Comparison of Palm-And Tallow-Based Soaps: Specifications, Formulations, and Performance

Chapter 4
Comparison of Palm- and Tallow-Based Soaps:

Specifications, Formulations, and Performance
Ainie Kuntom and Luis Spitz
Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB), Malaysia; and L. Spitz, Inc., Skokie, Illinois, USA
Introduction
Soap is one of the oldest detergents manufactured and a classic toiletry. It is made
from fatty acids derived from oils and fats. The traditional fats and oils used to
make soap are tallow and coconut oil. With the expansion of the oleochemical
industry, raw materials for soap makingfatty acids with C12C18 hydrocarbon
chainsare now easily available. Besides tallow, other sources of C16C18 fatty
acids are palm oil and palm stearin, a fractionated product of palm oil, while
sources for C12C14 fatty acids are palm kernel oil and coconut oil. The two main
types of soap noodles are based on tallow and palm. Other types of vegetable oil
soap bases are also available. Tallow-based soap is usually a blend of tallow, animal fats, and coconut or palm kernel oil. Palm-based soap is a blend of palm oil or
palm stearin with palm kernel oil or a combination of all three. The uniqueness of
palm-based soap is that all of the fatty acids necessary for the base are derived
from one source (palm fruits) and thus it is totally vegetable based (Fig. 4.1).
Soaps are produced by two primary methods: saponification of fats and oils or
neutralization of distilled fatty acid blends derived from the oleochemical industry.
Neutralization of distilled fatty acids is a simpler and cleaner manufacturing practice
than fats and oils saponification; it also produces glycerine as a by-product. The resulting glycerine has to be treated, evaporated, and distilled to obtain saleable, refined
glycerine. Traditionally tallow-based soap is prepared by saponification of the triglycerides, but soap manufacturers that either produce or purchase fatty acids use the neutralization route to prepare the soap base. In this chapter the term soap base will refer
to the dry soap noodles (pellets). Palm-based soap is usually manufactured through
neutralization of fatty acids; however, some manufacturers still use the oil route to
make soap. The quality of soap bases produced depends on the quality of raw materials. The choice of raw materials depends on several factors, such as acceptable cost
range, producer manufacturing capabilities, and the targeted properties of the products.
Product performance depends on the ratio of the various fatty acids in the
blend. Even though soap contains a range of fatty acids from C12C18 hydrocarbon
chains, the proportion of these fatty acids has to have the correct ratio to produce a
product with good performance. Some of the characteristics of fats and oils used in
soap making are shown in Table 4.1.
Copyright 2004 AOCS Press
Palm Fruit Mesocarp

C16C18 Fatty Acids
Palm Fruit Kernel

C12C14 Fatty Acids
Fig. 4.1. Palm fruits.
Tallow, palm oil, and palm stearin have similar chemical properties and similar fatty acid compositions. Coconut oil and palm kernel oil are the normal contributors of the C12C14 fatty acids; however, palm kernel olein (a by-product of palm
kernel fractionation) can also be a source of these fatty acids. The chemical properties of the fatty acids derived from these oils are shown in Table 4.2. The increase
in conversion from oils and fats to fatty acids is assisted by the expansion of the
oleochemicals industry where a wide range of distilled fatty acids is available for
the soap manufacturers. These fatty acids have the flexibility and versatility to suit
the requirements of the soap producers. The oleochemical industry offers fatty
acids for soap bases and specially pre-blended distilled fatty acids for soap making.
TABLE 4.1
Characteristics of Fats and Oils
Properties
Fats and oils
Saponification
value
Iodine
value
Titer
(C)
Melting point
(C)
Glycerine
(%)
250264
192202
245255
231244a
196202
193206b
712
4852
1419
2531
5055
48 (max)
2024
4047
2028
4047
2026
23.026.0
40.047.0
24.026.0
21.826.0a
27.050.0
24.026.0
13
10
12
10
Coconut oil
Tallow
Palm kernel oil
Palm kernel olein
Palm oil
Palm stearin
Sources: Witco Fats and Oils Brochure (1); aTang (3); bTang (2).
TABLE 4.2
Distilled Fatty Acids for Soap Making
Properties
Saponification
value
Acid
value
Iodine
value
Titer
(C)
Unsaponifiable
matter (%)
Lovibond color 5.25

