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Hoang Xuan Sinh-Dai So Dai Cuong
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DAI SO DM CMG
(Ti] IS Idn thit tim)
HOANG DIEM
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O day cheat& tai khong lam vide thaylt minh tang chuong,
ccic ban doc co the xem bdn thuylt minh chuong Dinh DO ad
cao cap cim BO GM dye. Sau mai cita ding chuang, ban doe
c6 nhang bhi tap de, hada hilu situ a thuyet hon va ran luyen
hi nang tinh town, hod hieu rdng li thuylt han, cal mat so
khai niem mai dua vim trong bai tap. M6i van de duce nhac
led thi duoc chit thich chuong, tilt,. mac can van a da duce
dua vao, chang han ch V 3, 2 co nghia la van a do da nOi
din 0 chuong v, tilt 3, mite 2. Nan van a duce nhdc Lai cling
chuong cal van de clang xet thi chi' chit thich tilt ,va mac ;
cling tilt thi chi chit thich mac. Thing cling mot tilt,
cite dinh nghia, bd de, dinh li duoc ddnh 36 bang 1, 2, 3...
Cu& cling dl xay Ming mat gulf, trinh Dai el cao cap tang
ngity cang Jett han, chang tai rat mong ban dye viii long chi
bait nhctng thilu sot_han !thong trinh khoi cart man sach nay.
Xin cam an PTS Btu Huy Hien 6 td Dai ad elm khoa Than
trttang Dai hoc SW pham Ha NO 2 dd c6 nhieu clang gap lie
phan Bat tap.
HaHai ngay 13-1-1972
CHUONG I
B.
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hqp
.P hIP
A - B={xEAlx0B}
gel la higu cart tap hop A oh tap hap B. Ngu B c A thl hieu
A - B g9i la phan bit dm tap hqp B trong tap hap A va can ki
hieu la CAB.
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Gia sit x la mat vat. Thg thi cd mat tap hap ki hiau {x} chi
gam c6 mat phan to la x. Mat tap hop thuac loaf de got la tdp
hop mot phan S.
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Bay gib giA sit x va y la hai vat phan Mat. Thg thi cd mat
tap hop ki lieu {x, y} chi gam cd hai plan ta la x via y. Mat
tap hop thuae lotti d6 goi la tap hop hai phan
Ngubi ta cling djnh nghta nhu vay tap hop ha ban... phan
tit. Cite tap hop da ding vol Sp hop rang got la cdc top hap
han, con cac tap hop Mac goi la ale Op hap u(5 han.
6. Top hop cac 60 ph(in mitt mOt top hqp
Gia. sit X la mat tap hop, the t) phan ciut X lap thAnh mat
tap hop Id hiau P (X) va goi la tdp hop cdc bd ph4n cda X.
Tap hop thy bao gib cling S it nhat mat phtin tv d6 la X.
,
'Pa S
cluing mirth duac rang, ngu X la mat Sp hop him
han gam n phan tit thl P(X) la mOt Sp hop him han gom 2" phan
tit Nhu vay cac Sp hop 0, P(0), P (P (0)), P (P (P (0))),
P (93 (P (P (0)))), P (P (P (P (0)))))... then the W S 0, 1,
2, 2 2 rt- 4, 24 = 16,- 2 16 = 65536... phan tit. Tit Sp hop 0
chitng ta da - thanh lap nhang tap hop cri nhigu pit to data
mdc trong this to ta Itheng dgm duac.
7. 71th de cat cUa hai top hqp
Gia sit x vA y la hai vat, tit hai vat nay ta thanh lap mat
vat thtl ba ki Mau (x, y) va goi la c4p (x, y). Hai Sp y) va
bt, u) la bang nhau khi va chi khi x = u va y = v. Dar Mat
ta c6 (x, y) = (y, x) khi va chi khi x = y, digu nay Si Ian thd
to ma ta vigt hai vat cim mat cap IA can thigt.
Ta ro thg mb rang khai niam cap nhu sac. Gia sit So ba
vat x, y, z, ta Ott
la
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Thvg fly ((x', y'), z') = ((x", y"), z") trong during vdi
x",
(x', y') = (x", y") va z' = z", fly Wring duong voi x' =
Gang vay, cho bOn vat x, y, z, t ta dat
(x, y, z; t) = ((x, y, z), t)
Ira ta ggi (x, y, z, t) la mat bt) bdn.
Dinh ngliia 3. Cho hai tap hop X NIA Y; tap hop cac cap
(x, y) vat x E X vb. y E Y goi la tich de the tha X uti Y va
ki hieu bang X x Y.
Khai them tich da the cci thg ma rang cho trtiOng hop nhigu
tap hop. /46u X, Y, Z, T la nhitng tap hop, ngubi ta dinh nghia
XxYxZ=(XxY)xZ
XxYxZxT=(XxYxZ)xT...
Cac phan tii oda X x YxZ lit the be ba (x, y, z) vet x EX,
y E Y, z E Z. Cling nhu vay, the phan to the. X x Y x Z x T
la the ba bOn (x, y, z, t)voixeX,yEY,zEZ,tET. Cu&
ding nen X la mat tap hop, ta dat
X2 =XxX,X3 =XxXxX,X4 =XxXxXxX,...
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AnB=Bn A,
'A UB=BU A.
(ii) Tinh chat kit hop
A
(B
(A n B) 11 C,
A U (B U C) = (A U B) U C.
(iii) Tinh chcit phan phdi
A
(B U
- (A n B) U (A C),
A U (B n
= (A U B) fl (A U C).
Ta ehting minh cOng tilde thd hai caa (Ili). Gia thx EA U
U (B n C), dieu d6 cat nghia la x thuSe it nhat mot trong hai
10
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Vity
9.
Anh
xa
Dinh nghla 6. Gilt sit X v& Y la hal tap hop da cho. Mat
dnh xit f tit X din Y la mat quy Sc cho Wang ting vat mai
phtin tit x dm X mat phan tit 'tan dinh, Id hieu f(x) caa Y. Ta
viat
f
f : X Y hayX>Y
x
f(x)
f(x)
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f : N
2) Xat tap hop the s6 thvc R. Tutting ling
x 1 n x2
3 I. 1
xac dinh mot anh xa tit X dgn
Qua dinh nghia mkt anh xa, cluing ta they rang khai niam
Emit xa la khdi niam m6 rang cue khai niam ham s6 ma ta gap
trvang ph6 thong. Cac ham sd ma ta gap 6 trttang phd thong
la nhfing anh as ma - ngugn Ira dich la tap hop Mc sd thtte It
hoac nhf.tng b0 phan cue lt, va 56 ?Tx) Wang ling yeti s6 x lit
mat bigu thdc dai ad hay mat bigu tilde throng gist , chAng han :
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MTh
10. Anh
Dinh nghia 8. Gia au
{xEXI f(x) = b }.
Dac HO vet b E Y, r ({b})
don gian ki hieu ta vidt f I (b) thay elm ft ({b}) va goi la tao
anh town phan eta b bbi f. Mei phan tit x E f (5) goi la met
tao (ink eta b bel f.
Ki hieu f(A) la met diau lam clang vi f(A) chi S nghia khi
A E X. RO rang ta c6 f(0) = 0 vdi moi f Ta chdng minh da
Bang the quan he-:
- A C hi(A)) obi moi b0 pia A act X
- B
Nhung ta khong cci quyen, trong cat quan he ay, thay the
dilu bao ham bang dau citing Unit. Chang han, trong vi do 2)
13
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ritiotil = {- 1, 1} va
R > R
x3
C
x3
s2 la ba gia tri
x x
got lit anti xa dong nheit cita X H hidu 1,, hose ex Hign nhien
lx la don
3) Cho X C Y. Anh xa
j : X
Y
x t*j(x) = x
goi la don anh chinh hic tit X den Y. Ta cd thg cd nhieu don
Ards tii X den Y, nhung don anh j goi la chinh Sc vi n6 duce
fly dung met each to nhien.
14
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Dinh nghia 10. Ta bao mot anh xa. f : X --s Y la mat tam
anh niu f(X) = Y, nci mat each line, Mu Si moi y E
it nlifit mat x E X sao cho y = fix). Nguai ta con goi mat than
anh f: X . Y la mat drift xa fit X len Y
Cac anh xa trong cac vi du 1) va 2) la nhung than anh.
Dinh nghia 11. Ta bao mat anh xa. f
Y la mat song
anh hay mat anh xa mat d6i mat tit X len Y, Mu ud vita la
don anh vita la town anh, ndi mat each 'Khoo Mu vdi mai y E Y
co mat S. chi mat x E X sao cho y = fix).
Chang hon anh n (tong nhat 1, la mat song anh via mai X.
12. Tich anh xa
Dinh nghia 12. Gib. sit cho
f: X>Yvag Y Z.
Anh xa
X Z
x
gr(ln)
goi la tich oda anh xa f ud (nth xa g, Id hibu gof, hay van ta.
15
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X In hai anh
gf = lx Ud fg = l y
Th6 thi g goi la mOt dnh xr) ngucc clic) f.
Tit dinh nghia ta suy ra f cling 121 mOt anh xa %edge ohs. g.
Dinh sau day cho ta bi6t khi nao mot anh xa cd anh xa
tigurele
Dinh li 5. Anh xa f : X > Y cO mOt anh xa ngitqc khi va
chi khi f la mr)t song dna.
Chang mink. GU sit f cd mOt anh xa nguroc g Y X.
Theo dinh nghia 13, ta cd
gf = l x va fg = 1 y.
tdc la
g(f(x)) = x ved mot x
Xat quan hO
fix) = f(x),
ta suy ra
f la mOt don anh. Bay gio gia sit y la mOt phan td thy
g cala Y. Dht x = g(y) C X trong clang thdc f(g(y)) = y, ta ddoc
y = f(x). V4y f la mOt to/in anh.
Dito lai gia sit f la mOt song anh. Quy Sc oho thong ling
v6i m6i y e Y phan tit duy nhat coa f l (y) xac dinh Wit anh
xa g : Y X va ta thay ngay
gf = l x va fg = l y.
Nhu vityf:Xn Ycci mOt anh xa notoc khi va chi khi f
la song anh, va trong trddng hop dd ta cd mOt anh xa ngdgc
g : Y *X cua f xac dinh b61
y 1-r
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gf = 1 x
Tit do
g=g
l xg' = g'.
y = g(fg) = (gf)g'
1 (y)
=
(gf) (f'g')
(fig -i) (gf) =
fly
= glyg_i =
pi)
=
= .50
= (gf
xa
g : A Y
x 1n g(x) = f(x)
goi la cat thu hep ella anh xa f Mt kJ, phkti A ytt Id hieu la
g = f , can anh xa f goi la cat and rOng elk g tren tkp hop
A
X.
17
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'Pa Id hieu
f(a) = x,,
tip) = xfi
= xy
Ta bac the phan tU xa , x13 , xy
thanh lap mOt hp nhung
phan td cda X dupe dank s6 bdi tap hop I, Id hiau la (xa)a E
can tap hop I gal la tap hop chi s6. Nau the xa , x13 , xy . la
nhiing tap hop thi ta gal (xa), c la nt9t hp tap hqp dcinh s6
bdi tap hop I. Ndu cac phan tit dm X la nhUng ba phan cim
mat tap hop E, tire la ta ed xa , xp , xy C E, thi ta got
(xa)a e / la met hp nhang by phan mia tap hop E.
Thoc re cluing ta da thay vide danh ad trttoc day rat. Trong
&tat dal chung ta thuong xet nhung day s6 Utile n o, u 1,. u2,
Digit &I co nghia lit ta da danh sd bang clic s6 to nhien 0, 1,
r P(X)
1 n A i = f b 1
2
A2 = { a, b
3
A3 =
a, b }
18
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(Xa)ae 1!va U
tha thl
n},
U In = N
nEN
(1 I = In = {0}
neN
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BAI TAP
1. X& tap hap {A 1 , A 2,...,
ma aid phan to A t , A2,...,
la nhitng tap hap. Chang minh ed it nit& mOt tap hop A i kliOng
chtla mOt tap hop nao trong cac tap hap con lai.
2. Cluing minh to S A - (A - B) = B khi va chi khi B C A.
3. GiA sit X 14 mOt tap hop cd n phan tit va r la mOt s6 to
nhien, 0 C r C rt. Tinh :
a) S6 cac b6 phan Se. X ed r phan
b) S6 cac phan to cila
6. Chdng minh
a) A UB =A khi va chi khi B C A.
b) A f1 B = A khi va chi khi A C B.
c) A UQ = A.
d) A
0.
R, x
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cd th6 coi nhu da thi caa mat anh xa the Tao ? Bleu diOn hinh
hoc tap hop dd .
10. GM wit f : X -> Y la mat anh xa A va B la hai bQ phan
dm X, C va D is hai bQ phan cua Y. Chung minh
a) f(A U B) = f(A) U f(B).
b) f(A n B) C f(A) fl f(B).
c)
U D) = ft(C) U riay.
d) f'(C n
= ri(c) fl rkm.
e) f(X - A) D f(X) - f(A).
ri(Y - C) = X - r{ (C).
11. Gia sit n la mat sd tp nhien cho triteic, f la mat anh xa
tit tap hop cat se to nhien N den chinh nd duoc xac Binh bdi
n - k new k < n
f(k) = {n + k nen k an.
f ad phdi la don anh toan anh, song anh kitting ?
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.
n5 veil moi h,
to th h f = h'f keo theo h = h'
la mat
than anh.
17. Chang minh nau c6 mat song anh tit X d6n Y va mat
song anh tit X dgn Z, thi th mat song anh to Y dan Z
18. Cluing minh rang mu6n cho mat ba phan G tha tich 66
the X x Y la d6 thi dm mat anh xa tit X deli Y thi can va
du la anh xa (phep chit') :
G X
(x,
el
b) n /la C
vbi MO a E I.
aef
a) B
AG) U (B
aEl
d) B U
(n
=n
A)
a E
e) X
Aa).
aEl
(n
(B U Ad.
a el
(U .4a) =
0 X
aEl
aEl
=
aEl
U (X Aa)
aEl
a) AU Aa) = U Ma).
ael
b) An
aef
22
aEl
Aa) C
n
aEl
f(A).
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c)ri(u
B1) =
d)r(n
fie/
fie/
U ri(sfl
).
fie/
13E/
21. Cho hai tap hop X.vA Y . Ta ki hieu bang Hom (X, Y)
tap hop tat ca the anh xa tit X den Y. Chung mirth
a) C6 met song anh tit Horn (X, Y) den YX .
b) Neu Y chi c6 hai phtin to thi e6 met song anh tit
Horn (X, Y) den P(X).
c) Ttif a) va b) hay suy ra neu X ad n phan tif, thi
co 2" phtin tit.
2. QUAN HE
1. Chian
hai ngoi
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Nhu \Tay, mat anh xa cho ta mat quan ha hai ngbi dac Mat.
Ngoai quan h@ hai fled quan trong nay, Wan h9c con cd hai
loaf quan ha hai ngdi quan trong nita, do la quan he tudng
during va quan he thti to.
2. Quan ha Wang Wang
Dinh nghia 2. GM sit X la mat tap hop, S IA mat b0 pan
oda X x X. The thi S goi la mat quan he Wang duong trong
X ngu va chi ngu cac digu kien sau day Woo. man :
1. (Phan xa) Vdi moi a E X ; aSa.
2. (D6i ming) Vdi moi a, b E X ; ngu aSb, thi bSa.
3. (Bac cam) Vdi moi a, b, c E X ; ngu aSb va bSc, thi aSc.
Ngu S IA mat quan he tuong duong, thi nguoi ta Hwang ki
hiau S bang - va thuong doc aSb (a b) la "a Wong during
veil b".
Vi du. 1) Dgu bang thudng dung trong 86 hoc thong Uniting
We s6 thtic lit mot vi du quen thuac ye quan he Wong throng.
'Prong trudng hop dd tap hop S la dyeing thAng y = x cua mat
phAng de can R2
2) gh xet quan he &Mg du mod 5 chang han trong s6 hoc.
Hai so nguyen tn, n gal la clang du mod 5 ngu m - n chia hgt
cho 5 RO rang quan he nay la mat quan he Wong during trong
Z. Ta hay ki hiau bang C(i), i = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 tap hop cac s6
nguyen tag duong vol i
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bang C(a) tap hop cac vectd tudng during veil a, the thi C(a)
chang qua la mat vectd to do.
Dinh nghia 3. GM sit S la mat quan he toeing during trong
X Va a E X. Tap hop
C(a) = Ix E X I xSal
gal lit lap Wang duang cast a den obi quan
he
Wong duang S.
Nhu vay cho met quan he Wong dining S trong mat tap
hop X, ta dude mat sit chia lap tren X, do la vise chia X
thanh cac lap Wong &tong. Dinh li sau day cho ta thay dao
lai sung
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Dinh nghia 7. Gia. su X lit met tap hop sap thd W. Met
phgn tit a e X gei lit phdn to t6i ties (phan to t61 dal) eta X
a) kat) theo x = a.
neu quan hex # a Ix
Vi d,. 1) Trong tap hop cat se to nhien thve stt len lam I,
sap that to theo quan he I (quan ha chia het), the Olin tit tOi
tigu la the s` nguyen
2) Trong tap hop cat he theta doe lap tuyen tinh eta khong
gian vecto IV sap tint W theo quan he bao ham C, cac ha
\recto gem rt \recto la t61
3) Tap hop cac se thuc, ved quan he that to thong thudng,
khong cd plign to t6i dai cling khong cd phan to tei tidu.
Dinh nghia S. Girl sit X la met tap hop sap that tu. Mot
phgn tit a E X get la phlin tti be nit& titan to lan nhgt) coo.
