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HonorsEssay#12:The1960s,VietnamWar,andEraofSocialChange

The 1960smarkedthe inception ofanEraof SocialChange. InadditiontotheColdWar,the

many social revolutions during this time would leave several impressions on American society.
Roughlybeginningwith theintroductionoftheAmericaninterstatehighwaysystem,Americansociety
had been affected by a multitude oftangible innovations andevents thatinspiredconceptualchanges
and/or conflicts. The FederalAid Highway Act of 1956popularly known as the National Interstate
and Defense Highways Actwas championed by President Dwight Eisenhower it introduced the
NationalSystemof InterstateandDefenseHighways(InterstateHighway System),whichisanetwork
of controlledaccess roadways across America. Spanning (as of 2012) a total length of47,714miles
(76,788 km), the InterstateHighway System remains one of Eisenhowers most enduring and
successfulaccomplishments. Havingbeenthe main supporterof theAct, Eisenhowerdrewinspiration
from German autobahns during his time serving as a fivestar military general and Supreme
CommanderofAlliedForces(duringWorldWarII)tobuildaninterconnectedroadwaysystemthatthe
military could potentially use to effectively transport troops, weapons, and aid duringtimes ofneed.
Eisenhowers sentimental experience as a young Army officer, crossing the country on the famous
Lincoln Highway, also played a part in why he was a pivotal proponent of the building of the
InterstateHighway Systemin which, he insisted, would be an important component of national
defenseand growthof commerce.TheInterstateHighwaySystemhadmanybenefitstherewasa rise
inthenumberof freeways androads, meaningpeoplecouldnoweasilytravelanywhereinthecountry
bydriving.Socially,the InterstateHighwaySystemmadeitconvenientforpeopletocommuteto work
or totravel toseefriends. Shoppingcenters andmalls, whichwere typicallylocatedonfreewayexits,

were created over city centersbig department stores also were created and typically included in
shoppingcenters sothat people couldgetalltheir groceries andmiscellaneousgoodsallin oneplace.
Drivethrus and Drivein food places and movie venues also became populartheywereconvenient,
which was coveted by people who loved their cars. However, with the introduction of the
InterstateHighwaySystem,peoplebecamefullyreliantontheircarstogettowheretheywantedtogo.
Because people became too dependent on their cars, people felt inclined to drive to wherever they
needed to goregardless of how close they were from their destination. Life expectancy during the
1960s fell because of the lack of exercise, due to people drivingeverywhere,and healthissuesthat
increasedbecauseofcarbon emissions. Peoplealsolostasenseofcommunityduetothelackofcasual
interactions, since traveling to a destination became a narrowminded task, and neighbors often
becomingstrangers toeach other (sincepeoplecouldtravel exclusivelyto seetheirfriends). Cities and
living areas became separated as well since suburban counties arose, due to major cities having
freeways being built around them, wealthy and middleclass people movedout ofurbancities(often
taking theirbusinesses withthem)topopulatesuburbsleavingmajorcitieswithdesolatefunding(due
to inability to collect enough tax money). The increased production of cars, to accommodate the
demand,alsocontributedtopollution.And,sincethereweremorecars
andanincreaseddependencyon
cars, traffic worsened on roads and freeways. Additionally, traffic regulations on the
InterstateHighwaySystemhadnt beenimplementedyetmeaningthat there werentanyspeedlimits
or safety precautions the rate ofcar accidentsrosesignificantly.Later on,the adverse effects ofcars
andtrafficwouldculminateintowidescaleenvironmentalissuesi.e.globalwarming.

Americas involvement in the Vietnam War was one of thebiggestinfluencesofthe 1960s.

TheVietnamWar, aspartoftheColdWar,wouldshapethenatureofAmericaninterventionassociated
with the spread of communism. Additionally, President Eisenhowers pastexperienceas alegendary
military general would have a significant influence in Americas involvement in Vietnam, and

subsequenthistory involvingAmericanforeignpolicy. BeforeEisenhowerhadevenassumedoffice(in

