Editedrevised

Running Head: The Effects of Smaller Classes on Academic Achievement
The Effects of Smaller Classes on Academic Achievement

Terri-Lynn A. Oram
Memorial University of Newfoundland and Labrador
200222784
Terri-Lynn Oram 1
Abstract
The debate over smaller class size and its effect on student achievement has been
a prominent topic among researchers, parents, teachers and educational
stakeholders alike. Experimental results from studies such as Project STAR, Lasting
Benefits Study and Project SAGE indicate that smaller classes promote higher
achievement in primary grades. However, the broader literature seems to
demonstrate inclusive results regarding reducing class size and student
achievement in grades k-3 in mathematics and languages arts. It is the goal of this
paper and the research conducted to take an in-depth look on the research
regarding class reducing programs (CSR) and their impact on student academic
achievement in primary grades. This paper also considers the financial cost of these
programs, the conditions that may affect class sizes and student achievement. In
addition, this paper analyzed the research available regarding smaller classes and
student academic achievement in primary grades as well as considers the
limitations of these studies.
Keywords: Class size, CSR programs, student achievement, primary grades and
reducing class size.
Terri-Lynn Oram 2
Table of Contents
The Effects of Class Size on Student
Achievement. 3
Financial Cost of Reducing Class Size.
....... 5
CSR Programs and

Initiatives
. 7
Research
Review
. 9
Limitations of the Research
........
16
Conditions
that
Influence
Class-Size
Effectiveness.. 19
Counterargument
. 21
Terri-Lynn Oram 3
Conclusion and
Implications
. 24
References
. 26
This paper aims to answer the research question Does class size
impact student achievement in primary grades (K-3) in mathematics and English
language arts. For the purpose of this paper student achievement refers to how
students perform within mathematics and English language arts. It does this by way
of reviewing the literature in class size and student achievement in K-3. Class size
can be defined as the number of students regularly in a teachers classroom for
Terri-Lynn Oram 4
whom that teacher is responsible (Finn, Suriani, & Achilles, 2007, p. 2). The first
topic of this paper explains class size and its potential to aid in academic
achievement. The paper then goes on to briefly examine the financial costs of
implementing class size reduction programs (CSR). Next, there is a discussion
about the CSR programs and initiatives that have been implemented throughout the
globe. This is followed by a review of the literature in order to answer the proposed
research question as well as certain limitations found among the research.
Afterwards, there are possible reasons why these programs should not be
implemented. Finally, there is a discussion of the findings and possible implications
of the research. The keywords used in the research of this topic are: Class size, CSR
programs, student achievement, primary grades and reducing class size.
The Effects of Class Size on Student Achievement

Class size is something that has become a contentious issue within the
educational system. The idea that smaller classes are superior to large classes for
instruction is nothing new and can even be traced back to biblical times ( Finn et al.,
2007 ). The idea of having smaller classes continues to be popular endeavor among
the educational system throughout the 20th and 21st century. Class size reduction,
or CSR, is enormously popular with parents, teachers, and the public in general.
The latest poll results indicate that 77 percent of Americans think that additional
dollars should be spent on smaller classes (Chingos, 2011, p. 1). Also,
governments in the United States, Britain, Holland, Canada, Singapore, Hong Kong,
Korea and China have all dedicated time and money to CSR programs in the past
few years (Gladwell, 2013). Even in this province, policymakers have demonstrated
that they value smaller class sizes for students. This is shown in the budget of 2013.
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According to the minister of education, Clyde Jackman (2013), our commitment is
evident in the fact there will be.no changes to K-9 class size caps for the required
curriculum, and that we are able to maintain a pupil-teacher ratio that is the envy of
the country. While parents, teachers, and policymakers have embraced the idea of
CSR the question remains: Does the research support the claim that smaller classes
benefit students?
So what is a small class? Small class size is usually defined as 15 to 17
students with one teacher, or as many as 25 with a teacher and a full-time aide
(Yan & Lin, 2010, p.50). According to Whitmore-Scganzenbach (2014), with all other
qualities being equal, increasing class sizes will harm student outcomes. Research
initiatives like these have led to CSR programs being implemented in many areas
across the globe. For instance, in 1999, the federal government in the United
States devoted 1.2 billion for schools to hire qualified primary grade teachers in
attempts to reduce class size (Milesi & Gamoran, 2006). The purpose of these
programs according to Milesi and Gamoran (2006) were to hire around 100,000 new
teachers to reduce class sizes from kindergarten to grade three across the United
States to 18 students per classroom over the course of seven years. It is the
purpose of this research to assess the academic merit of CSR programs on students
in K-3.
Hattie (2005) states that by reducing class size numerous people believe it
can lead to more individualized instruction, higher-quality instruction, an increase in
student-centered teaching, a rise in teacher morale, fewer disruptions, fewer
discipline issues, as well as allowing students to engage more in academic
activities. CSR has also been suggested to lessen the effects of economic and
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social inequities, to increase academic achievement, and to strengthen the
foundational skills students develop in the primary grades (Graue, Hatch, Rao &
Oen, 2007, p. 672).
The research question that guides this research is Does class size impact
student achievement in primary grades in mathematics and English language Arts?
This paper will focus on student achievement during the primary years (K-3) and the
impact class size has in these grades. It will also focus on the research regarding
student achievement in mathematics and English language arts by looking at the
results of standardized tests and the results of a number of experimental studies
dedicated to class size and student achievement. The research conducted revealed
the majority of studies regarding CSR to be from the United States. However, class
size reduction is an idea that has received much attention by policymakers and
researchers alike over the past several decades in a number of Western countries
including Canada (Bascia & Faubert, 2012). The studies used in this research will
focus on whether CSR programs are effective in increasing student achievement in
K-3 in mathematics and English language arts as well as look at if small classes are
really more beneficially to student achievement compare to larger classes.
Financial Cost of Reducing Class Sizes