X nen, vet mot x E X, to cd a E x( x g a).
Neu met tap hop X sap thd to cd met phtin tit be nhat a
thi a la phtin to be nhgt duy nhgt. That thy gib sit 5 6 la
phtin to be nhgt, ta suy ra a < b va 6 # a, We la a = 6.
Cling nhan get nhu thy del veil phan ta len nhgt.
27
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BAI TAP
1. GM sb f : X > Y IA mat anh xa, S la ba phan aim X x X
Om the cap (x, x) sao cho f(x) = flx ite
a) Chung minh S la mat quan he Wang during trong X.
b) Xet tap hop thurang XIS va anh xa.
p : X XIS
x
C(x).
X
P
XIS
nghia la f = TP
X/S
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Wang (Wang.
c) S khang phai la mat quan ha dui to.
d) Nth d61 gia that mat ehtit bang each cho x + y chain, thi
the' nth ?
4. Gia sit X la mat tap hop va T la mat qtian ho hai ng6i
phan xa, dot 'tang trong X. Th hay xae dinh mat quan ha hai
ng6i. S trong X nhu sau : thy khi va chi khi cd x t = x,
xa = y sao cho x 1 Tx2, x2Tx3,... , xn_ i Tx n. Chang minh
a) S la mat quan he Wang diking va T C S.
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13. Chung minh nth a la phtin tit be nhat (len nhat) cua
mot tap hop X del thi mot quan he thti td S, thi a la phein
to tei lieu (t6i dal) duy nhat eim X
14. Cluing minh nth X sap Hill ttt t6t thi X sap thu
phan.
toan
15. Cluing minh cac tap hop trong the bid tap 10) va 11)
la sap tint to tot.
Thy hai khai niem tap hop va thuoc vao kheng doge dinh
nghia, nhung ehting to lai td an dinh the quy the : dieu gi ta
ed the lam duoc va diet' gi ta khOng the lam dude vai hai khai
niem dd DO la bay tign de &la Zermelo - Fraenkel, ma chting
ta them vao cal thtl tam, tien clg Chan.
Theo iruyen thong, cac ties de dd throe cho dtith ten va tint
to sau : tien de awing tinh, tien de tuyin 1ga (hay con goi
tien de nOi ham, hay tien de chi re, hay tien de tach), tien de
cap, tien de hop, tien de tap ling Sc b0 ph4n, tien de ue han
31
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(hay tien de the so tg nhien), tien de ehon Ira sea Ming la tien
da thay the. Tien de mei cimg con g9i la tien de thay chi chi
tham dv vao li thuyet tap hop khi dua vao kited niem quy nap
sieu han va s6 hoe tin/ tut. Tien de dd disc Fraenkel dua vao
nam 1922. He thong tien de (khong ad tien de chant thanh lap
li thuygt tap hop eua Zermelo - Fraenkel. Mat vai trong can
tien de dO n6i len nhiing tinh chat it nhieu hien nhien khi ta
phat bigu cluing trong ngen ngit thong thyong.
Triton het cluing ta hay xac dinh the So lit met vat ban
toan hoc. Bang the chit (16n, nhe, la tinh, hi lap, v.v.:), the ki
hieu tha logic kinh dign, hai ki hieu E va =, va the Su ngoac,
chMig ta cci the vigt bat ki van ban toan hoe nao (ma chting
ta cling gel lit Gong thus phat bleu, menh de, khang dinh, v.v...)
can
thuygt tap hop.
,
Q), (P ti Q)
(Vx)(x E A
x E B)]
True giac, dieu do mu6n nhi met tap hop he/in toan doge
the dinh boi Mc phdn to caa no ; hai tap hop A va B bang
nhau
vi chi nS mei phan tit tha A la phan to eita B ve
nmitic lai.
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dual clang x e A, nhung chi chi la met att lam dung each vie%
trong khi x la met tap hop cling nhtt A.
4. Tien de tuyan Ipa hay nai ham
x E B]
(VA) (3B)(Vx)ix E A A P(x))
True gide, dieu dd cd nghla cho met eeng that P(x) trait met
tap hop bin x, ton tai met tap hop B, ma the phan tit la cat
ph&n tit dm A, ed tinh chat P(x) (nghia la lam cho c6ng than
P(x) dung). Tap help B Mc dd ducic xac dinh duy nhat bai tion
de quang tinh. Trot& khi phat bleu Hen de tuyen leta duoi clang
da cho, nhieu nha town hoc da nghl rang chi can met cang that
la do de xac dinh met tap hop :
(4.1)
{x I P(x)}
la tap hop the vat lam cho thug thile P(x) dung.
Nam 1901 Bertrand Russel khaim pha noel ta cd the suy
ra met mau than t8 (4.1) bang each xet the vat hi:tang thuec
chinh nd. That tray, xet cting thite x x KM dd ehting ta
mu& xet tap hop the tap hop khang thuec chinh nd Gift sit
JO hop dd ten tai. fly ta ed the vial
(3 BRVx)(x E B x & x)
Lay x = B, ta di den thug thite :
BEB4-13 (4 B.
ye mat lich sit, chinh nghich li dd da d&n tai Ong thtic hien
nay tha Hen de tuyen Ma.
x, dua cluing
Nghich 11 B. Russel doa trait thing thtic x
ta toi dinh li eau day
Dinh li 1
Chang mirth. That fly, gia sit met tap hop A nhu tray ten
tai. Theo tien de tuyen Loa, ta c(5 the xac dinh tap hap B ?is; :
B=jseAlx0x)
sb.... 03
83
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=aVx=b)]
Trite ghic dieu, do co nghia cho hai tap hop a va b cd met
tap hqp c co Olen tit IA a vb. b Ica chi Chung. Tap hop do la
duy nhgt theo flan de quang tinh.
Dinh nghia 1 - Gi4 sit a va b la hai tap hap. 111 gel la
6. Tien de hqp
(VA) (3 B) (Vx)fx E B (3 C) ((C eAnxe C))]
nye gide diet' cO nghia cho met tap hop A ma the !Men tit
gam nhung tap hop ki hieu C, c6 mOt tap hop B ma the phgn
tit IA the tap hop the van met trong the tap hap C ciut 130
(= tap hap) A. Tap hop dcl IA duy Hi& theo Hen d@ quang filth
ya goi la hop eim the tap hop cim be A va Id hieu
U C hay U A hay U ,{C I C e
CEA
34
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(VA) (3 B)(VXUX E B X C A)
Trirc Mac ed nghia cho mat tap hop A, cci mat tap hop B
ma the phgn tit la the ha phan ciaa A. Tap Imp &I la duy nhgt
theo nen de aiding tInh va goi la Op hop Sc b0 plz4n can t6p
hop A, ki hiau P (A)
8. Tien de chqn
(VI)
0), [(Vi E I,
# 0 )
11X1 z 0)1]
e
Trate gist digu d6 cci nghia neu (X i)jel la mat he kitting rOng
(I z 0) nhung tap hap kitting rang, the thi tich Descartes cart
he dci is mat tap hop khong reng.
Dieu do tong c6 nghia rang mei ho khong rang (Xi); e
nhitng tap hop khong reng c6 mat ham cher', nghia la mat anh
e I, T(i) E
xa p xac dinh trong I sao cho voi
Paul J. Cohen da cluing minh rang flan de chum la clac lap
del yea cac Hen de coo. li thuygt Zermelo - Fraenkel. Truck d6
Gadel da chting minh nett II thuyet tap hap cart Zermelo Fraenkel la khong matt than, n6 se khong mau thugn neu ta
them van den de chon.
'Prong bail giang Dai sg, chting ta hay dung b6 de Zorn va
dinh II Zermelo (thu tar tat). Tien de ellen Wong dttong ved cac
phat bieu d6.
B6 de Zorn - Moi t4p hop E khOng rang sap thzi ikt quy
nap co it nhtft mot phan td t6i dot.
Djnh li Zermelo - Mei 14p hop co the sap tint tot t6t.
9. Tien de ye hen
Djnh nghia 3 - VOi MO tap hop x, ta get la eel ke tiip
ctla x, tap hqp co the philn tit la cac phgn tit eua x va tap.
35
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(3 A) [ 0 E A A (Vx) (x E Aix` e
Troc giac dieu dd c6 nghia din tai mot tap hop chda 0 va
chda cal lid tiep cita m61 phan tit cua no.
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CI-WONG 11
1. NIJA NHOM
1. Phap twin hal ngOi
Lam Dai sd, chu ygu la tinh WEIL ma vi du dign MS la ban
phep town dim S6 hoc s cap. Tilde that ma Si lam mat phep
toan dai s6 tren hai phan td a, b cua Ming mat tap hop X IA
cho Wang dug Si cap (a, b) mat phdn tit the dinh eta tap
hop X. Ndi mat each khac, cho mat phep toan 41 sd la cho
mat anh xa to X x X dgn X.
Dinh nghia 1. Ta goi la pile], tam hai ngOi (hay con gal
St IA phep San) trong mat tap hop X mat anh xa f to X x X
dS X. Gig tri f (x, y) eta f tai (x, y) goi la edi hap thttnh cita
x Ott y.
Cal hop thanh cua x va y thutmg ddoc ki hiau bang each
vigt x va y theo mat thd tut nhat dinh Si mat dau 4c trong
chc phep toan dat gifta x, y. Trong the dflu ma ngdgi ta hay
dung tot nhigu nhgt, la cac dau + va . ; dal vai dgu . ngurdi
ta thliong quy tallc be di ; vgi cac dgu do, cal hop thanh eta
x va y duos vial x + y, x . y hay xy. Mat SS toot hai ng6i
ki hiau bAng dau + goi la phep tong, cal hap thanh x + y lac
dd goi IA tong oda x va. y ; mat MIS toan hai ng6i ki hiau
bhng dau . goi la phep nhan,cai hop thanh x y hay xy lac dd
goi la tech eta x va y. Ngubi ta can dung cac ki hiau x o y,
x * y, x T y, x 1 y... dg chi cai hop thanh cua x va y.
.
37
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ph4p nhan la nhUng phep toan hai ngtoi ; cal hop thanh eta x
va y E N bai the phdp toan dd ki hieu theo tint to bang
'x + y, xy. Phep hop thanh xY, la mot phep than 2 ng61 trong
tap W = N {0}.
2) Phep trit khong phai la mot phep San hai ng8i trong N,
nhung la ma phep twin hai ngti trong tap hop Z the sd nguyen.
3) Tich anh xa la mOt phep toan hai ngti trong tap hap the
anh xa tit ma tap hop X don chinh no.
4) Tich ngoai the vecta a A ft cua liinh hoc giai tf ch la mot
phep toan hai ned trong tap hop can vista S ding met didm
g6C 0 dm khong gian 3 Sian thong thubng.
5) 'rich ma trail la ma pile') toan hai ngti trong tap hap
the ma tran sting cap n.
Sau day, trong the If luan tang 'pat, ta se via cai hop thanh
tha x va y la xy n8u khong cd li do nao khign ta phai via khan.
Dinh nghia 2. MOt 130 phan A chit X goi la do dinh (d6i
vbi phep toan hai ngoi trong X) nat va chi Su xy E A Si
moi x, y E A.
Phep toan hai ngai * the dinh trong 130 pan do dinh A bai
quan 110 x * y = xy voi moi x, y E A got la eat thu hap van
A tha phep than hai ng6i trong X Ngubi ta can Si rang * la
phep Loan cam sink troll A 1361 phep than . cua X. Ngabi ta
thuang ki hiau phep toan earn sinh nhu phep than dot X.
Dinh nghia 3. MOt phdp toan hai ng6i trong mat tap hop
X goi la kit hop ndu va chi n8u ta cd
(x y) z = x (y z)
vai moi x, y,
ze x;
x, y E X.
38
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voi rayi x e X Thong tu, mat phan tit e dm X goi lit mat don
ui phdi cua phep toan hai net nett va chi nett
xe = x
vdi nagi x E X. Trong trudng hop mat phg.n tit e cita X vita la
mat don vi trai vita la mat dan vi phdi, thi e goi la mat don 0,
hoar mat phtin to trung lOp dm pilot) toan hai ngdi.
Trong vi du 1) s6 0 la phan to trung lap cua phdp Ong, so`
1 la phan to trung lap ciut phep nhAn va IA don vi phAi cua
pile)) mu hda. Trong vi du 3), anh xa thing nhat lit phan tit
trung lap. Tich ngoiti edc vecto trong vi du 4) khong cd don vi
tram ciing khong cd dan vi
Dinh li 1. Niu mot phep town hai ngdi trong mat tap hop
X co met don vi trai e' ties mat don 0 phdi e", thi e' = e".
Cluing mink. Xet tich e'e" trong X. VI e' lit don vi trai nen
e'e" = e". MM khac, vi e" la don vi OW nen e'e" = e'. Ta
suy ra e' = e".
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A ciut mot nita nhdm X eting voi phep than cam sinh trot' A
la mot nita nhdm g9i la nita nhOrn con cos rola nhdm X
Trong mot nit. nhdm X, not:* ta ki hi6u gia tri chung eiut
hai v6 cda tang tilde
(xy)z = x(yz)
bang ki hiOu duy nhat xyz, g9i la tick eta ba phan tit x, y, z lay
thee dui to dd. Cling nhu vay, ta clat
xyzt = (xyz)t
va goi la dell eta bon phan td x, y, z, t lay thee thu to dd. MOt
each tang quirt
x
= (x1
xn _ 1)x
, xi,.
Tinh chat chinh eta eac phep Wan hai ngei k6t hop la dinh
li sau day :
Dinh Ii 2 ((huh II k6t hqp). Gta
sa
xi , x2,
xn lit rt (n a 3)
phan td (phan biet hay khong) mia mat nue: nhdm X, the thi
xix2
xn = (x ... xj)(x
xi )
(x 1
xi)(xi
x))
(xe+1
(xm
x,)] (xm
x,,)
[(xi
xm )(xiii
_ 1 )
40
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xi
xn =
x ix2
trong dd (i 1, i 2, ...,
X n
2
...,
n}. Neu
X Xi
I - 1
(X1
(xi, . ..
... xi k_
... xi ))
(Xi k (Xi
12.1
xi ,
= ((xi ... x,
(Xi k 2 I ...
2
k -1
st
t +
zk-]
't+1
...
Xi DX
X )X
xr,.
n
41
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Vi du. 1) Tap hop CEIC s6 to nhien N vai mat trong the phep
town hai nged sau day
phep Ong,
phan
Bia
TAP
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Chang minh X la mat tiara nhdm dal voi phep than hai ngoi
tren. Nita nhOm dd ed giao hoan kheing ? cO phan tit don 1.1. khOng ?
4. G91 X la tap hop thtiong cita Z x N . trail quan ha tudng
(Wong S xac Binh bbi
(a, b) S (c, d) khi va chi khi ad = be (ch I, 2, bai tap 2). Ta
Id hiau cat phan tit C(a, b) dm X bang alb, (a, b) E Z x
a) Vol mai cap (a/b, cld) ta cho thong ang lop Wong during
ad + kik!. Chang minh nha vay ta co' mat anh xa tit X x X
den X.
b) Chang minh X lit mat vi nhdm giao hoan dal vai phep
than hai ngOi b a).
c) Neu vbi mai cap (a/b, cld) ta cho Wong dug lop tuong
during aclbd. Chang minh lac &I X cling la mat vi nhdm giao
holm.
5. Xet tich de the N n (a 3 1) yeti N la vi nhOm tang giao
hoan cat s6 to nhien.
a) Chang minh
(a 1, ..., an) (b 1 ,
Eon) = (a 1 + b t ,...,
la mat vi
2. NI1DM
1. Nh6m
Dinh nghia 1. Ta goi la nhom mat nits nhdm X cO the tinh
chat sau : l e . cd phtin to trung lap e ; 2 . voi moi x E X, cd
mot x' e X sao cho x'x = xx' = e (phan tit x' goi la mat phan
tit tied rung hay nghich dao cim x). Nhu vay, mat nhdm la mat
vi nhdm ma mai phan to deli cd nghich dap.
43
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Ngu tap hop X IA hau han thi ta ban ta ed melt nhom ham
hum va s6 phan tit cilia X gpi IA clip caa nhcim. Nau AM) toan
hai tied trong X IA giao hoan thi ta bao ta th mat ahem giao
hoan hay nhom aben.
Vi du. 1) Tap hop the so" nguyen Z Ming vat phep tong thOng
thttong la mat nhdm giao hoan ma ta goi la nhdm Ong cac s6
nguyen. Cung vay, ta ed nhdm Ong the so. hau ti, nhdm cang
the s6 thuc, nhdm tong the s6 phde.
2) Tap hop the s6 hau ti khac 0 Ming vdi phdp nhan thong
thuong la mat nhom giao hoan ma ta g9i IA nhdm nhan Sc s6
hau ti khac O. Cung vay, ta ed nhdm nhan the so time khac
0, nhdm nhan the s6 phcie khac 0.
3) Tap hop S cac phep thg cim I, 2, ..., n} Mang via deft
the phep thg 1a mat nhcim him han, bile/1g giao hoan voi moi
n > 3.
hay
tile IA
'Prong trdong hop phep toan hai ngOi. cua nhdm Id hieu bang
datt (dau. Ong +), thi phan to c161 xdng duy nhat eda x ki
higu IA x-I (-x) va con ged la nghich dcio cua x (d61 eim
TU dinh nghia cim phan tit nghich dao (phan to dal) ta tuiuglUch
44
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xy = xz
yeti x-1 , ta cd
t
(xy) = x 1 (xz)
hay
hay
ey = ez
tilt la
y = z.