1953),theU.S.had beeninvolved inseveral foreignaffairsdueto theMutualDefenseAssistanceAct
(1949)a stem following President Trumans Marshall Planwhich proclaimed that the U.S. would
send aidto anycountryonthe brinkof defectingtocommunism.Theearlyonsetofconsequentevents
began when Vietnam had been a region, formerly known as FrenchIndochina,colonizedbyFrance
many denizen uprisings had occurred due to the native people wantingtheirownsovereignty,which
apparently culminatedinto theIndochinaWar(19461954).TheVietnameseNationalistswereledbya
mannamedHoChiMinh.Duringthis war, AmericahadaidedtheFrench.WhenHoChiMinhroseto
power he had initially reached out to theU.S. forassistanceinprocuringindependence from France
however, since Francewas (andstill is) Americasally, the U.S. haddeniedaid.TheNationaliststhen
turned tothe SovietUnionforassistance, sincetheyneeded help inordertowintheirwar. TheSoviet
Union had agreed, which aligned the Nationalists in Vietnam with the Soviet Union(which wasthe
sole reason why the U.S. got involved in the first placesince this was during the Cold War). The
situation in Vietnam escalated to the point where Vietnam was split ideologically/politically in
halfmuch like Korea and BerlinbetweencommunismintheNorth(i.e. theNationalistswhowere
technically socialist) and capitalism in the South (i.e. where there was Frenchinfluence).Inevitably,
since the rebellion escalated, the Frenchwere forcedto leaveVietnam. Conflict, nonetheless,didnot
cease Vietnam was officially declared two sovereign states (North and South Vietnam), butneither
states wereatease.TheVietnamWarbeganin1954,and wouldlastuntil1975.Eisenhoweranticipated
aDominoeffectwould happenoncetheFrenchleftVietnam,sotheU.S.tookoverasmilitaryadvisors
in South Vietnam. Despite the Vietnam Warbeinginessenceacivilwar,it laterbecameevidently
clear that it was a proxy (puppet) war between the SovietUnion (who were stillassisting theNorth)
andtheU.S.(whoweretryingtohaltthespreadofcommunism).AmericanswereafraidoftheDomino
Theory (as mentioned before), a term which was officially coined by Eisenhower during a news

conferenceregarding thespreadof communisminAsia (1954).TheDominoTheorypositedthatifone

countryin Indochina wereto becomeofficiallycommunist, andalignedwiththeSoviet Union,others
(e,g.Laos,Cambodia,Thailand,etc.)wouldfollowwithit. TheU.S.didntwantcommunismtospread
in Asia because it would have increased the Soviet Unions sphere of influence. Ultimately,
Eisenhowersexperiencein WorldWar II whollyimpactedthewayhehandledforeignpolicy. Despite
having a military background, Eisenhower preferred quiet interventions when it came to the Cold
War. Since Eisenhower experienced firsthand the consequences of war, he avoided direct military
interventions asmuchaspossiblepreferringtosendfinancialaidtothecapitalistside,ortakingcovert
action. DuringEisenhowers publiclybroadcasted FarewellAddress(1961),healsoexplicitlywarned
the American public of what he coined as the MilitaryIndustrial Complex. The MilitaryIndustrial
Complex posits a relationship between the military and industryi.e. industries (such as weaponry)
mayprofitfrom warsfoughtbythemilitary. Eisenhowervoicedconcernoverthepotentialforthewar
industry to put America in indirect threat of an unnecessary warmuch like George Washingtons
concern overhavingastanding army inhis own FarewellAddress.IfAmerica continued tobuildand
hoard weapons, Eisenhower feared that they would inevitably use them, which would lead to the
escalation of superfluous conflict with the international community. Regardless of how mindful
EisenhowersactionsweretheU.S.wouldbecomefurtherentangledintheVietnamWar.

The Election of John F. Kennedy (1960) introduced a growing importance of television in

politics. Specifically, theKennedyNixon Debatesinfluencedthe way publicimage becamecrucialto

presidential campaigns. The KennedyNixon Debates were the first presidential candidate debates
ever
thefactaloneaccountsforthe enormous publicity.Moreover, theDebateswerealsobroadcasted
on
television
, which is the reason why the debates became more of a public spectacle. Thoughthey
were meant to allow voters to judge the presidential candidates holistically, people
counterproductively judged both candidates superficially. Ultimately, Kennedy wonthe Presidential

Electionof 1960making himthesecondyoungestPresidenttodate,andthefirstCatholicpresidentin