Politicians are hesitant to push forward with CSR programs without specific
positive research results regarding student achievement and classroom sizes.
Chingos (2011) found this is due to the high financial cost that is associated with
implementing CSR programs in schools. The author mentions with CSR programs
there is a need to hire more teachers and build more classrooms which are the two
Terri-Lynn Oram 7
primary costs of CSR programs. If class sizes were reduced by one third that is from
24 students to 16 students this would mean 50 percent more teachers would need
to be hired, in addition, depending on the size of the school, new classrooms may
also need to be added (Chingos, 2011). In 2002, Florida began to implement a nine
year CSR program to reduce class size in all grades at a cost of $22 billion dollars by
2011-2012 (Chingos, 2013). Also, Milesi and Gamoran (2006) found that the state of
California devoted $1.5 billion dollars per year to CSR programs in the late 1990s.
The authors also found that in 1999, the federal government allocated 1.2 billion to
states to hire qualified teachers for primary classrooms in attempts to cut down
class size in early grades. In 2000, this funding increased to 1.3 billion for CSR
programs in hopes to hired 100,000 new teachers and reduced kindergarten to
grade 3 classrooms across the United States to an average of 18 students. The
federal government also developed its own program providing $1.2 billion to $1.6
billion dollars from 1999-2001 to CSR initiatives (Chingos, 2011). The total cost for
Project STAR alone was approximately 13 million dollars (Finn et al., 2007).
In Canada, the Ontarios Ministry of Education took a highly structured
approach to the implementation of the Primary Class Size Policy (another term for
CSR) (Mascall & Leung, 2012). These programs cost on average 5.6 million dollars
per school district. With smaller schools receiving on average 1.8 million while the
lager school district received about 23.1 million (Mascall & Leung, 2012). From this
perspective, it is not surprising that educational policymakers and government see
CSR programs as expensive and off-putting (Finn et al., 2007). As Chingos (2011)
puts it, a hugely expensive policy has to produce very impressive results in order
for it to be preferable to all of the other potential uses for those resources (p.8).
Terri-Lynn Oram 8
Taking a different standpoint on the cost of CSR programs Achilles
(2005), states that single-site studies of class size implementations have shown
that small classes (15-18 students) in early grades can be achieved at little or no
extra cost by staffing reallocations and changes in school organization (p. 13).
Achilles (2005) provides an example of how North Carolina district has achieved just
that and reduced class size to about 14-16 students per class K-4. The district
accomplished this by carefully planning, by extending inclusion, and by reallocating
funds through reduction of teacher assistants (Achilles, 2005). After the initial cost
of renovation, the small classes operated each year within normal state per-pupil
expenditures. According to Achilles (2005), academic achievement in this once lowachieving district now ranks one of the highest in the state. However, as Finn et al.
(2007) points out while the relocation of resources were effective in reducing class
size in this mid-sized and high committed area it is hard to know for sure that these
results could be repeated in other types of communities and on a larger scale.
Nevertheless, this work demonstrates that it is possible to use existing resources to
control the financial costs of CSR (Finn, et al., 2007).
CSR Programs and Initiatives

