Hotel

Air Quality

Connor Souchek
Laura Vandyke
Johanna Vo
Pollution & Regulation
ENVL-3241
Fall 2014

Hotel Air Quality 2

Abstract
Major indoor air pollutants, their effects on human health, their
sources, and their concentrations in various locations within hotels
were studied. In addition, the standards set forth by federal and state
agencies regulating the allowable concentrations of each pollutant
were also analyzed. Concentrations of each of these pollutants were
then examined in guest rooms, common areas, lobbies, and outside of
six New Jersey hotels. Samples were collected using a GrayWolf
WolfPack Modular Area Monitor placed in each sampling location. The
monitor was set to collect data for five minutes. Three separate visits
were made to each of the six hotels and data was collected in the
same locations mentioned above. Parameters that were tested for in
each hotel included sulfur dioxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide,
ammonia, ozone, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide,
temperature and relative humidity. Upon completion of the final visit
to each hotel, average concentrations of each pollutant was calculated.
Average outdoor concentrations were then compared to average
indoor concentrations of four major parameters. In addition, hotel
guest room concentrations were compared to hotel common area
concentrations. It was discovered that on average, carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide concentrations were greater inside of the hotel, with
guest rooms displaying the highest concentrations. Nitric oxide and
relative humidity was found to be greater and more variable outside of
the hotel. Nitric oxide levels were also observed to be equal between
guest rooms and common areas.
Introduction
On average, Americans spend an astonishing twenty two hours
per day indoors (Bernstein, et al., 2007). Whether in their own homes,
workspaces, or the supermarket, we hardly pay any attention to the
quality of the air that is found in these spaces. More so, how many of
the millions of Americans that travel every year via car, plane, or train
to some destination spend a fraction of those twenty two hours indoors
inside of a hotel or motel? The indoor air pollutants and the standards
that govern their allowable concentrations are facts that are not
frequently analyzed. As the nation as a whole spends more time
isolated from the outside, information regarding these pollutants, their
sources and health effects, and what laws and regulations are set to
protect us from them will quickly rise to paramount importance.
Indoor air pollutants that are commonly found within the confines
of a hotel can range in severity from a mild health hazard to a deadly
cancer causing substance. Pollutants that were tested for within the
report include, carbon dioxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur

Hotel Air Quality 3

dioxide, ammonia, ozone, hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, and
formaldehyde. While some of these pollutants such as carbon dioxide
produce relatively benign effects at higher concentrations, pollutants
such as carbon monoxide and formaldehyde can be deadly. However,
while not all contaminants are fatal, all of them have the ability to
cause indoor air quality problems that result in human discomfort.
Sources of these indoor air pollutants can range from building
materials to industrial cleaners. Even poorly filtered outdoor air
pollutants can be introduced into the guest rooms or common areas of
a hotel through faulty heating and air conditioning systems.
Finally, while so many people nationwide rely on hotels as a safe,
affordable place to relax after a tiring day of travel, there are no
standards set to regulate the levels of indoor air pollutants that can be
found within them. The lack of standards allows for any concentration
of a hazardous substance to be found in the air inside of a hotel, thus
jeopardizing the health of employees and guests alike.
Indoor Air Pollution
Health effects related to indoor air pollution can span from a mild
human health irritant to a serious, possibly fatal condition. The
severity of the health effects experienced by a person depends on a
multitude of factors such as the type of pollutant present, the duration
the person was exposed to the pollutant, the dosage of the pollutant
the person received, and how sensitive the person is to the pollutant.
First, the risk a pollutant poses to an individuals health depends
on the type of pollutant present. For example, high concentrations of
carbon dioxide can be irritating for many people, but would be highly
unlikely to cause any permanent adverse effects or death. These
mildly irritating health effects include headaches, dizziness, or fatigue.
While some indoor air pollutants only pose an inconvenience, others
pose a much greater risk to ones health. Pollutants such as
formaldehyde are known human carcinogens and high concentrations
of carbon monoxide can cause death (Hill, 2010).
Furthermore, the duration a person was exposed to a certain
chemical could influence the extent and severity of damaging health
effects that would be experienced. For some indoor air pollutants,
health effects could be observed almost immediately after exposure.
These types of health effects such as headaches or dizziness would be
classified as acute effects due to their rapid onset. On the other hand,
people who are exposed to a pollutant may show signs of exposure
days, months, or even years after exposure. These chronic health
effects could be asthma, cardiovascular disease, or cancer (United
States Environmental Protection Agency [USEPA], 2013).
Also, the dosage of a pollutant that a person receives could
determine the health effects that are seen. Exposure to a contaminant