America. The debates were a pivotal reason why Kennedy won over Nixon. Kennedy was widely
consideredthe winnerofthedebatesbythosewhowatchedthe debates on televisionwhileNixonwas
thought to be the winner of the debates by those who listened to the debatesontheradio. Kennedy
appeared to be more prepared, and collected during the debatewhile Nixon seemed nervous and
hesitant. The reason why Kennedy appeared more confident was because he had undergone special
coaching to prepare for a publicly televised appearancebeforehandwhileNixonhaddeclinedto the
sametreatment. Forexample,whereasNixon directed hisfocus on Kennedyin hisrebuttals,Kennedy
directly addressed the camera and therefore, the public. In addition, Nixon wasstaying inahospital
before the debateswhile Kennedy was fresh from a vacation he took with his family Kennedy
appearedhealthier, wellrested,and tannedwhileNixonappearedsallow(Nixonsmotherevencalled
him after one ofthe debates toaskifhe were sick). Nixonalsodeclinedto wearmakeupforthefirst
debate,which contributedto hissicklyappearancenottomentionhisunkemptappearance.Thepower
of publicimagecompletelyshiftedtheelectioninKennedysfavor.Itwasabigshockforpeopletosee
that younger candidate beat an oldermore experiencedcandidate. TV became a more dominant
sourceofinformation inthe U.S.The mediabecamemoreostensiblewhichimpactedthewayculture
would change later down the line. Controversialissuesregarding onespersonallifewereavoided
dueto an unspokenagreement (i.e.private liveswould remainprivate), whichisabigdifference from
today.Mostnotably,todaytherearemanybiasedperspectivesontelevision.

President Kennedy would have to deal with several sensitive Cold War conflicts that

potentially could have escalated into another World War. The Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961) was a
paramilitary plantohelpcounterrevolutionariesoverthrow FidelCastro inCuba. Thoughit hadbeen
conceived during Eisenhowers presidency, the invasion had been approved by Kennedy. The plan
detailed that a CIAtrained rebel group would invade Cuba and assassinate Castro an air force

squadronwouldtakecareofCubasairdefenseswhilethe main group wouldstormthe groundsonfoot

to breach Castros ground forces. However, Cubafoundoutabout theplan through theirintelligence
network and theKGB(theSoviet Unionsespionageprogram). Theair attackssubsequently failedto
substantiallyhinderthe Cubanair forcesand, forsomereason,thegroundtroopswerenotinformedof
this. Consequently, the ground troops followed through with the plan anyway but, not onlydid they
have todealwithCastrosgrounddefenses, alsoairforce.Thestrikesubsequentlyendedin failure.The
Americansinvolvedinthestrikeweretakenasprisonersofwar(POW).Kennedy,himself,hadtogoto
Cubaand negotiate forthereleaseof theAmericanPOWinCuba.Ultimately,theU.S.hadtopay$53
million infood andmedicinetoCuba inorderfor the POWsrelease.TheBayofPigswasextremely
embarrassingfor Kennedy. Notonly wastheinvasionahugefailureforAmericanforeignpolicy,butit
was also counterproductive to the its causei.e. it strengthened Castros leadership and reinforced
USSR ties with Cuba. Unfortunately, Kennedy would soon face another problem. Enter Nikita
Khrushchev, JosephStalinssuccessor.Fromtheonset, KhrushchevbelievedthatKennedywasweak.
Khrushchev authorizedfor theconstructionoftheBerlinWall(asaresponseto manyGermansleaving
East Germany) because he believed that Kennedy was a pushover. However, Khrushchev
underestimatesKennedywhotravelstoWest Berlinhimselftodeliver hisfamousspeech:
Ichbinein
Berliner(IamaBerliner).ThespeecheffectivelyboostedthemoraleoftheGermans,andwasapivotal
moment in the Cold War. Subsequently, Kennedy wouldhave todealwithKhrushchev againduring
the Cuban Missile Crisis (October 1428, 1962). In early October, an American U2 spy plane
discovered nuclear warheads and missile sites being built by the Soviet Union, in Cuba. Whatmost
Americans didnt know, was that the U.S. had installed missiles inTurkey beforetheSoviet Union
built missilesin Cuba.Regardless, since Cubawas only90miles awayfrom Florida, andthemissiles
had appeared to bepointingtowardsthe U.S.mainland, theU.S.immediatelyinterpretedthemissile
sitesasahugethreat.Once informationaboutthemissileshadbeenleaked.Kennedyquicklyaddressed

the American public, regarding the missiles, in a speech directed toexpresshisdesiretoresolvethe