cell red-yellow
Coconut
Stripped coconut
Palm kernelb
Stripped palm kernelb
Tallow
266278
251263
255267
248260
265277
252260
255265
248258
198207
5.010.0
5.012.0
14.019.0
16.022.0
36.065.0
2227
2730
2226
2428
3949
0.5
0.5
1.0a
1.0a
1.5a
Palm oilb
Palm stearinb
Soap blend (T/C)
Soap blendc
(40PO/40POs/20PKO)
205214
206218
205212
206216
214222
215225
46.057.0
28.038.0
36.042.0
37.045.0
4549
4854
40a
4146
1.0a
1.0a
1.0a
1.0a
0.8R8.0Y
0.3R3.0Y
0.5R5.0Y
0.5R5.0Y
0.2R0.9R
0.3Y4.3Y
1.0R4.0Y
1.0R4.0Y
0.4R4.0Y
0.3R3.0Y
Distilled fatty acids
amaximum.
Abbreviations: Tallow, T; coconut, C; palm oil, PO; palm stearin, POs; palm kernel oil, PKO.
Source: Witco (1), bCognis (4), cCognis (personal communication, 2003).
Toilet Soaps
A variety of commercial soaps are available on the market, but the major uses are
for toilet, laundry, and household purposes. Toilet soaps normally contain about
7080% Total Fatty Matter (TFM). The common fatty acid ratios used by the
industry are 80C 16 C 18 :20C 12 C 14 , 75C 12 C 18 :25C 12 C 14 , and 70C 16 C 18 :
30C12C14. The C16C18 oils, such as tallow, palm oil, and palm stearin, contribute
to detergency and lather formation.
The characteristics of tallow and palm oil are so similar that palm oil can totally or
partially replace tallow for soap manufacturing. Palm stearin is also used at times as a
cost-effective replacement for tallow. Palm stearin yields 11% glycerine per unit of fat,
while tallow yields only 10%; it also has a higher saponification value than tallow. For
this reason a soap blend with palm stearin will require less palm kernel or coconut oil.
The C12C16 lauric oils, coconut oil, palm kernel oil, and palm kernel olein,
also contribute to detergency and lather formation. The lather formed from the lauric oils is larger and more voluminous compared with the C16C18 oils; however,
the C16C18 oils have a more stable and thicker lather. Since the characteristics of
palm kernel oil resemble coconut oil, palm kernel oil can be substituted directly for
coconut oil in soap production. Palm kernel olein, a fractionated product of palm
kernel oil, being similar to coconut oil is also a good raw material for soaps and
can be used as a cheaper replacement for coconut oil.
The following abbreviations for the raw materials will be used in the rest of
this chapter: tallow (T); coconut oil (CNO); palm oil (PO); palm oil stearin (POs);
palm kernel oil (PKO); palm kernel oil olein (PKOo). For tallow-based soaps, the
ratios of fatty acids are 88T:12CNO, 85T:15CNO, 80T:20CNO, 70T:30CNO, and
50T:50CNO. Palm-based soaps are usually made with ratios of 80PO:20PKO,
75PO:25PKO, and 70PO:30PKO. Some other blends are 40POs:40T:20PKO,
40PO:40POs:20PKO, and 70POs:30PKOo.
Soap Noodles (Pellets)
Formulations. The oleochemical industry provides a wide range of raw materials that
can be used to formulate soap bases. In todays market, there are various soap-base
formulations available to satisfy the needs of the manufacturers. Some of these formulations are shown in Table 4.3. In the tables, Soap Base refers to the vacuum-spraydried soap in noodle (pellet) form. Noodles are offered from 6 to 12 mm in diameter
and 10 to 30 mm in length. The properties of the soaps described in the table indicate
that even though the formulations vary, the basic properties are similar except for the
penetration value. Penetration value is a reflection of soap hardness; the lower the
value the harder the soaps are, while higher values indicate a softer soap. If palmbased soaps contain distilled palm stearin fatty acid, the resultant bar soaps obtained
are slightly harder as the penetration values are lower (48 mm). Even though the
stearin-containing soaps are harder, the foaming characteristics of the soaps is the
same as that of the other formulations.
TABLE 4.3
Distilled Fatty Acid Soap Blends
Properties
Distilled fatty acid
soap blends
Acid
value
Total fatty
matter (%)
Moisture
(%)
Iodine
value
Titer
(C)
Free
caustic (%)
Sodium
chloride (%)
Penetration
value (mm)
Foam
volume (mL)a
90PO:10PKO
85PO:15PKO
80PO:20PKO
75PO:25PKO
70PO:30PKO
60PO:40PKO
40PO:40PS:20PKO
80POs:20PKO
70POs:30PKO
65POs:35PKO
60POs:40PKO
214
217
219
221
225
229
224
219
225
228
229
84
81
81
82
83
80
81
83
82
82
83
10
11
10
11
10
11
11
12
11
10
11
54.5
52.2
45.2
44.5
43.5
38.2
37.0
27.0
29.0
25.2
22.0
43.0
42.2
41.3
38.4
37.5
37.5
46.0
48.0
47.0
45.0
43.8
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.04
0.06
0.03
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.3
53
52
51
50
50
50
48
48
48
48
48
530/365
520/355
505/345
513/343
520/340
510/350
470/306
510/345
500/325
525/355
500/368
aSee Glossary for foam volume test details for all tables that list foam volumes.
Abbreviations: See Table 4.2.
The fatty acid composition of the soap blends based on the formulation in Table
4.3 is shown in Table 4.4. This table describes the blends based on fatty acid compositions made up mainly of hydrocarbon chains of C12, C14, C16, and C18. Tallow-based
soaps, even if they originate from different raw material (combination of tallow and
coconut oil or palm kernel oil), due to similarity in the fatty acid composition of the
raw materials, will have similar base properties (Table 4.5). Formulations based on tallow, palm stearin, and palm kernel oil blends are also available. The fatty acid composition of the blends and the resultant soap properties are shown in Tables 4.6 and 4.7.
A palm stearin and palm kernel olein blend can also produce a soap base with characteristics similar to other bases. Tables 4.8 and 4.9 show the properties of soaps based
on the formulations from these two types of oils.
Specifications. The technical specifications of standard tallow and palm soap bases
are listed in Table 4.10. There are two types of standard palm soap bases, one with free
caustic and the other with free acid. During fatty acid neutralization, the alkali is
always added in excess of its stoichiometric requirement to ensure complete neutralization and leaving a free caustic (NaOH) content of 0.040.08%. The soap bases also
contain Free Fatty Acid (FFA). The properties of palm and tallow soap bases are similar except for the titer, in which palm soap bases have a higher and wider titer range,
4047C compared to a tallow soap base. This is because some palm soap bases contain palm stearin, which contributes to the higher titer. The cleansing and the lathering
performances of both soap bases are similar because the fatty acid composition of both
soap bases is similar.
Most of the soap bases contain preservatives to ensure the stability of the soaps.
The function of preservatives is to prevent rancidity of the soap bases by chelating
metal traces, thus protecting the fatty acids in the soap from oxidation.
Toilet Soaps
Traditional toilet soap bars are made from 8085% tallow and 1520% coconut or
palm kernel oil. This ratio has been expanded due to the availability of the soap
bases with various combinations of the C16C18 fatty acids and C12C14 fatty
acids. Vegetable-based soap bars commonly found in the market are made from
blends of palm oil and palm kernel oil or their fatty acids. The ratio of the blend is
usually 80PO:20PKO, 85PO:15PKO, 40PO:40POs:20PKO, and 70POs:30PKO.
Soap characteristics with these blend types are shown in Table 4.11. The properties
of tallow-based soap bars analyzed by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board are shown in
Table 4.12. The difference between the properties of tallow- and palm-based soaps
is in the titer value. Palm-based soap bars have higher titer while most of the tallow-based bars are between 3639C. Palm-based soap bars with blends containing palm oil and palm kernel oil normally have titers in the range of 4043C,
while those containing palm stearin normally have a higher titer of 4346C. Other
parameters are similar for both types of soap bars. One noticeable feature is the
high free fatty acid in both tallow- and palm-based soap bars. Today most bar soap
TABLE 4.4
Fats and Oils Composition
Fats and oils composition
Fats and oils
Tallow
Palm oil
Palm stearin
Coconut oil
Palm kernel oil
Palm kernel olein
Source: Witco (1).
Caprylic
C8:0
Capric
C10:0
Lauric
C12:0
Myristic
C14:0
Palmitic
C16:0
Stearic
C18:0
Oleic
C18:1
Linoleic
C18:2
Other
7.6
1.4
4.3
7.3
2.9
3.7
0.3
0.7
48.2
50.9
42.6
3.4
1.1
1.5
16.6
18.4
12.4
26.3
43.1
55.7
9.0
9.7
8.4
22.4
4.6
4.8
3.8
1.9
2.5
43.1
39.3
29.5
5.0
14.6
22.3
1.4
10.7
7.2
2.5
1.2
3.4
3.4
0.9
0.6
0.4
TABLE 4.5
Fatty Acid Composition of Distilled Fatty Acid Blends
Fatty acid composition
Fatty acid
soap blends
Caprylic
C8:0
Capric
C10:0
Lauric
C12:0
Myristic
C14:0
Palmitic
C16:0
Stearic
C18:0
Oleic
C18:1
Linoleic
C18:2
Other
0.07
0.30
0.98
0.97
0.16
1.09
0.30
0.30
0.20
0.50
0.60
0.27
0.56
0.86
0.85
1.05
1.23
0.10
0.60
1.00
1.75
2.20
6.05
8.69
12.82
13.55
17.38
19.48
11.80
9.80
9.22
14.12
19.50
2.01
3.71
5.80
6.56
6.19
7.40
4.70
4.50
4.21
5.63
7.400
40.00
31.27
35.75
33.58
29.78
33.18
45.80
53.100
54.13
49.65
44.30
4.79
4.21
3.53
3.69
3.87
3.39
3.80
3.70
4.65
3.58
3.30
38.41
37.25
32.89
33.43
33.24
29.97
29.40
22.45
22.42
20.97
19.40
8.12
7.03
7.04
7.05
7.73
6.07
3.70
4.70
3.71
3.07
2.50
0.28
0.51
0.33
0.42
0.58
0.16
0.33
0.82
0.73
0.67
0.61
90PO:10PKO
85PO:15PKO
80PO:20PKO
75PO:25PKO
70PO:30PKO
60PO:40PKO
40PO:40PS:20PKO
80POs:20PKO
70POs:30PKO
65POs:35PKO
60POs:40PKO
TABLE 4.6
Distilled Tallow and Vegetable Fatty Acid Blends and Resultant Soap Properties
Soap properties
Tallow and vegetable
fatty acid soap blends
Acid
value
Titer
(C)
Iodine
value
Free caustic
(%)
Moisture
(%)
Penetration value
(mm)
Foam volume
(mL)a
80T:20PKO
40T:40PS:20PKO
60T:20PS:20PKO
216.4
220.0
218.9
39.1
41.4
39.4
34.4
27.2
31.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
8.9
7.9
8.5
35
33
33
406/385
398/390
400/394