There has been a considerable amount of educational literature concerned
with the effect of class size on student achievement (Borland, Howsen, & Trawick,
2005). However, as Mosteller (1995) found designing and being able to perform
research in this area has been a difficult one. The author explains that this is due to
the fact that parents may object to variation in the treatment of children as well as
the constraints that must be imposed on the research in order to learn anything of
Terri-Lynn Oram 9
value regarding class size and student achievement. Nonetheless, in the 1980s
conditions aligned and one of the prominent studies in this area, known as Project
STAR (Student/Teacher Achievement Ratio) became a reality. (Mosteller, 1995).
While Project STAR is an older study it is also a seminal piece in which the majority
of all other research regarding class size and CSR programs have developed from.
[Project Star has] become the most widely quoted randomized experimental study
(Yan & Linn, p.50, 2010) and is one of the great experiments in education in U.S.
history ((Mosteller, Light & Stach, 1996) as cited in Milesi & Gamoran, 2006, p.
288)). This study took place in Tennessee over the course of four years and
contained three phases to the project (Mosteller, 1995).
The study was carried out in three kinds of groups: (1) classes one-third
smaller than regular-sized classes, (2) regular-sized classes without a
teachers aide, and (3) regular-sized classes with a teachers aide. By
comparing average pupil performance in the different kinds of classes,
researchers were able to assess the relative benefits of small class size and
the presence of a teachers aide. The experiment involved many schools and
classes from inner-city, urban, suburban, and rural areas so that the progress
of children from different backgrounds could be evaluated. (Mosteller, 1995,
p. 115)
Mosteller (1995) also states that during this experiment schools that
participated were not given any extra supports besides additional funds to hire new
teachers, aides and to supply extra classrooms if needed. The author went on to
say that no training was provided for teachers nor were there any new textbooks or
new curriculum during the study and that out of the 180 schools interested in
participating only 79 actually partook in the study. Finn et al. (2007) also points out
that Project STAR involved only one group of students. These students were followed
for four years over the course of the study. In addition, students as well as teachers
were assigned to one of the three groups at random. Once assigned to a specific
class type students remained in that particular group for as long as they were in the
Terri-Lynn Oram 10
study and a new teacher was assigned to each group at random during each
subsequent grade (Finn et al., 2007).
Another CSR program that has been introduced in the state of Wisconsin is
known as Project SAGE. Project SAGE is a multifaceted legislation reform whose aim
is to reduce class size to a pupil-teacher ratio (PTR) of 15:1 in high poverty areas
(Graue et al., 2007). PTR can be defined as the ratio of the number of students in
an educational unit to the number of full-time-equivalent professionals assigned to
that unit (Finn et al., 2007, p. 3). Graue et al. (2007) clarifies that within Wisconsin
any school district is eligible to partake in this program with funding based on the
number of children from low income families enrolled. Furthermore, the authors
explains that Project SAGE also offers students access to the school building after
the school day, an enhance curriculum and teacher development. The SAGE
program has served over 100,000 students K-3 in 500 schools so far (Graue et al.,
2007).
Bascia and Faubert (2012) conducted a study regarding the effects of class
size and student achievement on primary grades in Ontario, Canada. They took
eight school districts that they believed had some bearing on CSR programs and
how they were implemented in schools. From these eight school districts, three
schools were chosen that represented a variety of factors such as community SES,
geographic location (inner city, suburban, rural), and by size. Out of the 24 schools
that were visited, primary grade classrooms contained anywhere from 12 to 23
students, but nearly all were less than 20 (Bascia & Faubert, 2012).
Blatchford, Bassett, Goldstein, and Martin (2003) discuss in their research
another study regarding the effects of class size and student achievement that
Terri-Lynn Oram 11
comes from the British Educational Research Journal. This study was conducted for
a three year period and followed students who entered Reception classes (4-5
years) in English schools from 1996-1997 and a second group of students who
entered Reception classes the following year (1997-1998). Blatchford et al. (2003)
mentions the schools were selected randomly and all children from those selected
schools in Reception grades partook. The authors also found that the schools were
selected for a wide variety of diverse backgrounds and were in urban, suburban and
rural areas (Blatchford et al., 2003).
The last CSR program is known as the California Statewide program. During
the spring of 1996, California passed an initiative to reduce class sizes statewide
from k-3 (Sims, 2008). This initiative was based on the experimental results
provided from Project STAR. The state started by reducing class size in first grade to
below 20 once that was completed the school would receive money to reduce
second grade followed by kindergarten and third grade. By year three, 80 percent of
the schools had reduced class size across the four grades and by year four 90
percent of grades from k-3 had been reduced (Sims, 2008).
Research Review
Research designs utilized in CSR investigations. Hedges (2000) describes
three types of research that provides evidence about the effects of class size
reductions: randomised experiments, large-scale econometric students, and the
large scale longitudinal experiment. In a small-scale randomised study, according
to Hedges, students are randomly assigned to different class sizes however
teachers are usually not. Studies that use this type of design show one major
strength high internal validity due to randomisation. That is, we believe that if
Terri-Lynn Oram 12
there is a relation between class size and achievement, it is probably due to the fact
class size differences cause differences in achievement (Hedges, 2000, p. 195).
However, Hedges points out this type of research method does present a number of
weaknesses. One such weakness is that these types of experiments disrupt the
normality of the school environment (Hedges, 2000). The author simplifies this to
