Online BIO 100A: Survey of Bioscience Laboratory

Laboratory Manual
Part I
(Version 4.0)

National University

Written by:
Michael R. Maxwell
&
Omar Clay
2005; 2007; 2009; 2011

Table of Contents
Part 1:
Lab 1: The Metric System, Measurement, and Uncertainty

Lab 2: Enzymes and pH.

Lab 3: Cellular Respiration

12

Lab 4: Genetics: From DNA to Heredity

19

Foreward
This laboratory manual is written specifically for students taking the online course BIO 100A.
Materials and activities are designed to be performed at home with minimal cost and hazard to
students. This manual's content is partially based on the assigned manual for onsite BIO 100A.
Bio 100A is intended to be taken by students that have already completed Bio100. Students
should also have the textbook for BIO100, as concepts in 100A will be referred to this textbook.
Juliann Downing of National University provided assistance in the writing of this manual.

BIO 100A:

Materials List

Students need to obtain the following materials for successful completion of this course.
Emphasis has been placed on low cost, easily found items. Total estimated cost is less than $50.
Item
Availability
Approx. cost
Active dry yeast (or rapid rise)
Grocery
$3.99
Six small bottles- .5L plastic water bottles
Household or Grocery
$3.00
Candy (or meat) Thermometer (must display temperatures between 100 -130 F)
Household or Grocery
$5.99
Six balloons (5 or greater diameter)
Grocery
$1.99
Safety goggles (optional but recommended)
Hardware
$2.50
Hydrogen peroxide (1 pint, 473 ml)
Grocery (First Aid)
$ 1.00
Household ammonia
Grocery (Cleansers)
$ 1.65
White vinegar
Household or Grocery
$ 1.29
Rubbing alcohol (75% or greater)
Household or Grocery
$ 1.49
One large mushroom (common or shiitake; lab 7)
Household or Grocery
$ 0.20
One whole potato (lab 2)
Household or Grocery
$ 0.70
Celery stalk (labs 5 & 6)
Household or Grocery
$ 1.00
Red and Blue food coloring (any two colors is fine)
Household or Grocery
$3.00
Pea pod (sugar snap or snow pea; lab 5)
Grocery
$ 0.10
Dry lima beans (3)
Grocery
$ 0.50
Radish seeds (1 pack)
Grocery
$1.99
Ziplock bags (4)
Household or Grocery
$ 3.99
Two of the following animals (lab 7):
Garden snail
Neighborhood
Squid
Grocery
$ 4.00
Earthworm or night crawler (large)
`
Neighborhood or Bait store $ 2.70
One crustacean
Grocery
varies
House cricket (adult)
Pet store
$ 0.10
Ladybug
Neighborhood
Mackerel
Bait store
$ 3.00
Ruler (with metric)
Household or Grocery
Indelible marker
Household or Grocery
Sucrose (white sugar)
Household or Grocery
String
Household or Grocery
Watch/ Clock (with seconds display)
Household
Measuring cup
Household or Grocery
$ 2.00
Measuring spoons
Household or Grocery
$ 3.00
Kitchen pot
Household
Liquid dish soap
Household or Grocery
Large pine cone with open scales
Neighborhood or Park
Fascicle (bundle) of pine needles
Neighborhood or Park
Table Salt
Household or Grocery
Paper towels
Household or Grocery
Disposable plates
Household or Grocery