aSee Glossary.
TABLE 4.7
Distilled Tallow and Vegetable Fatty Acid Soap Blends Composition
Tallow and vegetable
fatty acid soap blends
80T:20PKO
40T:40PS:20PKO
60T:20PS:20PKO
Caprylic
C8:0
Capric
C10:0
Lauric
C12:0
Myristic
C14:0
Palmitic
C16:0
Palmitoleic
C16:1
Stearic
C18:0
Oleic
C18:1
Linoleic
C18:2
Other
0.3
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.7
9.3
9.0
9.7
6.7
4.8
5.7
22.3
32.6
30.9
1.0
1.1
1.4
17.7
9.2
1.0
32.4
24.2
28.9
2.9
3.0
2.8
6.5
3.0
5.5
TABLE 4.8
Vegetable Oil Blends and Resultant Soap Properties
Soap properties
Vegetable oil soap blends
Acid
value
Titer
(C)
Iodine
value
Free caustic
(%)
Moisture
(%)
Penetration value
(mm)
Foam volume
(mL)a
90PS:10PKOo
80PS:20PKOo
70PS:30PKOo
60PS:40PKOo
50PS:50PKOo
179.3
185.0
188.4
190.7
195.9
47.3
43.8
42.0
41.2
40.4
27.9
29.6
27.5
27.8
25.4
0.12
0.05
0.20
0.09
0.10
14.3
14.0
15.2
15.2
17.6
48
48
50
52
54
340/198
321/220
336/236
340/215
365/222
Abbreviations: Palm kernel oil olein, PKOo; see Table 4.2.

aSee Glossary.
TABLE 4.9
Fatty Acid Composition of Vegetable Oil Soap Blends
Vegetable oil
soap blends
Caprylic
C8:0
Capric
C10:0
Lauric
C12:0
Myristic
C14:0
Palmitic
C16:0
Palmitoleic
C16:1
Stearic
C18:0
Oleic
C18:1
Linoleic
C18:2
Other
90PS:10PKOo
80PS:20PKOo
70PS:30PKOo
60PS:40PKOo
50PS:50PKOo
0.3
0.6
1.1
1.4
1.7
0.4
0.7
1.0
1.3
1.5
4.8
8.5
13.2
16.3
20.6
2.7
3.7
5.1
6.0
7.6
60.3
53.5
48.8
44.0
39.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
3.9
4.5
4.0
3.9
3.8
22.2
22.5
22.3
22.4
21.5
4.4
4.1
4.1
3.9
3.4
0.7
1.8
0.5
0.6
0.5
Abbreviations: See Tables 4.2 and 4.8.
TABLE 4.10
Standard Soap Basesa
Specifications
Standard soap bases
Total fatty
matter (%)
Moisture
(%)
Free fatty acid

(%)
Free caustic
(%)
NaCl
(%)
Glycerine
(%)
SNTB 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40b

SNTB 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40
N3020 and N4020
N3021 and N4021
Palmsabun 6000, 7000, 7500, and 8000
SEO 8020c
SEO 8020
SEO 7525
SEO 7525
SEO 7030
SEO 7525
SEO 7525
D215P
Prisavon 9220
Prisavon 9240
Taurus 134
Polaris 134
7881
7881
7881
7881
7981
78**
78**
78**
78**
78**
7982
7982
7783
7881
7982
75.580.5
75.580.5
11.014.0
11.014.0
10.513.0
10.513.0
10.512.5
13.5*
13.5*
13.5*
13.5*
13.5*
13.5*
13.5*
8.015.0
11.513.5
10.013.0
10.012.0
10.012.0
1.3*
2.0*
1.3*
1.3*
1.3*
1.3*
1.3*
1.03.0
0.6
0.05*
0.05*
0.05*
0.05*
0.05*
0.000.06
0.010.05
0.10*
0.6*
0.6*
0.40.7
0.40.7
0.40.6
0.6*
0.6*
0.6*
0.6*
0.6*
0.5*
0.5*
0.30.6
0.40.6
0.30.5
0.30.7
0.8
0.5*
0.5*
1.0*
1.0*
0.30.7
1.51.8
0.20.4
4**
79
Sources: aReferences 59, 13, and Southern Edible Oil Sdn. Bhd (personal communication).
bThe numbers next to the SNTB bases denote the lauric acid content in the soap and the balance is an equal blend of RDB palm oil and palm stearin.
cThe numbers next to the SEO bases denote the palm oil (PO) to palm kernel oil (PKO) ratios, e.g., SEO 7525 consists of a 75/25 PO/PKO blend.
*Maximum; **minimum.
producers prefer to use free fatty acid rather than free alkali type bases. The lathering
properties, indicated by the foam volume of the soap bars in Tables 4.11 and 4.12,
show that the foam volume of both types of soap bars is within the same range.
Superfatting
Superfatting is the addition of fatty materials, be it fats and oils or fatty acids, to
soap bars. The main objectives of superfatting are to neutralize the free alkali in
the soap before it is dried into dry soap base, improve the lather volume and lather
thickness, enhance skin feel, and prevent bar soap cracking.
The type and level of superfatting agent used determine the desired properties
of the final product. In most cases superfatting is done through the addition of fatty
acids or neutral oils at a level that would not impede processing and would not be
detrimental to the final properties of the soap products. Stearic acid, palm oil fatty
acid, and coconut fatty acids are the most commonly used superfatting agents. In
most cases the amount added is usually in the range of 510%.
Formulations. Palm-based soaps with formulations of 70POs:30PKO and 40POs:
40PO:20PKO superfatted with 2, 4, and 6% distilled fatty acids increase the free
fatty acid content of the soap bases as shown in Table 4.13. Tables 4.14, 4.15, and
4.16 show the properties of soap bases superfatted with glycerine, coconut oil, and
olive oil, respectively. The higher the amount of these superfatting agents, the softer the soap bases will be.
Specifications. Some soap bases are superfatted with fatty acids; this small
amount of free fatty acid provides moisturizing effects, good skin feel, mild, gives
better lather volume, and adds good plasticity to soap (Table 4.17).
It is noted that in Table 4.10 for most palm soap bases that the free acid is
1.3%; in order to obtain a soap base with free acid, the excess alkali of the standard
alkaline soap base is neutralized with fatty acids of the main blend or other fatty
acids, such as palm oil, palm kernel oil, palmitic acid, or lauric acid. The presence
of this free fatty acid provides better perfume release, since free alkali tends to
react with certain compounds in the perfume. Soap bases containing these free
fatty acids are in demand when compared to the alkali-free soap bases.
NoMar bases prevent marring, which marks soaps. Specialty soaps displayed in
baskets and other types of containers are prone to marring as they touch each other.
This unsightly damage can occur with unwrapped and wrapped soap bars as they age
and lose moisture. Table 4.18 lists suppliers of specially formulated NoMar bases for
the prevention of soap marring.
Transparent and Translucent Soaps