mean that students and teachers are conscious that they are participating in a type
of study. As well these studies are usually only short term taking place over the
course of a few weeks or months. Due to the fact, these studies are short term it is
difficult to observe if the effects are long term or if they disappear over time
(Hedges, 2000).
As a consequence of these weaknesses, the external validity of small-scale
experiments is questionabletherefore, if the research is to be used to inform
educational policy, the small-scale experiments have a major weakness in the
area of external validity. It is difficult to tell whether results would generalise
to settings like the ones policy was intended to affect(Hedges, 2000, p.
196)
Hedges (2000) describes the next type of research that is commonly used in
CSR research to be what is known as econometric study. These models rely on the
premise that naturally occurring class sizes varies across schools and links the
relationship between class size and an outcome, usually student achievement, while
controlling for individual student characteristics such as race and social class.
According to Hedges (2000), these studies arise from data on schools operating as
usual. Because econometric studies do not involve intervention, expectancy effects
are implausible. Hence external validity is a major strength of econometric studies
(Hedges, 2000, p. 197).
The internal validity in these types of studies however poses significant
questions to the legitimacy of the study according to Hedges. This is because it is
Terri-Lynn Oram 13
hard to know if the relations between class size and achievement are causal when
controlling student background. Under many circumstances, student background
data is difficult to consider as it could be rather limited and may fail to fully account
for individual differences between students assigned to different class sizes. In
addition, Hedges (2000) explains that smaller classes tends to be located in schools
where parents are part of a higher social economic class and therefore social status
and capital are related to achievement and can present bias when estimating the
effects of class size unless it is controlled somehow. While econometric models try
to control for class size and student background, however, it is not always clear if
such biases are completely eliminated (Hedges, 2000). Another weakness of this
type of study, according to Hedges, is the fact the independent variable (class size)
is often poor because it comes from administrative records which could have PTR
statistics instead of true class size. This is a problem because PTR includes all
personnel who are teachers at a particular school and ignores both variations in
class size and the fact that some teachers such as librarians or other specialists do
not have a classroom assigned to them.
The last type of research study that is known as the large-scale randomised
experiment and was the type of investigation used during Project STAR (Hedges,
2000). In this type of study, both teachers and students are randomly placed in
different size classrooms in participating schools. Overall, this type of research has
numerous strengths. Looking specifically at Project STAR, one of these strengths is
the fact the experiment randomly assigned teachers and students to the various
size classrooms which causes this type of study to have a high internal validity and
because these studies take place in a natural setting it also has high external
validity (Hedges, 2000). Another good point is that because it takes place over a
Terri-Lynn Oram 14
long period of time, researchers can look at long term effects of classroom size
something that is lacking in the other types of research (Hedges, 2010). Even with
its strengths, large-scale randomised experiment also has its limitations. One of the
main disadvantages of this type of study is known as attrition. For the purpose of
this paper, attrition occurs when students for various reasons do not complete the
study (Nye, Hedges & Konstantopoulos, 2000). Therefore, attrition can become a
source of bias if the students who dropped out of one experimental group are
different from those students in the other experimental groups (Nye et al., 2000).
Overview of specific studies. According to Hattie (2005) one of the more
powerful developments in research in the past 50 years has been the introduction of
meta-analysis: the systematic analyses of prior studies by estimating the size of
effect on the outcome and then assessing the influences of various moderators on
these effects (p. 389). The very first meta-analysis study conducted regarding class
size was conducted by Glass and Smith in the 1970s. They took comparisons
between achievement and class size from many studies, formed a new data set,
and then conducted a regression analysis using these data sets (Phelps, 2011).
During their study, 77 studies regarding student achievement were read, coded and
analyzed. These studies and comparisons are based on data from a total of nearly
900,000 students spanning over 70 years of research and dozens of countries
(Phelps, 2011). Hattie (2005) states that the results of these studies showed that on
average when class size was reduced from 40 or more students to 20 students, it
led to a close-to zero increment in achievement and when class size dropped to 15
students or lower, there were considerable larger effects on student achievement.
Hattie (2005) also found that this study had certain limitation specifically it was
Terri-Lynn Oram 15
criticized because the meta-analysis were of short duration, included many one-onone tutoring studies and in some cases were non-school related.
As mention already, one of the main and most influential studies in this area
is known as Project STAR and was conducted in the state of Tennessee in the 1980s
(Yann & Linn, 2010; Milesi & Gamoran, 2006). Most of the research regarding class
size and its effects on student achievement is based on this experiment therefore it
is important to take an in depth look at Project STAR. In this study, Mosteller (1995)
explains there were 79 elementary schools within 42 school districts that were
selected to partake in the experiment. Schools had to commit to the study for four
years and had to allow site visitation for verification of class size, interviewing, and
data collection including additional student testing. Lastly, schools had to be willing
to allow teachers and students to be randomly placed to class types from
kindergarten to grade 3. (Mosteller, 1995).The state paid for additional teachers and
aides and an important element of this study is that class size was the only
condition that changed within the schools. That is, schools followed their own