Lab 1: The Metric System, Measurement, and Uncertainty

Materials needed
Ruler (with metric)
String
Introduction
Accurate measurement of the natural and physical world is fundamental to science. Modern
scientists use the metric system in their measurements. The metric system was developed in
France in the late 1700s, and is now commonly used in most countries. A main advantage of the
metric system is that it is based on multiples of 10. This is much easier than the English system
of 12 inches to the foot, 16 ounces to the pound, and 16 cups to the gallon.
Americans are often unfamiliar with some of the basic units of the metric system; thus, it can
present a difficulty. In this laboratory, you will develop an understanding of the metric system
and use it to measure common objects. You will also learn about how to report uncertainty in
your measurements. Estimating measurement uncertainty is a critical component of scientific
reporting that you will use in later labs.
Metric units
The basic measurements of the metric system are:
1. Length, expressed in meters (m).
2. Mass (weight), expressed in grams (g).
3. Volume (capacity), expressed in liters (l).
These units have the following English equivalents. One meter is roughly 3 feet (1 yard), or
slightly longer than one pace. One gram is very light; one paperclip is about 1 gram, while a
nickel is about 5 grams. Standard weights are often expressed in kilograms (1,000 grams). One
kilogram is roughly 2 pounds. One liter is roughly 1 quart, so there are about 4 liters in 1 gallon.
For each of these units, large or small amounts are expressed by prefixes that reflect multiples of
10, as the following table shows.
Prefix Symbol Power of 10
gigaG
109 = 1,000,000,000
mega- M
106 = 1,000,000
kilok
103 = 1,000
hecto- h
102 = 100
dekada
101 = 10
100 = 1
decid
10-1 = 0.1
centic
10-2 = 0.01
millim
10-3 = 0.001
micro-
10-6 = 0.000001

Length

Mass

Volume

kilometer (km)

kilogram (kg)

kiloliter (kl)

meter (m)

gram (g)

liter (l)

centimeter (cm) centigram (cg) centiliter (cl)

millimeter (mm) milligram (mg) milliliter (ml)
micrometer (m) microgram (g) microliter (l)

Using these prefixes, the following exact conversions can be made:

1 meter = 100 cm = 1,000 mm = 3.28 feet = 39.37 inches
1 inch = 2.54 cm
[1 cm is slightly less than a half-inch]
1 mile = 1.61 km = 5,280 feet
1 kilometer = 1,000 m = 0.621 miles
[1 km is somewhat longer than a half-mile]
1 kilogram = 1,000 kg = 2.2 pounds
1 liter = 1,000 ml = 1.06 quarts = 0.264 gallons
Temperature
The metric unit of temperature is degrees centigrade ( C). The Celsius temperature scale was
developed by the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius in 1742. Nearly every country in the
world uses the Celsius system. It can be confusing for traveling Americans when the morning
news announces a "nice day" of 24 degrees. This sounds cold, but 24 C is actually 75 F.
Temperature relates to the average energy of movement (kinetic energy) of molecules in the
environment.
The Celsius system is based on the freezing and boiling points of water:
Celsius (C)
Fahrenheit (F)
Water boils
100
212
Water freezes
0
32
1
Absolute zero
-273
-395
Exact conversions between the two scales are:
C =

5
(F - 32)
9

9
F = ( C) + 32
5

Uncertainty Estimation
A key aspect of accurate measurement and reporting of measurement is estimating the precision
of your measurements. For instance, when someone reports that it took twenty minutes to cook a
particular item, do they mean it took twenty minutes plus or minus a minute? Or do they mean
twenty minutes plus or minus five minutes? This kind of information is very important if you are
trying to exactly replicate previous experiments.
Thus, in addition to reporting a measurement, scientists try to estimate the range of values that
they are certain captures the object being measured. In this measurement lab, you will estimate
the uncertainty in your measurements. A good way to do this is to make and record the
measurement and then come back and make the measurement again. If this is done several times,
you will get a good idea of how precisely you can measure the given object. No scientific
1

Absolute zero is the temperature at which all molecular motion stops.

measurement is exact, as every measurement technique has limits. In scientific parlance, the
uncertainty in a measurement X is often referred to as X (called "delta X").

Lab 2: Enzymes and pH

Materials needed
One whole potato
Hydrogen peroxide (1 pint, 473 ml)
Household ammonia
White vinegar
4 disposable clear glasses
Tap water
Sharp knife
Ruler (metric)
Marker
Figure 2.1. Catalase.
Introduction
An enzyme is a molecule that increases the rate of chemical reactions. Enzymes are extremely
important for all organisms and have been described as the machinery of the cell. They are
involved in all of a cells essential activities, metabolic processes, protein and DNA synthesis,
etc. Enzymes tend to be very large molecules, and their function is tied to their complex
molecular structure (see Figure 2.1). Enzymatic functionality tends to be sensitive to
environmental conditions. Temperature and pH, for example, both affect the activity of an
enzyme.
The pH of a solution is a measurement of its acidity. A low value of pH corresponds to the
solution being acidic. In solution, acids tend to form H+ ions that will react with many other
molecules. A high pH value means a highly alkaline (basic) solution. In solution, bases tend to
from OH- ions that will react with many molecules. Both highly acidic and highly alkaline
solutions are corrosive. They can also counteract one another and form water. Pure water, which
is neutral (neither acidic or alkaline) has a pH = 7. The pH values of some common substances
are as follows:

pH
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Neutral
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Very alkaline 14