The raw materials used to manufacture transparent and translucent soaps have to be
pure, with minimum color, to ensure that the final products have good transparency or
TABLE 4.11
Palm-Based Toilet Soaps
Properties
Palm-based
toilet soaps
Zaitun
Palmolive
Lux
May
Kao
Nona
Ria
Total fatty matter

(%)
Moisture
(%)
Free fatty acid

(%)
Free caustic
(%)
Sodium chloride
(%)
Titer
(C)
Foam volume
(mL)a
8185
8084
8184
8286
8084
8081
7981
911
913
913
811
911
910
1013
1.33.8
4.06.0
1.03.0
1.03.0
7.0**
0.05*
0.03
0.50.7
1.2
1.0
0.5
0.71.0
1.0*
0.5
4647
4647
4144
4547
3940
4344
4243
410/240
380/210
495/330
410/240
400/230
510/280
535/380
*Maximum, **minimum.
aSee Glossary.
TABLE 4.12
Tallow-Based Toilet Soaps
Properties
Tallow-based
toilet soaps
Fa
Dial
Coast
Tone
Safeguard
Irish Spring
Palmolive
Ivory
aSee
Glossary.
Total fatty matter

(%)
Moisture
(%)
Free fatty acid

(%)
Free caustic
(%)
Sodium chloride
(%)
Titer
(C)
Foam volume
(mL)a
75
78
82
81
82
79
75
71
7.0
11.0
11.5
10.0
9.3
8.5
11.2
21.0
1.7
3.7
0.8
3.4
0.7
8.3
0.04
0.03
0.6
1.4
0.6
1.1
0.7
1.5
0.3
0.7
39.0
37.0
36.2
36.7
36.6
34.2
37.6
36.6
495/335
500/335
535/375
560/410
530/375
340/170
560/410
480/330
TABLE 4.13
Soap Bases Superfatted with Distilled Soap Fatty Acids (DFA)
Properties
Superfatted soap blends with
distilled fatty acids (DFA)
Total fatty
matter
(%)
Free fatty
acid
(%)
Moisture
(%)
Free caustic
(%)
Sodium
chloride
(%)
Penetration
value
(mm)
Foam
volume
(mL)a
76
77
78
77
76
80
78
83
1.3
1.3
3.7
1.3
3.2
6.8
16
17
14
16
14
12
15
10
0.16
0.15
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
50
51
51
62
46
51
52
74
415/230
340/205
240/107
270/112
470/305
490/335
355/185
360/175
70POs:30PKO
with 2% (DFA)
with 4% (DFA)
with 6% (DFA)
40POs:40PS:20PKO
with 2% (DFA)
with 4% (DFA)
with 6% (DFA)
Abbreviations: See Table 4.2. aSee Glossary.
TABLE 4.14
Soap Bases with Glycerine
Properties
Soap bases with glycerine
Total fatty matter

(%)
Moisture
(%)
Free caustic
(%)
Sodium chloride
(%)
Penetration value
(mm)
Foam volume
(mL)a
82
83
84
81
80
81
11
11
12
11
11
11
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.20
0.10
0.10
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.5
48
51
52
48
66
75
500/325
505/337
517/340
470/306
520/350
500/340
70POs:30PKO
with 1% glycerine
with 2% glycerine
40POs:40PO:20PKO
with 1% glycerine
with 2% glycerine
TABLE 4.15
Soap Bases with Coconut Oil
Properties
Soap bases with coconut oil
Total fatty
matter (%)
Free fatty
acid (%)
Moisture
(%)
Free caustic
(%)
Sodium
chloride (%)
Penetration value
(mm)
Foam
volume (mL)a
82
86
86
86
81
81
84
90
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.4
0.6
0.6
11
12
10
11
11
11
9
10
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
38
43
44
48
46
46
48
78
485/315
517/375
507/375
512/375
465/300
480/314
475/318
485/325
70POs:30PKO
with 2% coconut oil
with 4% coconut oil
with 6% coconut oil
40POs:40PO:20PKO
with 2% coconut oil
with 4% coconut oil
with 6% coconut oil
TABLE 4.16
Soap Bases with Olive Oil
Properties
Soap bases
with olive oil
70POs:30PKO
with 2% olive oil
with 4% olive oil
with 6% olive oil
40POs:40PO:20PKO
with 2% olive oil
with 4% olive oil
with 6% olive oil
Free caustic
(%)
Free fatty acid

(%)
Moisture
(%)
Total fatty matter

(%)
Sodium chloride
(%)
Penetration value
(mm)
Foam volume
(mL)a
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.4
0.6
0.6
11
12
10
11
11
11
9
10
82
85
86
86
81
81
84
90
0.2
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
38
39
57
70
46
46
48
78
480/308
538/355
550/357
558/380
473/305
467/300
490/346
478/335
TABLE 4.17
Superfatted Soap Basesa
Total fatty
matter
Moisture
Superfatted soap bases

SNSF-20
SNSF-30
SNSF-40
Palmsabun 8005
Palmsabun 7505
Palmsabun 7005
D225P
Prisavon 1650***
Prisavon 9218
Prisavon 9242
Prisavon 9244
Prisavon 9245
Free fatty
acid
NaCl
Glycerine
0.6*
0.6*
0.6*
0.40.6
0.40.6
0.40.6
0.41.0
0.40.7
0.40.6
0.30.5
0.40.6
0.40.6
0.5*
0.5*
0.5*
0.51.5
1.01.4
1.51.8
1.11.5
1.42.0
1.42.0
(%)
7881
7881
7881
8082
8082
8082
7383
8184
7881
7077
8083
7881
11.014.0
11.014.0
11.014.0
10.512.5
10.512.5
10.512.5
10.014.0
8.011.0
11.513.5
11.014.0
9.011.0
11.014.0
3.05.0
3.05.0
3.05.0
2.54.5
2.54.5
2.54.5
2.55.0
1.0*
1.03.0
1.52.5
1.52.5
1.52.5
Sources: aReferences 5, 6, 8, and 9.

*Maximum; **minimum; ***preservative free.
translucency. About half of a transparent soap formula is soap produced from tallow, RBD (Refined, Bleached and Deodorized) palm oil, RBD palm kernel oil,
coconut oil, castor oil, rosin, and other fats and oils. The remaining ingredients
include additives such as sucrose, sorbitol, glycerine, ethanolamide, coconut diethnolamine, triethanolamine (TEA), propylene glycol, -olefin sulfonate (AOS),
sodium cocoyl isethionate (SCI), sodium lauryl ether sulfate (SLES), and alcohol
(10).
Transparent soaps are made by the batch cast (poured, molded) process.
Companies that do not manufacture their own transparent products can purchase
already formulated translucent bases by producers of Melt and Pour (M&P)-type specialty bases. The M&P base can be easily melted; fragrance, color, additives to
enhance bar performance, and even interesting inserts can be added to the melted
TABLE 4.18
NoMar Soap Bases
Properties
NoMar soap bases
Pace-HGL
Plastibar
Prisavon 9259
Opal 508
Sources: aReferences 5, 8, 9, and 11.
Total fatty matter (%)
Moisture (%)
Glycerine (%)
74**
6975
69.573.5
7277
13*
1115
1315
1114
68
68
68
68
TABLE 4.19
Translucent Soap Basesa
Total fatty
matter (%)
Moisture
(%)
Free fatty
acid (%)
Glycerine
(%)
PACE TL2001
ISC Diamond
67**
6773
15.0*
15.018.0
68
710
Prisavon 1979
Prisavon 1984
Pearl 510 and 511
6570
6469
6368
13.015.0
13.516.0
15.018.0
Trident & Aries 254
66.572.5
14.518.0
3.0*
2.83.4
(as oleic acid)
2.03.0
2.03.0
1.52.5
(as stearic acid)
1.752.5
(as stearic acid)
Translucent soap bases
78
78
68
68
Sources: aReferences 5, 8, 9, 11, and 13.