policies and curriculum and no student would receive any less service then should
normally be provided. Also, students and teachers were divided into three types of
classes: (1) classes one-third smaller than regular-sized classes, (2) regular-sized
classes without a teachers aide, and (3) regular-sized classes with a teachers aide
(Mosteller, 1995).
Mosteller (1995) defines that student performance was assessed by looking
at two specific types of tests. The first type being standardized tests and curriculum
based tests. The author clarifies that standardized tests are used nationwide,
however, they are not directly linked to the curriculum while curriculum based test
Terri-Lynn Oram 16
assess more what was actually taught but gave little indication where students
stood on a nationwide level. Mosteller also explains that the first graders within the
study took two standardized tests in reading and math. Test scores of students
attending smaller classes show that they were higher in comparison to students in
larger classes with 69% of first graders in the smaller classes passing the state
reading exam compare to only 58% of those students in larger classes (Grantham,
2000). According to Finn et al. (2007) Project STAR results demonstrates that small
classes benefit student achievement in every grade K-3 and in every subject that
starting early and continuing in small classes for multiple years yields better results,
and the benefits of small classes were greatest for minority students or students
attending inner-city schools. Project STAR results also revealed that students in
small classes increased their reading and mathematics achievement in comparison
to their counterparts that attended either regular class with or without a teachers
aide (Milesi and Gamoran, 2006).
A key strength for Project STAR is the fact that it was a randomized
experiment in which casual connections between class size and student
achievement could be discerned (Finn et al., 2007). This design, often considered
the gold standard of empirical research, would set STAR apart from prior (and, to
date, all subsequent) research on class size (Finn et al., 2007, p.5) Also, Finn et
al. found that Project STAR to be extensive involving over 6,000 students each year
and almost 12,000 students over the 4 year period. The last strength of Project
STAR is that students were assessed on a regular basis during the experimental
years K-3 and were followed through high school (Finn et al., 2007).
Terri-Lynn Oram 17
To determine if there were lasting effect s of reducing class size on student
achievement on students who partook in Project STAR, the Tennessee State
Department of Education contracted the Center of Excellence for Research in Basic
Skills at Tennessee State University to create a new study known as The Lasting
Benefits Study (LBS) (Nye, 1992). All students who partook in Project STAR third
grade classes were eligible for LBS observations during fourth grade (Pate-Bain,
Achilles, Boyd-Zaharias, & McKenna, 1992).The LBS fourth grade sample included
4,230 students in 216 classrooms. Fifth graders were all investigated and 4,649
students in 236 fifth grade classes partook. Of these students, 1,578 had been in
small classes during third grade, 1,467 were in regular classes and 1,604 students
were in regular classes with a teachers aide (Nye, 1992). Analysis of the LBS study
show that students who had attended small classes in K-3 scored significantly on
all achievement tests in grade 4, on all tests except science in grade 6, and on four
of six tests in grade 8 (Finn et al., 2007, p.9). Also, according to Finn et al. (2007)
the strength and duration of the carryover effects from Project STAR depended on
the number of years students spend in smaller classes. In any given grade (4, 6, 8)
the effects were the least notable in students who spend only one year in smaller
classes during Project STAR while students who spend 3 or 4 years in smaller
classes showed the most results (Finn et al., 2007).
As mention previously Project SAGE is another study regarding CSR and
student achievement (Graue et al., 2007). This study was designed to increase the
academic achievement of low income students by reducing class sizes in grades k-3
to a teacher to pupil ratio of 15:1 (Yan & Lin, 2010). In the first year, studies showed
that students in first grade scored about 25-30 percent higher in language arts and
mathematics then their larger class counterparts. The final evaluation of the study
Terri-Lynn Oram 18
showed by the end of third grade students in the smaller classes were achieving at
a level of about one third to one half a year ahead of students in larger classes (Yan
& Lin, 2010). In all, this line of research provides evidence that children in smaller
classes often make greater academic gain compare to those in larger classes (Yan &
Lin, 2010, p. 51).
CSPAR (The Class Size and pupil Adult Ratio project was another experimental
study regarding class size on student achievement conducted in the UK his study
used a longitudinal design while measuring the effect on student progress and class
sizes school (Brihwiler & Blatchford, 2011). The authors found a direct link between
class size and students achievement in both literacy and mathematics over the first
year of school.
During interviews with teachers throughout the study conducted by Bascia
and Feubert (2012) in Ontario, Canada many reported with smaller classes they had
more opportunities to help individual students experiencing learning difficulties with
pre-literacy, pre-numeracy or reading/writing/listening/speaking/visualizing. In
addition, during whole group instruction, teachers could better use such strategies
as read aloud in which the class would read a specific text at once. In such
activities, teachers reported being aware of those students who werent actively
partaking as well as encourage more individual participation in situations where the
class size was reduced (Bascia and Feubert ,2012) Also, teachers who were teaching
in smaller classes were able to use specific activities such as guided reading for the
first time. Teachers also commonly reported that when teaching in smaller classes
they were able to get to know and understand the individual student better. They
had more time to chat one-on-one with children and were able to gain a better
Terri-Lynn Oram 19
understanding of students lives outside of class that could help them to support
students better (Bascia and Faubert, 2012, p. 352). Bascia and Feubert (2012) go
on to explain that primary teachers in this study who were unfamiliar with smaller
classes also reported that they could better observe children during individual work