Examples

Very acidic

Battery acid
Lemon juice; gastric juice (in stomach)
Vinegar; Grapefruit juice
Tomato juice
Coffee
Urine; saliva; milk (pH = 6.5)
Distilled water; human blood; semen (pH = 7.4)
Egg white; seawater (pH = 8.4)
Milk of magnesia (pH = 10.5)
Household ammonia (pH = 11.7)
Household bleach
Oven cleaner (pH = 13.5)

Each enzyme has a pH at which the rate of the reaction it catalyzes is optimal. In the
following experiment, you will investigate the optimal pH for Catalase. Catalase is a
common enzyme, present in most cells. It speeds the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2), a toxic byproduct of many cellular reactions, into water (H2O) and oxygen gas
(O2). A single molecule of Catalase can convert hundreds of thousands of molecules of
hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen per second. A potato will serve as the source of
Catalase. As the reaction occurs, bubbling will become visible as oxygen is produced.
2 H2O2

-------------------->
Catalase

2 H2 O

O2

The chemical equation above indicates that the reactants (H2O2) on the left hand side are
transformed into the products (H2O and O2) on the right hand side. Catalase being below the
arrow indicates that this enzyme catalyzes this reaction. For an enzyme or a molecule to be
considered a catalyst for a reaction, it must increase the likelihood of the reaction taking place
and must not itself be used up in the reaction. Catalase is the name of this particular enzyme and
it is a catalyst for this particular reaction.
This laboratory is based on the lab manual by Mader. Information on enzymes can be found in
the BIO 100 textbook and in the online Supplemental and AV library.
Activity
1. CAUTION: AMMONIA IS CORROSIVE. Prolonged exposure to vapors may cause
breathing difficulties. Open a window when conducting this experiment. Contact with skin
may cause irritation. If contact occurs, wash immediately with lots of water.
2. Peel the skin off of the potato with the knife. Chop the potato into small chunks.

10

3. Label each cup:

#1: Water + H2O2
#2: Potato + Water + H2O2
#3: Potato + Vinegar + H2O2
#4: Potato + Ammonia + H2O2
4. Mark each cup with a dash at the 1-inch, 2-inch, and 3-inch heights (i.e., 2.5-cm, 5.0cm, 7.5-cm).
5. Fill cup #2, #3, and #4 with approximately 1 inch (2.5 cm) of potato. Make sure that
the amount of potato in each cup is approximately the same.
6. Fill the cups as follows:
#1: tap water to the 2-inch (5.0-cm) mark.
#2: tap water to the 2-inch (5.0-cm) mark.
#3: vinegar to the 2-inch (5.0-cm) mark.
#4: ammonia to the 2-inch (5.0-cm) mark.
7. Gently stir up the cups that contain potato or let the cups sit for 5 minutes to allow the
potato to soak up the liquid.
8. Fill all cups to the 3-inch (7.5-cm) mark with hydrogen peroxide, H2O2. The layering
of the cups should now be as follows:
Cup 1
Hydrogen peroxide
Water
No Potato

Cup 2
Hydrogen peroxide
Water
Potato

Cup 3
Hydrogen peroxide
Vinegar
Potato

Cup 4
Hydrogen peroxide
Ammonia
Potato

9. Observe bubbling for 2-3 minutes and complete Table 2.1 of the Lab Report.
10. Without any Catalase enzymes present, cup #1 should show minimal activity. Explore
the use of another material to see if Catalase is present in cup #1. Other material can
be chopped spinach, lettuce, meat, apple, or egg. Use the same volume that you used
with the potato so you can compare the relative rates of activity. Record your
observations and conclusions in the rest of Lab Report 2.