base. The finished product is poured into molds where it solidifies. Molds of many
types and shapes are available from several suppliers. M&P soap making has become
popular with homemade and specialty gift type soap makers. Stephenson Personal
Care (11) offers a wide range of M&P products under the Crystal name.
Unlike transparent soaps, translucent soaps are extruded continuously. Most
translucent soaps contain sorbitol, glycerine, propylene glycol, and some have TEA;
the moisture content should be at least 15%. In the past, other additives were also used
but were slowly eliminated because they provided no extra transparency enhancement. During the last few years, several major companies launched many translucent
soaps, packaged in transparent packaging materials worldwide. Firms that do not produce their own translucent soap but have bar soap finishing equipment can buy finished translucent bases (Table 4.19).
Laundry Bars
Laundry bar soaps are used for general household cleaning and manual washing.
With the advent of detergent powders and bars, laundry soaps have become less
popular and their use is declining. There are three types of laundry bar products on
the market, namely laundry soap bars, synthetic laundry bars, and combo laundry
bars. Soap bars primarily contain anhydrous soap as the surfactant, syndet bars
contain only synthetic surfactant, and combo bars are a mixture of soap and synthetic surfactant.
Few laundry soap bases are offered, since most companies make their laundry
bars starting from raw materials instead of buying the base. Palm laundry soap
bases are offered by Pan-Centurys Edible Oils Sdn. Bhd. and Southern Edible Oils
Sdn. Bhd. The technical specifications are shown in Table 4.20. The laundry soap
bar market is very large in many developing countries, but it is very limited in the
industrialized regions and therefore only three brands were analyzed (Table 4.21).
TABLE 4.20
Palm Laundry Soap Bases
Properties
Palm laundry soap bases
Moisture
(%)
Free fatty acid

(%)
Free caustic
(%)
Sodium chloride
(%)
Titer
(C)
7881
7881
75b
70b
75b
70b
65b
11.014.0
11.014.0
18a
23a
18a
23a
1823
1.3a
1.3a
1.3a
1.3a
1.3a
1.3a
0.05a
0.05a
0.1a0
0.1a0
0.1a0
0.1a0
0.05a
0.6a
0.6a
0.6a
0.6a
0.6a
0.6a
0.5
4448
4246
4648
SNTC 10
SNTC 20
SNLW-1
SNLW-2
SNLC-1
SNLC-2
SEOL
aMaximum.
bMinimum.
Sources: Pan-Century Edible Oil Sdn. Bhd. (5), and Southern Edible Oil Sdn. Bhd. (personal communication).
TABLE 4.21
Palm-Based Laundry Bar Soaps
Properties
Palm-based
laundry bar soaps
Buruh
Mysore
Jabon
Moisture
(%)
Free fatty acid