situation swiftly and peacefully. Nonetheless, Kennedy declared thatiftheSoviet Unionweretofire
their missilesatAmerica,the U.S.would immediately woulddeclareitablatantactofwar.Withinthe
Cuban Missile Crisis thirteenday time period, Kennedy and Khrushchev exchanged several tense
letters. Meanwhile,theU.S.formedanavalblockadearoundCubastoppinganyexportsfromentering
Cuba. Neither party wanted the situation to escalate out of fear of mutuallyassured destruction.
Ultimately, both the Soviet Union and U.S. compromised on the conditions that the USSR would
removetheir missilesfromCuba,whiletheU.S.wouldremovetheirmissilesfromTurkeyandpromise
that they wouldleave Cubaalone. WhilemostAmericansperceived theCubanMissileCrisisasabig
victory forthe U.S.,in reality, ithad beenanintelligencefailureanda hypocriticalloss on theU.S.s
partsince the U.S. had placed missiles in Turkey
first
. The Soviets got the better end of the
compromisesincethe missilesin TurkeyhadbeenremovedandtheU.S.agreedtonolongerinterfere
intheiraffairs withCuba. Over inVietnam,KennedycontinuedtofollowinEisenhowersfootstepsby
sending more financialaid andadvisorstoassistthe leaderofSouthVietnam,NgoDinhDieminan
efforttodetertheSouthfromdefectingfromcommunism.
Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963 in Dallas, Texasan unfortunate event that was
broadcasted on live television. Kennedy and his wife had been traveling along a tenmile through
Dallas toget toaneventat thathewas supposed tospeakat.Thetopofvehicletheywereinwasleft
exposed due to the weather being hotthat day.Witnesses ofthe eventclaimed thatfourbulletswere
fired at the presidential motorcade as they passed the Texas School Book Depository. Three of the
bulletshitKennedyintheheadtheother hit thegovernorof Texas,whohadalsobeentravelingwith
them.Kennedyapparentlyslumpedoverhiswifeafterbeinghitaniconicmomentinhistorythatmade
her pink Chanel outfit she had been wearing famous. The party had arrived at Parkland Memorial
Hospitalhowever, little could be done Kennedywasdeclareddeadat1:00pmthat day.Meanwhile,

the Warren Commision hadbeen createdto investigate the assassination.LeeHarveyOswald,arecent

employee oftheTexasSchoolBookDepository, hadbeen arrestedbypolicetheWarrenCommision
determining that he was responsible for Kennedys assassination. However, before his involvement
could havebeenproven, Oswaldwas murderedbyaman namedJackRubyduringthemiddleofajail
transfertwo days before an officialtrialwouldve takenplace. Many theoriesexistof why Kennedy
was assassinatedpeoplespeculatethatOswaldmightvebeenjustapatsywhowas takenadvantageof
byasecretorganization, orthat OswaldandRubyhadbothbeenapartofsecretorganizationandthat
Oswald was killed so that he wouldnt talk. And, sincetherehadbeenmany motives,manyof them
were conspiracy theories. Many people thought thatKennedymightvebeen assassinatedbecausehe
was thinking aboutwithdrawing U.S.involvementfrom theVietnam War.Somepeoplealsobelieved
that there might havebeenagovernment scheme toremoveKennedyfrom office.The mafia hadalso
been suspected of being involvedwithKennedysassassination.Inmy opinion,Idontthink Oswald
had been acting alone in assassinating the president. I believe it takes a grand scheme in order to
planlet alone conceivea plot to assassinate a president. Oswald also wouldve made the perfect
patsyhe was dishonorably discharged fromthemilitary
and(regardlessof whether theSovietswere
involved) hespent timelivingintheSoviet Union. Incorrigibly,Americahadbeenextremely shocked
by Kennedys untimely death. Many Americans were left traumatized after seeing their president
assassinated ontelevision.Itisbelievedthatthestrength ofthebabyboomerscamefromasociological
effectthatoccurredafterKennedydied.

Lyndon Baines Johnson, who had been Kennedys vice president, was sworn in shortly

following Kennedys assassination. Johnsons famousinauguration on Air Force One happenedwhile

en route to Washington D.C. Johnson, as president, later goes on to aggravate U.S. involvement in
Vietnam. Unlike Kennedy, Johnson was brasher when it came to foreign policyhe wanted to take
directactionin Vietnam.TherewerethreeattacksonAmericanshipsintheGulfofTonkin,whichhad

mostlikely beendue tothe U.S.provokingtheNorthVietnameseto retaliateagainst American ships.