Hotel Air Quality 4

such as formaldehyde at low doses over a long period of time has
vastly different effects compared to a high dosage of carbon monoxide
over a short period of time (Bernstein, et al., 2007).
Finally, preexisting health conditions and age of the person being
exposed to the pollutant could determine the extent of unfavorable
health conditions experienced. Children and the elderly frequently
exhibit a stronger reaction to an increase in concentration of an indoor
air pollutant. Shortness of breath and headaches are just a small
sample of the myriad of negative health effects experienced by this
group of people. In addition, those who are afflicted by asthma are at
a greater risk for developing a negative reaction to concentrations of
pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide, ozone, and carbon dioxide (Jones,
A.P., 1999).
Sick Building Syndrome: A Result of Poor Indoor Air Quality
One sickness that has become prevalent in recent years is an
illness known commonly as sick building syndrome, or SBS. Caused by
high concentrations of indoor air pollutants, SBS is a disorder that
triggers drowsiness, headaches and also affects the skin, eyes, nose
and throat. While these symptoms could signify a large number of
common ailments such as the common cold or the flu, SBS has one
property that sets it apart from the rest of the conditions that have the
potential to plague us; symptoms of SBS appear only when a person is
within a building with poor air quality and dissipate when the person
exits the structure.
As described above, the sensitivity to the concentrations of the
air pollutants present dictate the severity of the symptoms of SBS that
are experienced. Many of those who have encountered the indicators
of SBS report stuffy noses, dry skin, dry eyes, headaches, and lethargy.
These symptoms are also experienced at peak severity when the
person is inside. When they leave the building, symptoms improve
within hours.
When the cause of SBS is examined, it was seen that many
instances in which people suffered from the syndrome occurred where
the building was air-conditioned. Furthermore, age and maintenance
of the HVAC units played a major role in the severity of SBS. Units that
were operating inefficiently did not adequately move and replace air in
the workspace. Studies have shown that ventilation rates less than 10
liters of air per second per person led to an increase in symptoms. As
a result of the poor ventilation an increase in concentrations of indoor
air pollutants that are known to cause SBS was seen (Burge, 2004).
Indoor air pollutants that were commonly seen as causes of SBS
were normally released from products frequently found in hotels.
These pollutants are generated from fabrics such as furniture and
carpets, chemicals found in cleaners, toners and inks, and from the

Hotel Air Quality 5

occupants of the building themselves. People who smoked tobacco
products introduced contaminants found in the smoke into the
workspace via their clothing. Outdoor air pollutants such as vehicle
exhaust, dust, asbestos, carbon monoxide and other combustion
byproducts can enter the building through poorly located intake vents
or malfunctioning purification systems (Joshi, 2008).
In order to decrease concentrations of indoor air pollutants and
subsequently reduce occurrences of SBS, it is necessary that building
owners and managers ensure that air filtration and circulation systems
are operating in an efficient manner. Buildings that allow workers to
control their own working environments are also beneficial and may
help control and reduce the symptoms related to SBS (Burge, 2004).

Health Effects and Sources of Common Indoor Air Pollutants

Of the abundant indoor air contaminants, there are several that
are frequent causes of indoor air quality issues. These pollutants are
known to have detrimental health effects sometimes at relatively low
concentrations. Below is a detailed list describing each pollutant in
detail, their known health effects, the concentrations in which the
pollutants become a health risk, and sources in which the pollutant is
commonly released from.

Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas that is a byproduct
of fossil fuel combustion. Stoves, chimneys, fireplaces, gas water
heaters, furnaces, heaters, and exhaust from gas burning engines
are all sources of the pollutant. Malfunctioning equipment paired
with inefficient air ventilation systems can result in a rapid increase
in carbon monoxide levels within a building. Health effects related
to carbon monoxide exposure begin with impaired vision and
cognitive abilities, headaches, fatigue, nausea, and dizziness at
lower concentrations. As concentrations surpass 1,000 ppm,
oxygen intake is inhibited and death could occur. It is
recommended that indoor concentrations of carbon monoxide
remain below 200 ppm (USEPA, 2013).

Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is also a colorless, odorless gas. Sources of
carbon dioxide include improperly vented gasoline and kerosene
fueled appliances. As the gas is a byproduct of combustion
reactions, carbon dioxide is also released from automobiles. Indoor
carbon dioxide concentrations are typically found to range from

Hotel Air Quality 6

100-1000 ppm. Health effects from these concentrations are
minimal, with the most severe effect resulting from headaches and
shortness of breath at levels from 1000 ppm and above. It is
recommended that indoor carbon dioxide levels be maintained
below 2000 ppm (Occupational Safety & Health Administration
[OSHA], 1999).

Hydrogen Sulfide
Hydrogen sulfide is a colorless gas with a strong odor
comparable to rotten eggs. Also, hydrogen sulfide is a flammable,
explosive gas that produces other harmful chemicals such as sulfur
dioxide if it is burned. Incomplete fossil fuel combustion is the most
common source of hydrogen sulfide gas. Acute effects associated
with exposure include dizziness, loss of apatite, coughing,
headaches, and shortness of breath. Prolonged exposure to the gas
results in chronic effects such as pulmonary edema and loss of
smell. Unconsciousness and death ultimately occur if
concentrations exceed 100 ppm. It is recommended that hydrogen
sulfide levels be kept below 0.01 ppm (OSHA, 1999).