11

Lab 3: Cellular Respiration

Materials needed
Active dry yeast
(alternatively Rapid rise or instant yeast)
Six small bottles- .5L plastic water bottles
(alternatively test tubes)
Candy Thermometer
(alternatively oven/meat thermometer)
Note: must be capable of reading temperatures between 100 -130 F.
Six same sized balloons (5 diameter or bigger)
Safety goggles (recommended)
Indelible marker
Sucrose (sugar)
String
Ruler
Watch/ Clock
Measuring Cup
Measuring spoons
Kitchen pot
Optional Materials
Vinegar
Ammonia
pH paper
Beef bouillon
Fructose or honey
Sugar substitute
(e.g. NutraSweet)

Figure 3.1. Lab materials.

Introduction
In this experiment, you will investigate cellular respiration. By monitoring the volume of CO2
gas produced and the growth of a yeast medium (dependent variables), you will investigate the
role of sugar, temperature, and another independent variable of your choosing in cellular
respiration. You will also learn about yeast, cellular respiration, experimental design and
estimating measurement uncertainties.
Cellular Metabolism
Cellular respiration is a set of biochemical reactions essential to cellular metabolism. In this
process, sugars inside of cells are broken down into adenosine triphosphate (or ATP) which
serves as a source of cellular energy. Cellular respiration also produces carbon dioxide (CO2) and
other products. The production of CO2 is the chief way that CO2 enters the atmosphere and is
thus a primary aspect of the carbon cycle; the other primary leg of the carbon cycle is

12

photosynthesis which captures CO2 from the atmosphere and uses solar energy to produce
sugars.
The first step in cellular respiration occurs in the cell cytoplasm and is called glycolysis (Figure
3.2). In glycolysis, a single glucose (sugar) molecule is broken down into two pyruvate
molecules and two ATP molecules.
1 C6H12O6 2 C3H3O3- + 2 ATP
glucose
pyruvate
energy
There are two principle types of cellular respiration (Figure 3.2). First, in the presence of
oxygen, aerobic respiration can take place in the cell's mitochondria, where pyruvate and
oxygen are used to produce CO2 and 36 ATP. The mechanisms by which this occurs are the
Krebs cycle and the Electron transport chain.
2 C3H3O3- + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + up to 34 ATP
pyruvate oxygen carbon water energy
gas
dioxide gas
Second, in the absence of oxygen, cells can engage in anaerobic respiration which takes place
in the cytoplasm. One form of anaerobic respiration occurs in the muscle cells of animals when
they are using more oxygen than the blood can supply. This is known as lactic acid
fermentation because it produces lactic acid. Ultimately, lactate can be used to produce some
more ATP. Some fungi and bacteria also use this biochemical pathway. Yeast and some bacteria
engage in another form of anaerobic respiration known as ethanol fermentation. This process
does not provide more ATP but does produce CO2, ethanol (drinking alcohol) and maintains the
biochemical conditions necessary for continuing glycolysis in the cytoplasm.

Figure 3.2. Cellular respiration. [Figure from Johnson and Raven, 2004, Biology, Holt
Rinehart and Winston, p. 110]

13

Yeast
Yeast is a single-celled fungus. These cells are typically 3-4 microns in size, but dont let that
fool you into thinking that they are not important to humankind. A particularly import kind of
yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae. These organisms are used to ferment the sugars of grains
(wheat, barley, rice, corn, etc.) and other foods (e.g., grapes) to produce alcoholic drinks
(whiskey, beer, wine, etc.) and to make bread rise. Yeast is also used in the production of some
cheeses, and is being used in the field of bioremediation and ethanol fuel production. Yeast-like
fungi are also normal inhabitants in the mouth, vagina, skin, and intestines.
Figure 3.3.
Left. Saccharomyces
cerevisiae as seen
through a microscope.
Right. Active dried
yeast is a granulated
form in which yeast is
commercially sold.

Experiment: Investigation of CO2 production from cellular respiration in yeast

0. Read through the following instructions thoroughly before beginning your experiment.
Exercise caution and be mindful of safety as you work with hot water and plastic bottles.
1. Collect all of your materials in a clean safe place. Decide what alternate experimental
conditions you will examine. Ideas for alternate experimental conditions (e.g., sugar
substitute, pH change, yeast conditioning, temperature) are described more fully below.
2. Make sure that your thermometer and five plastic bottles will all fit inside of your kitchen pot
(Figure 3.1). Make sure that your balloons fit tightly on your bottle necks (Figures 3.4 and
3.5). You may also want to tie your bottles together with string so that they will not float in
the bath water.
3. Make sure that each bottle is clean and dry. Add 2 teaspoons of yeast to each bottle with the
possible exception of #6, which will depend upon your alternative choice.