time and were able to keep students more on task compare to larger classrooms.
Lastly,
They generally perceived [CSR] as a means of providing more intensive
individual support to at risk children in the interests of improving academic
achievement, promoting positive social and affective development,
promoting school success, and creating social situations more conducive to
learning through the increase in positive interactions that value each childs
contribution to classroom life (Bascia and Faubert, 2012, p. 352).
The research conducted by Blatchford et al. (2003) show the smaller the class
the more teaching that occur within that classroom. Also, as Blatchford et al. found
the results show that there is a link between class size and adult support given to
students as they read. The results from the study estimate that children in larger
classes will spend less time reading to their teachers as well as read smaller
amounts then their smaller class size counterparts. Lastly, Blatchford discovered
students who are in smaller classes are much more likely to have interactions with
their teacher. Students in this study were observed interaction 213 times with their
teacher compare to only 144 times in a large class (Blatchford & et al, 2003). The
authors looked specifically at literacy and mathematics results and found that a
decrease in class size from 30-20 students resulted in an increase in student
performance in both areas.
Limitations of the Research
Terri-Lynn Oram 20
There are several limitations of research on class size effects which have
impacted the information that has been gathered in this area of study. According to
Brihwiler & Blatchford (2011) one such limitation of large scale studies as STAR and
CSPAR is that they only consider the effects of class size on student achievement in
a very basic and general way. According to them, academic achievement is based
on end of the year attainment test. Some critics argued that there is also a place to
analyze class size on student achievement based on context of specific curriculum
topics and areas and focus more on student achievement of curriculum related
measures. These measures can be seen as more valid and authentic because it is
considered a part of normal class work and reflects normal and natural classroom
conditions (Brihwiler & Blatchford, 2011).
Another limitation of this type of research according to Brihwiler & Blatchford,
2011 is that most research has been restricted to classroom processes and it has
been mostly informal and subjective. When systematic measures have been used it
tends to be restricted to classroom observations (Brihwiler & Blatchford, 2011).
Information on other kinds of processes, for example, participation, interest, and
teaching quality has rarely been collected (Brihwiler & Blatchford, 2011, p. 66).
More importantly according to the authors the research has looked at the effects of
class size on outcomes and class size on processes but has not demonstrated
whether process medicate effects on class size.
Also, many studies regarding Class size and its impact on student
achievement does not look at teacher quality (Brihwiler & Blatchford , 2011). That
is, as the authors states although teacher quality is a key aspect regarding student
achievement it is often not analyzed formally or often omitted completely in
Terri-Lynn Oram 21
empirical class size studies. This could be because of the difficulties researchers
face in developing an appropriate measure of teacher quality.
Shin & Raudenbush (2011) states that according to research there are two
major challenges in the analysis of class size and student academic achievement:
1)it is difficult to handle the complexity of outcomes in areas as mathematics,
reading, listening and word scores and 2) it is difficult to handle the problem of
missing data within studies related to class size. The authors explains some
researchers have evaluated the outcomes by combining them into a single
composite while others have investigated the data of one outcome at a time. While
informative, the former cannot reveal impacts on specific tests and the latter
requires that effects on different outcomes be estimated on somewhat different
samples (Shin & Raudenbush ,2011, p. 155). Also, researchers have either dropped
cases with missing data or used ad hoc procedures to handle missing data such as a
sample mean substitution. This can lead to inefficiencies and biased inferences
(Shin & Raudenbush, 2011).
According to Whitehurst and Chingos (2011) another limitation in CSR
Initiatives which directly impacted Californias CSR programs is the fact that with
smaller classes becomes the need for more teachers. Often these teachers are
not-fully-certified teachers [which] offset[s] much of these gains. (Whitehurst and
Chingos, 2011, p. 7). The authors found that students who end up in classrooms
with inexperience teachers suffer academically from the teachers lack of
experience almost as much as the gains they would have made in smaller classes.
Limitations in Project Star. As mention previously, [Project Star has]
become the most widely quoted randomized experimental study (Yan & Lin, p.50,
2010). Therefore, as Project STAR is such an important study in this field, it is
Terri-Lynn Oram 22
important to consider the limitations and weaknesses of this particular study as all
studies have limitations (Yan & Lin, 2010). One major issue to the internal validity of
the findings of STAR is the fact that 50% of the initial participants switched among
class types and therefore were exposed to different experiment condition (Milesi
and Gamoran, 2006)
There are also three major concerns regarding external validity. First, schools
were not randomly selected for this study but instead volunteered to be a part of
this study also they had to be large enough so that all three different types of
classes could be established in grades K-3. Second, there were well-supplied
experimental conditions with no shortages of teachers or facilities. Third, the
participants in the experiment were not blind to the treatment in which they were
assigned (Milesi and Gamoran, 2006). Hanushek ((1997) as cited in Hattie, 2005))
concludes another limitation of Project STAR is the fact that less than half of the
original students in the experiment remained in the study until the end of third
grade. This can cause a problem with the results if
In particular, if the dropouts from the regular sized classes had higher
average achievement test scores then the dropouts from the small classes,
then the attrition would lead to positive bias in the effect of small classes; it
would make small classes look more favorable than they actually are ( Nye
et al., 2000, p.130).
Conditions that Influence Class-Size Effectiveness