Temperature/Relative Humidity
Temperature and relative humidity can play a role in the
formation of mold spores and other bacteria. It is often discovered
that buildings with high temperature or high relative humidity have
issues with leaking pipes and other plumbing fixtures, flooding, and
unmaintained air conditioners and other ventilation systems.
Health effects of exposure to high humidity include asthma,
sinusitis, and hypersensitivity (OSHA, 1999). The Environmental
Protection Agency recommends that humidity in structures be
maintained between thirty to fifty percent (2014).

Ozone
At low concentrations, ozone is known to cause acute health
effects such as respiratory and eye irritation. Those who suffer from
asthma and other lung disorders experience shortness of breath and
other detrimental health effects when a higher concentration of
ozone is present (USEPA, 2013). Copy machines, electrical arcing,
electrostatic air cleaners, and photochemical smog are all sources
of ozone (OSHA, 1999).

Ammonia
Ammonia is a corrosive, colorless gas with a sharp odor.
Common sources of ammonia include industrial cleaners, fertilizers,

Hotel Air Quality 7

and refrigeration units. Exposure can occur via contact of liquid or
gaseous ammonia. A concentration above 1 ppm normally results
in headaches, nausea, and intense burning in the eyes, nose, throat,
and skin. Those who suffer from asthma are normally more
sensitive to the presence of ammonia (USEPA, 2013).

Nitrogen Dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide is produced during the incomplete combustion
of natural gas or other fossil fuels. Unvented furnaces, stoves,
fireplaces, heaters, and other gas-burning appliances are the major
contributors to high concentrations of nitrogen dioxide. High
concentrations of the gas normally result in eye, nose, and throat
irritation. Exposure to extremely high concentrations could result in
diffuse lung injury or pulmonary edema. Finally, continued exposure
to elevated levels of the gas could result in chronic bronchitis
(USEPA, 2013).

Nitric Oxide
Main sources of nitric oxide are from combustion in gas stoves,
dryers, furnaces, heaters, automobile exhaust, and tobacco smoke.
Health effects of nitric oxide include irritation to the mucus
membranes, eyes, and lungs. High concentrations of nitric oxide
were also found to be responsible for increased frequencies of
asthma attacks and bacterial infections (Hill, 2010).

Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur dioxide is a colorless gas associated with the combustion
of fossil fuels such as oil, coal, and natural gas. As a result,
improperly vented stoves, heaters, furnaces, and automobiles are
all sources of the gas. Health effects associated with exposure
include coughing, shortness of breath, and asthmatic symptoms
(USEPA, 2013).
Building Characteristics and Indoor Air Quality
Maintaining satisfactory indoor air quality is an issue that
building designers, engineers, and managers have tried to deal with,
but have often failed at handling. Poor ventilation in a building is often
responsible for high concentrations of indoor air pollutants
accumulating within. The lack of outdoor air moving into a structure
due to inefficient, underpowered, poorly maintained or malfunctioning
air circulation systems are often seen as the cause for the buildup of
hazardous indoor air pollutants.
Poor filtration of outside air is also a factor that degrades the
quality of indoor air. Particulate matter and ozone being deposited into

Hotel Air Quality 8

a building through a ventilation system are repeatedly seen as sources
of these indoor air pollutants. Poor placement of these ventilation
systems could also increase the concentrations of pollutants inside of a
building. For example, a circulation intake system located in a place
where diesel exhaust is ubiquitous would be a major contributor for
those toxins found inside (Jones, 1999).
Issues controlling temperature and humidity within a building are
also factors that negatively impact indoor air quality. Higher
temperatures and humidity can cause species of mold and fungi to
flourish, thus degrading air quality and negatively impacting human
health. Increased temperatures can also lead to an increase in
chemical off gassing of some building materials. These chemicals that
are released include volatile organic compounds that could have
serious and long lasting negative effects on human health (Bernstein,
et al., 2008).
Lastly, the building materials and chemicals utilized inside of a
structure are known to be sources of volatile organic compounds,
formaldehyde, and other known dangerous substances. Vinyl flooring,
paints, and cleaners can all contribute to the degradation of air quality
within a structure such as a hotel (Jones, 1999).
Indoor Air Quality Standards
Standards regarding the regulation of indoor air pollutant
concentrations are sparse and only apply to certain pollutants if a
standard does exist. Suggestions of healthy levels of indoor air
pollutants are more common than strict legislation governing their
allowable levels.
Several different entities are responsible for publishing these
suggestions or in rare cases, standards. The United States
Environmental Protection Agency publishes a limited list of suggested
indoor air pollution levels. The Occupational Safety and Health
Administration sets ventilation standards but does not address
allowable pollutant concentrations in places such as hotels or
workspaces. Finally, while indoor air pollutant concentration regulation
is almost nonexistent on a state government level, California and New
Jersey have set regulations regarding indoor air quality.
The EPA has published a short list of suggested indoor air
pollutant levels for carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone.
However, these concentrations apply to residential structures and not
hotels or office buildings. For carbon monoxide, suggested
concentrations range from 0.00-5 parts per million (ppm).
Recommended nitrogen dioxide levels are normally a fraction of the
concentration found in outdoor air, which is less than 100 parts per
billion (ppb). Ozone levels should not exceed 0.05 ppm indoors
(USEPA, 2012)