1 )(xy) = y 1 (x lx)y = y ly = e
c I
(xy) 1 = y l x -1 .
n
45
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re thy
nhan
(ar
l
)
vai ince se tii nhien khac 0 ; nguai ta quy the vigt Oen to do
dual dang a', va mat khdc dat a" - = e, nhu thy ta da loan
thanh vie xac dinh a cho m9i se nguyen A. 1n van cd (dec gia
hay chting minh diet' do)
al ai = a?+, (a))/' =
vek moi A p E Z. Clni g : ki hien lit dung cho phep nhan, trong
triamg hop phep Ong ta vigt Aa.
,
DU6i day ta hay dua ra met s6 dinh nghia thong diking cha
nhdm.
Dinh li 5. hide nem nhom X ta met nhom ndu va chi nits
hai &Su kien sau duce than man :
1 . X co mat don vi &di e.
2 . Ved moi x E X, co mOt x' E X scro.cho .x'x = e.
Cluing mink. Hign nhien hai dieu kith tract la can, ta hay
Chung minh cluing la du. Gia sit cd cac Mau kith 1 va 2 .
Lay met phein tit thy y x E X. Theo 2 cd met ,x' E X sao
cho x'x = e. Van theo 2 0 cd met x" E X sao cho x"x' = e.
Ta co
xx' =
'Pa thing ditgc met dinh li Wang tit nth ta thay the' don vi
trail bang don vi phai va phan to x' trong dieu kith 2 dang
le 0 ben trai tha x thi vigt 6 ben phai tha x.
46
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2. Nh6m con
Gia su A la mat 60 Olen eta mat nhdm X, ta cd thg ea
xy E A voi moi x, y E A, tile la A la mat bb phan an dinh
eta X (1, 1, dinh nghia 2). Nhu fly phep toan hai ng6i trong
X earn sinh mat Olen toan hai ngid trong A. Nhu A cling yen
phdp toan cam sinh la mat nhdm, thi ta It A la mat nhom
con eta nhdm X. Chang han ta cd 140 Olen the s6 nguyen Z lit
mat nhdm con eta. nhdm Ong the s6 him ti Q. Ta chn y bio
phan {-1, 1} tuy lap thanh mat nit deg vOi phep nhan, nhung
khang phai la mat nhdm con eta nhcim cOng cat s6 nguyen Z.
Dinh nghia 2. Mat he Olen an dinh A eta mat nhdm X la
mat nhom con eta X neu A ding vai phdp toan earn sinh IA
mat nhdm.
Dinh ii 7. Mat 60 phOn A dm mot nixes X la mOt nhom
con czict X niu tta chi niu cac diku /den sau day than man :
1) Vat moi x, y E A, xy E A.
2) e E A, Si e lit phan to trong ldp cita X.
3) Vai moi x E A, x 1 E A.
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Cluing mink. At cd. Gia sit A lit met nhdm con dm X. Theo
dinh nghia nhdm con, ta cd ngay 1 0. Goi e' m phan to trung
lap oda nhdm A. Ts co
e' = e
vi luat gian dee thoc hien &toe vdi moi phtin td cim nhdm X.
Vity ta cd 2 . Cue' cang goi x' lit nghich dao trong nhdm A cua
mat pilau td x E A. Vay ta cd
xx = e
= 1 1
x.
Thoc hien Mat gian doe, ta dime x' = x i . Dieu nay thong
minh 3 .
DA. Gia sit A la mat be phan cim X thda man the diet; kien
da cho. VUi 1 , A lit mot nita nhdm, vi phep toan hai ngti da
ciao trong X la ket hop. 2 va 3 not len nda nhdm A co phtin
to trung lap va moi pilau tit dm A co nghich dito trong A. Vay
A la met nhdm, do (Id A la met nhdm con cda X. n
H9 qua. Gid set A la nay 60 plain khac r6ng cart met nhom
X Cac &On kin sau clay la Wang daring :
a) A la mot &Wm con &La X.
e A Mt
c) Vdi moi x, y E A, xy t E A.
b) Vdi moi x, y E A, xy
E A.
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12 3
s.
= (1 2 3) ' 1 1
1 2 3 4.
(2 3 1.)'
12 3
fy = (3 2 1)
ft,
1 2 3
(3 1 2)
e
" 3
(1. 2 3
2 1 3)
)
13
= (1 3 2
lb hay nghien cdu the phan tit can nhdm con shah ra bbi
c6
ft =fZ,fl
Ta hay chang minh rang can lily tiara fit khi A chay khap Z
chi cho ta ba phin tit phan bit la e, fl, f2. Thht tray ta hay
ley ma thy thita thy y
. Chia A cho 3 ta throe
A= 3q + r, 0 4 r< 3
r la du cia phap chia A cho 3. Ta 'cat
[At =
Nhung f = e , nen
fi
50
= Oc bg fri = e g et =
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fi =
= e.
e.
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Dinh nghia 5. Gia sit a IA met phan tit bat ki cim met
them X va A la nhem con sinh ra bai a. Phan ta a g9i la co
cdp ut5 hqn ndu A va han trong trueng . hop nay khang 06 met
s6 nguyen duang n nao sao cho an = e. Phan tit a goi IA cd
cdp in nett A cci cap m ; trong truang hop thy in /a se nguyen
duang be nhat sao cho = e.
Mat phan tiictEX co cap 1 khi va chi khi a = e.
3. Nh6m con chugn tic
va
nhOm thuang
Chang minh.
to suy ra E A, fly x
y, tdc la y
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y e A.
(ii) xA fl yA = 0 Mu va chi Mu x y 0 A.
goi la
Tap hop thud:1g dm X tren quan ha tilting dtiong
tap hop finking dm nhdm X tren nhom con A, ki higu la XIA.
Caa pilau to caa XIA la cac lap trai xA.
Bay gib ta hay lip dung cac kat qua trail de" nghien ca) quan
hg gills) cap cim mgt nhdm hUu hat va cap oda mat nhdm con
ena nd. Ts. cd
Dinh Ii 9 (Dinh II Lagranggio). Cap caa mot nhdm X has
hgn la bpi caa cap caa moi nhdm con caa no.
Chang mirth. Gift sit X co cap la n va A, mat nhdm con bat
ki aim nd, cd cap la m. Trade hat ta hay cluing mink MO lop
trai xA, x E X, dau cd s6 plias' tit la m. Milan vay ta hay icdt
A = {x i , x2 ,..., xm }
va cac phan t6
Cac phiin to nay la phan bigt, vi nth) cd qu i = xx2 hang
han, thi x i = x2 . Dd la tat ca cite plain tit dm lop trai xA.
Nhu vay xA cd m pilau tit Vi X la hitu him nen s6 cam lop
trai xA la him han, goi 1 la s6 cac lap trai xA. Do cac lap trai
la rbi nhau nen ta cd n = ml.
'Nogg to ta cling cd I la s6 cac !Op pilaf. Ax.
S6 I cac lop trai xA (hay Cop phiti Ax) goi la chi .96 caa
nhdm con A trong X.
VI MO Oat) tit x cua mgt nhdm X sinh ra mgt nhdm con
cd cap bang cap cim x, nen
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rave 2 oho ta bit the plain tit coa nd ed cap hoac la 1, hoac
la 2, hoae la 3, do la nhUng uac etla 6. Bay gib ta hay lay mat
nhdm con dm S3 chang han nhdm con A = e, f31 Dinh li
Lagranggia cho ta bigt s6 the lap trai tha A la. 3. Ta hay thanh
lap the lop trai dd. Ta co
eA = fee
f1 A
{/fiee =
= {fi
f2A = {
f3 A =
f4A
e, ef3 = f31
11 13 =
vi [4 e ft A.
f5 A = f2 A, vi 15 E 12 A.
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= Jr,
Wong ling
l yi
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Do thd nghiem su ton tai cua met don vi trai ta hay set
eA = A, trong d6 e la phan
trung lap. Ta cd
,
lap
eA.xA = exA = xA
b) xA = Ax vai mai x
Cluing minh. Ta hay chdng minh a) keo theo b). Gia su xa,
a E A, la met phan til by y cua xA. Vi A la chugn Mc nen
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Vi dt.t. 1) Trong met nhdm X, the nhdm con tam thtiOng {e}
va X la chugn the
2) Trong mot nhdm aben rnoi nhdm con la ehugn Me.
3) Trong nhdm the phep the 83 ta hay xet nhdm con A3 gam
the phth the than (2, vi du 1) Ta cd
eA3 = A3 ={ e 11 , 12 }
Vi ft , f2 E eA3 , nen
eA3
/1.3 = f2 A3 .
Vi eac lop trai mitt A3 la the lap tuang duang, nen hang
thanh lap met chia 1th dm 83 , Sy ngoai lap trai eA3 ra
ta chi On met lap trai gam the phan ta can lai 13, f4, 15 Ta
suy ra
f3 A3 = f4 A3 = f5 .43 = f3,
f5).
Cling bang 11 luan Wang to, ta them
A3 = A3 e = A3 f1 = A3 f2 = { e , 11 , 12}
A3 f3
A3 14 = A3 fs = {f3, f4,
fgl
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o
1
2
3
2
3
2
3
0
3
0
2
4. thing au
Dinh nghia 8. Wt ding edit (nhdm) la mot anh Ica f to
Tr* nhdm X clan mot nhdm Y sao cho
;Tab) = f(a)
vol MO a, 6 E X. Ngu X =
eau cita X.
MOt clang cau ma la mat don anh thi goi la mot don cdu,
mot clang eau toan anh got la mot Man cdu, mot (long cdu song
anh goi la mot deeng coy, WA tor (Ring cau song anh goi la mot
to thing eau. Ng u f : X > Y7 la mot ding cgu to nhdm X den
nhdm Y thi ngubi ta vigt f : X => Y. (Trong throng hap X va
Y la nhung nits nhdm, ta cling dinh nghia (tong eau (mia nhdm)
nhu trail va cling c6 cac khai nipm tuang
Vi du. 1) Gia sit A la mat nhdm con cua mot nhdm X. Don
anh chinh tac
A
X
a 1n a
la mot (tong eau goi la don cdu chinh Mc.
2) Anh so citing nhat cua met nhdm X la mot (tong eau goi
la to thing colt (long nhat ono X
3) Xdt anh so to nhdm nhan cac s6 time during It + Ten
nhdm Ong the s6 thuc R
log : R
R
x
logy
58
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h(x) = xA
Th4t fly,
la mat dang cau to nhdm X den nhdm thuong
h(xy) = xyA = xA. yA = h(x) h(y). Eking Su nay can la mat
toan eau, goi la toes du Minh tat.
5) Gal th X vit Y la hai nhdm thy g, anh xa
x
Y
e,
Vol e lit phat tit trung lap caa Y, la mat clang eau goi la
Bong eau tam thetemg.
6) Nall f : X > Y la mot clang cau to nhdm Alf clan nhdm Y
cfmg la mat Bang eau That fly,
: 12.
thi anh xa nguoc
mat song anh, ta chi con cluing mink f I la mat
ta cd
d6ng cau. Gia th y, y' la hai phan tif thy g eim Y. Dat
ta ed f(x) = y va f(x') = y'. Vi f la
x = r(y), x' = f-1
mat clang cau nen f(xx') = 1(x) f(x) = yy'. Do do
(1 (yy)
x E
f(x) = ey = j i (ey)
va goi Imf la dnh cua clang cau f, Kerf la hat nhdn aim dOng
eau f
Sau day, ta se dtta ra mat s6 tinh chat eda tong eau.
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.vd g : Y
gf : X Z
tong la met dong cau. Dec Wet tech cda hai clang eau Id met
demg colt.
(x).
soy ra
fix
= Kx/1 -1 n
Dinh li 14. Gici silt f : X
Y Id met ang cclu tit met nhent
X din met nhOm Y, A la met nhom con am X vet B la met
nhOm con chudn Mc cad Y. The thi :
(I) f(A) Id met nhom con elm Y
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rl
Ch'ing mink. (i) Suy ra tit dinh nghla caa town anh.
(ii) Gia su f la mat don anh. Voi mei phan to y E Y co
nhieu nhdt mot phAn tit x sao cho f(x) = y. Vey Kerf = { c}.
Dad lai gia su Kerf = Xet hai phdn tit.x, x 1 e X sao cho
f(x) = f(x 1 ). 'llt suy ra f(x) f(x 1) 1 = ey. Nhung
f(x) f(x) 1 = f(x) fix 1 ) I = f(xx 1-1).
fly
f(
) = ey,
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PN jf
XIKerf
7 ld
Cluing mirth. (i) Wit Kerf = A ve. cho Wong Ong vol mei
Olen tit xA cua XIA phan to f(x) dm Y. Quy tee cho Wong ling
nhu tray la mat anh xa. That fly, gia
= thg thi ta
We
la
: X/A Y
xA 1 7(xA) = f(x).
Call
T(xA) = f(x)
fix)
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veil mgi x E X. fly f = fp. Cuai cang gia sit S mat clang cau
:
Y sao cho f =
fly, vol moi xA e XIA, ta co.
lo(xA) =
do do p =
(ii)
T
xA e X< sao cho f(xA) =
T , f(xA) =
We la
C*
Vat
IL
2(k +h)n
.
2kn
n n
+ isin
2(k
+h)7E
2ha
2ha
(cos n + isin n )
f(k)f(h).
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Mat Ichat vi
2ka
2ks n
( cos + isin-1 = cos2kn + isin2ka = 1
it
n
nen Mc plias tit' cua f(Z) la the can bae n caa don vi. '1h suy
ra tap hop the can be it call don vi cling vai phep nhan Mc se
phtic la mot nhdm. Bay gii) ta 'tat tai Kerf. De la b0 phan cua
Z gem the se nguyen k sao cho
21=
cos + isin = 1.
fly k la bai ells n, do de Kerf = nZ. Theo he qua eaa dinh
Ii 16 ta co
f(Z)=" Z/nZ,
Bic la nhdm nhan the can bac n caa don vi clang tau veri nhdm
Ong cac se nguyen mod rt.
5. D61 )(Ong Ma
'Pa da Wet rang trong mot nhara, clang auk ab = ac (hay
ba = ca) Iteo theo dang this b = c. Dieu nay do so ten tai
cua clei :cling a 1 cur' a. Nhung neu ta 'cat mat nact nhdm, thi
ab = ac chua chile da ken theo b = c ; chang hsn trong naa
nthm nhan the sti to nhien N ta ed clang tilde 0.2 = 0.3, nhong
2 # 3. Td day ta th khai niem :
Dinh nghia 10. Cho mat tap hop X cling vet melt phep than
hai nee trong X. Mat pilau ta a E X goi la chinh guy ben trai
(ben phdi) nth vai mai b, c e X sao cho ab = ac (ba = ca) thi
b = c, a goi la chink quy neu no la chinh quy ben trai va ben
phAi.
Nhu fly, trong mat vi nhem, mai phen to th clei xiitng deli
la chinh quy, nhong nguoe Isi khong thing (icet vi nhdm nhan
N thc so tv nhien). Dieu kien chinh quy chi la die.' kian can
de th dei xing.
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Bay gid ta hay scet van de sau day : "nhung" met vi nhdm
giao hoan X vao met vi nhdm X "Ong' hart sao cho mpi pilau
td chinh quy et X e6 del siting trong X.
to on Binh.
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Gia sit x = (a, b) vb. y = (c, d) la hat phan tit tha X. Phan
ta (ac, bd) chi Ow thuae vao x va y ; that thy gia sa
x = (a', bp, vay ab'=a'b hay nhan hal-ve' vBi ed, ab'ed (= abed,
ta suy ra (ac, 6d) = (a'c, b'd). Th. thdy ngay rang X cling vat
phep town (x, y) ,-)xy = (ac, bd) la mat vi nhorn giao hoan vat
int tit don vi la (e, e). Ta chit 3 la ta ed (e, e) = (a , a) vitt
to nhien
ti
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Z ; the phan tit tha Z goi la the s6 nguyen ; phgp toan trong
Z xay dung nhu trong dinh li 17 gig la phep Ong the s6 nguygn
va thing ki higu bang dau + nhu phep Ong the sd to nhien.
Mai phAn tit tha Z vigt dudi clang in - n vOi m, n E N. Mu
m
71 ta th m - n = p, p so tit nhien sao thorn = n + p.
N6u m < n, to th in - n = -p, p lit s6 to nhien sao oho
m + p = n. Vay cac phan tit tha Z la... -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,...
2) 86 hau ti &tong. Lay 81 tap hop ode s6 ter nhign klitte
0 lam X, phep toan Ian nay la phep nhAn thong thtibng cac s6
W nhign ; m9i Oran tit tha N* la ehinh quy nen X la mat
thorn. 'Prong truong hap nay X ki hiau la Q * va car phan td
cue n6 goi la the s6 Mu ti duong ; phep toan trong tte xay
dung nhu trong dinh If 17 g9i la phep nhan the s6 him ti duong
va ki lieu bang x.y hay xy eat hop thetth cua hai ad him ti
during x va y. Mai phan ti/ tha Q + vigt dudi clang po -1 vbi
p , q E Ns, ta con quy tree vigt &tan ta pq-I cua Q+ la p/q
pl
P2
P1P2
hay - ; tich curt va nhu fly la s6
q1
q2
q1q2
dude (tong that vOi m// = mnln
E
Chu 3r.
to nhign m
sao vOi Z, ta ed
Z = N U -1, -2, -3, ...,
...}
I 1 1
2' 3' 4'
1
n'
(xem Ling dung 2)) ? Dg tim higu ta xat cac dinh II sau day.