Additionally, the USS Maddox was secretly supplying South Vietnam witharmstofightagainst the
Northgranting, arguably, the Northern Vietnamese a legitimate causeforattackingAmericanships.
However, Johnson used this eventcoupled with yellow journalismin ordertoconvinceAmericans
that the North Vietnamese were attacking innocent American ships (reminiscent of the Lusitania in
WWI).Thisledtothepassingof theGulfofTonkinResolutionwhichallowedJohnsontosendtroops
to Vietnam. Johnson had argued that he wanted to protect Americans from communismhowever,
Johnson lost over 25,000 American soldiers. Americans lost confidence regarding the Vietnam War
once itbecame clearthattheywereintoodeep,andthattherewasnowaytheU.S.couldprevail.The
Tet Offensive had been a turning point in favor of the North Vietnamese forces. In1968, theNorth
Vietnamese Army stormed the Southern Vietnamese capital of Saigon during Tetthe Vietnamese
Lunar New Yeara timethatwas considered asa temporaryceasefire. The Tet Offensivehad beena
hugeblowtoAmericanexceptionalism, since itwasthe first timethe U.S.hadrealizedthattheywere
inover theirheads.TheAmericanpublicbegantoquestiontheircountrysinvolvementintheVietnam
Waradebatesparked overwhether ornotgoing intotheVietnam Warwasworthit.TheHawkswere
proponentsofthewar,whiletheDoveswerethose(typically,babyboomers) whosawthewar asbeing
pointless and wanted peace. The Hippie Movement aroseinAmerica asa counterculturetothewar.
The hippies were knownto experimentwith recreational drugs, sexuality, andEasternreligionsthey
stood for everything deemed conforming to mainstream American culture. The Doves were
consideredthemostoutspokenoftheHippieMovement.
The Presidential Election of 1968 had beeninitially between Eugene McCarthy,Lyndon B.Johnson,
and Robert Kennedy (John F. Kennedys younger brother). Johnson, however, withdraws from the
election and introduces Hubert Humphrey as his replacement. As a poet, McCarthy was popular
amongst the Hippie Revolution. Robert Kennedy also enters theelectionwiththeadvantageof being

popular among all the states. However, Robert Kennedy was assassinated in his home in
Californiamarking the beginning of the Kennedy Curse. After Robert Kennedys death, Chicago
hosted a Democratic Convention to determine who wouldrepresenttheDemocraticPartyin thefinal
election. Meanwhile, many hippies/doves showed up to the convention to peacefully protest
Humphreys nomination, since it was evident that he was working with Johnson (and wouldve
continued the U.S. involvement in Vietnam). In a turn of events, a police riot broke out during the
conventiononlivetelevisiontheChicagopolicehad showedupandbeganto forcefully clear outthe
protesters by beating them, arrestingthem, andusingteargas.TheAmericanpublicwasappalledatthe
largesizeofthepandemoniumtheywerehorrifiedbecausehippieshadbeenpeacefullyprotesting.All
eyeshad beenonthepoliceriottheramificationswereincorrigible.Inaddition,protestshadoccurred
ata collegecalledKentStatepolicewerecalled inandshot
realbullets(asopposedtorubberbullets)
atthestudents.AftertheConvention,NixonsteppedintotheelectionasaRepublicancandidate.Nixon
claimed to have had a secret plan to end the Vietnam War this, coupled with the failure of the
DemocraticParty,ensuredNixonswinoftheelection.
The AfricanAmerican Civil Rights Movement wasone ofthe manyiconic socialmovements
during the 1960s that inspired the Era of Social Change. The Brown vs. Board of Educationwas a
Supreme courtcaseregarded race segregation inpublicschools. Previously, thePlessyFergusonCase
ruledthat race segregation wasjustifiedinschools, but astimewenton,people begantorealizethatit
was aproblem.TheBrownvsBoardofEducationcaseeventuallyendswithaunanimousoverrulingof
the PlessyFerguson Casein favorof dispellingracesegregation,whichwasruledasviolatingthe14th
Amendment. In Little Rock Arkansas, nine students were selected to attend a previously all white
schoolthese students were known as the Little Rock 9. However, the Governorof Arkansas,Orval
Faubus, and many other opponents of desegregation, mobbed in front oftheschool thatthestudents
were supposed to attend. The eight students that initially arrived were denied entrance. One of the