Hotel Air Quality 9

OSHA publishes suggestions for indoor ventilation, air
conditioning, and heating so that indoor air quality can be managed.
However the administration does not set or publish regulations
regarding the concentrations of indoor air pollutants that can be found
within workspaces, hotels, or other public gathering places. Within
their reports, the importance of maintaining and cleaning air
ventilation systems is stressed in order to keep people healthy (OSHA,
2011).
As stated above, only two states in the United States set
standards for maintaining healthy indoor air quality. These two states,
California and New Jersey, set standards for public employees, but not
hotels. New Jerseys indoor air quality regulations mainly focus on
indoor air temperature, relative humidity, and carbon dioxide. The
regulations also govern the proper maintenance of air circulation
systems so that these levels can be attained. For example, indoor air
temperature should range from 68-79F and carbon dioxide levels
should not exceed 1000 ppm. In addition, public employers must
establish a maintenance schedule for the buildings HVAC system so
that indoor air pollutants can be managed. Finally, under New Jerseys
indoor air quality standards managers are required to promptly
investigate any complaints or reports of employee sickness related to
poor indoor air quality (State of New Jersey Department of Labor,
2007).
While indoor air quality suggestions and standards do exist in the
United States, they are not regulated as strictly as outdoor ambient air
quality. Furthermore, these suggestions are only established for public
employees inside of workspaces during regular business hours. There
are currently no regulations or suggestions that govern the maximum
concentrations of indoor air pollutants in hotels or other public lodging
establishments.
Indoor Air Quality Case Study: Helsinki, Finland
A similar study to our hotel air quality study was performed in an
office building in Helsinki, Finland. The study, conducted by Koponen
and others, examined the effect of outdoor air on indoor air quality.
This research was prompted by the statistic that on average people
spend over ninety percent of their day indoors.
Air quality sampling was conducted in an office room on the first
floor of the building as well as on the roof, outside of an air intake duct.
Particulate matter and aerosol concentrations were studied. Different
aerosols included those examined in our own study such as ozone,
nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide.
Indoor concentrations of these gases were found to be influenced
by outdoor concentrations. It was also found that increased
concentrations of outdoor air pollutants were a direct result in an

Hotel Air Quality 10

increase in motor vehicle traffic outside of the office building. It was
concluded that particulate matter and ozone levels inside of the
building increased as activity outside of the building increased.
However, aerosols such as carbon monoxide and other combustion
byproducts did not increase mostly due to the absence of sources in an
office environment (Koponen, Asmi, Keronen, Puhto & Kulmala, 2000).
For our study, since sources that generate indoor air pollution related
to combustion are present within the building, we expected to
encounter measurable levels of these pollutants.
Methods
There are several methods that can be performed when testing
the concentrations of indoor air pollutants. Sampling equipment and
techniques can vary depending on the type and concentration of the
pollutant in question. For example, sampling compounds that are
hazardous to human health at low concentrations require precise
equipment that can measure levels at parts per billion or less.
Methods for sampling indoor air quality are thoroughly detailed by
OSHA and are referenced when an office building or hotel receives
complaints from staff or customers about indoor air quality.
Beginning with relatively benign compounds, carbon dioxide
concentrations are sampled with detection devices capable of reading
concentrations from 0-2000 ppm. These detector tubes or infrared
spectrometers measure indoor concentrations and the results are
useful in analyzing how much fresh air is being introduced into the
building. Generally, up to 600 ppm show adequate ventilation within a
structure.
Nitrogen dioxide and ozone are sampled with devices that
measure levels of the compounds from 0.01-10 ppm. Values that are
observed inside of a building are then compared to samples obtained
from outdoor ambient air to determine whether an issue of elevated
concentrations originated from outdoor ambient air quality problems or
a source inside.
Carbon monoxide is measured with low-level detector tubes that
are capable of measuring concentrations from 0-200 ppm.
Measurements are taken over eight hour periods, or on thirty-minute
intervals to determine the average exposure to the compound. When
the average exposure concentration is attained, it is compared against
the maximum acceptable concentration of 50 ppm over an eight-hour
work shift.
Formaldehyde is sampled using a standalone detector. This
detector tube is capable of very low-level sampling from 0.04-1 ppm.
These detectors are normally placed in locations where off gassing of
the pollutant is suspected to occur, such as around exposed treated
wood, furniture, or office equipment such as printers and copiers.