X trong hai dinh li sau chi mat vi nhdm nhan giao hoan
(tat nhign ta cOng e6 the' lay mat vi nhdm thug), va .21+ la 130
phan the plan tit chinh quy tha X ma ta gia thigt t = X.
Theo IQ qua caa Dinh II 17, X la mat thorn, ma the phan tit
dang ab-I voi a, b E X (Dinh II 17).
Dinh fi 18. Ngu veil moi a,
E X, hula phuong trinh
ax = bed nghiem trong X, hoc pinning trinh bx = a c6
trong X ; thg thi :
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X =
X U
I c
c E X}. .
X}.
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1.9fd phdp
18) Tap hop cac ma tram vuOng cap n voi phdp Sag ma tram
19) Tap hop the ma tram vuOng cap n khOng suy bign voi
phdp nhan ma ban.
20) Tap hop can ma trait vuOng cap
voi phdp nhan ma tran.
71
22) Tap hop cac da thdc (c6 he so time) voi phep c9ng cac
da
23) Tap hop gdm da thtic 0 va cac da than c6 bac khOng
qua it (n la mat s6 nguyen, it
0, oho trutoc) veil phep Ong
cac da thdc.
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3. Chung minh rang moi nua nhdm khac reng hau han X
let mot nhdmneu va chi ngu luat gifin uoc that hien dale veil
moi phan to coa X.
4. Cho X lit mOttap hap toy Y. Ki hieu Horn (X, X) la tap
hap cac anh xa to X den X Vol phep Man anh xa Horn (X, X)
cd lap thanh met nhdm hay kheng ? Chting minh rang be phan
8(X) Ma Horn (X, X) gem the song anh tit X dgn X la met
nhdm voi phep nhan anh xa. Hay tim cap cda S(X) trong trMing
hap X co n phan tit
5. Cho X la met nhdm voi don vi la e. Cluing minh rang
thu veil moi a E X ta cd a2 = e, thi X la aben.
6. Cho met ho Mang nhdm (.2g, e / ma cac phep tain deu
Id hieu bang den nhan. elating minh rang tap hop tich de cac
voi phep town xac dinh nhu sau
a E
(Xtx)a E
(Ya)a
(XaYa)a
e/
7. Cho X la met tap hap khac rang cimg via met phep than
hal ngei kgt hop trong X a la mot phan to ctia X. XI hieu
aX=faxixEXI,
Xa = xa I x EX}.
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sao the f(Y) = Y la mot nhdm con cart S(X) (bai tap 4). Tim
s6 phan to tha $(X, Y) trong truting hop X ad tt phan tit va
Y cd mot phials tit.
13. Cho A va B la hai 1)0 phan tha mot nhdm X. 1h dinh
nghia
AB=fablaeA,bEB)
A' ={ -1 1 aeA}
Ch'ing minh cac dAng thlic sau day :
a) (AB) C = A(BC).
b) (A 1) 1 = A.
c) (AB) -1 = B -1 A -1
d) Mau A la melt nhdm con dm X thi A -1 = A.
14. Cho X la milt nhdm va A la mat be phan khac rung tha X.
Chting minh A la nhdm con cila X khi va chi khi AA 1 = A.
15. Cho A la mot nhdm con dm nhdm X irk a E X. Chting
minh aA la nhdm con ciut X khi va chi khi a E A.
16. Trong mot nhdm ,X cluing minh rang nhdm con sinh ra
bai 60 phan 0 lit nhdm con tam thtiOng {el, e la plain to trung
lap cfm X.
17. Gia sit S la Wit b0 phan khac rang dm mot nhdm X.
Chung minh rang cac pilau tit cilia nhdm con sinh ra bai S la
xn thufie S hoar
cac phan to cd dang x /x2 ...xn vol cac x l ,
3 1 . Tim nhdm con tha nhdm nhan the s6 huu ti duong sinh
ra bed b0 phan cac so nguyan to'.
18. Cluing minh rang moi nhdm con clia mot nhdm xyclic
la mot nhdm xyclic.
19. Cho X la mot nhdm vat phAn tit don vi la e,aeX cd
cap la rt. Chung minh rang ak = e khi Ara chi khi k chia hat
cho n.
20. Cho a, b la hai phan tit thy 31 cila mot nhdm. Chttng
minh ab va ba cd thug cap.
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31. Cluing minhrang muein cho met nhdm timing XIH cart
mot nhdm X la aben, at ed va du la nhdm con ehuAn Sc H
chtla nhdm the hoan tit caa X.
32. Tim nhdm the hoan tit' cua 83.
33. Cluing minh Ring moi nhdm ed cap be han hoac bang 5
la aben.
34. Hay tim the nhdm thdang cua
a) Nhdm tong caz s5 nguyen la bei eim 3 tren nhdm con
the s5 nguyen la boi oh' 15.
b) Nhdm Ong the s5 nguyen la bQi caa 4 tren nhdm con
the s6 nguyen la bgi east 24
c) Nhdm nhan the so" thtte khan Q tren nhdm con the s
Rule ddang.
35. Cho D a tap hop the duOng thong A trong mat phAng ed
phdang trinh la y = ax + 6 (a t 0, 6 a nIning s6 Uwe). Anh xa
DxD, D
(A1, A2)
A3
co : D
R."
A 1-0 a
trong dd R" la nhdm nhan the s5 thy khae 0 va A la dttang
thAng cd phdang trinh y = ax + b la met dong eau.
c) Xae dinh Karp.
36. Cho G I , G2 la nhiing nhdm vai don vi theo thtl tp la e t.
2 va G la nhdm tich G I x G2 (hal tap 6), A va B la the bg e
phan G 1 x {e 2 },. (e l ) x 0 2 dm G. Xet the anh xa
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P1
(xi
x 2)
P2 " G
(xI
ql
x2)
XI
G2
12
G I -> G
(x e 2)
q2
G2 -3. G
x2
7. (e) , x2)
37. Chung minh rang m9i nh6m xyclic hitu han cap n 1:1411
Bang Mu vial nhau (clang Mu vUi nhdm ceng citc s8 nguyen mod n).
38. Chung minh rang MOI nhdm xyclic ve han dau dang cau
vai nhau (clang cau vtli nhdm Ong cac s6 nguyen Z).
39. Gia sat X la met nhdm va Y la met tap hop duoc trang
bi met phen town. Gia su cc; met song anh
f: X
Y
tiler) man tinh chat f(ab) = f(a)f(b) vOi MO a, b E X ChAing
minh Y.cang voi pile]) than da cho trong Y la met nhdm ; them
nfia la aben nau X aben, la xyclic nau X xyclic.
40. Cho X va Y la hai nhdm xyclic co cdc phan td sinh theo
'Hatt to la x vet y va cd cap la s va t.
a) Chang minh rang guy tac co, cho Wong Ung vai phan to
xa E X phan to Ofif E Y, trong do k la met sa to nhien Hide
0 cho truer; la met ct8ng can khi va chi khi sk la INN cna t.
b) Ngu sk = nit va
lh (tang cau thi (s, tn) = 1,
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41. Cho X lb mat nhdm giao hoan. Chung minh rang anh
xa
so:x>x
a
ak
vet k la mat s6 nguyen cho three, la mat dang eau.
Xac (firth Ker so.
42. Cho X la met nhdm. Anh xa
co : X X
a pt a la mat ttt ding eau coa nhdm X khi va chi khi X la aben.
43. Cho X la mot nhdm. Chang minh rang tap hop the tp
clang eau caa X cling vet phep nhan anh xa la mat nhdm.
44. Gia sit X, G 1, G2 la nhang nhdm, G =Gi x G2 pa
f : X > G 1 g : X G2 la nhung anh xg. Xdt anh
h X +G
x
Chang minh rang h la mat &Mg eau khi Ira chi khi f va g
14 flitting &Mg eau.
45. Prong tap hqp X = Z3, vdi Z la tap hop cac s6 nguyOrt,
-ta xcic dinh mat phep Man hai ngoi nhu sau :
(k 1 , k2, k3)(11, 12 , 13 ) = (k + (-1) k313, k 2
12 , k3
13)
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X to xet anh xa
fa : X > X
x 1* a -I xa.
b) Cluing minh cac tor clang eau trong lap thanh mat nhdm
con caa nhdm the to clang eau cda X (bai tap 43).
c) Cluing minh mat nhdm con H cda X la chuan Sc
va
chi nth fa (H) = H vbi moi to dang eau trong fa cda X. V1 11
do chi, cac nhdm con chuan tile cling can goi la the thorn con
bdt hien.
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51. Chung minh rang ngoai clang cau tam thvOng ra thi
khang th mat &Mg eau nth tit nhdm thong cac s6 hvu ti clan
nhdm rang the th nguyen.
52. Gilt sit C" lit nhdm nhan the s6 phtic khde 0, H la tap
hop the th phuc eim C' nam tren true thuc va true do. Chung
minh rang H la mat nhdm con dm C' va nhdm thtiong C'/H
Bang cau add nhdm nhan U cac s6 phdc th moduli bang 1.
53. Cluing minh rang nhdm thvang R/Z (R. la nhdm cling
the s6 thuc, Z la nhdm Ong the s6 nguyen) cang cau vai nhdm
U (bid tap 52).
54. Goi X la nhdm nhAn the ma tram vuong cap n kh6ng
suy Bien ma the phan tit la thtle. Hay chting minh
a) Nhdm finking tha X tren nhdm con cac ma tram cd dinh
thde bang 1 clang eau vai nhcim nhAn the s6 Hive khdc 0.
b) Nhdm thuang mitt X tren nhdm con the ma trail eel dinh
thtic bang 1 clang cau yea nhdm nhan cac s6 thuc dating.
c) Nhdm thvang cue X tract nhdm con the ma tran th dinh
thlic dvang la mat nhdm xyclic cap had
55. Gib. sit X la mat vi nhdm (nhan) sink bai mat phan tit
a th cap v6 han, nghia la :
X = { a" I n
ChUng minh vi nhdm X (Dinh 11 17) la nhdm ve Cie phan
to cua k la ... ct -3 , (1-2 , cri , a , al , a2 , a3
X = X U{ C l, C2, a-3,
nghla la
}
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CHUONG III
VANH VA TRUtING
1. VANH VA MIEN NGUYEN
1. Venh
Dinh nghlit I. Ta gel la earth met tap help X cling voi hai
phep town hai ngOi, da cho trong X ki hiau theo Old tut bang
ode dau + va . (ngubi ta thubng ki hieu nho vay) va pi la
phep Ong va phep nhan sao cho the diet, hen sau them man :
1) X cling vai phep ging la met nhdm aben.
2) X cling voi phep nhan la met Mat nhdm.
3) Phep nhan &An ph6i dot voi phep Ong v6i cac phtin
to lily y x, y, z E X ta c6
x(y + z) = xy + xz,
(y + z)x = yx + zx.
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an
0 0 ... 0
0 0 0
trong dd the a i la nhang s6 thuc, ding vat phdp Ong va phep
nhan ma tram la mat yank Vanh nay khOng giao hoan, khOng
cd don vi.
6) Gia sir X Id mat nhdm giao hoan ma phep toan ki hiau
bang da'u Ong +. Tap hyp E cac to :long cau tit X Mu X dityc
trang hi hai phep than kat hop : mat mat, ph6p toan Ong
(t,
f + g((f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) vet moi x G X) khian cho
E la mat nhdm Ong giao hoan (phein tit khOng la anh xa 0
xac dinh b61 0(x) = 0 vet moi x E. X, phan tit dt3i cua f la anh
xa -f xac dinh bed (-f)(x) = -(f(x)) vet mot x E X) ; mat khac,
phep than nhan (f.g).n fg. Th co (g + h)f = gf + hf va fig + h) =
= fg + fh That vey, ((g + h)f)(x) = (g + h)(f(x)) = err)) +
+ h(f(x)) = gf(x) + hf(x)
(gf + hf)(x), vb. (f(g + h))(x) =
+
+ h)(x)) = f(g(x) + h(x)) =- f(g(x)) + f(h(x)) = fg(x) + fh(x) =
= (fg + fh)(x). Vay
cling vat -hai phep toan dd la mat vanh,
got la vanh the ty Ang cdu clic" nhim X. Vanh nay cd don vi,
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es
day ta hay t6ng plat hda khai ni9m vire Ira bai b trong
vanh cac s6 nguyen.
Dinh nghia 2. Gia sit X la mat Nth giao hoan. Ta ban mat
pilau to a E X la bi cim mat phan to b E X hay a'chia
cho b, ki hiSu a i b, n6u ed c E X sao cho a = be ; ta can ndi
rang b la ube dm a hay b chia hat a, 10 hiau b a.
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MO
a E A va moi x e X.
Vi dg. 1) BO plait' {0} va. IDO plan X la hai 'dean cua vanh X.
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+ xnan ) (via l +
+ ynan) =
+ (xnan ynan) =
+ + Oen ynian E A
xa = ax= x(xicti +
+ xnan) = xx isti +
+ xxnan E A.
+ lai +
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Do d6 x'y'
(x + a)(y + b) = xy + ay + xb + ab. Vi A lit
met Wean, nen tit a, b E A ta stor ra ay, xb, ab E A fly
x'y' + A = xy + A. in ki hieu (x + A)(y + A) = xy + A. Nhu
vay ngoai phep Ong (x + A) + (y + A) = x + y + A trong X/A,
ta cd Olen nhan xae dinh boi (x + A)(y + A) = xy + A.
(ii) Phep nhan trong X/A re rang la Ice% hap do tinh kat km
caa Olen nhan trong X. Ngoai ra to cling cd hat phan ph6i.
Vay X/A la mat vanh. Neu X la giao holm thi X/A cling giao
hogn. Neu X c6 don vi 1 thi 1 + A la dun vi cua X/A. n
Vi du. Vanh (hung cua Z tren idean nZ gyi la vanh cac
s6 nguyen mod n. Phep Ong va phep Ethan trong Z/nZ xae
dinh boi
+ nZ) + (y + nZ) = x + y + nZ
(x + nZ)(y + nZ) = xy + nZ
5
5
T.
a
84
I
5
a
0
2.
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5. DEng cau
Dinh nghia 7. Mat clang can (vanh) la mat anh xa t,i mat
vanh X dgn mat vanh Y sao cho
f(a + b) = f(a) + f(a)
gab) = f(a)f(b)
A
la milt (long eau tit vanh X den Nth thvang X/A. Dong eau nay
can la toan cdu goi la toan eau ch{nh tac
4) Gia sit X va Y la hai vanh, anh xa
Y
0
WA 0 la ph/in to kheng cua Y la mat clOng egu goi la clang cdu
x 1n
Duren day chting to hay dtia ra cac (huh Ii tuang to tthu trong
nhdm ma vigc cluing minh, hoac Wang to hoc gip dung the
lc& qua trong nhdm, xin nhudng cho CrOC gia.
Dinh li 9. Gig au X, Y, Z la nhang vanh, f : X . Y va
g :
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gf : X -> Z
cling la mot deng eau Dac bit tich 'caa hai clang cdu la mot
ddng cdu.
Dinh li 10. Gid sit f : X - Y Ca mot (Ong cdu tit met ultn h
t
X din met Minh Y. Thd thi :
(i) f(0) = 0
(ii) f(-x) =-f(x) udi moi x e X.
Dinh 1i 11. GM sit f : X -I. Y la mot deng cdu tit mot uanh
X den mot uttnh Y, A la mot uanh con cud X dix B ld mid
idean elm Y. Thi thi :
(0 flit) la mot uanh con edit Y.
(ii) ri(R) ld mot idean dm X.
HO quit. GM set f: X -A, Y ld mot deng cdu tit met uanh
X din mot uanh Y The. thi Imf la mot uanh con ce a Y ua Kerf
/e/ mot idean cud X.
Dinh Ii 12. Gid sit f :X Y ltz mat tang cdu tit mot ultnh
X den mot uanh Y. Thu thi
(i) f lit mot toan dnh nezt vet chi nia Imf = Y.
(ii) f la mot don dnh next uo, chi mitt Kerf = {0}.
Dinh li 13. GM 80 f : X --Y let mot clang cdu to mat uanh
X din mot ain't Y, p :X -* X/Kerf M town aid chink Mc (ui
du ,3) tit uanh X din uanh thuang cad X teen Kerf
Thi thi :
(i) CO mot deng nen day nhdt :
f
X/Kerf
X/Kerf
Id giao hod?).
(ii) Deng cdu f la mot don cdu yet Im
86
7=
f(X).
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f(X)
X/Kerf
BAT TAP
1. Ch'ing minh cac tap hop sau day voi phep Ong va phep
nhan cac se lap thanh mat vanh
a) Tap hop the s6 c6 clang a + b 4 vat a, b E Z.
b) Tap hop the sti pink c6 clang a + bi voi a, b E Z.
Chting minh cac vanh et6 giao hoan c6 don vi.
2. Chang minh tap imp the ma tram vuOng cap n vdi cac
phan tit la nhfing s6 nguyen lam thanh mat vanh voi phep Ong
va phep nhan ma tram.
3. Ching minh tap hop cac da thdc cua x \di he so nguyen
lam thanh mat vanh voi phep Ong va phep nhan da that.
4. Gia sU da cho trong mat tap hop X hai phep toan Ong
va nhan sao cho : 1) X Ming vei phep Ong la mat nhdm ; 2)
X Ming veil Olen nhan la mat vi nh6m ; 3) phep nhan pit
ph6i d6i voi phep Ong. Chting minh X la mat vanh
5. Tim cac udc oda khOng trong vanh Z/6Z.
6. Chang minh Z/nZ (it x 0) la mat mien nguyen khi va
chi khi n la nguyen td.