14

Figure 3.4. Labeled, loaded, and ready to grow.

4. Fill each bottle with cup of water. Be sure that each receives the same kind and quantity of
water. For instance, if you use tap water, use it with all of the bottles. Write down what kind
of water you use. If you are going to run an experiment on pH and have pH paper, measure
the pH of the water.
5. Record the independent variables (i.e., the conditions under experimental control) for each
yeast population (bottle). The independent variables are Sugar, Yeast, and Water in Table
3.1. Do not measure the height (in cm) of the yeast solution until Step 8.
Table 3.1. Variables in the experiment.
Yeast
Water
Bottle Sugar
1
2
3
4
5
6

1 teasp
1 teasp
1 teasp
1/3 teasp
No Sugar

2 teasp
2 teasp
2 teasp
2 teasp
2 teasp

cup
cup
cup
cup
cup
cup

Yeast solution
height (in cm)

To be heated in warm water bath?

No. Leave this bottle at room temp.
Yes.
Yes. Replicates bottle #2.
Yes.
Yes.

6. Notice that Bottles #2 and #3 have identical conditions. This will allow you to gauge the
precision of your experimental method. Bottle #6 is to be used in an experiment of your
choosing. You should change only one of the independent variables and keep the others
constant. For instance, you might choose to investigate whether yeast can grow as well with
something other than sugar, such as beef bouillon, NutraSweet, saccharine or a higher
quantity of sugar (e.g., 2 teaspoons). If you do this, be sure to keep the yeast quantity

15

constant at 2 teaspoons and heat the bottle like the others. Other ideas include: altering the
pH of the water by adding a measured amount of ammonia or vinegar; changing the amount
of yeast in the bottle; microwaving the dry yeast before trying to grow them (microwaving
might kill the yeast), or seeing if the yeast can grow in the cold by placing Bottle #6 in the
refridgerator instead of the warm water bath.
7. Replace the caps on each bottle and swirl the solutions thoroughly to insure that the yeast cells
are well distributed in the solution.
8. Remove the caps and replace them with balloons. Stretch the mouth of each balloon over the
mouth of each bottle (Figure 3.5). Make sure that the balloon/bottle connection is secure; if
necessary, use tape or string. Measure the height of the yeast solutions in the bottles and
record them in Table 3.1 (they should all be pretty much the same).

Figure 3.5. CO2 production and yeast growth after ~20 minutes of heat.
9. Fill the pot with water to a height a just a bit deeper than the height of the water in the bottles
(this way the bottles wont float too much when you place them in the bath). Place the
thermometer such that you can safely monitor the temperature. Heat the water to 110F
(slightly warmer than a hot spa). During the experiment, continually monitor the temperature
and adjust the burner such that the water temperature is kept relatively constant at 110F. Be
careful of steam.
10. Place bottles # 2-5 in the warm water and maintain the temperature between 100 and 120 F
for ~20 minutes. Bottle # 6 may or may not be placed in the bath, depending upon your
choice of experimental treatment. Bottle #1 should be left sitting at room temperature (it will
serve as a temperature treatment). Monitor the experiment carefully. Do not let the bath
temperature exceed 120F.

16

11. After 20 minutes, turn off the burner and remove all of the bottles. Make a quick
examination of the results and note the volume of the balloons (large, medium, small, none),
the growth of the yeast medium (much, moderate, little, none). Record these quick
observations in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2. Observations of dependent variables.
Bottle
Balloon size
Yeast growth
Other observations/ comments
1
2
3
4
5
6

Figure 3.6. Yeast solution after growth.