Hotel Air Quality 11

Finally, OSHA outlines methods for sampling indoor airborne
particulates and microorganisms. Particle counting instruments are
utilized in areas where employee complaints are widespread. These
counters are capable of measuring less than 2,000 particles per cubic
centimeter (cm3) of air. If concentrations of airborne particulates are
higher (greater than 40,000 particles/cm3) in certain sections of a
building it is advised that air ventilation be increased in that region.
Also, if bacteria contamination of water tanks or ventilation systems is
suspected, testing of bacteria colony concentrations are performed.
Unsafe bacteria colony concentrations are determined by the type of
bacteria present as well as the amount of complaints received by
employees or customers (OSHA, n.d.).
When the air quality of six hotels was analyzed, a GrayWolf
WolfPack Modular Area Monitor was utilized. This unit allowed for the
simultaneous sampling of several different indoor air quality pollutants.
Also, a formaldehyde sensor was placed in the lobby of each hotel and
was allowed to collect samples for thirty minutes. Contrary to the
methods outlined above, one multiparameter sensor was used to test
the concentrations of a number of pollutants instead of using a
standalone sensor for each parameter.
From each hotel, the following parameters were sampled from
the WolfPack Area Monitor: sulfur dioxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide,
ammonia, ozone, temperature, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide,
carbon monoxide, and relative humidity.
These parameters were then sampled in a hotel common area, a
guest room, lobby, and outside of the hotel. In some cases, hotel
banquet areas, laundry rooms, and basements were sampled. In each
location the WolfPack sensor took readings for five minutes. Finally,
each measurement was repeated in the same location over the course
of three separate visits.
The air quality study was conducted in the following hotels:
Carroll Villa in Cape May, New Jersey, Homewood Suites in East
Rutherford, New Jersey, Concord Suites in Avalon, New Jersey, Palace
Hotel in Cape May, New Jersey, Motel 6 in Galloway, New Jersey, and
Sea Gull Motel in Wildwood, New Jersey.
Upon completion of the study from the six hotels listed above,
the data was downloaded from the WolfPack sensor and compiled into
Microsoft Excel spreadsheets. The data obtained for each parameter
from each visit from the hotel and location within the hotel was
graphed and analyzed. Changes in indoor air quality between hotel
guest rooms and common areas were examined as well as the
differences between outdoor air quality and indoor air quality.

Hotel Air Quality 12

Results and Comparisons

Nitric Oxide Concentrations (ppm)

Exterior

Common Area

Lobby

Guest Room
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

On average, concentrations of nitric oxide outdoors was greater

than concentrations found within the hotels. When a common area
was compared to a guest room, average concentrations of nitric oxide
appeared to be equal.

Hotel Air Quality 13

CO Concentrations (ppm)
Exterior

Common Area

Lobby

Guest Room
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

Outdoor concentrations of carbon monoxide were observed to be

more variable than indoor levels. However, median concentrations
were greater inside of the hotel compared to outside. Guest room
concentrations were observed to be greater than concentrations
measured in common areas. Error bars were adjusted by multiplying
the values by 1.5.

CO2 Concentrations (ppm) per Sampling Location

Exterior

Common Area

Lobby

Guest Room
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Carbon dioxide concentrations were greater indoors than

outdoors. Indoor concentrations were generally higher, but levels were
not high enough to cause human discomfort. Guest room
concentrations were more variable than those observed in common
areas. Error bars were adjusted by multiplying the values by 1.5.

Hotel Air Quality 14

Relative Humidity per Sampling Location

Exterior

Common Area

Lobby

Guest Room
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Outdoor relative humidity percentage was greater and more

variable than percentages observed inside of the hotels. Guest room
relative humidity percentages were on average slightly higher than
values observed in common areas.

Carroll Villa

Hotel Air Quality 15

Indoor Air Pollutant Concentrations per Room

0.06
0.05
0.04
Common Area
0.03
ppm

0.02

Guest Room
Lobby
Exterior

0.01
0.00

Outdoor Air Quality compared to Indoor Air Quality

For the air quality samples taken within the Carroll Villa hotel, it
was seen that concentrations of indoor air pollutants were higher
inside the building than outside. Nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and
ozone were all present in higher levels inside of the building. In
addition, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide concentrations were
also higher inside of the hotel.
Guest Room Air Quality compared to Common Area Air Quality
It was observed that in all cases for each pollutant sampled,
concentrations inside of guest rooms were lower than concentrations in
the hotels common area. For example, nitric oxide concentrations
were twice as great as those within a guest room. Also, concentrations
of carbon dioxide in the common area was close to exceeding the 1000
ppm threshold for human comfort, while the carbon dioxide levels in a
guest room appeared normal, or around 600 ppm. Carbon monoxide
levels were also higher in the common area compared to guest rooms.
This could be influenced by the proximity to an improperly adjusted
stove in a kitchen or furnace.