7. Chang minh tap hop X = Z x Z ding vdi hai phep toan
(a t, b i ) + (a2 , 6 2 ) = (a1 + a2, b i + b2)
b 1 )(a 2, b 2) = (a tat, b 162)
mat vanh giao hoan, c6 don id.. Hay Um tat ca the vac dm
khOng
vanh nay.
la
87
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oX=faxIxEX1
88
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14. Gig. sit X le mot vanh giao hoan, th don vi. MOt idean
va chi nth the idean
A m X dm X g9i la Wean t6i dui
caa X elute A chinh la X va ban than A. Mot idean P # X mia
X goi la idean nguyen t6 ngu va chi lieu veil u, u E X tich
nu E P thi u E P ha4c u E P, ChUng minh rang :
.
15. Gig!. sir A la mot vanh, B 1a rat tap hop c6 hai phep
toan Ong va nhan, va f : A
B la melt song anh thiiit man
f(a + b) = [(a) + f(b)
f(ab) = f(a)f(b),
yea moi u b E A.
Chung minh : a) B la mot vanh.
,
E X
f(x) = x)
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X X xZ
x
(x, 0)
C) A Ira
Ft
d) GIA sit A va. B IA nhang vanh S don vi, hay tim cat don
vi caa X A va B.
20. Gia sit X IA mat vanh va a E X. Chung .minh rang :
a) Anh xa
ha : X X
x
ax
la mat Hong cau (nhdm) tit nhdm Ong aben X dan nhdm Ong
aben X.
b) Anh sa
h : X E
h(a) = ha
M mat Hong Su tit Nth X clan vanh E the to d6ng eau aim
nhdm ()Ong aben X (1, of chi 6).
c) Tim Kerh. Chang minh rang h la don cau khi X cci
don vi.
21. Gia sn't X va Y IA hai vanh, f : X
Y la mat d6ng Su
to vanh X d6n vanh Y, A va. B theo thd to la hai idean mkt
90
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P'
p
i
X/A
Y/B
2. TRITON
1. Trubng
Dinh nghia 1. Ta pi la &Wong mgt mien nguyen X trong
dd 1119i phan tit Ithac khOng deu cd mgt nghich dao trong vi
nhdm nhan X. fly mOt vanh X giao hodn, cd don vi, cd nhigu
hem mgt phgn to la mOt trubng ngu vitt chi ngu X - {0} la mOt
nhdm &Si vOi ober) nhan cim X.
Vi dy. Tap hop Q cat s6 hito ti ding vtli phep cling va phep
nhan cat s6 la mOt trubng. Ta cling cd trubng sd that R va
trubng s6 phtte C.
2. Tnatng con
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y E A, x + y E A, xy E A, -x E A, x 1 EA
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phep toan cong de X In met trurong thi van de doge giai guy&
xong. Cu the' ta co
ba phan
Dinh Ii 2. GM sa X- la mat mien nguyen,
Sc phan to khac 0 tha X. CO mat truong Tc viz mat don eau
(vanh) f tit X can X co cat tinh eh& scut :
1 ) Can phan tEl cat' X co clang f(a)f(b) 1 vOi a e X, b e
29) Cap (
, p Ca duy nhdt sal kOm mat thing edit, nghia
la neu co cap (Y, g) the* man cti6u kin 1 thi 60 mat thing
Y sao cho tam slew
ctiu so :
f
X X
8\c/ W
Y
giao holm.
Chting mink Vi X la met mien nguyen nen X la mot vi nhdm
nhan giao hoan. Ta xay chIng vi nhdm nhan giao hoan X va
anh xa f nhur trong dinh 11 17 aim (ch II, e2, 5). Bay gig ta
, d) thy y cud X .
hay xet hai phgn tit x = (a, b) va y =
Phan tit (ad + bc, bd) chi plan thuoc vao x va y ; that vay
gig. sit x = (a', b') , fly ab' = a 'b, ta suy ra (ad + bc)b'd =
= (a'd b'c)bd, Bie la (ad + be, bd) = (a'd + b'c , b'd) . Thong
tp clgi yea y. 'Pa thay ngay rang X ding yea phep cong . (x, y)
x + y = (ad + bc , bd) lit met nhdm giao hoan ; phgn to
kheing la (0 , 1) ; phtin tit c161 mia x = (a, b) lit -x = (-a, b).
Mat khac X Ming yeti phdp nhan (x,
+Y
=(a, b) (c, d) = (ac, bd) , thy tada bigt, la met vi nhcim giao
hoan. Them nua ta cd thd thit dg thgy phep nhan phan ph6i
clOi yea Thep cong. Vey X la met vanh giao hoar( cd don vi. Mai
phan to x = (a, b) khiic phan tit (0, I) , do do a m 0, cd
nghich dao la x I = (b, a) . Vey X la met batting. Anh xa
f : X
cho toting -Ong voi mei phan t9 a E X plain tii
(a, 1) E X th tinh chat
f(a + b) = f(a) + f(b)
93
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x = f(a)f(b) 1
g(a)g(b) 1
la met song anh ban ten phep nhan : so(xy) = w(x)(o(y), nhu ta
da bia Mat khan ta cling a clang thit rang
co(x + y) = so(x) + co(y) yea m0 x, y E X .
'
rc
I. Chang mink
94
BAT TAP
mien nguyen hitu han lit mot truing.
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+ c I/41
a,
b,ceQ}
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(6-1 I a,
O )
lit mat tniiing con eta X vb. P la trueng the thuong eta A.
c) Chang minh rang P la trifling con be nhat trong the
throng con eta X chda A.
14. Gia sit p la mat 56 nguyen to. Ching minh rang tap hop
cite s6 hitt ti ed clang mkt, trong do n nguyen to via p, la mat
mien nguyen. Tim trueing the thuong eta mien nguyen thy.
96
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CHUONG IV
VANH DA THUG
+ (am + em).?" +
+b/) =
in +1
bnxn .
+
Tn.
es
day thong ta hay dinh nghia da thdc met each tdng quat
Jadn va chinh xac hon. Gilt ad A la met vanh giao hoan, cd don
vi ki hieu la 1. Goi P la tap help the day
(a,, ai ,.., ,...)
trong do cac al e A vai moi i E N va bang 0 tat ca trit met
s6 hem han. Mau vey P la mot be phan via lay thaa de` cam 441.!
97
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+ (be,
(a0 + be, ai +
an + b e ,.
, ae,..)(be, b p ...,
(2) (a0,
(co) e V - c )
vet
akbo =
abi, k = 0, 1, 2,...
i+j=k
ek = aobk
a1 + bi va
(1) va (2) cho to hat phep toim trong P. Ta hay chdng minh
P la met vanh giao hoan cc) don vi. Trttec Mt hi4n nhien pile))
Ong la giao holm M kat hop Phan tit khong la day
(0, 0, ..., 0, ...),
Agri tit dal cila day (a0,
i+j=k
Ea
Eb
E ahbi )
E (alibi) =j+1=m
h +i+j=m
1.1-4-i=1
h
it/ ) = G ah(bfj )
h+k=m +j=kh+i+j=m
98
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1111#
Cu6iclngphadtroAcenavig
E cti(bi +
i+j=k
E alb,/ + E aPj
i+j=k
i+j=k
=
=
(0, 0, 1, Q...
(0, 0, 0, 1,..
= (0, 0,..., 0, 1, 0,
n
Xnh xa nay hign nhien la mat don eau (vanh) Do do tit gib
ta clang nhat plign to a E A veil day (a, 0, ..., 0, ...) E P, tit
vi vay A la mat vanh con coo. vanh P Vi mai phan to cim P
la mat day
(%,ate , ...)
trong do the ai bang 0 tat ca trit mat so` hitu hen, cho nen mai
phalli to caa P co clang
(cto, alp ..., ac 0,...)
,
trong cid a
a vOi (a, 0,0 ,
99
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(a.,
%, 0,
(a., 0,
he
an
f(x) = ox + a ix + + an?.
cac
i = 0, 1,
(an, a. . , an, )
thuoc vanh P Vi cac ar bang 0 tat ca trb mot s6 hitu hart nen
nau
..., an, 0, .) =
+ aix +
an?
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NMI vhy ta chi dinh nghia bac coa mat da flit khac 0. D61
vii da thdc 0 ta bao no khOng c6 bhc.
(bn # 0)
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tit lbi ngay hie khac, A[x] khong phai la met truing vi da
three_ x chang han khong co nghich &to. Thy fly trong truing
hop nay A[x] la met mien nguyen dew Met, no la met vanh oclit
(eh V, 2) nghla la met vanh trong di( cc( phep chic voi du.
Dinh 11 3. Gid sit A la mot trilling, f(x) va g(x) x 0 la hai
da three ezia vanh A[x] ; thd thz bao gib wing co hai da three
day nhat q(x) va r(x) thitec A
silo cho
f(x) = g(x) q(x) + r(x), noi bdc r(x) < bdc g(x)
nen r(x) # O.
Cluing minh. TrUtIc hdt ta hay chling minh tinh duy nha
set
fix) = g(x) q'(x) +
neu r'(x) # 0
Ta suy ra
0 = g(x) (q(x) - ex)) + r(x) - r'(x).
IsIdu r(x) = r'(x), ta co g(x) (q(x) - q'(x)) = 0, vi g(x) # 0 va A[x]
la met mien nguyen, nen , suy m q(x) - q'(x) = 0 We la q(x) = q'(x).
Gia sii r(x) # r'(x), vay
bac (r(x) - r'(x)) = her (g(x)(q(x) - qrx)) = bac g(x) + bac (q(x) - &fix))
(dinh If 2).
Mat khac theo gia thiet va dinh II 1
bac (r(x) - r'(x)) S max (bac r(x), bac r'(x)) < bac g(x)
bac g(x) + bac (q(x) - qlx)),
&du nay mau thuan voi clang thile tren. Chu y : nau met trong
hai da thdc r(x) va r'(x) bang 0 thi ta khong thd nit deli bac
nhung then do khong
anh hureng Uri viec chdng minh,
,
vi 10c do bac (r(x) - r'(x)) bang W.c r(x) nen r'(x) = 0 va bang
bac r'(x) ndu r(x) = 0.
Con sit ton tai cua q(x) va r(x) thi suy ra tii thuat Wan dud!
day. Tim q(x) va r(x) goi la three hien phep chia f(x) cho g(x).
Da Utak q(x) goi la thuong, da thttc r(x) la du cua f(x) cho g(x).
Viec tim thuong va du la tic Mac ndu b4c f(x) < bac g(x). Ta
102
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chi can dat q(x) = 0, r(x) = f(x). Trong twang hap trai lai ta
dung nhan xet eau day :
Neu ta biet mot da attic h(x) sao cho
fi(x) = f(x) - g(x) h(x)
cc) bac tittle stir be hen bac cua f(x) thi bai Man tra thanh don
gian tam : tim thadng va du cha fi (x) cho g(x). That vay, nee
fi (x) = g(x) qt (x) + ri(x), ta guy ra
f(x) =
+ + ao
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+ hk _ 1(x)) + fk(x),
tit do
q(x) = h(x) + h i(x) +
2x2 + 2r 1
1
x +4
8x2 + x 4
2
8x2 +8r 4
11
2 x
Tv d6
x3 7x2 + 2x 4 =
(-2x2 + 2x 1)
x + 4 )
x.
- Tx3 + 1x2 - 5x
-
8X2
8X2
aX gX -
- aX2 aX -
6x + 4
g
g
0
Vay
1 7x2 2x 4 = (-2x 2 + 2x 1)(6x + 4)
104
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1 + + an
+ n_
105
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+ cbi
-1
va du
r = an +
_ 1.
a
n -1
trong do rani phan to taa clang thd nhi doge bang each cOng
vao phan tit taring ang mla ding thil nit& tich cita c voi phan
to dilng trot& clang tht? nhi.
Dinh nghia 4. Gia sit A la mat tniang, c E A, fix) E Aix]
va m la mat ea to nhien 1, c IA nghiem bei cap m nau va
chi nal' f(x) chia hat cho (x - cfn va f(x) khOng chia hgt cho
(x Trong trUang hop m = 1 noted ta can goi c IA
nghiem don, In = 2 thi c la nghiem Jeep.
Ngtted ta coi mat da thttc ea mat nghiem bed cap m nhu mat
da thole c6 m nghigm trimg vai nhau.
..., an E A nen
106
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/qui vay bito c lit dai ad trait A cd nghia la ton tai nhiing
pilau tit ai e A (0 s i f ti) khang bang khang tat cat, sao cho
ao
aic +
+ anon = O.
Vi du. 1) Cac phgn td aim truang A clau dai ad trail A.
: A[x] + K
f(x)In f(c)
Hign nhien so la mat ding eau (vanh) va Imp = A[c].
Theo he qua tin Binh li 13 trong (ch III, 1, 5) to cd
A[c] = A[x] / Ker p
Trong trtiOng hap c lit sidu viat tren A, f(c) = 0 khi va chi
khi f(x) = 0. fly Ker p = (0). Do do
A[c] = Mx] {0} = Aix].
BAI TAP
1. Trong vanh da tilde A[x], (A la trureing Z/3Z the s6 nguyen
mod 3), hay tim tat ea eau da tilde cd bac la :
a) 2 ; b) 3 ; c) n.
107
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2. Trong Nth da fink Z/5Z[x] hay tilde hign the !Map nhan
OX2 + Ix + 4
+ 4x
(
_It2 + ix +3)2.
(2x3 +
+ 3x +
+ 1%2 ir
cho
g(x) = 2x2 + 2s
x2 2x
b) x + 1 ;
x2 + 14
c) x.
C
ho
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AN
A 3 = A2 [x 3 ]
= An_dxn]
vanh Aa = An_ i [xn] ki hiOu la A[xp x2, ..., xi.,] va goi la vanh da
thdc cita n In x 1 , x2, xn ldy h6 tit trong vanh A. MOt phan
tit cAa A n g9i la mOt da thdc cita it In x 1 , x2,..., ; 16y 14
td trong vanh A, nguili ta Id hiOu no bang f(x l, x2,..., xn) hay
An
= an(x t) + a l(x1)x2 +
vl A[x 1, x2] la mOt vanh non ta c6 phep nhan phan ph6i d6i
veil 014 Ong, do do f(x i , x2) con co thg vigt
109
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to
la the hqng to cda da this f(x1 ,. x2). Chang han x6t. da thde
As p x2) E Z[X , x2] vbi Z lit vanh cac s6 nguyan
= x3i 1 +
+ 2).x2 + (4
+a, - 1)x22 =
+ ICA
= bin = =
7I, do chi
c i = C 2 = = cm = 0.
Bang guy nap ta chang minh mOi da BSc f(x 1, x2, ..., xn)
cda vanh
x2, ..., :rt.] co th6 via dual clang
++ cm.491 .../enno vbi cac
(4) f(x i, x2,..., x n) = c ixai n
m, la. nhang so t9 nhian va
ci E A, can ai1
, am, i =
x
(n
p
...,
khi
i
x
j. Cac c 1 pi la the ha td,
(a ir ..., am)
cat
gra la cac hang td curt da thtie f(x 1 , x 2,...,
ES than f(x1 , x2 ,..., xn) = 0 khi S. chi khi cac ha ti dm no
bang 0 tat ca.
Cho hai da thtic f(x 1 ,..., x n) va ex p . x n) bao gib ta sung
co th6 via chi-mg olden clang sau day
AS", xn) =
g(xi
an )
+ +
xn) =
trong de (alt,
1 10
Xfi:t in +
. # (a 1 ,
aj d khi i x j.
xna.
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Do cac tinh chat mitt cac phep than trong vanh Afx, ,
ta c6 tang, hien, tich mitt fix,
xn) va
xn) la
fix xn)
txx i ,
g(x i ,
daxai n ...x0m
xn) =
xn) = E cedie,ii+ap
xn) ex t ,
ni
+a,,
i,j
i =
M ;
Tit mat da Doi bang 0 khi vb. chi khi the 110 ti tha ttd
bang 0, ta suy ra hai da thdc
xn)
xn) Wing
nhau khi va chi khi thong c6 the hang to y nhu nhau. That
vay set hai da thtic fix,
xn), xn) thy y (5). Hien coa
chang la
.
Do d6
i =1
khi ci
xn) = E (c1
i=
xn) - ex
= 0 khi va chi kill c - di = 0,
tire la f(x,,..., x n) = g(x i ,..., x n) khi va chi
i =
M.
xn) -
2. BO
Dinh nghia 2. Gia sit /Try
da thole klitte 0
f(x, ,
x,) E A [xi,
..yan m +
xn] la mot
+ c,n.X1.0 1 .4 0,1
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mG
Bat cda da Mac (dal bed than thg the an) lit s6 Ion nhgt
trong the bac elm the hang tit dm nd.
Da fink 0 la da tilde khang co bac.
Ngu the hang td eita fix 1 ,
xn) cd ding bac k thi f(x p ..., xn)
g9i la mat da three thing cap bite k hay mat eking bt).e k. Dac biOt
mat clang bac nhat gia la clang tuyin tinh, mat clang bac hai gel
la dang than phttong, mat dung bac ba gel la clang lap phuong.
Vi du. Da thdc
Az, , x2 , x3) = 2x 1244 4x2 + 34 +4 -5x344-44x3 +6
41-52x3 + 6
4x2 + + 34 + 6
112
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ai
fixt x2 x3) =
4r52x3 + 34 + 6
g(x i,
c ix`itit
i ,,
a,_ 1,
Ta
OAIs6...-on
x) duel dang
va
dmx7ml xnamn
=0
> (all,
xn) +
(c 1 + d i).x7n
xn)
+ + crnxIsi
= d1a1;11 , xan =
voi
xn) + g(xi
ai d i =
In .
xn) =
+ + (cm "+ d
113
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4.ta =
ann.
celki
(an, ..., am) > (a21,
The thi c ixin
xn) +
la nhang da
a2n)
>
aim)
Tap hop sap the Di IV con la mot vi nhdm giao hoan din
via phdp Ong (ch II, 1, hal tap 5)
(a l,
+ c.) > (b 1
..., bn + cn)
Chung mink. VI
a.