students, who didnt carpool with the other students that morning, had to brace the mob on her
ownonly tobe turnedawaythesameway,Thestudentsthenhadtobeescortedbythe101stAirborne
Division of the U.S. Army, who were called in by Eisenhower. Rosa parks was a woman who was
selected by theNAACP (NationalAssociationfor theAdvancementofcolored People) tonotgiveup
herseat toawhitepersononpublictransportation.Parkswasspecificallychosenforhermeekattitude
and clean criminal record, whichallowed forthe publicto sympathizewith heroncethe mediabroke
the newsout.The goal hadbeentoshutdownsegregation on publictransportation.The Montgomery
Bus Boycotts, which lastedfor381days, wasinspiredbyParks.The bus systemsufferedinrevenue,
due to hundreds of AfricanAmericans refusing to take publictransportation.Inevitably, theboycotts
were successful in desegregating thebussystem. TheLunchCounter SitIns were aform ofpeaceful
protests that started when five AfricanAmerican students satdownata Woolworthlunchcounterin
North Carolinaoriginally reserved for whitesasking to be served. These students sat there for
hourswaiting to be served, but never were. This inspired other similar peaceful sitins are various
otherlunchcountersallacrossAmerica.LiketheBusBoycotts,theLunchCounterSitInsprovedtobe
successfulwhenrestaurantshadto changetheir ways,inordertorestorebusiness.TheFreedomRides
wereanotherform ofnonviolentproteststhatoccurredduringtheCivilRights Movement.Agroupof
AfricanAmericanandWhitecivilrightsactiviststraveled inpublicbusesfromWashingtonD.C.tothe
most segregated parts of the South. The Freedom Riders challenged segregation in these deeply
prejudiced areas.As expected,whenthe buseshadtostopinvariousrest areas,theactivistswereoften
beatenbybothpoliceandWhitesegregationists.Atonepoint,therehad evenbeenabombingofoneof
the buses. Nonetheless, theFreedomRides pressed on.Peacefulprotests embodied Dr.MartinLuther
Kings(MLK)philosophytowards Civil Rights, whilethemoreviolentprotestsalignedwithMalcolm
Xs methods of dissidence. The Black Pantherswere inspiredbyMalcolmXand were known touse
any meanstoprotest infavorof Civil Rights. MLKs cleverandrespectablepreference ofnonviolent

means of protest was important in garnering support for Civil Rightsit wasbettertosuffer, sothat
people could sympathize with you, rather than violently retaliate. When MLK died, his death had a
significant impact on Civil Rights. To this day, America reveresMLKmorethanMalcolmXdue to
having more respect for hispeacefulmethodsand moving speeches (famously,the I HaveaDream
speech).MLKhasaholidaydedicatedtohim,whileMalcolmXdoesnt.

Mexican Americans also fought for their Civil Rights beginning in the 1960s. Unlike

AfricanAmericans, therightsthat theMexicanAmericans fought forwererightsthatwerepreviously

stolen from them. In addition, there was a different mentality to the injustice they faced. The
MexicanAmericans were often regarded as being unwelcomeborderline, they were treated with
xenophobia(even thoughtheywerethe oneswhohadtheirlandcoercedfromthem).Amajorityofthe
MexicanAmerican Rights Movement took placeinCaliforniasince manyMexicanAmericanswere
migrant workers. The MexicanAmericans wanted fairlabor equity.TheAmericanG.I. Forum wasa
group of MexicanAmerican war veterans who wanted to claim their rights and recognition. For
example,FelixLongoriawasaMexicansoldierwhodiedduringWorldWarIIthoughhewasawarded
witha Purple Heart, hisbodyhadnt beenreturnedtohisfamilyforfouryearsinaddition,Longorias
familywas denied serviceatmanymortuaries.Eventually,Longoriawasgrantedaproperburialinthe
Arlington NationalCemetery.IgnacioLopez wasthefounderoftheUnityLeagueofCalifornia,which
promoted Mexican representation in state politics and the integration of public schooling for
MexicanAmericans. Cesar Chavez was a famous figure in the MexicanAmerican Civil Rights
Movementfor creatingtheUnitedFarmWorkers,anorganizationthatpeacefullyprotestedinfavorfor
civilrightsmuchlikeMLK.Chavezwasreveredbyhis admirersforenduringseveralhungerstrikes
and organizing famous peace marches. In the case of Dodgers Stadium, many MexicanAmericans
were lost their homes in the Los Angeles area to the construction of Dodgers Stadium. Many
MexicanAmericans were promised by the government that, if they temporarily moved out of their