Hotel Air Quality 16

Homewood Suites

Indoor Air Pollutant Concentrations per Room

0.2

Banquet Center

0.1

Guest Room
Lobby

ppm

Exterior

0.0

Pollutants

Outdoor Air Quality compared to Indoor Air Quality

Except for sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide concentrations, all of
the sampled air pollutants such as carbon monoxide, nitric oxide,
nitrogen dioxide, and ozone were significantly greater than
concentrations observed within the hotel. These drastic differences in
pollutant concentrations could be explained by an efficient and wellmaintained air filtration system being utilized by the hotel. Carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide concentrations are approximately equal
between indoor and outdoor locations, indicating possible sources are
coming from within the hotel.
Guest Room Air Quality compared to Common Area Air Quality
For this analysis, the lobby will be identified as the common area.
Sulfur dioxide concentrations were considerably higher in guest rooms
compared to the common area. If this room allowed cigarette
smoking, this could be the reason why concentrations were so high.
For all other sampled pollutants including carbon dioxide and carbon
monoxide, guest room concentrations were significantly lower than

Hotel Air Quality 17

common area concentrations. The higher levels seen in the common
area could be explained by acknowledging the proximity of the lobby
to the main doors of the hotel. Constant influxes of customers entering
and exiting the hotel through the main entrance could allow for higher
concentrations of pollutants to enter from the outside. This effect
could be magnified by the amount of vehicles idling near the main
entrance.
Concord Suites

Indoor Air Pollutant Concentrations per Room

0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
ppm
0.0

Common Area
Guest Room
Lobby
Exterior

0.0
0.0

Outdoor Air Quality compared to Indoor Air Quality

Only nitrogen dioxide and ozone concentrations were higher than
indoor concentrations. Nitric oxide concentrations were nearly equal to
common area concentrations, but other locations were considerably
lower. Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide levels were also lower
compared to indoor levels. This could indicate that outdoor air
pollution is not having a strong influence on pollutant concentrations
within the building. There could be another factor such as inefficient

Hotel Air Quality 18

air ventilation systems or malfunctioning equipment allowing for a
buildup of indoor air pollutants.
Guest Room Air Quality compared to Common Area Air Quality
Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide concentrations in guest
rooms were observed to be greater than those in the hotels common
area. Furthermore, carbon dioxide levels within the guest room were
observed to be relatively high, at 800 ppm. However, neither of the
values would be expected to cause any adverse health issues. Ozone
and nitrogen dioxide levels were higher in guest rooms, but
concentrations were still relatively low. Nitric oxide was almost three
times greater in the common area than the level observed in a guest
room. This could be coming from the combustion reactions in a gas
powered furnace or stove.
Palace Hotel

Indoor Air Pollutant Concentrations per Room

0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
ppm

0.2
0.1

Guest Room
Lobby
Breakfast place
Exterior

0.1
0.0

Outdoor Air Quality compared to Indoor Air Quality

Concentrations of nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone were
all greater outside of the hotel. Inside of the hotel, concentrations of
hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide was higher.

Hotel Air Quality 19

This could indicate a problem with not only the buildings air ventilation
system but with stoves or furnaces as well since these indoor air
pollutants are commonly associated with combustion products. Since
this hotel is equipped with kitchens in rooms as well as a main kitchen
utilized for breakfast, improperly adjusted gas ranges could be used as
an explanation.
Guest Room Air Quality compared to Common Area Air Quality
For this analysis, the hotel lobby will be identified as the common
area. Levels of ammonia, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide were
negligible. The concentration of nitric oxide was higher in the common
area compared to the guest room. Carbon monoxide and ozone levels
were higher in the guest rooms, but both levels were not at
concentrations that would cause adverse health effects. Carbon
dioxide concentrations were nearly equal in both locations, with
concentrations around 875 ppm. Prolonged exposure could result in
moderate discomfort.
Motel 6

Indoor Air Pollutant Concentrations per Room

0.3
0.2
0.2

Guest Room
Hallway

0.1

Lobby
Exterior

ppm
0.1
0.0

Hotel Air Quality 20

Outdoor Air Quality compared to Indoor Air Quality
For each pollutant that was sampled, exterior concentrations
were greater than indoor concentrations. Exterior carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide levels were both considerably higher possibly due to
the buildings proximity to a busy highway (U.S. Route 30). Lower
indoor air pollutant concentrations could be a result of properly
functioning air ventilation equipment.