12. Use a string to take various measurements of each balloon. Be careful not to dislodge the
balloon while you measure it. Record your measurements in Table 3.3.
a) Estimate the diameter of each balloon (when looking at the balloon, diameter is the
linear distance from edge to edge). Since the balloons are closer to ellipsoids (Figure
3.5) than spheres, you will need to measure both the long vertical axis parallel to the
body of the bottle and the shorter dimension perpendicular to the bottle body.
b) Wrap a string around the horizontal circumference of the balloon at its fattest point.
The string should be horizontal (i.e. parallel with the ground). Mark the string where
it meets itself and measure the circumference (C) of the balloon in cm by laying the
string along the side of a ruler. Record the length of the horizontal circumference (C)
in Table 3.3.
c) Estimate the accuracy of your measurement of the circumference by measuring twice.
You should be able to be confidently say that the circumference C of the balloon is
your measured value plus or minus C.

17

d) For the long axis radius (R), you cannot wrap the string all the way around because of
the bottle. In this case, use the string to estimate the distance from the top of the
balloon to its base at the bottle neck (i.e. half of the circumference). The radius of the
balloon on this axis is R = measured value/3.14. Estimate your uncertainty in making
this measurement (R). Record these measurements in Table 3.3.
e) Measure the new heights of the yeast solutions. Record in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3. Balloon size and solution height measurements.
Bottle Circumference, C (cm)
Radius (long axis, R; cm)

New height of
yeast solution (in cm)

1
2
3
4
5
6

18

Lab 4: Genetics: From DNA to Heredity

Figure 4.1. DNA uncoiled.

19

Lab 4A: DNA Extraction

Materials needed
Rubbing Alcohol (70% or greater), chilled.
Small glass or shot glass
Liquid dish soap
Table Salt
Introduction
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the molecular basis of heredity in all living organisms. DNA is
long molecule composed of a chain of nucleotides. These nucleotides form molecular couples
such that, in its simplest uncoiled state, the DNA chain is similar to a ladder with two parallel
chains and nucleotide linkages forming the rungs of the ladder (Figure 4.1).
In prokaryotes, DNA is typically found in circular fragments. In eukaryotes, DNA is found in
super-coiled fragments known as chromosomes. Chromosomes are protected from the
biochemical activities in the cells cytoplasm by a lipid-membrane enclosed sack inside of the
cell known as the nucleus (Figure 4.1).
DNA Extraction
How can scientists extract DNA from a cell? The lipid bilayers that make up the cellular and
nuclear membranes must be broken without destroying the DNA. The phospholipids that make
up cellular membranes have a fatty, hydrophobic (water insoluble) tail and a polar, hydrophilic
(water soluble) head. These molecules naturally form a bilayer in which their polar heads stick
outwards towards the aqueous environments of the cell cytoplasm and the extracellular fluid,
while their fatty tails intertwine with one another at the core of the membrane.

Figure 4.2. Left. Cell membranes phospholipid bilayer. Right. A phospholipid molecule.

20

Soap or detergent molecules are similar to lipids in that they have a fatty tail and a water-soluble
side. Thus, like phospholipids, soap forms bubbles (membranes). Soaps can dissolve fats and
greases, thereby being ideal for dissolving away cellular membranes, and are used by scientists
to do exactly this in order to access the non-fatty internal components of a cell. Some over-thecounter detergents also contain enzymes that will dissolve proteins. Neither the soap molecules
nor the protease enzymes will destroy DNA.
To extract the DNA, there must be some means of isolating it from all of the other cellular
components. In addition to being a long chain, DNA also has a relatively unique feature in that it
has a slight negative charge. If it is placed in a solution with ionic compounds, it will tend to
stick to positive ions. This feature of the DNA molecule is used in extraction techniques.
Activity: DNA extraction protocol
1. Chill isopropyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol) in the freezer.
2. Swish ~4 ml of water around in your mouth for a few minutes. Use your teeth to lightly scrape
the sides of your cheeks. This will dislodge some cheek cells in the water in your mouth. Spit
out the water into a small glass.
3. Add three pinches of salt to your solution. Salt is an ionic compound made up of sodium
(Na+) ions and chloride (Cl-) ions. In its crystalline form, these two ions stick together, but
when salt is dissolved in water the two ions separate.
4. Gently add 1 ml of liquid dish soap to the solution. Gently stir this solution for 1minute.
Avoid introducing bubbles into the solution.
5. Carefully add 5 ml of the cold alcohol into the solution. Pour it gently down one side of the
glass to avoid disrupting the solution. The alcohol should layer on top of the soap/water
solution.
6. Observe carefully. Can you see DNA precipitate out in the layer of alcohol? Use a toothpick
or other small rod to investigate the precipitant in the alcohol.
7. Describe what you see. Is the precipitant bubbly or stringy? Does it stick together or does it
form many islands? Record these observations in Lab Report 4.