= b.1-1. , a1 > b.
do dd
at + c i = b i + c t ,
+ c1_ 1 =
a1 + ci > b +
Hg quit. Neu
, an) >
uct
thi
114
, tin)
, cn) > (d i,
(a1 +
, de)
+ cn) > (b +d1 ..., b n + dn)
,
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da that tich
, xn)
+ + ettain ,x:e
xn) = c itin
g(x i ,..., xn) =
ei rnt
rb
n in
x:ron
cipr
d I
xn).
xn) ta &roc
di
xn) =
...
+b jn
ij
i=
1, ..., 1
j = 1,
tv
115
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+ b in )
b in )
a bt
> (
> (aa
b in) >
+ b ii ,
(a1 1 +
as,
by) ,
aqii + b 11
+b
xn 1 cling
bay.
r(xi , 12) =
4-
xi
cling cho ta
V(xi
MOt each tdng quid
116
2 )
p(X2 , xi)
x2
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Dinh nghia 3. Gia sit A la mot vanh giao hoan cd don vi,
f(x i , . , x,) la mot da than aim vanh 21[tr 1
xn]. Ta bao
x1(2) , ., x1.00)
( 1
2 ...n
v(1) v(2) ... r(n)
.
x1(n)
Trong Walla Z[x i , x2 , 13] da theta
Vi
f(x 1
bdi
x2 , x3 ) = 4x2 + x2 x3 + x3 x 1 + x1 xi + x2 4 +
+ x3 21x + 211 12 13
la d61 xdng. That vey ta they ngay rang
A[xi ,.., xn] la mot yank con caa vanh .A.[x i ,., xn]
Ch'ing mirth. GU sit f(x 1
xn ) Ira ex, ,
xn) la nhang da
T(n))
117
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Va
xn ) = gixtio
g(z i
x)
coo) g(x.rio
f(x i
xn) =
xrdg(co) ,-,
vii
co)) ;
n))
Cdc Agin to cart A la nhang da thtic dot ring dac biet. That
tray mai phan td a E A co the yigt
a = ax?
xn
+ X2 + + Sr,
= X2 + Xi X3 +
53
= X1 X2 X3 +x1 X2 X4
ern 1 =
X I X2 ;" Xn I
= x112
Xn
1 xn
+ xn _2 xn _Ixn
n 2
... xn
ming la nhang da th/c clef ring, ggi la cac da theft d6i xang
co bdn. Chung citing mat vai tre quan trong trong if thuygt cac
da th/c dra ring do dinh li clitai day. Trude khi de cap Uri Binh
us\
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Ii d6, to hay dea vao ki hieu sau day. Gia sit g(xi ,..., xn) la mat
co dude bang
,..., xis ] , phtin to cim Aki
da thee tha
bai an
each thay trong g(x i ,..., xn) : x 1 bed eri, x2 bee 62, ...,
- the, the da thee 461 ring to ban, ki hieu Edlameth
x2
la g(81 ,..., an ) . Chang han Arai n = 2 va g(x i , x2) =-
11 3. Chang han
g(51 , 62) =6i 62 =(x+ x2)2 x l x2 = 4 +xi x2 +
la mot da thee d61 ring dm x 1 va x2 . Nhu vOy, MOI da thee
eaa the da thae dal rang co ban 6 1 ..., a IA met da thee dai
x1 ,..., xi, . Dieu ciao lai Mingn thing nci la nal dung
ring tha n
mkt dinh li 4 sau day, thta tren cite b6 de :
Bo dg 2. Gid sti f(x i ,..., xn ) Ca mot da thdc ddi ming khac
,
0 at =71
a 1 3 a 3-
3 an
Chung
Vi
.. 3 an
119
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f(x l ,..., xn
ana y
= 671 - 2 lei - 3
0,,,ro
...
Chang ainh. Cac hang to cao nhat Ma cr i , 62 ,
theo thd to la
X 1 , Xi x2
X I X2 ...
Xn
Crn - 1 , Cn
_ 1 , xi X2 ... xn .
(xi x2 ).2 a3
= x7 ,
x:a.
(xi x2 ... x^ _ 1 )a
_ 1
xn) la
al 3 tIL t2
la hau han.
Chting mink Goi L la tap hop hat han g6m cac s6 to nhien
0, 1, ..., a
Witt han.
BS d6 5. Gia sa g(51
120
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Chang mink.
x1 x 2 ... xn trong g(op ..., on) ta dude met da thdc cua citc
xi
X2
an
xn
g(xi + x2 +
+ xn ,
xi x2
xn) =f(x 1
xn
x)
f, (xi
= iE
=1
vat
= ci (x, + x2 +
(xi x2 .
= 1, 2, ..., m.
Hang tat cao nhat caa da thdc f (x 1 ,
ci alc. (x i x2)12,2 ... (x 1 x2
vat
Xja in = ei
ail + a2 + + am = ku
a i2
a in = k i2
ain
= kin
kin) E
k2
Ta co
k in) m (k11
k12 ,
kfr,) khii # j
vi ndu
(kit, ki2 ,
thi
a il = k
kin) vet
imj
= ajn
121
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vai i # j, matt thuan via gia thi(t. Vi N'1 sap the to than phan
nen be phan hriu han Om the plain t'
,
km) i = 1,
2,
m c6 phan tit km nhat, clang han (k 11 k 12 ,
kin) la
phtin tit Ian nhat. Theo he qua elm dinh li 1, c i tets
hang tit can nhift cua f(x t ,
xn ) V2y
xn) la khitc O.
xji;I IPI la
h'(x l ,
cm 4o1
xn) =
+ ,m a
x I to
am ) #
xn
xn um
am) khi i # j,
sao cho
on) = h'(op
on);
thd thi
Cluing mirth. Gia sit
# e l Did
Vi c # c' 1
on)
C/2 1n
nen
..., an) =
61rit mn
mot
da thee dot sung khac 0. Thd thi co mOt vet chi mot da lilac
h(xp x2 ,..., xn) E Afx l
sao cho
f(x i , x2 ,...,
;) =
x2 ,..., xn)
hasi,
62,
122.
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sit
xn"
ax73 xa2 z
f(xi ,
xn ) . Theo 66 de 2, ta th
a3 a
an
a 61;1- az
a tE t
'Cat hieu
fl (xi
Ngu fl (x1 ,
n) = f(x, ,
622 a3
Cann
din
va gia sit
62
Mat Made, to bigu Mule cua hieu hai da thac (m0c 1), ta cci
(al , a2 ,
an ) > (b i , 62,",
do d6
Xet hi0u
12 (x 1 , .
xn) =
(x i ,
123
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Ngu f2 (x 1
gia sit
y xit .
ynn
la hang tit cao nhgt cim nci ; Ming li luan nhtt del veil
fi (x i ,
xn ) ta ductc
c
vie
3 e2 3
(b 1 , b2 ,
3c
0 = Tx (xi
A CI? 12 4 - 13
x)
, x2 , " xn) = a
e2
1
Cnn
6.11
2.
1
/
2 C22
3 ... Unn .
et /
a1
a 3
xb
x,2
41,
I 1
hit; ,
xn)
otn) = f(xi ,
TM thi
an) =
an
).
xn ) = h'(xi ,
b 2 xbz 63
xn).
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Phep chdng minh coa dinh Ii 4 !Mang nhitng cho ta bigt stt
ton tai Na duy nhgt ciut da thtic h(x , xn) , nd don cho ta
mat phuong phtip thuan tin de thitnh lap h(x i ,.:., xn). Vide tim
da thlic h(x i ,
xn) sao cho f(x t , xn ) = h51 ,..,an) got la
bidu thi da thug diti ring
co ban C1 , ..., dn .
Vi du. Trong vanh da tittle Z [x i , x2 , x3] trig ha s6 nguyen
hay bidu thi da thac ddi ring
x3 +
x22
X33 + 2x 1 x2 + 2x1 x3 + 2x
2
qua the da tittle d61 ring co ban 6 1 , 62 , 43 .
Truoc hgt ta nhan xet rang
2x 1 x 2 + ?x i x3 + 2x2 x3= 26
2
\ray chi can xet da tittle dai ring
f(x i , x2 , x3) =
+ .32 +x3.
x3 x2 x3
Theo dinh li 4
- 0 a(3)
+ fix, x2 x3).
Van theo dinh li 4, ta lai sap xgp nd theo lot tit dign va
tim hang tit cao nhgt elm 11 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) . Nhung trong trUting
hap Cu the' nay ta nhan xet rang
xj x2 + xi r3 + x l r22 +
+ x x3
+ x2 .3 =
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Duel cling
x3 ) =61 36162+363
va
2x 1 x 2
2x 1 x 3
X3
2x2
62 + 3153 + 252
a a
aX lX 2
I
2
xn) la
+ an . VI cac da thilc
+ a2 +
dal ring ca ban al , 62, ..., 6 la Bang cap cd bac theo thd ta
la 1, 2, ..., n, nen da thdc tieh
- 012 - 43
d-
a bai l
42 012 -43
6 1 + b2 +
va
, 62 ,
an
.
126
an )
>
ton) > ( c1 ,
c 2i) > .
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an
b i
bn
(7)
+ an = 6 1 +
+ b =
Do cd them tinh chat (8) nen s6 phtin tit aim day (6) giam
di nhieu. Tap hop can phetn tit aim day (6) la met be phttn cot%
tap hop him han
M =
tin ) ,
(tmi ,
tmn)}
trong dci
>
va.
iii + ti2 +
vet i = 1 , 2,
+ tin = cti + a2 +
3Cn )
+ an
xn ) via dyed clang
upr
i -1
vet ti e A vet ti = 0 nen (tti , , tin) khOng cd
mat
f(xi , x2 , x3) = 4 +
Tap hop M d day la
' 621
22 6 1 62 +
C3 ;
127
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ti la lig tit eim hang tit cao nhat tha /Oil , x2 , x3), do dO
gi 1. Mutin co r2 , r3, ngubi to thay x 1 , x2 , x3 theo thd to
bang 1, 1, 0 ta Male
2 = 8 + 2g2
do do
r2 = - 3. Sau do thay x 1 ,
-1 ta co
1 = 1 + 3.hay
Vay
a3
x2 , -x3) =
13
- 36162 + 363
Pinning 'tip vita thing goi lit phoong phap vgri h6 td Mt dinh.
Chit 9 : Khiing phiti bao gib pinning phap nay clang co higu
lye Mu A la mat vanh hay Mtn nila la mat min nguyen, nhung
hitu han.
Trong truang Mp da that
cap thi ta nhan xet rang the hang tit ding mot cap cos. no lap
thanh mat da tilde d6i xting clang cap do do ta co
f(x i , xn ) la tang dm nhung da Hide d6i ring ding cap, chang
him trong vi da tren
2t1i3 + 2%2'3
p y = 6,
a3 p3 + y3
p, y
sao cho
a+
Theo vi du tren ta co
128.
fi + y =
= 36,
6.
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P3 + Y3 =
'Pa suy ra
GM sit a
E Z,
afix
fifix
r).
ta c6
afiY
= x3 6x2 + th -6
vi a + /3 + y = 6,
4+
xi +4
x3 + y3 + z3 = 27
x d yd
z4 = 113
Old
09
129
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cHUONG V
ma
Sau day la mot s6 tinh chat ye ehia het trong mitt mien nguyen
viac chting minh khang c6 gi khd khan.
B6 de 1. (i) a I a.
(0) e I b va b I a keo theo c I a.
(iii) u khd nghich, u I a yen mai a.
(iv) Nati b I u obi a khd nghich, thi 6 khd ?which.
(v) Quan h S xac dish nhu sau : xS x' khi x' = ux obi u khd
nghich, la mitt quan he Wang &tang ; x va goi a lien kit.
Vi du. 1) Hai phan tit cda Wham nhan U la lien kat.
130
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'
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r
vat r la du, nen 0
r < a. Mat khac r = b - aq E L Nth)
r
0 thi a kheng ph& la s6 nguyen during be nhgt cast I, mau
thugn. Do do r = 0 va 6 = aq, tde la I = aZ la idean sinh ra
bat a.
b = aq +
132
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He qua. Neu e let mat ubc chung lein nha caa a at b, thi
co r, s E A sao cho
e = ar + bs
Cluing mink. Xet doe chung Ion nhat d rim M de 4. d va e
la lien kit (muc 1), tile la ce mot phiin tit kha nghich u sao
cho
e= du
Nhan hai vg rim (1) vdi u
e = du = alit + byu = ar + bs, r = xu, s = yu.
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ube chung kin nhat coa x va a chi S thg la m0 pit til lien
kat via x hoac met phan tit UM nghich. Trong trubng hop thit
oh& ta cd x I a, trong truing hop thit hai x va a la nguyen
US Ming nhau. n
Be de 7. Gici sg x let mat phan tit kheic 0 ea khOng khd
nghich. Cdc menet de sau day Id twang duang :
,
b) keo theo a). Gia sit a la mot itac eta x, thg thi cd
b E A sao cho
x = ab.
134 ..
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la
hop
I=U
neN
De dang thgy I la met idean caa A. VI A la met vanh chinh
nen 'dean I chtoc sinh ra bai met phan tit x e I. Theo dinh
nghia dm hop mi met s6 tit nhien n sao cho x E In . DMu nay
keo theo I CI, va do do 1
Dinh li 1. Giti sit x liz mOt ',han tEl khac 0 oh khOng khd
nghich. Thu thi x co the viet docii Ong
(2) x = p ip 2 P
Am x Ad
va
Am C Ab , Am mAb
Do Am la tai dai trong T nen Aa va Ab kheng thuee 1 do
do a va b kitting thuec F ; a va b den khac 0, khac kha nghich
va khOng thuee F, nen a va b phai viet throe dud' clang (2)
135
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PC
b = P1+1
Ppi+l P
Dinh li 2. Gid ad
X
= P1P2
Pm = qiq2 qn
pm , qi ,
a nhiing phan hi bat khd quy. The
thi m = n , rid wit niqt at dank ad thich hop ta ca
qi = ups , i = 1, ..., m.
cat p i ,
Pm = b iPlq2 qn
Vip1 m 0 ta suy ra
P2 " Pm = 11 02 qn .
Theo bd de 7,192 IA WIC Caa mot q, nap do vOi'i 3 2. lh cci
the gia thigt rang p2 la tide cua q 2 . Dodd ta dirge q 2 = u2p2
voiu
2 kha nghich. Nhu vay ta thole
P2P3 Pm = b ib2P2q3
VI p2 # 0 ta suy ra
tin*
ne=
n va
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khang
Nhv fly dinh li 1 cho ta bit moi phan tit x # 0 kheng kha
nghich aim met vanh chinh d@u cd the phan tich thanh tich
nhUng Olen to bat khit quy va dinh If 2 cho ta bier sit plan
tich lit duy nhgt aeu kitting ke den cac nhan to kha nghich.
Vi du. Trong vanh cac sit nguyen Z ta cd
(-2)3 (-3) =
18 = 2 . 3 . 3 =
Bay gib ta hay chitng minh met tinh chat se-hoc quan trong
khac aim Nth chinh ngoid tinh chat da cho d dinh 11 1.
Dinh li 3. Gia sd K la trztang cac thuang caa vanh chinh
A, a E K la my nghiem eint da fink.
f(x) = x" + ark?' I +
aix +
(cti E A)
The thi a E A.
Cluing mink. Theo Whit tren ta ea the via a =a/b, vol a, 6 EA
nguyen to cling nhau. Vi f(a) = 0 nen ta Buy ra, sau khi thay
a bhng a/b va nhan yeti
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1< 1.
Bay gib ta hay lay met idean I khang tam thttang tha A
Tap hop
X= 114 2 0 #zEll
IA met be pia 'Mac rang caa N va khOng theta O. Vi N sap
thu ta tat, nen X co Mien tit be nhat, goi u lit s6 phitc thuec I
sao eho 11(1 2 la so ttt nhien be nhat the. X. Xet mot phtin tit thy
138
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y o e I. Hign nhien
z E A sac cho
2
z
hay
BAI TAP
1. Trong vanh da than R [x] vii It la truong se that, chting
minh cac da Onto axe +bx + c vii b2 4ac < 0 la nhang da
thde bgt kha quy. Dieu do ca con dung naa khang ngu coi can
da thdc do thuOc vanh C [x] Nal C la trudng s6 fait ?
2. Xet vanh da thite K [x] vii K la mot Gutting.
deu la bat
a) Chting minh rang moi da fink bac nit ciut
Mgt quy. Ngu K la mot mien nguyen thi dieu ck5 can dung khang ?
b) Cluing minh rang cac da Unto bac hai va bac ba eita K[x]
la Mt kha quy khi Ira chi khi chting khOng co nghiam trong K.
3. Trong Nth Z[x] vii Z la Wirth can s6 nguyen, xet xem
cac da thdc sau day co phai la Mt kha quy hay Milting
f(x) = 2x + 8,
g(x) = x2 + 1,
'h(x) = z2 + 2x - 2 ?
4. Gift sit' a, b la hai phan tit' cda met vanh chinh A, nguyen
to ding nhau. Chting minh idean sinh ra bat a va 6 chinh la A.
