 1.2 to 1.4 millio
n tonnes of ironsand each year, which means that up \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charsc
alex100 to 10 million tonnes of pure sand must be mined. The non-magnetic sand
is returned to the \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 area from which it was mi
ned, and marram grass and radiata pines planted to stabilise the \line \up0 \exp
ndtw-3\charscalex100 deposits. \par\pard\ql \li1440\ri1345\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \u
p0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Wet scrubbers and baghouses are the principal means
of controlling air pollution. The wet \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 scrubbers (
see oil refining article) wash the dust out of the hot process waste gases which
\up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 result from iron and steel making while the cloth
bags inside a baghouse filter dust out of the \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 gas
. The dust collection system is shared by the steel production and steel proces
sing \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 sections, and collects a total of betwe
en five and ten tonnes of dust every hour. \par\pard\ql \li1440\sb0\sl-276\slmul
t0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 Extensiv
e water recycling is used in the plant to minimise the quantity of waste water \
par\pard\qj \li1440\ri1311\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 prod
uced, and all waste water and stormwater is treated in settling ponds on site be
fore being \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 discharged into the Waiuku Estuary. \pa
r\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par
\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\p
ard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\par
d\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\
qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj
\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\l
i1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1
440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li144
0\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\
sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri
1535\sb261\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Article written by John
Green (Kristin School) and Jeremy Batchelor (BHP NZ Steel) with \up0 \expndtw-5\
charscalex100 additions by David Yuen following a visit to BHP NZ Steel. \par\pa
rd\ql \li8677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\par
d\ql\li8677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\
ql\li8677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql

i8677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8
677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li867
7\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\
sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb
0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb42
\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs20 VIII-M
etals-A-Steel-9 \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24}

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{\rtf1{\fonttbl

{\f2 Times New Roman;}

r\pard\ql\li1440\sb8\sl-276\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 Steel is by fa

l-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1440\sb12\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex

0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 reductant, in an exothermic reaction:\par\pard\li1440

l-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\ri1255\sb89\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\cha

calex100 co-generation of electricity. \par\pard\qj \li1439\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \

00 \ul0\nosupersub\cf14\f15\fs19 slag\par\pard\ql \li1632\sb119\sl-218\slmult0 \

s also blown \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 through a lance inserted from t

\sb1\sl-280\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 The Glenbrook site also has an

{\sp{\sn pVerticies}{\sv 8;4;(0,20);(1270,20);(1270,0);(0,0)}}

{\sp{\sn pVerticies}{\sv 8;4;(0,459);(20,459);(20,0);(0,0)}}

{\sp{\sn pVerticies}{\sv 8;4;(0,459);(20,459);(20,0);(0,0)}}

{\sp{\sn pVerticies}{\sv 8;4;(0,460);(20,460);(20,0);(0,0)}}

{\sp{\sn pVerticies}{\sv 8;4;(0,460);(20,460);(20,0);(0,0)}}

{\sp{\sn pVerticies}{\sv 8;4;(0,20);(1273,20);(1273,0);(0,0)}}

{\sp{\sn pVerticies}{\sv 8;4;(0,0);(14,0);(14,16);(0,16)}}

{\sp{\sn pVerticies}{\sv 8;4;(0,20);(1272,20);(1272,0);(0,0)}}

{\sp{\sn pVerticies}{\sv 8;4;(0,20);(1273,20);(1273,0);(0,0)}}

{\sp{\sn pVerticies}{\sv 8;4;(0,458);(20,458);(20,0);(0,0)}}

{\sp{\sn pVerticies}{\sv 8;4;(0,458);(20,458);(20,0);(0,0)}}

h Head and is a mixture of magnetite \line \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 (Fe\ul0

sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb0\sl

nt. \par\pard\qj \li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1440\sb0\sl-280\slmul

\li8677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li8677\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\l

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