21

Lab 4B: Human heredity

Materials needed
None
Introduction
Humans, like many other organisms, are diploid. Being diploid, humans inherit two genetic
forms (alleles) of a gene, one from each parent. In this laboratory, you will investigate some
common human genetic features.
This laboratory is based on the lab manual by Mader. This material is covered in the textbook
for BIO 100.
Genotype and phenotype
The diploid condition means that, in most of the cells in the body, there are two pairs of every
chromosome. The two chromosomes in each pair are homologous chromosomes. Homologous
chromosomes are typically the same length and shape, and have genes at the same locations.
Genes are regions of chromosomes that are ultimately responsible for the body's anatomy and
physiology. The actual genetic sequence at a gene is an allele. Homologous chromosomes
might have the same genetic sequence at a particular gene, thereby having the same allele for this
gene. In this case, the chromosomes are homozygous for the gene. Alternatively, homologous
chromosomes might differ in the genetic sequence at a gene, thereby representing two different
alleles for the same gene. In this case, the chromosomes are heterozygous.
Any given combination of alleles is the genotype. The phenotype is the observable result or
traits of the allele combinations. To illustrate these ideas, consider a simplified depiction of eye
color. Suppose there are two alleles, B and b. The genotypes BB and Bb result in brown eyes,
while the genotype bb results in blue eyes. In this example, the B allele is dominant, because
the heterozygote (Bb) shows brown color. The b allele is recessive.
Because chromosomes are passed from parent to child, one can predict the relative likelihood of
children having certain traits, given that the genotypes of the parents are known. Such an
analysis involves a Punnett square, where the alleles of both parents are combined in all
possible combinations.

22

Continuing with the eye color example, suppose a brown-eyed man (Bb) couples with a browneyed woman (Bb). This can be described by the following Punnett square (Figure 4.3):
Brown-eyed man (Bb) Brown-eyed woman (Bb)
Woman
(Bb)

BB
(brown)

Bb
(brown)

Bb
(brown)

bb
(blue)

Man
(Bb)

Figure 4.3. Punnett Square, demonstrating possible genotypes resulting from Bb Bb pairing..
In this example, a common, and generally valid, assumption is that equal numbers of B and b
sperm cells are produced by the man. Similarly, the woman is assumed to be equally likely to
ovulate an egg containing a B or b allele. Under these assumptions, the man and woman are 25%
likely to produce a BB child, 50% to produce a Bb child, and 25% to produce a bb child. These
are the genotype frequencies. But, because BB and Bb both result in brown eyes, the phenotype
frequencies are different: 75% to produce a brown-eyed child and 25% to produce a blue-eyed
child.
For the lab report, you will collect data on three human traits: tongue-rolling, earlobe
attachment, and thumb flexibility ("hitch-hiker's thumb").

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Tongue-rolling
Phenotype R: "roll" (can curl sides of tongue). Genotype: RR or Rr.
Phenotype r: "no roll" (cannot curl sides of tongue). Genotype: rr.

Figure 4.4. Tongue-rolling. The "roll" phenotype is R (genotype is RR or Rr). [Image taken
from the Internet.]

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Earlobe attachment
Phenotype U: "Unattached." Genotype: UU or Uu.
Phenotype u: "Attached." Genotype: uu.

Figure 4.5. Earlobe attachment. [Image taken from the Internet.]

A) "Unattached" phenotype is U (genotype is UU or Uu).
B) "Attached" phenotype is u (genotype is uu).

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Thumb flexibility ("hitch-hiker's thumb")

Phenotype H: "No hitch-hiker." Genotype: HH or Hh.
Phenotype h: "Hitch-hiker" (last joint of thumb can extend backwards). Genotype: hh.

Figure 4.6. Thumb flexibility. [Images taken from the Internet.]

Left: "No hitch-hiker" phenotype is H (genotype is HH or Hh).
Right: "Hitch-hiker" phenotype is h (genotype is hh).

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