NELSON PHYSICS

VCE Units 1&2 \\ Student CD-ROM

THEORY SUMMARY

CHAPTER 3

Electric Circuits
Ohms Law, resistance and V-I graphs
Ohms Law
Current through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage difference across it. This is known as
Ohms Law. This can be modelled by the formula V IR, where R is a constant known as the resistance
of the conductor.

Resistance
The resistance is defined as the ratio of the voltage across a device to the current in the device. Since, R

V
,
I

R is measured in V=A.
1 V=A 1 ohm

V-I graph
A characteristic V-I graph for an ohmic conductor is shown in Figure 3.1a. Ohmic conductors have constant
resistance, and the gradient of the straight line graph gives the value of the resistance. The V-I graph of a nonohmic conductor is shown in Figure 3.1b. It is not a straight line and the resistance is not a constant.

(b)

Voltage

Voltage

(a)

Current

Current

Figure 3.1: (a) The V-I graph of an ohmic resistor is a linear graph; (b) the V-I graph of
a non-ohmic resistor is a non-linear graph.

Instead of the graph of V against I, we sometimes use the graph of I against V. In this case, the
I/V ratio gives the reciprocal value of the resistance.

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Parallel and series circuits and unloaded voltage dividers

Series circuits
Figure 3.2a shows a simple series circuit. In this circuit, the current in each resistor is the same, and is
equal to the current entering the resistors. The sum of the potential difference across each component equals
the supplied potential difference:
RT R1 R2
VT V1 V2
(a)

(b)
V1

V2

R1

R2

(c)

R1
I1

IT
I2
R2

Figure 3.2

Parallel circuits
Figure 3.2b shows a simple parallel circuit. In this circuit, the potential difference across all resistors
is the same. The sum of the currents in each of the resistors equals the total current IT:
1
1
1

RT R1 R2
IT I1 I2

Compound circuits
Figure 3.2c is a compound circuit. This circuit is a combination of series and parallel circuits.
Each section needs to be simplified by using the rules for series and parallel resistors.

Voltage dividers
Most voltage dividers use two resistors (as shown in Figure 3.3) as this is the simplest form. The voltage
drop across both resistors adds to equal the supply voltage, Vin. The output voltage, Vout, is the potential
difference across one of the resistors and so is less than Vin.
Vout

R2
Vin
R1 R2

R1
Vin = supply
voltage
R2

Vout

Figure 3.3

Variable resistors, diodes and other non-ohmic devices

Resistors
Resistors are electronic devices with particular resistances that can be used to control the flow of electrons in
an electronic circuit. Controlling the flow of electrons allows circuit designers to control the energy used
by each component and hence the information they convey. They obey Ohms Law and are called ohmic
resistors (Figure 3.4).

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Figure 3.4: The circuit symbol for a resistor.

Thermistors
Thermistors, or temperature-dependent resistors, are used in voltage dividers to detect changes in heat energy
(temperature). The electrical changes caused by physical changes are used to control devices such as
heaters or air-conditioners. They are non-ohmic resistors (Figure 3.5).
(b)

thermistor

Resistance (M)

(a)

25
20
15
10
5

10

20
30
Temperature (C)

40

Figure 3.5: (a) The circuit symbol of a thermistor; (b) its characteristic graph.

LDRs
A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is made of a semiconductor material such as cadmium sulfide, whose
resistance changes with the intensity of the light. As the intensity of the light falling on the surface
of the LDR increases, the resistance of the semiconductor material decreases (Figure 3.6b).

LDR

(b)

Resistance (k)

(a)

12
10
8
6
4
2
4 61
101

4 61
102

4 61
103

Illumination (lux)
Figure 3.6: (a) The circuit symbol for an LDR; (b) its characteristic graph.

LDRs can be used where rapid responses to light changes are not required, as they can typically
take around 100 milliseconds to respond.

Diodes
A diode is an electronic device made from semiconducting materials. When used in a circuit, a diode allows
current to flow in one direction only. Diodes can be connected to a circuit in two ways. The triangle in the
circuit symbol shows the direction in which conventional current can flow. When connected to allow
current to flow, the diode is forward biased (Figure 3.7a). When reverse biased (Figure 3.7b), the diode
prevents current flow and only an extremely small leakage current passes through it.
The currentvoltage characteristic curve for a typical diode would look like the graph in Figure 3.7c.

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(a)

(c)

(b)

Current (mA)

diode

reverse bias 40
20
100
Voltage (V)
forward biased
current flows globe lights

0.6 0.8

reverse biased
no current flow

forward bias

Figure 3.7: The two ways of connecting diodes to a circuit.

(a)

fuse carrier

thin fuse
wire

(b)

Figure 3.8: (a) A fuse; (b) the circuit symbol for a fuse.

Household electric circuits

The domestic mains supply is AC (alternating) with 240 Vrms and 50 Hz frequency. There are two wires in the
cable which supplies electricity to the house. One is called the active wire and the other is called the neutral wire.

Fuses
A fuse connected to the active wire passes through the power meter to the mains switch. This active wire
is connected to a number of parallel circuits, and each circuit has a fuse. A fuse is a piece of wire that will
melt and break the circuit when the current in it exceeds a certain value.

Switch
There is a switch connected to all domestic circuits to control the power supply to devices. There are
one-way switches as well as two-way switches in use. The circuit symbol for a one-way switch is in
Figure 3.9a, and for a two-way switch, in Figure 3.9b.

Earthing and circuit breakers

In household wiring, it is common to use a third wire called the earth, apart from the live and neutral
wires. The earth wire is a very low resistance wire. Normally, no current flows in the earth. However,
a large current flows in the earth wire when a fault develops.

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(b)
switch 1

switch 2

(a)
A

globe

Figure 3.9: (a) The circuit symbol for a one-way switch; (b) the circuit symbol for a fuse.

A circuit breaker is a device connected to the earth wire, and is triggered by high currents running in it.
Whenever there is a current in the earth wire, the circuit breaker will cut off the power supply to the
faulty device.

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