homes, they were promised brand new housing. However, a rich man apparently bought the
government out to build Dodgers Stadiumwhich permanently swindled the people whopreviously
livedinthatareaout oftheir homes.Eventoday,therestillareMexicanAmericans whorefusetosee
or watch a baseball gametakingplaceatDodgers Stadium,dueto whatpreviouslyhappened totheir
families.
The NativeAmerican Movement,knownastheAmericanIndianMovement(AIM),foughtfor
the recognition of Native American culture and right for theAmericanIndianstoown someparts of
their land again. AIM was foundedin1968byDennis Banksand RussellMeans, wantingto address
police harassment, racism, and injustice. Background of AIM began in the 1950s when Congress
authorized theTerminationProgram,wherein they were trying toterminatethereservationsystemand
integrate American Indians into mainstream America. However, they refused to comply, wanting to
stick by theirheritageandwhatlittle cultureandlandtheAmericanIndianshadleft.AIMalsocalled
for the disbandment of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), agovernmentorganizationcreatedinan
efforttogivevoicetoAmericanIndians.However,theNativeAmericanswerewhollyunrepresentedin
the organization. Means and Banks were responsible for the organization of the Trail of Broken
Treaties (1972),acrosscountry marchto WashingtonD.C. inorderto protestforthedisbandmentof
BIA and the Termination Program, The Trail of Broken Treaties was an allusion to the Trail of
Tears.The WoundedKnee Incident (1973) hadbegunasastagedprotest.Inanescalationofevents,
the protestbecameastand offagainst theF.B.I.Hostageswere takenbytheprotestorsinaneffortto
gain leveragehowever, two protesters were shot by police. To thisday,American Indians remaina
underrepresenteddemographic.
The WomensRightsMovementduringthe1960swasmainlyfocusedontargetingworkplace
inequality and deconstructing traditional gender roles. During the 60s, women were really only
expected tostayhome, raise children, andmaintainfamilylife. The38% ofwomenwhoworkedwere

limited topinkcollarjobs,such asteaching, nursing,or secretarywork. Womenaccounted foronly

6%of doctors, 3% oflawyers, and1%ofengineers.Womenwereinstitutionallyoppressedduringthis
time(and somewhat,still are). Most women werepaid 5964 centsforeverydollaramalecounterpart
made doingthesamework. Sincetheiremployersassumedthattheywouldjustgetpregnantandleave
workto raisechildren,womenwerefrequentlydeniedopportunitiestoadvance.Manywomenalsofelt
hopelessly unfulfilled in their lives. In 1962, Betty Friedan wrote
The Feminine Mystique
, which
preciselycapturedmanywomensfrustrationsandevendespairduringthattime.Friedansbookwas
so provocativethatitisoftencitedas beingthesparkofthesecondwaveoffeminism.GloriaSteinem
was the nationally recognized leader of the feminist movement ofthe60sand70s. Asajournalist,
Steinemfounded
Ms. magazine,thefirstliberal feministmagazineinAmerica.Steinem is notable for
campaigning forthe Equal Rights Amendment, whichwould haveguaranteedequalrights forwomen
nationally. However, the campaign failed when it had only garned 35 out of the 38 necessary state
ratifications. TheRoevs.WadeSupreme Court casegrantedwomentherighttoabortion.Towardsthe
end of the movement, the negative connotation behind thetermfeminist wascreditedtohavebeen
established by Phyllis Schlafly. Opponents of the Womens Rights Movement, such as Schlafly,
counteredthatgrantingwomenfullequalitywouldhavebeenextremelycounterproductive,and would
obstruct households.Today,therestillremainsanoppressivemaledominated patriarchy.Womenstill
face workplace prejudices and income inequalities (compared tomen). Inaddition,underclassethnic
womendealwithevenworseconditions.However,the ThirdWave ofFeminismcontinues fromthe
1990s today. The media has become a significant part of, not only feminism, but other social
movementswithmanycelebritiescomingoutinrecentsupportoffeminism.
The LGBT+Communityanditsallieshavealonghistoryofleadingsocialmovementsinfavor
of social equity. The GayRights Movement is an umbrellatermusedto denote various LGBTsocial
movements that advocate for the equalized acceptance of members of the LGBT community within

