Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
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Psychology
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Social Thinking
Your work colleague is absent: Does his
absenteeism signify illness, laziness, or a stressful
work atmosphere?
Attributing Behavior to
Persons or to Situations
http://www.stedwards.edu
Fritz Heider
5
Attributing Behavior to
Persons or to Situations
A teacher may wonder whether a childs hostility
reflects an aggressive personality (dispositional
attribution) or is a reaction to stress or abuse (a
situational attribution).
http://www.bootsnall.org
Effects of Attribution
How we explain someones behavior affects how we
react to it.
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D. MacDonald/ PhotoEdit
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TACTIC
Foot-inthe-Door
Low-Ball
Bait and
Switch
Labeling
FIRST STEP
SECOND STEP
TACTIC
Foot-inthe-Door
Low-Ball
Bait and
Switch
Labeling
FIRST STEP
Gain Targets
Compliance
With a Small
Request
example:
Would you
sign a petition
to help feed
starving exCEOs?
SECOND STEP
TACTIC
Foot-inthe-Door
Low-Ball
Bait and
Switch
Labeling
FIRST STEP
SECOND STEP
Gain Targets
Compliance
With a Small
Request
Make A
Related,
Larger
Request
Would you
work for 2
weeks in the
CEO soup
kitchen?
19
Two Routes to
Persuasion
Central Route
o Person thinks carefully about a message
o Influenced by the strength and quality of the message
o Use facts, details, evidence to convince or persuade
Peripheral Route
o Person does not think critically about the contents of a
message
o Influenced by superficial cues
o Use Emotion-positive or negative-to convince or persuade.
Fear, anger, jealousy, joy, happiness,
How do the
Routes link
with advertising?
Think of the last
commercial you
watchedcentral or
peripheral route?
Examples, please!
Write an example of
each down!
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Parole Board
During the parole hearings they also
witnessed an unexpected metamorphosis of
the prison consultant as he adopted the role
of head of the Parole Board
He literally became the most hated
authoritarian official imaginable, so much so
that when the experiment was over he felt
sick at who he had become
o He acted no different than his own tormentor who had previously rejected
his annual parole requests for 16 years when he was a prisoner
Full debriefing
Zimbardo: On the last
day, we held a series of
encounter sessions, first
with all the guards, then
with all the prisoners
(including those who
had been released
earlier), and finally with
the guards, prisoners,
and staff together. We
did this in order to get
everyone's feelings out in
the open
A final question
No guards left the experiment most seemed to
enjoy it
The prisoners were abused some sobbed their way
out
What would you have done differently had you
been a guard? A prisoner?
37
Cognitive Dissonance
38
Social Influence
The greatest contribution of social psychology is its
study of attitudes, beliefs, decisions, and actions and the
way they are molded by social influence.
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Conformity
Obedience
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Obedience
Stanley Milgram
designed a study that
investigates the effects of
authority on obedience.
Stanley Milgram
(1933-1984)
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Milgrams Study
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52
Individual Resistance
A third of the individuals in Milgrams study resisted
social coercion.
53
Group Influence
How do groups affect our behavior? Social
psychologists study various groups:
1.
2.
3.
4.
56
Social Loafing
The tendency of an individual in a
group to exert less effort toward
attaining a common goal than when
tested individually (Latan, 1981).
Deindividuation
The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group
situations that foster arousal and anonymity.
HAVE YOU EVER POSTED ANYTHING ONLINE
YOU WOULDNT WANT POSTED HERE??
Mob behavior
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62
Groupthink
A mode of thinking that occurs when the
desire for harmony in a decision-making
group overrides the realistic appraisal of
alternatives. Everyone wants to get along!
Groupthink Famous Examples:
Attack on Pearl Harbor
Kennedy and the Cuban Missile Crisis
Watergate Cover-up
Chernobyl Reactor Accident
63
Power of Individuals
Margaret Bourke-White/ Life Magazine. 1946 Time Warner, Inc.
Gandhi
64
Social Relations
Social psychology teaches us how we relate to one
another through prejudice, aggression, and conflict to
attraction, and altruism and peacemaking.
65
66
Prejudice
Simply called prejudgment, a prejudice is an
unjustifiable (usually negative) attitude toward a group
and its members. Prejudice is often directed towards
different cultural, ethnic, or gender groups.
Components of Prejudice
1. Beliefs (stereotypes)
2. Emotions (hostility, envy, fear)
3. Predisposition to act (to discriminate)
67
Reign of Prejudice
Prejudice works at the conscious and [more at] the
unconscious level. Therefore, prejudice is more like a
knee-jerk response than a conscious decision.
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Race
Nine out of ten white respondents were slow when
responding to words like peace or paradise when
they saw a black individuals photo compared to a
white individuals photo (Hugenberg & Bodenhausen,
2003).
71
Gender
Most women still live in more poverty than men. About
100,000,000 women are missing in the world. There is a
preference for male children in China and India, even
with sex-selected abortion outlawed.
72
Gender
Although prejudice prevails against women, more people
feel positively toward women than men. Women rated
picture b [feminized] higher (66%) for a matrimonial ad
(Perrett & others, 1998).
Professor Dave Perrett, St. Andrews University
73
1. Social Inequalities
2. Social Divisions
3. Emotional Scapegoating
74
Social Inequality
Prejudice develops when people have money, power, and
prestige, and others do not. Social inequality increases
prejudice. In the US:
75
Us and Them
Ingroup: People with whom one shares a common
identity. Outgroup: Those perceived as different from
ones ingroup. Ingroup Bias: The tendency to favor ones
own group.