(%)
Free caustic
(%)
Sodium chloride
(%)
Titer
(C)
7075
82
71
1520
8
27
3.0
0.05
0.04
0.05
0.5
0.4
0.4
4648
4048
4048
Conclusion
In summary the properties of tallow soap bases and palm soap bases are similar
except for titer. The higher titer in some palm soap bases is attributed to the incorporation of palm stearin in the soap blend; however, the performance of both types
of soap bases is similar. Hardness of the soaps due to high titer can be addressed
by the addition of superfatting agents. The amount added will depend on the nature
of the superfatting agents and their effect on the properties of the final soap bars.
Two of the major competitors for toilet bar soaps are the body washes and the
liquid soaps. In Western Europe liquid body wash sales exceed bar soap, while in
the United States bar soap consumption is still higher but the use of liquids has
been growing yearly. In the Asian market, bar soap dominates the market because
it is cheaper than liquid soap, contains more surfactant, has long shelf life, and is
easy to transport.
Liquid body wash is also popular; this is due to the presence of various skin-care
additives in the products. Nevertheless, bar soap manages to overcome this drawback
by adding natural skin-care and facial-care ingredients. These natural ingredients are
usually plant extracts with special properties. This can be seen in the range of translucent and transparent soap bases produced by Stephenson Personal Care. Besides the
use of natural additives, bar soap manufacturers are also keeping up with the present
trend of low pH soaps by producing less alkaline soap through superfatting with fatty
acids, adding surfactant, and incorporating emollients or moisturizers. Thus, the soap
manufacturers have to be creative in producing soaps with different properties, functions, and variations to satisfy this greater demand.
Glossary
Acid Value (AV). The acid value is the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) necessary to neutralize the fatty acids in 1 g of sample. Higher AV materials allow faster-appearing but less stable suds creation. Lower AV materials allow
slower-appearing but more stable suds formation. A lower AV means more cleansing
(detergency). AV is used for fatty acids only to provide an estimate of SV. The AV
for fatty acids is very close to the SV. The AV is usually ~2 points lower than the SV.
Fatty Acids. Fatty acids are linear, mainly even carbonnumbered long-chain hydrocarbons with a terminal carboxyl group. Unsaturated fatty acids are those with one or
more double bonds in their carbon chain structure.
Free Alkalinity (Free Caustic). Free alkalinity is the amount of alkali content present
in a sample expressed as a percentage weight of free sodium hydroxide (NaOH). The
higher the free alkalinity, the greater the skin irritation from soap. The higher the alkalinity, the greater the cleaning power of soap. For toilet soaps, lower alkalinity is preferred for a better product stability with respect to color and odor. For laundry soaps,
higher alkalinity is preferred for better cleansing properties of the product.
Free Fatty Acid (FFA). This is the free fatty acid content present in a sample commonly expressed as oleic acid, but it can also be expressed as palmitic acid or
stearic acid.
Free Glycerine. The amount of free glycerine present in the sample expressed as a
percentage weight of the total sample. It is perceived as a moisturizer. Glycerine levels
2% will harden soap. Levels > 2% yield a softer and stickier soap. Glycerine is used
as a processing aid for low-moisture, high-titer products.
Foam Volume. This is the measure of the foamability of a cleansing product. The
foam volumes (mL) listed in the tables were determined using a 0.1% soap solution
placed in a measuring cylinder and agitated with a perforated paddle stirrer for 30
strokes. The initial measurement (first number) was recorded after the end of the agitation and the final foam volume (second number) was recorded 5 min after the agitation
stopped. There are different foam test protocol methods. The Ross Miles method is the
most widely used. All of the methods give relative volumes and are used for lather
comparison. There is no standard method giving absolute values.
Iodine Value (IV). The iodine value is a measure of the unsaturation (double bonds)
in fats, oils, and fatty acids. It is expressed in terms of the number of grams of iodine
absorbed by 100 g of sample (% iodine absorbed). The higher the IV, the higher the
degree of unsaturation and the greater the vulnerability for rancidity. As the IV level
increases, soaps become softer and stickier. Foaming and cleansing increase as the IV
increases and decrease as the IV decreases in higher-chain saturated fatty acids.
Coconut oil (IV range of 712) is an exception. It produces the hardest soap and the
fastest sudsing, but lacks suds stability.
Lovibond Color. This is a color measurement of the fats, oils, and fatty acids determined with a Lovibond Tintometer. A 5.25 glass cell containing the sample is compared with Lovibond glass red (R) and yellow (Y) color standards and the colors are
recorded in R and Y units. The R value is the color-controlling value. An R value 1.0
is preferred for the production of white soaps. An R value > 2.5 will result in off-white
(darker color) soaps.
Melting Point. The temperature expressed in C at which a triglyceride or fatty
acid liquefies.
Moisture Content. This is the amount of volatile material present in a sample
expressed as a percentage weight.
Penetration Value. This is a measure of bar soap hardness. It is expressed as the
depth (mm) to which a penetrometer needle penetrates a bar of soap when subjected to
a 50-g weight. The deeper the needle travels, the softer the soap.
Saponification Value (SV). The saponification value is defined as the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) required to saponify 1 g of sample. SV is used
to determine the average molecular weight (MW) of fats and oils being saponified,
using the formula: MW = 56,100/SV. Mixtures of high- and low-SV stocks provide
very desirable levels of sudsing and cleansing. Typically, 1030% of high-SV and
9070% of low-SV triglycerides are used.
Sodium Chloride. The amount of sodium chloride (NaCl) present in a sample
expressed as a percentage weight of sodium chloride or simply chloride. Sodium chloride is one of the most critical ingredients for soap processing and product attributes.
Sodium chloride hardens the soap, but high levels can create cracking and decrease
sudsing. In standard nonsuperfatted low coco soaps, the level should not exceed 0.5%.
The chloride level increases in nonsuperfatted soaps, depending upon the level of
coco/palm kernel soap in the product. It can be as high as 23% in high coco-containing soaps. Superfatted soaps can have up to 1.5% sodium chloride without detrimental
effects.
Titer. This is the measure of the solidification point of fatty matter (fats, oils, and
fatty acids) measured in C. Higher titer provides harder soap. Lower titer provides
better cleansing (with longer-chain fatty acids or triglycerides).
Total Fatty Matter (TFM). Total fatty matter is expressed as the fatty acids
obtained from soap and is the sum of the free fatty acid, the fatty acid obtained
from soap, and the unsaponifiables. The test method used for determination of
TFM requires the splitting of soap using mineral acids and then the extraction of
the fatty matter using petroleum ether. Total fatty matter does not include the fatty
matter generated by nonsoapy synthetic actives. The TFM of triglyceride is the
amount of fatty acids produced by splitting the oil. The TFM of fatty acids is the
total weight of fatty acids. Fatty acids are 100% TFM.
Unsaponified and Unsaponifiable matter (U&U). The unsaponified matter consists of neutral unreacted fat, which is not saponified. The unsaponifiable matter
includes substances frequently found dissolved in fats and oils that cannot be
saponified with caustic alkalies but are soluble in ordinary fat solvents. U&U comprises the amount of substances soluble in petroleum ether present in the sample
and is expressed as a percentage weight. High unsaponifiable content makes soap
sticky and can lead to discoloration. Unsaponifiables contribute to the emolliency
and skin-feel attributes of soap bars. They basically act as superfatting agents
and are a part of the TFM.
Note: For detailed analytical testing procedures please consult the official AOCS
Methods.
Soap Calculations
Two Routes to Soap Making
Two primary routes exist for soap making (14).
1. Triglycerides
RCOOCH2
|
RCOOCH
|
RCOOCH2
Triglyceride
3NaOH
3RCOONa
caustic soda
soap
CH2OH
|
CHOH
|
CH2OH
glycerine
2. Fatty acids
RCOOH
Fatty acid
+
+
NaOH
caustic soda
RCOONa
soap
+
+
H2O
water
Fat Blend Calculations

The SV, IV, and titer are all additive of the proportional values of fat blend components. The SV, IV, and titer of an 80/20 blend of tallow (SV 197, IV 45, titer 41)
and coconut oil (SV 257, IV 10, titer 22) can be calculated per Table 4.22.
Caustic Soda Requirement Calculations

The saponification of a fat blend results in the formation of soap and glycerine (Eq. 1).
triglyceride + 3 NaOH 3 RCOONa + glycerine
[1]
The fat blend and caustic soda are mixed in a nearly stoichiometric ratio, with
~0.10.5% excess of alkali. The molecular weight of the fat blend is calculated per
Equation 2.
MW fat =
56.1
168, 300
3 1000 =
SV
SV
[2]
TABLE 4.22
Calculation of SV, IV, and Titer of an 80/20 Tallow/Coconut Oil Blend
Fat component
(%)
SV
Titer (C)
IV
Tallow
Coconut oil
Blend
80
20
100
197 80%
257 20%
209
41 80%
22 20%
37.2
45 80%
10 20%
38
Problem 1. Calculate the MW of an 80/20% blend of tallow (SV 197) and

coconut oil (SV 258).
MW tallow =
168, 300
= 854
197
MW coco =
168, 300
= 652
258
MW 80 / 20
T/C
= (854 80%) + (652 20%) = 813.6
The amount of caustic soda required to saponify a fat blend of known SV can be
calculated via Equation 3.
MW NaOH
SV
40
SV
= SV 0. 000713g / g
1000 MW KOH 1000 56.1
[3]
Problem 2. Calculate the amount of caustic soda (50%) required to saponify 500
lb of an 80/20% (SV 209) tallow/coconut oil blend.
NaOH 50% = SV
= 209
0. 000713
100
50
0. 000713
100 g / g
50
= 0. 298g / g 500 lb = 149 lb
Saponification ProductsQuantity Calculations

The Quantity of Soap
The amount of soap produced in a saponification reaction can be calculated from
Equations 46.
triglyceride + 3 NaOH = 3 soap + glycerine
1 mol 3 40 = 120 3 mol
92
soap wt = MW fat + 120 92 = MW fat + 28
[4]
fat wt
=
( fat MW + 28)
fat MW
[5]
fat SV 168, 300

= wt
+ 28
168, 300 SV
[6]
The Quantity of Glycerine

Glycerine liberated in a saponification mixture can be calculated from Equation 7.
Since triglyceride + 3 KOH = soap + glycerol,
glycerine % =
SV
92
100
1000 168.3
= SV 0. 0547
glycerine wt =
SV 0. 0547 fat wt
100
[7]
For fat blends with high levels of FFA, the following calculation will give the
glycerine content of the saponification mixtures (Eq. 8):
fat triglyceride , (TG) = SV AV
glycerine % =
TG
92
100
1000 168.3
glycerine % = TG 0. 0547
[8]
Problem 3. Calculate the amounts of soap and glycerine produced in the saponification of a blend of 250 lb of tallow (SV 197) and 250 lb of coconut fatty acid (AV
260; SV 260).
In this case, fatwt = 500 lb, and
Tallow
SV
197 50% = 98.5
Coconut fatty acid
260 50% = 130
AV
260 50% = 130
TG = SV AV
TG = SV AV
= (SV [tallow] + SV [coconut fatty acid] AV
= (SV [tallow] + SV [coconut fatty acid]) AV
= (98.5 + 130) 130
= (98.5 + 130) 130
= 228.5 130
= 228.5 130
= 98.5
= 98.5
glycerine wt = TG 0. 0547
= 98. 5 0. 0547
= 5.39%
= 5.39 500 / 100
= 26. 95 lb (from Eq. 8)
(continued p. 138)
500
168, 300
soap wt =
228.5
+ 28 (from Eq. 6)
168, 300
228.5
= 0.679 76
= 519 lb
The amount of caustic soda required for this reaction can be calculated per
Equation 3.
NaOHwt = 228.5 0.000713 500
= 81.46 lb (100% NaOH)
Total Fatty Matter (TFM) Calculation