society. Since various prejudices against the LGBT community were reinforced by religion,
conversations about sexuality were rarelyentertainedat thetimewiththe conceptofgender identity
being completelyunheard ofduringtheearly20thcentury.TheearliestrecognizedoriginoftheLGBT
rights movement in America was the publication of the famous
Kinsey Report
in 1948. Written by
Alfred Kinsey, the
Kinsey Report wascomprisedofKinseysfindingsfrom hisextensive research of
humansexualbehaviourwithhismostnotableconclusionbeinghisinventionoftheKinseyScale(a
scalefrom06withanadditionalX, usedtomeasuresexualattraction).Sincethetopicof hisresearch
was considered extremelytabooatthetime,Kinseyspublicationwasmetwith
immediatecontroversy.
However,this didopenupthedoor fornewconversations aboutsexuality.Before theKinsey Report,
homosexuality and transgenderism were considered a mental disorder Kinseys report disproved of
this, positing that sexualityregardless of orientationis natural. Nonetheless,becausesocietyhadnt
opened up to the LGBT community yet, there was a large amount of oppression against LGBT
individuals. InadditiontotheRed Scare, therewastheLavender Scarethathadalsobeenpropelledby
McCarthyism. Police would frequently harass members of the LGBT communityas well as arrest
them for no apparent reason. A large hiddenurban culture developed because LGBT individuals
couldnt be open about their identities. The only place gay people could really feel safe being
themselvesat thetime wereat undergroundbarsandclubs.Regardless,thepolicewouldroutinelyraid
theseunderground clubsandarrestpatrons.TheStonewallRiotsof1969happenedonJune28th,when
policeraidedapopularbarinNewYorkCityattheStonewallInn.Whenthirteenpeoplewerearrested,
the patrons of the bar retaliated because they had enough of being harassed by the police. The gay
community hadexplodedafter whathad happenedattheStonewallInn.Riots andprotestsensuedfor
six days. Becausethis hadbeen thefirsttime anyonehad takencollective action,theStonewallRiots
were considered a part of the very first LGBT movement in history: theGayLiberation Movement,
whichwasapride movementthat encouraged gaypeopletotakeactiontocountersocietalshamewith

gaypride. The Gay Liberationmovementlastedthroughthe60sintothe70sandlasteduntilthe80s.

There had been a lot of conservative opposition to the gay rights movement because of traditional
values. Despite this, Harvey Milk was the first openlygayindividualthat waselectedtohold public
office in 1977. Milkwaselected toholda seatontheSan FranciscoBoard ofSupervisorshehelped
pass manymeasuresinfavor ofgay rights. Unfortunately, 11 months afterassumingoffice, Milk and
MayorGeorgeMosconewas assassinatedbyhispredecessor,DanWhite.Whenpleadingguilty,White
had claimedthathehad notbeeninhisright mind duetoeatingtoomany twinkies.Astonishingly,
White had been granted a shorter sentence. Whites defense went down in history as the infamous
Twinkie Defense. Dont Ask, Dont Tell, signed in 1993 by Bill Clinton, was a former billthat
allowed gaymilitaryservicememberstoremain inthemilitaryaslongas theykeptit asecretThough
it hadseemedlike progress atthe time,itwas oneofthemostcontroversial lawseverin existence.It
was laterrepealedin 2010 whenitwasoverturned.In1996,PresidentClintonalsosignedtheDefense
of Marriage Act (DOMA), which defined marriageasbeing between onemanandone womanthis
meant that samesex partners were not eligible for spousal benefits (including social security, or
insurance whenonepartnerdies,evenpropertywasnthandedover).DOMAwasproposedandpushed
bythe RepublicanParty.Atfirst,Clintondidntbelieveinsamesexmarriagethough hedidbelievein
social equity. Overtime, though, Clintons opinions did change, Regardless of DOMA, in 2004,
Massachusetts became the first state to legalize samesex marriage licenses. Several other states
followed inMassachusettsfootsteps. California briefly allowedsamesexmarriageforfourmonthsin
2008 until Prop 8 was passed on November 5th. Marriage licenses given to samesex couples were
halted until 5 years later in 2013, when theSupreme Courtruled itas unconstitutionalinthecaseof
Hollingsworthv.Perry
.Sincethen,severalotherstates havepassedlawslegalizingsamesexmarriage.
To this date, 37 states allow samesex marriage. The Supreme Court is due for a hearing regarding
national marriage equality in June. Nonetheless, there is still a long way to go regarding theLGBT

rightsmovement.Thereisstilltheissueof policyexclusion,socialstigmas,and harassment(especially,

queerbaiting).

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