Milesi and Gamoran (2006) explain that there are certain conditions within
the classroom that can have a direct impact on the effectiveness of the instruction
being delivered and therefore can have an impact on student achievement. As the
authors conclude there are also specific conditions that can help clarify why class
Terri-Lynn Oram 23
size can benefit student achievements in some incidents but not in others. The first
circumstance Milesi and Gamoran describe is the fact that teachers may teach
differently in larger classes than in smaller classes. That is, the most common
explanation to class size effectiveness is that teachers in smaller classes change
their teaching style in such a way it benefits student learning which in turn will raise
student achievement. Unfortunately, there is almost no evidence to support this
concept according to Milesi and Gamoran (2006). They go on to clarify the findings
from the CSR initiative in grades 1 through 3 in California which found that teachers
in reduced and non-reduced classes covered the same material in mathematical
and language arts and did so in a similar time frame. There were however, some
differences in teaching practices between smaller and larger classrooms. Teachers
in smaller classes spend less time on behaviour issues and taught less in a whole
group situation. Children in smaller classes were also given more opportunities to
participate in activities that are consistent with curriculum reforms such as math
games (Milesi and Gamoran 2006).
As Milesi and Gamoran (2006) questions, if teachers do not change their
behavior and practices in small classes, why do small classes still raise student
achievement (p.292)? One suggestion for this phenomena is that small classes
benefit student learning when they occur in combination with particular methods of
instruction (Milesi and Gamoran, 2006, p. 292). That is to say, as the authors
describes it in a classroom in which a teacher has the teaching style that includes
mostly whole class instruction and seatwork, student achievement may not change
whether in small or large classes. Therefore, CSR programs in these situations may
not be effective on student achievement. In comparison, teachers whose teaching
style includes small group instruction or individual instruction and spends most of
Terri-Lynn Oram 24
their time working one on one with students will be given more time to spend with
students in smaller classrooms (Milesi and Gamoran, 2006) The time he or she
spends with each student is no longer a constant but a function of class size; as the
number of students in the class decreases, the teacher devotes more time to each
student (Milesi and Gamoran, 2006, p. 292). This extra time spent with students
could be linked to a positive effect of small classes on student achievement
according to Milesi and Gamoran. They explain that Student achievement could rise
because of the additional interactions between teacher and student and a teaching
approach that stresses small group or individual group activities.
The third condition that Milesi and Gamoran (2006) discuss is the possibility
that students may behave differently in a larger class compared to a smaller class.
Milesi and Gamoran (2006) states that their research has shown that teachers in
small classes spend less time on behavioral issues and classroom management.
Time spent on discipline and classroom management can be directly linked to
student achievement because when a teacher has to spend their time on these noninstructional issues then they are spending less time on the curriculum. Therefore,
when teachers are able to reduce time spent in these non-instructional areas it
results in spending more time in instruction which in turn may benefit student
learning.(Milesi & Gamoran, 2006),
Graue et al. (2007) states that research indicates that it is not down to the
teacher. That is, they say, teachers will vary in their effectiveness but the size of the
class will affect what the teacher has to deal with. Therefore, class size is one
environmental factor that can influence teachers and students in a number of ways.
Terri-Lynn Oram 25
In other words, class size is one element of a complex system that has the potential
to affect student achievement (Graue et al., 2007).
Counterargument
On the other side of things the vast majority of class-size studies are not
rigorous, so their results are not very useful as a guide to policy (Chingos, 2011, p.
4). Chingos (2011) continues to point out that studies that do not isolate the cause
effect of class size and only class size has demonstrated inconsistencies in their
results. Hanushek (20010 as cited in Borland et al., 2005)) declares that out of 277
studies investigated: 14% show that the relationship between smaller classes and
students achievement is significant in a positive way while 14 % of studies also
show that there is significant results between class size and student achievement
but is negative. The reminding 72% of the studies show that there is no real
relationship between smaller classes and students achievement.
Gladwell (2013) brings into account the declining student population in
todays schools compare to the past. He uses Shepaug Valley Middle School located
in Connecticut as an example of this. This particular school is one of those schools
that have fallen victim to decreasing enrollment. Therefore, as Gladwell points out,
it is possible to actually look at changes in class size and the impact on student
achievement in these types of schools. In 2001, there were 23 fifth graders
attending Shepaug Valley Middle School but a year later in 2002 there were only ten
fifth graders. Over the course of those two school years everything else in the
school remained the same. Therefore, Gladwell made the conclusion that if students
from the larger class did better than the smaller class or vice versa, it can be
assumed it was because of the class size. This unique situation also known as a
Terri-Lynn Oram 26
natural experiment allows this hypothesis to be tested in a natural environment that
the real world provided and not created by researchers. While Gladwell looked at
elementary classes in his natural environment example the same concept can be
applied at primary grades that are decreasing in size at different school years.
Gladwell points out natural experiments have many advantages over formal
experiments (2013, p. 42).
According to Gladwell (2013) the economist Caroline Hoxby took a detailed
look at every elementary school within the state of Connecticut and compared
students achievement who happen to be in smaller classes to those students who
happen to be in a large class. In her particular study Hoxby states in this study, I
found estimates that are very precisely estimated around the point zero. I got
precise zero. In other words, there is no effect (as cited in Gladwell, 2013, p. 42).
However, as Gladwell (2013) mentions since this is just one study it is
important to consider the whole picture and look at the results of the studies
regarding class size collectively. Fifteen percent of studies declare that students in
smaller classes do better. However, about the same percentage of studies show
those students actually do worse in smaller classes while twenty percent find that
there is no effect at all on student achievement (Gladwell, 2013). Chingos (2011)
took an in depth look at the CSR program that was implemented in Florida in the
2000s. He found no evidence that the policy had any impact on student
achievement as well he found that Floridas policy had no impact on test scores in
grade 3.
According to Gladwell (2013) after sorting through countless studies results
has showed that out of 18 countries that were involved in CSR initiatives
Terri-Lynn Oram 27
researchers found that only two countries, Greece and Iceland showed nontrivial
beneficial effects of reduced class sizes (Gladwell, 2013, p. 44).
Gladwell (2013) links class size and student performance to that of a bell
curve as showed in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Bell Curve of Class Size and student performance. From David and Goliath:
Underdogs, Misfits and the art of Battling Giants by Malcolm Gladwell copyright
2013.
Gladwell (2013) explains this diagram as an inverted-U curve that has three
parts each follows a different set of logic. He explains the left side is where doing
more or having more makes a difference. While on the flat middle is where doing
more doesnt really make any sort of difference and lastly the right side in which
doing more or having more actually makes things worse. He connects this bell curve
to class size and student performance. An example Gladwell uses is Israel where the
cap is 40 students per grade he says this would put Israel on the left size of the
curve. Consequently, if you do a Hoxby-style analysis and compare the academic
performance of one of those big classes with a class of twenty, the small class will
Terri-Lynn Oram 28
do better (Gladwell, 2013, p.55). However, according to Gladwell, schools like
Shepaug Valley Middle School whose classes range from twenties to high teens fall
onto the curves middle. That is to say, there is no real benefit to making classes
smaller in that middle range. Although, teachers, policymakers and parents seem
to think smaller classes mean a better education and student performance. the
evidence suggests that the thing we are convinced is such a big advantage might
not be such an advantage at all (Gladwell, 2013, p.44).
Conclusions and Implications:

According to the studies reviewed and research results on class size on
student achievement in primary grades the conclusion to be drawn here is that it is
inconclusive. Studies such as Project STAR and SAGE have demonstrated a positive
link between student achievement and reduce class sizes. As Blatchford and
Mortimore ((1994 as cited in Pedder, 2006)) states
there is now firm evidence of a link, but only in the early years and only
with classes smaller than 20. The evidence supports the reduction of class
sizes in the first years of school, especially with disadvantage pupils, but
much still needs to be researched (p. 214)
Therefore, from this quote it can be concluded that while there are some positive
results in the field of smaller classes on student achievement there is still a need for
continuous research in this area. Whitehurst & Chingos (2011) sums up the results
of studies on CSR and student performance by stating class size reduction has
been shown to work for some students in some grades in some states and
countries, but its impact has been found to be mixed or not discernable in other
settings and circumstances that seem similar (p. 2). With such contradiction in the
Terri-Lynn Oram 29
research it makes it difficult to draw a definite conclusion regarding class size and
student achievement. However, as Whitehurst & Chingos (2011) found it appears
that the academic effects of smaller classes seem to have the largest impact when
introduced in early grades. Whitehurst & Chingos (2011) suggest a compromised
regarding CSR programs. They suggest that policymakers might consider targeting
the reduction of class sizes to students that would benefit the most: disadvantage
students in the early grades or provide certain amount of funding for CSR programs
but allow individual schools to use it how they need it. Also, policymakers could
provide smaller classes for the inexperience teachers or for teachers dealing with
struggling
student (Whitehurst & Chingos, 2011). These compromises seem to make
more sense than implementing CSR programs right across the country. (Whitehurst
& Chingos, 2011)
In summation the findings of the research demonstrate an inconclusive link
between student achievement in primary grades in mathematics and English
language arts and class size. Studies and research has shown inconsistencies
among the results and the best conclusion that can be made is size matters in
some circumstances but not in others (Chingos, 2011). CSR seems to have a
positive effect on students, so it would be in their best interests to have a small
class size. It is the job of educators to err on the side of the student and CSR would
be a help and not a hindrance.
Terri-Lynn Oram 30
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Running Head: The Effects of Smaller Classes on Academic Achievement

The Effects of Smaller Classes on Academic Achievement

CSR Programs and

The Effects of Class Size on Student Achievement

Financial Cost of Reducing Class Sizes

CSR Programs and Initiatives

Conditions that Influence Class-Size Effectiveness

Conclusions and Implications:

student (Whitehurst & Chingos, 2011). These compromises seem to make

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