For product specifications purposes, TFM of a fat mixture is obtained from triglyceride (TG) mass, less its glycerine content, plus water (Eq. 9).
triglyceride + 3 H2O = 3 RCOOH + glycerine
3 18 = 54
fatty acid
92
TFM = (TG + 54) 92
= TG 38
TG eq.wt =
56.1
1000
SV
FFA eq.wt = TG (38 / 3)

56,100
=
12.66
SV
FFA eq.wt
TFN% =
TG eq.wt
Fatty Acid Blend Calculations

The following three methods are utilized in the calculation of fatty acid and alkali
reactants: the molecular weight (MW) method, the gram-mole (G-Mole) method,
and the acid value (AV) method.
In the molecular weight method, the fatty acid and alkali are blended in the
ratio of their molecular weights. The G-Mole method is a variant of molecular
weight method; the reactants are mixed in their grams per mole ratio. The acid
value method permits the blending of fatty acids and alkalis on the basis of the acid
value of the fatty acid utilized in the neutralization reaction.
NaOHwt = FAwt AV 0.713 NaOH (%)
Since molecular weight and acid value are interrelated: MW = 56.1/AV
1000, the molecular weight method will be described in more detail in this chapter.
For fatty acids, the acid value (AV), titer, and saponification value (SV) are
all additive of the partial moieties present in the blend. Thus, for a blend of tallow
and coconut fatty acids in a 80/20% ratio, the AV of the blend is 218 (Table 4.23).
Caustic Soda Requirement Calculations

For the reaction, RCOOH + NaOH = RCOONa + H2O, use Equation 10.
FAMW
40 (FAMW + 22) 18
FA MW =
56.1
56,100
1000 =
AV
AV
FA wt
NaOH wt =
40
FA MW
FA wt
=
40
(56,100 / AV)
=
FA wt AV 40
56,100
[10]
TABLE 4.23
Calculation of the Acid Value of a Fatty Acid Blend
Fatty acid component
Tallow (AV 305)

Coconut (AV 270)
80
20
AV
205 80% = 164
270 20% = 54
Total = 218
Fatty Acid Neutralization Products

The Quantity of Soap Produced
Soap produced in the neutralization reaction can be calculated per Equations 11
and 12.
FA wt
soap wt =
( FA wt + 22 )
FA wt
FA wt 56,100
=
22

AV
FA wt
[11]
[12]
The Amount of Water Produced

This is calculated as per Equation 13.
FA wt
water wt =
18
FA MW
[13]
Formula Adjustments
Occasionally, the fatty acid blends or neat soap mixtures require an adjustment of
blend composition due to a weighing or calculation error. This section describes
practical approaches to handling such manufacturing problems.
Fatty Acid Blend Molecular Weight Adjustment

This adjustment usually requires the addition of a fatty acid of molecular weight
lower or higher than the molecular weight of the blend to be adjusted. Equation 14
can be used for this purpose.
Let x
= portion of fatty acid to be added.
(1 x) = portion of fatty acid blend to be adjusted.

x (FA added)MW + {(1 x) [FA (initial blend)MW]} = FA (final blend)MW
[14]
Problem 4. You have a tallow/coconut fatty acid blend of MW 244. How much
tallow fatty acid (MW 274) should be added to it to convert it into a blend of MW
255?
From Equation 14, let x = portion of tallow fatty acid (MW 274) to be added;
(1 x) = portion of initial blend (MW 244).
x(274) + [(1 x)244] = 255

(274x) + (244 244x) = 255
(274x) (244x) = 255 244
30x = 11
x = 0.37; or 37%
(1 x) = 100 37 = 63%
Thus, fatty acid blend (initial) = MW 244 63% = 153.7
tallow fatty acid added = MW 274 37% = 101.3
final blend
= MW 255
An alternative to this calculation is described in Equation 15.

Let initial fatty acid weight = Wt1; MW = MW1
final fatty acid weight = Wt2; MW = MW2; and
fatty acid added weight = x; MW
= MW3
Wt
FA added wt = 1 Wt1
x
x=
MW 3 MW 2
MW 3 MW1
[15]
Problem 5. You have a 100-lb blend of fatty acid, MW 244. How much of a fatty
acid of MW 274 should be added to it to make a final blend of MW 255?
x=
274 255 19
=
= 0.633
274 244 30
100
FA added wt =
100 = 58. 0 lb
0.633
Thus, FA initialwt
= 100 lb (63%)
FA addedwt
= 58 lb (37%)
FA final blendwt = 158 lb
Fa initialMW: 244 63% = 153.7

Fa addedMW: 274 37% = 101.3
FA final blendMW:
= 255
Alkalinity/Acidity Adjustment
In cases of the downward adjustment of the acidity of superfatted formulas,
Equation 16 can be used, where FFA refers to the free fatty acid to be neutralized.
FFA wt = soap wt FFA %

FFA wt
NaOH added =
40
FFA MW
FFA wt 40
=
100

FFA MW NaOH %
[16]
Problem 6. A neat soap batch (400 lb) was found to contain 3% FFA (MW 280).
How much NaOH (50%) should be added to it to make it neutral?
FFA wt = 400 3% = 12 lb
12 40
100 = 3. 4 lb
NaOH added =
280 50
The upward adjustment of the FFA level of a neat soap blend is done via Equation 17.
conversion factor, CF =
soap wt (soap wt FFA initial% )

soap wt (soap wt FFA final % )
FFA added wt = (CF soap wt ) soap wt
[17]
Problem 7. You have a 400-lb batch of neat soap with FFA (MW 280) of 1%.
How much FFA (MW 280) should be added to it for a final FFA (MW 280) content of 2% in the neat soap?
CF =
400 (400 1%) 400 4

=
= 1. 01
400 (400 2%) 400 8
FA added wt = (1. 01 400) 400 = 4. 0 lb

The adjustment of a formula of high alkalinity, via the addition of a fatty acid,
is performed by Equation 18.
alkali wt = soap wt alkalinity%
FA added wt =
alkali wt FA MW
alkali MW
[18]
Problem 8. A 400-lb batch of neat soap has an alkalinity of 1.6% (as NaOH). How
much of a fatty acid of MW 280 should be added to it to make the net soap neutral?
alkali wt = 400 1.6% = 6. 4 lb as NaOH
64 280
= 44l8 lb
40
The molecular weight interconversion of fatty acids can be calculated via
Equation 19.
FA added wt =
FFA A MW A
=
FFA B MW B
[19]
Problem 9. A soap bar sample contains 2% coconut fatty acid (MW 207) as the
superfat. Convert this and express it as tallow fatty acid (MW 273) superfat
value.
207
2
=
FFA B 273
FFA B =
2 273
= 2.63%
207
Problem 10. You have a 400-lb batch of soap containing 2% coconut fatty acid
(MW 208) as the superfat. How much additional coconut fatty acid should be
added to it so that this batch contains a total of 4% super-fat, expressed as stearic
acid (MW 274)?
In this example, we need to determine the amount of coconut fatty acid present
initially in the soap, the above quantity expressed as stearic acid, the additional
amount of coconut fatty acid required, and that quantity expressed as stearic acid.
From Equation 19,
stearic FA initial =
208 274 2
= 2.63%
274
208
FFA added = FFA calculated FFA Iinitial