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Hindsight Bias
After learning an outcome, the tendency to believe that
we could have predicted it beforehand may contribute
to blaming the victim and forming a prejudice against
them.
81
Can prejudice be
automatic?
Implicit racial
associations
Unconscious
patronization
Race-influenced
perceptions
Seeing black
Reflexive bodily
responses
(see page 666 in text)
Could automatic
prejudice have affected
the perceptions of these
individuals?
82
Aggression
Aggression can be any physical or verbal
behavior intended to hurt or destroy.
It may be done reactively out of hostility or
proactively as a calculated means to an end.
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84
Influences
Genetic Influences: Animals have been bred for
aggressiveness for sport and at times for research.
Twin studies show aggression may be genetic. In
men, aggression is possibly linked to the Y
chromosome.
Neural Influences: Some centers in the brain,
especially the limbic system (amygdala) and the
frontal lobe, are intimately involved with
aggression.
85
Influences
Biochemical Influences: Animals with diminished
amounts of testosterone (castration) become docile,
and if injected with testosterone aggression
increases. Prenatal exposure to testosterone also
increases aggression in female hyenas.
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Aversive Events
Studies in which animals and humans experience
unpleasant events reveal that those made
miserable often make others miserable.
88
Environment
Even environmental temperature can lead to
aggressive acts. Murders and rapes increased
with the temperature in Houston.
89
Heat
Humidity
Pain
Noxious fumes
Poverty
Crowding
Frustration-Aggression
Principle
A principle in which frustration (caused by the
blocking of an attempt to achieve a desired goal)
creates anger, which can generate aggression.
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Observing Models of
Aggression
Sexually coercive men are
promiscuous and hostile in
their relationships with
women. This coerciveness
has increased due to
television viewing of R- and
X-rated movies.
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Media Violence
Media Violence
Since at least 1970, researchers have known of a link
between violent media and aggression
o
o
o
o
o
Common Responses
Common Responses
Effects of VVGs
(Bushman & Anderson, 2001)
Findings from a meta-analysis
Correlation with
VVG Exposure
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
Aggression Helping
Hostile
Thoughts
Hostile
Affect
Arousal
Common Responses
2. Effects are trivially small
o
False. Effects are larger than many that we take for granted
Common Responses
3. Playing violent games/watching violence allows people
to vent feelings of anger
o
aggression
Media Industry
Response
Media Industry
Response
o Maybe. But viewer interest is only one factor driving programming decisions
o Societal violence can be considered a hazardous by-product
o Also, most popular shows (Friends, Seinfeld, Bachelor) are not violent
Media Industry
Response
3. Violence sells!
Biopsychosocial Understanding of
Aggression
Biopsychosocial Understanding of
Aggression
Biopsychosocial Understanding of
Aggression
Rex USA
110
Psychology of Attraction
2.
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Psychology of Attraction
3. Similarity: Similar views among individuals causes the
bond of attraction to strengthen. SIMILARITY BREEDS
CONTENT! (not Familiarity breeds Contempt!)
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113
Romantic Love
Passionate Love: An aroused state of intense positive
absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of
a love relationship.
Romantic Love
Companionate Love: A deep, affectionate attachment we
feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.
Matching Hypothesis: We tend to look for people who are
ABOUT AS ATTRACTIVE AS WE THINK WE ARE!!!
Courtship and Matrimony (from the collection of Werner Nekes)
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Bystander Effect
Tendency of any
given bystander to
be less likely to
give aid if other
bystanders are
present.
124
Altruism
An example of..????
127
Conflict
Conflict is perceived as an incompatibility of actions,
goals, or ideas.
The elements of conflict are the same at all levels. People
become deeply involved in potentially destructive social
processes that have undesirable effects.
128
When am I stuck:
SOCIAL TRAP
The social trap occurs when too many people aim for
individual goals and not goals of the community
Examples:
overfishing, energy "brownout" and
"blackout" power outages during periods of
extreme temperatures, overgrazing of cattle
causing a Desert to form, and the destruction of
the rainforest by logging interests
Ever heard of the expression tragedy of the
commons? Refers to a social trap!
131
Enemy Perceptions
People in conflict form diabolical images (MIRRORIMAGE PERCEPTIONS) of one another.
http://www.aftonbladet.se
http://www.cnn.com
Saddam Hussein
Wicked Pharaoh
George Bush
Evil
132
Cooperation
Superordinate Goals are shared goals that override
differences among people and require their
cooperation. (MUZAFER SHERIF EXPT)
Syracuse Newspapers/ The Image Works
133
Competed in a variety of
contests
Contact: No
Communication
Graduated & Reciprocated Initiatives in TensionReduction (GRIT): This is a strategy designed to
decrease international tensions. One side recognizes
mutual interests and initiates a small conciliatory act
that opens the door for reciprocation by the other party.
138
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
A self-fulfilling prophecy is a thought or expectation
that becomes real in a persons life because it has
been thought.
Example: a teacher assumes that a certain student is
not intelligent, the teacher might give that student
less positive attention and more negative attention,
resulting in poorer performance by the student
Example: a student interviewing for college might
believe she will do poorly during the admission
interview. Her anxiety over doing poorly might then
cause her to do poorly at the interview, validating her
negative self-assessment
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