5. Gift sit p la mat phan tit khan 0 cua mot vanh chinh A.
Chang mink p da bat kha quy khi va chi khi Ap la idean
dal (eh III, 1, Mi. tap 14).
39
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a + bi
/ a, b
Z1
la chinh
13. Gia sit a va b la hai Olen td dm met vanh chinh cd
dang phan tich nhu sau :
a
=pZi pp
Pe
b = 141 p1:2
pi la
/3,) la
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tit A* den tap hop cac s6 tv nhien N thea man cac tinh chat :
1 Neu bPa va a # 0 thl 6(b) 5 6(a) ;
2 Voi hai phan to a va b thy 3.1 dm A, b x 0, co q Ira r
thubc A sao cho a = bq + r va 6(r) < 5(0 ndu r m 0 ;
goi la mat vanh Oclit.
Phan tit r goi la du. Neu r = 0 thl b chia Mt a va theo 1
6(b) d(a). Nhu vay dieu kiOn can de mat phan to b taco
la vim ctia mat Sian t* a * 0 la 6(b) s 5(a),
Ngodi ta bao mat vanh Oclit la mat vanh trong d6 c6 phap
chia vat du.
Vi du. 1) With cac s6 nguyen Z cling vdl anh xa
Z* 0 N
n n
la mat vanh Oclit.
2) Vanh da thdc K [x], via K la mat trudng, la mat vanh
cant. Anh xa d a day la anh xa cho Wong Ong voi mat da dole
f(x) x 0 bac dm no.
3) Vanh cac se nguyen Gaoxo la vanh Oclit vOi 6(z) = I zi 2
clang con tinh
Tinh chat 1 cim Dinh nghla 1 nhin that'
c6
the
dua
vao
cluing
minh
trong
vi
do
2 ctla (1, 2).
chat 2
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(o,
Neu A la met Nth Oclit thi khOng nhfing tide chung 16n
nhat cim hai phan to ton tai, ma ta con co the thus hien nhung
phep chia (vdi du) lien UM de co udc chung Ion nhat. Dieu de
clua tren b6 de sau day :
B6 de 1. Gid sit A la mot blintz chinh, a, b, q, r la nhzing
'than tit cart A Wei man quern h4
a = bq + r
The" thi ark chung tan nil& czia a ua b lei talc chung Ian
!theft cern b viz r.
Cluing mink. Gci I IA idean sinh ra bdi a, b va J la Wean
sinh ra bai b, r. Tn a = bq + r, ta suy ra a e J, do de I C J.
Td r = a - bg, ta suy ra r
I, do do J C I. fly I = J. Nhttng
A la met vanh chinh, nen ton tai d E I sao cho Ad = I. Theo
be de 4 Ma (l, 2), d la uhc chung 16n nhgt cila a va b. Nhttng
I = J nen d clang la udc chung nhgt cua b va r.
By gib gia sit A la met vanh Oclit va ta dat van tie tim
uoc chung Ilan nhtit cua hai phan tit a, b E A. Neu a = 0 thi
r6 rang tide chung ldn nil& Ma a vit b la b, vi very ta hay gia
sit ca a l&n 6 dart khac 0. Thte hien phep chia a cho b ta dada
.a = hqo + ro vdi d(ro) < 5(b) nM ro # 0
Neu ro # 0 ta lai chia 6. cho
b
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Qua trinh chia nhu vay phAi cham Mit sau mot se heal han
bit& vi day' cac so' tur nhien
= r kqk t
0.
dunk- bti di/ 1 ta cd r k = item chung len nhat cua r k va
0 = udc chung Ion nhat cua rk _ I va rk = utIc chung Ion nhat
caa r k - 2 va rk _ I = = vac chung Idn nhat Oda rI va r2
r va r = ttoc chung ldn What mla =tidechungla
b vb. ro = ueic chung len nhat dm a va b
va
g(x) = x5 - 3x3 + x2 + 2x - 1.
Traffic khi thtte hien cac phep chia lien tiep ta hay nhan xet
r&ng ttdc chung ldn nhat cfm a va b bang tide chung kin nhat
cim a' va 0, voi a' lien ket dm a. Bay gib ta chia f(x) cho g(x)
6
X
- 2x 5 + x 4 - x 2 + 2x - 1
x5 - 3x3 + X2 2x - 1
X6 - 3X4 + x3 + 2x 2 - x
x -2
-2x5 + 4x 4 - x3 - 3x2 + 3x - 1
-2x5 + 6x 3 - 2x2 - 4x + 2
4x4 - 7x3 - x2 + 7x - 3
Ta nhan thay rang nett chia g(x) cho
x3 + 7x 2
7x4 - 11x3 -
+ llx - 4
143
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4)
28x4 - 49e3
+ 49x - 21
ro(x) cho
4x4 -7x3 - x 2 + 7x - 3
4r4 4x3 4x2
4,
x-3
- X -
+ 1
4x -3
-3
0
Vay uric chung Ian !Mgt cua f(x) va g(x) lb. x3 -x2 -x +1.
2. Ung dung
Bay gib ta hay rip dung cam kgt qua da thu chide ye vanh
chfnh va vanh Oda dd nghien cdu vanh da tilde K[x] yid K la
met triteing.
Trude Mt cam phan to kha nghtch cast K[x] la the pliant to
khac 0 cua K. Car da thtic lien Mt caa da thdc f(x) la cat da
thus ed clang af(x) vai 0 # a E K. Cac da thdc betc 'Mgt ax + 6
b
lit Mt MIA quy, Chung ed met nghiem duy nhgt - - trong K.
a
144
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p(x) = (x
c) q(x).
f(x) = (a ix +
pi(x) el
(akc
bk)'"kp i (c)W I
pkri.
bi
bt
(x +
+ . Do do -
Lai gia sit c la mat nghiem bat cap in mitt f(x), the thi vi f(x)
146
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(akx + bk k
)m
thi Me do
= bac f(x)
/71k
s6 nghigm cart f(x) trong K bang so' bac caa f(x) Gia sit ta
trong truing hap nay, got a l, a2, ..., an la 71 nghi9m aim f(x) trong
K, age nghigm ea thg phan biet c6 the' tiding nhau, va gia sti
(1) f(x) = cce + e ixn-1 +
+ ck _kx + en
f(x)
2 (aia2 + a ia3 +
(x - an).
= 1,
1 (a i + a2 +
n, ta dude
+ an) +
+ an _lak ) +
+ (- 1ra la2 ak i
a l + a2+ + a = n
146:
co
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C2
Co
cria2a4 +
C3
+ a n
Co
Co
a la 2 ... a n =
(-1)"
co .
Ta nhan thay rang the vg trai etla the thug than tren citing
qua la cat da thdc &Si ring co ban dm the phan tit a l a2,
an (ch IV. 2, 3).
,
Bay gib ta xet mgt da thdc bat kith quy p(x) e6 bac len hem
1 dm vanh Mx]. Theo nhu tit da nth, p(x) khOng c6 nghiam
trong K. Ta hay dat van de thy dung met trubng E ehtla K
nhu mot trubng con sao cho p(x) c6 nghiem trong E.
Dinh li 3. Old set
p(x) = ao + aix + + art
> 1)
la mgt da thdc Mt Ma quy cita vanh KN. The thi co mgt tnamg
E zeta ctftth duy nhdt (ly tai mOt ding cdu) no cho
1) K Ca mOt trubng con act E.
2) p(x) co mgt nghiem 0 trong E.
3) Mai phan tit a E E Met duy nit& du& Bang
a = bo +,b 10 +
+ bo _10"-1 , bi E K, i = 0, ..., n - 1.
Chang mink. Goi I la Mean sinh ra bed p(x), I la tai dal (1,
bai tap 5). lihtt vay vanh thtiong E = Kfx.711 la met trttang
(chili, 1, bal tap 14). T1 cling c6 the cluing minh E la met
trubng mOt each true Hap nhu sau. E to rang la met vanh giao
hoan cri don vi lit 1 + I khac ph&n to 0 + I ; ta hay cluing
minh Mai phan tit' f(x) + I # 0 + I co righich deo trong E. VI
f(x) + I # 0 + I, nen f(x) kheng phai la 1301 ola p(x), do d6 f(x)
va p(x) nguyen t6 ming nhau (1, 2, b6 d4 6). Theo (1, 2, b6
de, 5), ten tai r(x), q(x) E K(x) sao cho
nts6... 10
147
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f(x) + I.
Trij =
+ . + En .? = 0.
v6 i
e K, khong
bo ,
Hai p Ma tit
148
=
610
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bo + 6 10 + +
1
vh
co
+ c10 +
+ co_yr
= 0,
+ (bo_i -
n - 1 That fly
r .
613-1 = 0
tdclah
crox"
la bai eta p(x). Dieu do chi thy ra khi va chi khi the ha tit eta
da tilde bang 0, nghla la
= c
= 0,
, n - 1.
Nhu vay ta da ehting mink xong sat tan tai cua trtibng E.
Gia sit bay gib cci mat trubng E' eiing cd the tinh chat 1 0, 2,
3. G9i 8' la mat nghiem eta p(x) trong E'. Ta hay xet (tang
eau p xet trong (ch. W 1, 5, dinh It 5)
p : Kix]
E'
f(x)
1(0)
Ta cd p(x) e Kenp. Mat Mute K[x] lit mat vanh chinh nen
Kerp sinh ra bai mat da tilde p'(x). Vi p khang phgti la dong
eau 0 nen Ker yo # Kix], do dti p'(x) kh6ng khgt nghich Kat
Juan p(x) va p'(x) phai la lien kat, do d6 Kerr = I. Them nda
do tinh chat 3 , E' C Imp = KW% fly E' = Imp, vit ta ed p
la toan eau. 4 dung dinh It 13 eta (eh III, 1, 5) ta co mat
don eau W : K[x] lI -> E' sao cho tam gitic
Mx]
E'
P
K[x]/I =
giao hoax'. Nhung a day vi c la mat town anh nen co- clang la
town anh. do do Co IA mat dang thin Bang cau W duce the dinh
bdi :
14,9
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by + 6 10 +
+ tin _1 60 -1 n- bo + 6 10' + . +
+
+ bi)
+ di) = a + c + (6 + d)i ;
+ di) = ac + (ad + bc)i + bdi2
=ac-bd+()i.
-lie, b +
la
(a , 0)
114 qua. Old sr[ f(x) la ntOt da thac co bac n > 1 caa vanh
da that
150
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met trubng con aao cho f(x) c6 dung n nghiem trong do, cho
nghiem c6 the phan biet hay kitbag.
Chang mink. Gui p(x) IA met nista' tit Mt kha quy Ma f(x)
cd bac Ibn han 1 (nen the nhan tit Mt kha quy dm fix) dell
Me 1 thI f(x) c6 cac nghiem trong K va van de titian giai guy&
xong). Ta fly clang trotting E nho trong dinh II 3, da thile p(x)
cd nghiem trong E, do do f(x) cang fly. Ngu f(x) co it nghiem
trong E thi van de dune giai guy& xong, nalu MOO-1g f(x) phai.
S clang
f(x) = (x c)m1 ... (x
ti(x)
f1 (x) co-
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(a).
a, -a
(a),
BM TAP
1. ChUng minh rang vanh gam C1C s6 plulc cd dang
a + bid vai a, b E Z la mOt vanh Oclit.
2. Chung minh mOt trubng la mOt vim]) Oclit,
3. Gia sit A la mat vanh Oclit. Chang minh A la mOt trtlang
khi Ira chi khi 6(x) la hang via moi x e A.
4. Gia sit A la mat vanh Oclit vai anh xa Oclit
: A` n N.
Chung minh tan tai mOt anh xa Oclit 5'
it) , n
hay d'(A) = N.
5. Gib. sit A la mat vanh Oclit via anh xa Oclit . Chang
minh a(u)
plain to be nhat cua a(A) khi va chi khi u kha
nghich trong A.
6. Gib. sit A la mOt mian nguyen. Chung minh dial) kian can
da A Oclit la tan tai mOt phan t8 khOng kha nghich x E A
sao cho mai lop dm A/(x) cd mOt dal dial) hoac kha nghich hoac
bang 0 (dua anh /la Oclit d ciat A ye anh xa Oclit 5' trong bai
tap 4 va kat hop vai bat tap 5).
7. Chung minh vanh
'152
[1 +
2
a + b (
1+
) I a, b E Z
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khong phai la vitnh dclit bang each 4 dung bid tap 6. (Ngadi
1 + iir9
] la vaaa chinh, nhangday
to c6 thg Chung minh Z [
2
thong ta khOng lam vi thigu qua nhigu khan Main caa dal s6).
8. Gia sit fix) = x5 + x3 + x2 + x + 1
g(x) = x3 2X2 + x 1
a) Tim tide chung Idn nhgt cost f(x) ud g(x) trong Q/x1
b) Tim udc Chung IOn nhat magi f(x) va g(x) trong Z/3Z[xJ
trong do Q la truang so` hint ti Z/3Z lit trmang cat so' nguygn
mod 3.
9 Gia sit
R(Ir3) = a bli-251 a, b E
Q(1=3-) ={a + b1,1
I rz,b e Q}
Q(a) = {a bm a,b E Q}
trong dd R la truZing cat s6 thac, Q la trotting Sc so hilu ti.
Chung minh thug :
a) R(rS3), Q(,), Qom la nhang trudng voi (Map Ong
ta phdp nhan thong thuong cat s6.
b)
X2
Qom
x2 2 trong Q[x].
10. GM sit E la mot halting and rang dm tntOng K, u la
mat da thtic bgt kha quy trong
mat phgn to thuac E, f(x)
nhan
u
lam
nghlam
vit
gia
sit rang g(x) E K[x] tong nhan
K[x]
it lam nghiam. Cluing minh rang trong K[x]
a) f(x) la da attic cd bac th6p nhgt nhan u lam nghiam ;
b) g(x) chia hgt cho f(x)
11. Gia sit X = Q2 . Trong X ta xac dinh cac phap than Ong
vh nhan nhu sau
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(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d)
(a, b) . (c , d) = (etc + 2bd, ad + bc)
a) Chung minh rang X cang vol hai
town do IA mat
truang.
154
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CHLIONG VI
so
phtic
Cho mot da thdc v6i hg s6 th0c thi chtia chAc da than do co nghigm trong trubng ad th0c, cu th6 da thdc x 2 + 1 kh6ng
co nghigm trong trubng s6 thorn Dual day ta se thgy moi da
tilde bac n vol hg s6 phac co dung n nghigm phdc. D4 chting
minh ra hay dua vao cat 66 de sau day :
+ an an m 0, n 14.
Qua giao trinh giai doh ta bigt rang vol nhting gia tri dining
va am mitt x kha 16n ye gia tri tuygt d6i, ham s6 f(x) co can
dgu trai nhau. Vgy rb nhang gia tri thge So, x, a va b chAng
han, sao cho
cua
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R - R
c
la ham s6 f(x).
. n
2a
B6 de 3. Mot da the& b4e ldn han 0 Si he a trate co it
nhdt met nghiem 'plate.
it
2a
va
dang it =
in la met se to nhien va n' la met s6 tp
nhien le. Ta hay cluing minh bang quy nap theo m. V6i m = 0
khgng dinh la dung theo be de 1. Ta gia sit khgng dish IA dung
cho m - 1 Ira chang minh nd dung cho m. Murin vgy, ta hay
xet met da th/c f(x) cd bac n =
(m > 0) veil he s6 thoc.
Coi f(x) nhu met da thdc cita vanh
v6i C la trobng se
ph/c, ta hay xet met trurbng m6 Ong E cua C sao cho f(x) cd
dung it nghiem al , a2 ,...,
trong E (ch V, 2, 2, ha qua cim
(huh If 3). Gia sit c la met se time tuy j, at
(1) pi; =
+ e(ai
cei ), i s j.
fit)
- fits).
+ atxt 1 +
int
n(n - I)
2
-
nen ta cd
- 1)
2
_1
- 2n1
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he
ca. Trude het the he W dd la ciic da thuc el& sung co ban cunt
the Ai Vey theo (1) chung la nhting da thtic eua a i , ..., a n vtli
he s6 Wye, vi c la met s6 thee. Han naa cluing con la nhting
da thitc d61 icing cart a 1 , ..., a. That thy nett ta thay a i bang
thi
ai
a i bang a i thi pl. van gift nguyen con the P hi va
i va j), dieu nay chat than khang
tin del cho nhau (h
lam thay del the he to at, ..., a1 . Do dci theo (ch V, 2, 2, chid
3I) CAC he tit do la nhung se thne. Vey g(x) la met da thdc veii
Ai;
he s6 thac ed ben 2v`-1q, vol q la 14. Theo gia thiet quy nap
g(x) ed it nhat met nghiem phdc dang (1), We la cti It nhat
met cap chi se (i, j) sao cho phan to
pii =
cticej + c(a i + ai )
j) vi ta chi th
a. + aj
a I a)
c C2
t
a - b
ie I C2
157
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Vey a + a.
erai dell la
cim da thdc hec hai r
ai a nghiem
Ta suy re ai
x2 (ai adx +
voi he s6 phlic. Theo 14 de 2, a i va ai la Onto. Nhu fly to da cluing
minh de thdc f(x) khong nhung S met, ma cd hei nghiem phtic.
Dinh li 1. MQi da thdc bee tun hen 0 ()di he 86 phitc co it
nit& met nghiem phdc.
Fx7 =
+ +
, n. X6t da thdc :
g(x) = f(x)f(x).