Guest Room Air Quality compared to Common Area Air Quality

For this analysis, the hotels lobby will be identified as the
common area. Nitric oxide concentrations were equal for both
locations. Ozone concentration was also nearly equal, however the
levels observed were extremely low. Carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide levels in the guest room were lower than levels observed in the
lobby. This trend is similar to what was observed in Homewood Suites
and could be explained in a similar fashion. Pollutants entering the
lobby from the outside could be the cause of the higher concentrations
versus the concentrations detected in the guest room.
Sea Gull Hotel

Hotel Air Quality 21

Indoor Air Pollutant Concentrations per Room

1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6

Room 1
Laundry Room
Lobby

ppm

0.4

Exterior

0.2
0.0

Outdoor Air Quality compared to Indoor Air Quality

Outdoor concentrations of nitric oxide and ozone were greater
than indoor concentrations, however sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide,
and carbon dioxide levels were lower in exterior samples than indoor
samples. Sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide levels
indoors could be a result of a malfunctioning furnace. Carbon dioxide
levels were very high, and almost exceeded 1400 ppm.
Guest Room Air Quality compared to Common Area Air Quality
For this analysis, the hotels lobby will be identified as the
common area. Guest room and lobby carbon dioxide concentrations
were both high, but the concentration in the lobby was slightly higher.
There is an elevated possibility for human discomfort here if prolonged
time is spent in these locations. Carbon monoxide levels were greater
in the lobby than the guest room, but concentrations were generally
not harmful. Nitric oxide and ozone levels were equal between the two
sampling locations. Finally, sulfur dioxide concentrations were found to
be greater in the guest rooms. Due to the high concentrations of some
indoor air pollutants in this hotel, air ventilation systems, furnaces,

Hotel Air Quality 22

heaters, and stoves should be inspected to ensure that they are
operating efficiently.
Conclusions
Throughout the research that was presented, there is one fact
that became obvious; regulations regarding acceptable concentrations
of air pollutants found within hotels are nonexistent. While observed
concentrations of indoor air pollutants never reached dangerous levels
in the hotels that were sampled, there are no legal standards in place
to protect patrons from unhealthy quantities of these contaminants.
This fact raises several questions such as what could be done to
reduce levels of indoor air pollutants? Also, how can regulations be
improved to better protect hotel staff and customers?
When determining how to effectively reduce indoor air
pollutants, the management practices of the building should be
analyzed. For example, what types of chemicals are being used inside
of the hotel? Also, how are these chemicals being stored? How
efficient are the air ventilation systems? Lastly, are building or
furniture materials responsible for the presence of certain airborne
chemicals?
One of the most effective methods to reduce indoor air pollutants
is to discontinue and remove any products that are the source of a
certain pollutant and to replace them with a safer alternative (United
States Environmental Protection Agency, 2008). This includes any
cleaners that contain harmful volatile organic compounds or ammonia.
Replacing these with disinfectants that employ non-toxic compounds
could significantly decrease the amount of pollutants found in the air.
Furthermore, educating personnel who handle cleansers on safe usage,
storage, and dilution of cleansers could also aid in decreasing harmful
levels of pollutants (USEPA, 2011).
In addition, consistent monitoring of the efficiency of hotel air
ventilation systems is key to reducing indoor air pollutant
concentrations. Ensuring that filters are changed frequently and kept
unclogged as well as keeping circulation units in optimal working
condition are key factors to maintaining healthy, clean air. Moving
HVAC air intake units away from areas where idling vehicles or other
sources of pollutants are would help reduce the amount of
contaminants entering the building (USEPA, 2011).
In order for hotel air quality regulations to be enacted, maximum
allowable concentrations of each pollutant must be established. This
could occur through analyzing the effect various concentrations of
pollutants have on human health, then setting an allowable yet
attainable limit that benefits the greatest amount of people.
Furthermore, restrictions could be placed on the type of building

Hotel Air Quality 23

materials, furniture, and cleaners used in hotels. For example, wood,
paint, carpets, and floor finish have the potential to release
formaldehyde and other volatile compounds (Chao, 2000). Restricting
the use of these products would in turn reduce the indoor air pollutants
that are a result of the off gassing from these products. Lastly, it could
be mandated that all hotels implement some sort of air purification
measure in their establishment. Units such as air scrubbers could be
operated to remove any harmful contaminants from the air (USEPA,
2011).
References
Bernstein, J., Alexis, N., Bacchus, H., Bernstein, L., Fritz, P., Horner, E.,
Tarlo, S.
(2007). The health effects of nonindustrial indoor air
pollution. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 121, 585591.
Burge, P.S. (2004). Sick building syndrome. Occupational and
Environmental
Medicine, 61, 185-190.
Chao, C. (2000). Indoor air quality issues for hotels. Lecture
conducted from Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.
Hill, M.K. (2010). Understanding Environmental Pollution. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Jones, A.P. (1999). Indoor air quality and health. Atmospheric
Environment, 33, 4535-4564.
Joshi, S. 2008. The sick building syndrome. Indian Journal of
Occupational & Environmental Medicine, 12, 61-64.
Koponen, I.K., Asmi, A., Keronen, P., Puhto, K. & Kulmala, M. 2000.
Indoor air measurement campaign in Helsinki, Finland 1999-the effect
of outdoor air
pollution on indoor air. Atmospheric Environment,
35, 1465-1477.
Occupational Safety & Health Administration (2011). Indoor air quality
in
commercial and institutional buildings. OSHA 3430-04.
Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (1999). OTM Section III:
Chapter 2 Indoor Air Quality Investigation. Retrieved from
https://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_iii/otm_iii_2.html.
Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (No date). Sampling and
analytical methods. Retrieved from
https://www.osha.gov/dts/sltc/methods/.
Papinchak, H., Holocomb, E., Best, O., Decoteau, D. 2009. Effectiveness
of
Houseplants in Reducing the Indoor Air Pollutant Ozone.
HortTechnology
State of New Jersey Department of Health (2007). Chapter 100. Safety
and health standards for public employees. Subchapter 13. Indoor air
quality standard.
Trenton, NJ: N.J.A.C.