= 4. 0 2.63
= 1.37%
The above quantity of stearic acid to be added should then be converted into
the coconut fatty acid equivalent, as per Equation 19.
FFA A MW A
=
FFA B MW B
FFA A 208
=
274
1.37
FFA A =
1.37 208
= 1. 04% = (400 1. 04%) = 4.16 lb
274
The batch contains now a total of 8.0 + 4.16 = 12.16 lb (3.01%) of coconut
fatty acid. This is equivalent to 4% stearic acid, as per Equation 19.
The calculation for the adjustment of alkalinity follows: The alkalinity of a formula containing FFA can be increased as per Equation 20.
First, calculate the amount of alkali needed to bring the formula to neutrality
via Equation 16. Then, the amount of additional alkali needed to reach the desired
alkali level is calculated.
alkalinity adjustment, AA =
alkali wt =
alkali final % alkali initial%
100
100
AA soap wt
alkali %
[20]
Problem 11. For a 400-lb batch of neat soap containing 2% FFA (MW 270), how
much NaOH should be added to increase the alkalinity (as NaOH) to 0.1?
From Equation 16, FFA wt = 400 2% = 8 lb
NaOH added =
From Equation 20, AA =
NaOH wt =
8
40 = 1.18 lb
270
0
0.1
= 0. 001
100 100
0. 001 400
100 = 0. 4 lb
100
NaOH total added = 1.18 + 0. 4 lb = 1. 58 lb 100

The alkalinity of a formula, which is already alkaline, can be increased further
by Equation 20; the alkalinity of a formula can be decreased by the addition of a
fatty acid via Equation 18.
Problem 12. A 400-lb batch of neat soap contains 2% FFA (MW 270). How much of
a 30% NaOH solution should be added to it to bring the FFA level to 1% (MW 208)?
A combination of equations will be used for this calculation.

FFA wt = 400 2% = 8 lb
From Equation 19,
8
270
=
FFA B 208
FFA B =
8 208
= 6.16 lb
270
Now, the batch requires 400 1% = 4 lb FFA (MW 208). Thus, excess FFA (MW
208) = 6.16 4 = 2.16 lb. To neutralize 2.16 lb of fatty acid with 30% NaOH,
Equation 16 is utilized:
30% NaOH added =
2.16 40
1.38 lb
208 30
To summarize in molar equivalents, the formulas containing free fatty acids

will have the following weight ratios:
coconut fatty acidwt < stearic acidwt
To illustrate, 5% coconut fatty acid, MW 208 (as FFA) = 6.6% stearic acid,
MW 274 (as FFA). In other terms, it will take a greater quantity of stearic acid than
coconut fatty acid to neutralize a given quantity of alkali.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Dr. Yusof Basiron, the Director General of the Malaysian Palm Oil
Board for his support and permission to write this chapter. Appreciation is also extended to
the various companies for the information they supplied and also to Dr. Hamirin Kifli for his
suggestions and support.
References
1. Witco Corporation, Fatty Acids, Glycerine and Triglycerides, Oleochemicals Booklet
USA, 1997, pp. 911, 16.
2. Tang, T.S., Composition and Properties of Palm Oil Products, in Advances in Oil Palm
Research, edited by Y. Basiron, B.S. Jalani, and K.W. Chan, Malaysian Palm Oil Board,
Selangor, Malaysia, May 2000.
3. Tang, T.S., Specification for Palm Kernel Stearin, in Malaysian Standard, MS 1437,
SIRIM Publications, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia, 1998, pp. 23.
4. Cognis Oleochemicals (M) Sdn. Bhd., OleochemicalsDistilled Fatty Acids, Selangor,

Malaysia, 2003.
5. Pan-Century Edible Oils Sdn. Bhd., Soap Noodle Products Specifications, Johore Bahru,
Malaysia, 2003.
6. Derichem Sdn. Bhd., Penang, Malaysia, Product Specifications, 2003.
7. KSP Manufacturing Sdn. Bhd., NatsoapSoap Noodles Brochure No. 02-1.9.97,
Selangor, Malaysia, 1997.
8. The Dial Corporation, Industrial Chemicals Division, Soap Base Pellets Data Sheets,
Scottsdale, Arizona, 2003.
9. Uniqema, PrisavonTM Personal Wash Product Data Sheets, Gouda, the Netherlands, 2004
10. Burke, M.R., Soap, in Baileys Industrial Oil and Fat Products, Vol. 5: Industrial and
Consumer Nonedible Products from Oils and Fats, 5th ed., edited by Y.H. Hui, John
Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 1995, pp. 93171.
11. Stephenson Personal Care, Soaps Product Specifications, Stephenson Group, Bradford,
UK, 2003.
12. Tan, L.P., The Future of Palm-Based Soap in Asia Pacific, in Proceedings of the 2001
PIPOC International Palm Oil Congress (Oleochemical), Malaysian Palm Oil Board
Publication, Bandar Baru Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia, 2001, pp. 8085.
13. Bradford Soap Works, Inc., Product Specification Tables, West Warwick, Rhode Island,
2004.
14. Gupta, S., Chemistry, Chemical, and Physical Properties & Raw Materials, in Soap
Technology for the 1990s, edited by L. Spitz, AOCS Press, Champaign, Illinois, 1991,
pp. 4893.

Comparison of Palm-And Tallow-Based Soaps: Specifications, Formulations, and Performance

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Chapter 4

Comparison of Palm- and Tallow-Based Soaps:

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Palm Fruit Mesocarp

Palm Fruit Kernel

Fig. 4.1. Palm fruits.

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Lovibond color 5.25

Distilled fatty acids

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Abbreviations: See Table 4.2.

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Abbreviations: See Table 4.2.

Abbreviations: Palm kernel oil olein, PKOo; see Table 4.2.

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Abbreviations: See Tables 4.2 and 4.8.

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Free fatty acid

SNTB 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40b

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Transparent and Translucent Soaps

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Total fatty matter

Free fatty acid

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Total fatty matter

Free fatty acid

Total fatty matter

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Abbreviations: See Table 4.2. aSee Glossary.

Free fatty acid

Total fatty matter

Abbreviations: See Table 4.2. aSee Glossary.

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Superfatted soap bases

Sources: aReferences 5, 6, 8, and 9.

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Total fatty matter (%)

Trident & Aries 254

Translucent soap bases

Sources: aReferences 5, 8, 9, 11, and 13.

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Total fatty matter (%)

Free fatty acid

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Total fatty matter (%)

Free fatty acid

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Fat Blend Calculations

Caustic Soda Requirement Calculations

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Problem 1. Calculate the MW of an 80/20% blend of tallow (SV 197) and

= (854 80%) + (652 20%) = 813.6

= 0. 298g / g 500 lb = 149 lb

Saponification ProductsQuantity Calculations

fat SV 168, 300

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