Ta cd
g(x) = bo + b ix + . + b 2nx2"
voi
bk = E
0,1,
2n
i+j=k
vi
Slc =
I EPj = bk
bv=k
+ anzn = no +
F27 = 0
+ anr = 0
We la
fq)
0
Nhu vey hoc z hoar a la nghiem cua f(x)
158
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114 quit 1. Cdc da thuc bdt khd quy cat' yank Chi), C la
twang ad phdc, l cac da thzic bac nhdt.
Cluing mink. Theo (Ch V 2, 2), cac da thee bac nhgt la Mt
kha quy. Dia sit f(x) la met da th/c cfia C[i] co bac lon han
1. Theo dinh H 1, f(x) co met nghiem phdc c. fly f(x) ca met
u6c thuc au x - c, do do f(x) khong bgt kha quy n
114 quit 2. Mot da Mac Mc n > 0 vat Mad phac co it
nghilm
Cluing mink. Gilt sit f(x) la mat da th/c bac n > 0 yea M s6
ph/c. Theo M qua 1 dang phan tich caa f(x) thanh 'Lich nhang
da th/c Mt MIA quy phAi la
f(x) = u(aix + b i)mt (ars + b2)mz
+ bkrk
b t
trong yea - ,
ai
mk nghiem
v6i
bk
ak
m. 1 nghi@m
Ta suy ra
ac, + air +
+ an? = 0,
= ao + a +
Mk la
f(z) = 0
De dd to suy ra f(x) chia hgt cho da auk Mc hai
g(x) = (x - z) (x - 7 = x2 - (z + zix + zi,
z + I va ri la nhfing s6 dup.
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p(x) = ug(x), 0 x u C R.
Tit ha qua 3 ta suy ra mai da thee f(x) C Rix] ed bac
hen 0 deu co th6 vie% dual clang
(3) fix)= u(ct i x
(ak x
x + y. .
1
bt
nghiem Rive - Tit , m6i nhan tit bac hai a1 x2 + f x + yi cho ta
i
hai nghiam phde lien hop
160
s = vat. -
2a
I
-#
"
2ci
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2a
va
b + cu 2
2a
qua cac he -so cfm phuong trinh bang cac phep tinh cong,
nhan, chin, Ming lily thiM, khai can. Nguia ta ndi ngmed ta da
gidi phuong trinh bang can th,Zc. Ta so thay duel day ta cd the
giiti mat phuong trinh bac ba hay bac bon bang can thdc.
Phuong trinh bite ba. Ta hay net phuong trinh bac ba vai ha
so phtic
x3 + ax2 + bx + c= 0.
Phuong trinh nay tr6 thanh
(4)
y3 +py +47= 0
nau ta dat
a
y=x+a.
DO giai phuong trinh (4) ta dat
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y = u + u,
(5)
u3 + 3 + (U + u)(3uv +p) + q = O.
Van 66 caa chang ta bay gib la tiro cite s6 phtic It Nth v theft
. man (6). Ta chti y Uri Sic s6 phuc u Ira v c6 tinh chat
(6)
(7)
3uv + p = 0, hay uv =
z2 yz = 0
Nhu vay r6i tit (6) va (7), ta &Mc
u 3 ,
3 = q, a 3 U3 =
t2 + qt
=0
92 + p 3
= q
2
4 + 27
q 11 q2
p3
3
2
4
r7
q
p3
trong 66 + la mot can bac hai
4
27
eta
la mot can bac ba caa
u 3=
(8)
2
1 + -141
2
4
162
3
27
p3
Gal al
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va u la mot can
ba cua
2
q
q4
P
27
3 =
g2u 1 va V 2 = E2 v
a ,
trong dd z = + i 2,
i --2
la hai can be ba philc cna don vi. Mini fly to dugc ba cap s6
phdc (u 1 , u 1 ), (u2 , 02), (u3 , u3) thda miin (6) va (7). 'Ih dat
yi
= V I + VI
1
(9)
Y2 = EV I + E2 V
= - -i (11 1 + V I) +
ha
2 (1st lit)
1
in
Y3 = E 2 u1. + Evi = - 2 (ui + u1) - 2 (a 1 u1) .
Tit 9), sau khi tinh town va cha 3? rang u 1
u thda man
Y1 Y2 + YI 31 3 + Y2Y3 =
Y1Y2Y3
=p
3
ut = q.
Vay
Yi)(Y Y2)(Y Y3) =
Y2 (y1 + y2 + y3) +
+ PY q .
Da thlic
+ py + q da duct phan tich thanh tich nhting
nhan td tuyeh tinh, va ta dude cac nghiera cos. nd la
y2 , y3 (9). NgLidi ta throng vial tat (9) dual dang
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u + u =
_I
2
( 2 2 + ( 12
3) 3
( 2) 2 + (3) 3
D.
1
01-3 +
x + 2i = O.
\ 2
2
Dat x = is + u, ta dune
u3 + u3 + 30z +
2 )1
+ 2i = O.
uv
= 2 +i 2a
t2 + Zit - 1 =
+ z12 = 0
a a
u I
164
u 1
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+
2
2'
1
ia
-
(u i + u t) + 2 (u1 u1) =
u 1 + u1
ia
1
(u i
trong do
u 1) 2 (u1
= x3 , vay
u1)
i
+ la nghiam kep coa phuong trinh.
Bay gib ta hay Kat phuong trinh (4) trong trubng hop p va
q la nhang s6 thuc. Ta dot
3
A =P
vay
y2 , y3 yeti y2 = y3 .
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2
2 Y1 2 =
vdi he s6 thoc, do dd it, va u l la phtic lien hop. Ta suy ra, trong (8),
ode nghiem y 1 , y2 , y3 M. that. Prong true:mg hop
my
vi A * 0
Phuong trinh bGc b6n. Phep giai. mot phuong trinh bac ban
x4 + ax3 + bx2 + ex +d = 0
vOi he s6 pink toy 3 se dtta ve phdp giai mat phuong trinh pho
bac ba goi la phuong trinh giai bac ba. 1a flan hanh nhu sau :
,
a2 x2
vao ca
4
2
a ry ( x2 cx d
(x2 + t
Sau dd ta Ong vao hai vd cua phuong trinh nay tong
ax
( x2
+4
(11)
166
(x
(X2 +
2
ax + Y 2 = ( a + y x2 +
4
ay
y2
+
-
x += - d
4
2
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'Pa hay Itta chgn an phu y sao cho vg phai lh mat chinh
phuong. Mien thg thi chi vide lam trial tieu bide sd dm tam
thitc bac hai din voi x 6 vg phhi
( a-g- 2
a2
(4
Y
b Y ) ( -4- -
hay
Y3 - by2 + (ac - 4d)y - [d(a2 - 4b) + c21 = 0.
DO la mat phuang trinh bac ba, gal la phuang trinh gidi cita
phuang trinh da cho. Gia sit yo la mat nghiem cua phuong trinh
de. Dien yo van phuong trinh (10), ta dugc vg phai elm phuong
trinh la mat chinh phuang
ax
( x
+2
= (ax 0) 2
de
x2 + ax
-2- -2- -
Yo
p,x2 +
aX
Hai phuong trinh bac hai d6 se cho tat ca bon nghidm elm
phuong trinh bac ban. Vay phep giai mat phuong trinh bac bOn
da dugc dua ye phep giai mat phuong trinh bac ba vit hai
phuong trinh bac hai. Ta say ra tit do rang phuong trinh bac
bon gihi dvtgc bang can thdc.
Vi dg. Dial phudng trinh bac bon
x 4 _ 3x3
ax2 _
+2
9x2
, ta dude
3x =
2 3x2 + 3x - 2.
(x
2
(x
167
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2
+ Y7
- 2 + )') 2 =
(12) (x2
3
= 2 (y - -4) +3x ( 1
+ =42 -2.
4(y
3 y2
(
- 2) = 0,
- 3) + 3' - 3 =
3)(Y2 1) = O.
Chon y = 3, phuang trinh (121 tra thanh
3x
( X2
2 3x
2
Tir d6
3 2
12
T
3
3x
2 - 2
3x 3
2
hay
3x
1
2'
3x 1
2
x2 - 3x + 2 = 0 , x2 + 1 = - 0
Ta
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Nguiri to chdng minh rang khong the giai bang can tilde cac
pinning trinh tdng quest bac Ion hon bon (Aben, Galoa). Hon
the nda, Galoa da tim ra &toe ties chufin dd. Nat mot phuong
trinh da cho gial dugc bang can tilde hay khOng.
BAI TAP
1. Trong vanh Crxl (C la tniang s6 Mlle) hay plan tich cac
da thdc : x2 +
x 1 x2 4i + 3, x7 1 i5 thanh
met tich nhfing da thdc Mt kha quy.
2. Bidu din hinh hoc cat nghiftm cues da thdc
f(x) = xP 1
g(x) = (x
b. (a x 0)
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7. GM sit a = 1 + i.
a) Bigu din a dual clang Wang giac. Tim madun va ae-gu-men
dm a" W. a'.
b) Vigt an va a-fi dual clang a + bi.
c) Bigu din hinh hoe can gia tri a" va
vol n
8.
d) Chting mirth rang MO so phtle z tuy yd@u c6 thg bigu
din (Wan mot each duy nhat dyed clang z = x + ya vat x, y la
nhang so thgc.
e) Chung minh rang anh xa
f : C M
z=x+y alo[ x
Y
2y x + 2y
W vanh s6 phtie clan vanh the ma trap than vuOng cap 2 la mot
Bang eau Tit do suy ra rang tap hap the ma trail, thge,vuOng
cap 2 clang [
f) TInh
[ 0 1
2 21
8. Giai the phuang trinh bac ba sau day :
a) 4y3 36y2 + 84y 20 = 0.
b) x3 . x 6 = 0.
c) x3 + las + 15 = 0
d)x3 + 3x2 6x + 4 = 0.
9. Ch'ing mink (bang da thdc
xang) :
(xt _ x2)2 (x2 _ x3) 2 (xi _ x3)2 = _4p
170
px +q = 0.
27q2
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6x2
8=0
_ I (an
- I +
1
a: -2 (an a) + ao
+ an _ i x'
ann 2 x + ao
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f(x) =
+ an _ i xn I +
+ ai x + ao
vdi the ai nguyen. Gilt sit a la mat nghiem hitu ti eta f(x), the+hi
theo ("nth II 3 eta (Ch V, 1, 2), a phki a nguyen. Matt !chive, to
+ an _ian + + aka + an = 0
ta co thg vi
a(an1 + an _ian-2 + +
do dd al a.. Rini vey the nghiem nguyen aka f(x), neu cd, phai
la nhang It& eta ao. Cho nen muen tim the nghiem nguyen etc
fix) ta xet the tide eta s6 hang
do ao, va sau dd, thit xem
the tuft de S phai la nghiem eta fix) hay khang. De hart the
se lan th8. nguea ta chia the then xet sau day.
us
Gia sit a la mat nghiem nguyen aim f(x). The thi f(x) Chia
het cho x - a
f(x) = (x - a)q(x)
va
/(1)
1
(1)
a = q(1)' 1 + a
Cr( 1)
f( 1)
1 - a v- 1 + a
la nhang so nguyen de tha xem chUng ed phai la nghiem aka
f(x), va do do se Ian thit eta to bat di mil Chung.
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-8
20
-20
19
-12
-7
13
-7
12
do dd eac nghiem con lai caa f(x) la cac nghiem cua g(x)
g(x) = x4 - 7x3 + 13x2 - 7x + 12.
'Pa nhan xet rang g(c) > 0 v6i m9i c c 0, nen g(x) khOng
cd nghiem am. Vi vay ta chi xet cat u6c thing dm s6 hang
tti do : 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12. Ta cd g(1) = 12, g(-1) = 40. VI
eat s6
40 40 40
3' 7' 13
khOng phai la nguyen, nen 2, 6, 12 khOng Olaf la nghiem cua
g(x). Cite s6 3 ye 4 deulam cho
g(1) va g(-1)
1 -a
1+ a
nguyen, nen clung ed the la nghiem cult g(x). Mu6n their xem
clung cd phai la nghiem cent g(x), ta chi viec tie') tau vao bang
tie)) nhu sau :
-8
20
-20
19
-12
0
-7
13
-7
12
-4
-4
173
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Vey ta co
f(x) = (x - /)(x - 3)(x - 4)(x2 + 1)
trong dci 6 1Ft mot s6 nguyOn Mute 0, g(x) la met da thile veil he se
nguyen. Trong vanh Q[x], f(x) va g(x) la lift Mt vity f(x) la Mt ad
quy khi va chi khi g(x) lit bat kha. quy. Do dri tieu chum Aidenstaind
ma ta dim m chafe day dg xet met da thdc cua Q[x] co Mt kha quy
haykhang la tieu chum cho cac da th1e veil he se nguyen.
De chuan bi cho viec chting minh tIeu chuifn ay, trout Mt
ta gidi thieu khai niem da Dixie nguyen ban va ehtIng minh hai
b6 de.
Dinh nghla 1. Gia sit f(x) la mot da auk vol he sec nguyen,
f(x) gal IA nguyen thin ngu Se he se oda f(x) khdng co vdc
Chung nail khdc ngoai 1.
Cho mot da t h dc vdi he s6 Nguyen f(x) C z[x], Id !lieu bang
a vac chung Idn nhat Sit cdc he s6 cda f(x), ta cel
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f(x) = ac(x)
vdi ((x) e Z[xl va the he se cda r(x) kh6ng ed Lida Chung nit
khac ngoal 1, the la r(x) nguygn ban.
Ndu f(x) E Q[x] thi to ed thg vigt f(x) dttdi dang
f(x) = b COO
trong do fa(x) nguygn ban va a, b E Z nguyen t6 ding nhau.
Vi du. f(x) = 6x
1 2x2
3
= 176 (20x3
2
1
3
15
1 )(60x + 24x - 75)
- -2- = 7
Cac se 20, 8, -25 Itheng S doe chung nao kink ngthi 1 va. -1.
Be de 1. Tick cua hai da thdc nguyen ban la mat da thdc
nguyen bdn.
Cluing mink. Gitt sit
f(x) = a. + a ix + + amx m
g(x) = b. + b ix +
+ b rix"
la hai da axle nguygn ban. 1k chi can e.hting rainh rang cho met
se nguyen td p thy 3 p khang chia het the he s6 cita da thtic
tich f(x)g(x). 136 rang p khong chia Mt the he se eita f(x) va g(x).
Gia sit p chia Mt cte,..., as_ i , be..., bs_ i va p Elblag ehia Mt as
va bs. 11k xet h@ s6 c s+e cua da thile tich f(x)g(x).
+ ...) trong do p chia
crvs = (... + ar_ ib.E1 ) + a rb s + (arkibri
Mt the tdng trong cad dgu ngoac, nhvng Wing chia Mt fiat
arbs vi p la nguyen to. Do chi p khOng ehia Mt c m.
,,
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f(x)
w(x)y(x)
voi p(x) va 7;tax) la nhang talc Mac sa coa f(x) tro ng Q[x]. Theo
nha tren da nhan xet, to cd thd viet
h(x)
g(x)h(x)
P
_ = va p, q nguyen to ding nhau. Ta H hiau cache se
q bc1
da thac tich g(x) h(x) bang
the thi theo bd de 1, g(x) h(x)
caa
la nguyen ban, the nen cite khOng cd utdc chung nito khan ngoai
Pei
1. Mat kluic vi f(x) E Z[x] nen the s6 phal IA nguyen, do do
q chia het
+ aorn (n > 1)
trong dd
176
g(x) = bo b ix +
b E Z, 0
h(x) = co + c rx +
+ csx'
c, E Z, 0 < s c n
r<
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a0 = b c 0
a t = b l co + b oc I
ta cd
a k = b kC o
b k-I C I + " +
an = b r e
Theo gilt thigt p chia Mt a. = bee ; vay vi p lit nguyen t6,
nen Mac p chia Mt b o hoac p chia hgt c_ Gia sit p chia ha
b 0, the' thi p khOng chia c o, vi neu th0g thi p 2 se chia Mt
a. = b oco, trai vii gia thigt. p khOng thg chia. Mt myi he s6
coa g(x), vi ngu thg thi p se chia Mt a = bre , trai via gilt
thigt. Vay giA sii b k la he s6 dau tign cum- g(x) :hong chia hgt
cho p. Ta hay xet
+ bock,
ak = bkco +bk_IC I
trong do a k, bk_ 1 , ..., 60deu chia het cho p. Vay bkco phai chia
ha cho p. Vi p lit nguyen t6, ta suy ra hoac 6 k chia cho p,
hoac c. dila Mt cho p, may than Atli gia thigt ye b k va co .
xn +
+ +p
yea p la met s6 nguygn to' thy yr, lit bat kha quy trong Q(x]
BAI TAP
1. Tim nghigm hitu ti cart cac da thdc
a) x3 6x2 + 15x 14
b) 2x3 + 3x2 + 6x 4
c) x6 6x5 +11x4 x3 18x3 + 20x 8
d)
..
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nghiam
+ + ao
178,
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MUC .LUG
Lai n6i
Trang
3
Chiterng I - TAP 1-10P VA QUAN Ht
5
6
7
7
8
8
9
9. Anh xo
10. Anh va too anh
13
14
15
17
18
19
20
2. Quan hf
I. Quan he hai ngdi
23
24
25
0. Scr
cac
28
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1. Nfra /them
1. ?hop Loan hai ng61
37
2. NOM rthem
39
Bai tGp
42
2. alham
1. Nhom
43
2. Nh6m con
47
52
4. DEng
cdu
58
5. D6i 'ding NM
64
BM tap
68
Chuang Ip - VANTI VA TRUONC.
78
80
SI
82
85
BM tap
87
2. Tnr&ug
I. Traang
91
91
92
Bai tap
94
Chuang IV - VANH DA Tale
97
100
101
105