Hotel Air Quality 24

United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2012). Air pollutants.
Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/air/airpollutants.html.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2008). Care for your
air: a guide
to indoor air quality. Washington, D.C: USEPA.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2011). Indoor air: the
lodging
sector. Retrieved from
http://www.epa.gov/airquality/community/details/i-lodging.html.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2013). Indoor air
quality: an introduction to IAQ. Retrieved from
http://www.epa.gov/iaq/ia-intro.html.

MEAN OF MEANS OF THE VISITS

Homewood
Suite
Sulfur
Dioxi
de

Nitri
c
Oxid
e

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

1.0

87.4

0.0
0.0
0.0

0.0
0.0
0.1

0.0
0.0
0.1

0.0
0.0
0.0

0.0
0.0
0.1

0.0
0.0
0.0

0.6
1.1
1.2

38.5
83.8
92.7

Sulfur
Dioxi
de

Nitri
c
Oxid
e

0.00

0.04

0.03

0.00

0.06

0.00

1.19

68.05

0.00

0.02

0.01

0.00

0.05

0.00

0.77

34.15

Lobby

0.00

0.01

0.03

0.00

0.06

0.00

0.94

51.23

Exterior

0.00

0.03

0.02

0.00

0.04

0.00

1.05

44.68

Banquet
Center
Guest
Room
Lobby
Exterior

Nitrog
en
Dioxid
e

Ammoni
a

Hydrog
Ozon en
e
Sulfide

Carbon
Monoxi
de

Relativ
e
Humidi
ty %RH Tem

Carrol
Villa

Common
Area
Guest
Room

Concord Suite

Nitrog
en
Dioxid
e

Hydrog
Ammon Ozon en
ia
e
Sulfide

Carbon
Monoxi
de

Relativ
e
Humidi Tem
ty %RH re

Hotel Air Quality 25

Sulfur
Dioxi
de

Nitri
c
Oxid
e

0.0

0.1

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.6

60.7

0.0
0.1
0.0

0.0
0.0
0.1

0.0
0.0
0.0

0.0
0.0
0.0

0.0
0.0
0.1

0.0
0.0
0.0

0.9
1.4
0.6

67.2
33.5
59.1

Sulfur
Dioxi
de

Nitri
c
Oxid
e

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2

Sulfur
Dioxi
de

Nitri
c
Oxid
e

0.0
0.0

0.1
0.4

0.0
0.0

0.0
0.0

0.0
0.0

0.0
0.4

1.0
0.6

108.5
120.7

0.0
0.0

0.3
0.4

0.0
0.1

0.0
0.0

0.0
0.2

0.0
0.0

1.0
0.7

112.7
127.6

Sulfur
Dioxi
de )

Nitri
c
Oxid
e

1.1

0.4

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.0

1.6

194.8

0.8

0.4

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.0

0.7

124.2

Common
Area
Guest
Room
Lobby
Exterior

Nitrog
en
Dioxid
e

Hydrog
Ammon Ozon en
ia
e
Sulfide

Carbon
Monoxi
de

Relativ
e
Humidi Tem
ty %RH re

Motel 6

Guest
Room
Hallway
Lobby
Exterior

Palace Hotel

Guest
Room
Lobby
Breakfast
place
Exterior

Seagull

Room 1
Laundry
Room

Nitrog
en
Dioxid
e
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

Nitrog
en
Dioxid
e

Nitrog
en
Dioxid
e

Hydrog
Ammon Ozon en
ia
e
Sulfide
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0

Hydrog
Ammon Ozon en
ia
e
Sulfide

Hydrog
Ammon Ozon en
ia
e
Sulfide

Carbon
Monoxi
de ppm
0.6
0.1
1.0
1.4

Carbon
Monoxi
de

Carbon
Monoxi
de

Relativ
e
Humidi Tem
ty %RH re
54.5
7.3
70.1
131.7

Relativ
e
Humidi
ty

Tem
re

Relativ
e
Humidi Tem
ty %RH re

Hotel Air Quality 26

Lobby
Exterior

0.8
0.9

0.4
0.5

0.0
0.0

0.0
0.0

0.1
0.4

0.0
0.0

2.3
1.6

172.8
140.0