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1 we have real roots and the square root is of a postive ‘quantity and thus the overall root can be written as a real number, as in the examples given above when we had s= +1, s= +2, s=—I ands =-2. ‘The output will have exponential terms and depending on whether the terms have negative or positive power terms then so the system will be stable or unstable With ¢ <1 then the square root is of a negative quantity. If we write j forthe square root of minus 1 then the roots can be written as: Pi=tontjonfI=F — pr=ton—jom JIE We can thus write the values of the roots, and so poles, in the form a + jb; the jb part of the value is known as an imaginary number. The ‘output can be written as exponential terms with the terms having powers of the form a + jb. Such values give rise to oscillatory transients However, the same rule applies for stability, namely that if the a term is negative then the system is stable and if itis positive itis unstable. The poles of a system, i. the roots of the characteristic ‘equation, determine how the system behaves during its free Fesponse to an input. The poles can be real or complex, i.e. having an imaginary component. When the poles are purely imaginary or have imaginary parts, the output will hav ‘oscillatory components. For a system to be stable, all the poles ‘must be negative or, if complex, the real part must be negative. 10.6.1 The s plane ‘We can plot the positions of the poles on a graph with the real part of the ppole value as the x-axis and the imaginary part as the y-axis. The resulting graph describes what is termed the s-plane. AAs an illustration, Figure 10.8 shows the s-plane for the transfer fanction: i OO = GED with s = -I and s = ~2, there being no imaginary terms. This describes a stable system since the roots are negative and give rise to exponential terms which decrease with time. Figure 10.9 shows the s-plane forthe transfer function:System response 243 Xx al Figure 10.10 Poles at~1 + 1.73 fora stable system my a ” Figure 10.11 Poles at +1 + 1.73 for an unstable system i gee ee 2a a Figure 10.12 Double pole ‘at~I for critical damping —— GO= GE with s = +1 ands = +2, there being no imaginary terms. This shows an unstable system since the roots are positive and give rise to exponential terms which increase with time. For the transfer function: O0= eee we have the roots ofthe quadratic given by + TE 2 1£j1.73 Figure 10.10 shows the s-plane for this transfer function, this describing ‘an underdamped but stable system. The system is stable because the real parts of the roots are negative. For the transfer function oe OO = Saase4 we have the rots ofthe quadratic given by: 2+ Ja=16 2 =41j173 Figure 10.11 shows the s-plane for this transfer function. For the transfer function: le 6o=ahy wwe have the roots s = -1 and s = -1. This is critical damping. Figure 10.12 shows the s-plane for this transfer function. In general we can state (Figure 10.13): ‘A system is stable if all the system poles lie the s-plane. ‘The relationship between the location of a pole and the form of transient is shown in Figure 10.14. The more negative the real part of the pole the more rapidly the transient dies away. The larger the imaginary part of the pole the higher the frequency of the oscillation. A system having a pole which has a positive real partis unstable,244 Instrumentation and Control Systems Figure 10.13 The s-plane: stability ‘when poles are in the left half Figure 10.14 Relationship between pole location and the resulting transient: each oscillatory transient arises from a pair of roots a + jb with only one of them shown in the figure Example Which ofthe following systems are stable: @) GG)= UG +5 + 1, 0) G)= MF -S5+4), (© Gs) = Ms -25 + 3), (@) GO)= Ve +546)? (a) This has poles of AHF san ‘The poles allie in the left half of the s-plane and so the system is stable. (©) This has poles of s = +4 and s = +1 and so both the poles lie in the right half of the s-plane and the system is unstable, (© This has poles of: ED eps ‘The poles will both lie in the right half of the s-plane and so the een sunuble (d) The denominator can be written as (s - 2)(s + 3) and so has poles at +2 and -3. Because one of the poles is in the positive part of the Spe the yen suseSystem response 245 10.7 Software A very widely used software package used in the design and analysis of control systems is MATLAB. The following is a brief indication of how it'can be used in the context of this chapter. ‘Commands can be entered by typing them after the prompt and then pressing the return key to execute the command, Numerical values can be assigned to a variable by using the equal (=) sign, e.g. typing the ‘variable a, then the equal sign and then the value 2, so entering a= 2, and then pressing the return key. Each element of a row vector (the basic format used for data in MATLAB is the matrix, this being a rectangular table with the elements ordered in rows and columns, when a matrix consists of only one row it is termed a row vector) is entered between square brackets, with a space between each term, and set equal to a variable. We can enter the coefficients of a polynomial as a row vector, the coefficients being entered in descending order of the powers of the variable; if a coefficient is not present we must enter a 0. For example, forthe polynomial p(x) = 284+ Sx +2 we type in p=(152) and then press the return key. To determine the roots of a polynomial we use the following command: roots ({1 5 2)) oF roots (p) followed by pressing the return key. ‘One way of entering a transfer function into MATLAB is to use the ‘command tf (num.den), where mum and den are row vectors of the coefficients of the numerator and denominator polynomials. For ‘example, to enter the transfer function (s + 3)/(s* + Ss + 1) the sequence can be: ‘num = [1 3] followed by pressing return key den = [1 5 1] followed by pressing return key 1 =tf (num, den) followed by pressing return key An alternative way of entering a transfer function is to use the command zpk (zeros,poles.gain), where 2er0s, poles and gain are row vectors of the zeros, poles and gain of the transfer function (note that zeros are the values of s that make the numerator 0). Thus, the transfer function 6(s + 3)/(s + 2(5 + 5) would be entered as: [-31 followed by pressing return key -2 -$] followed by pressing return key gain = 6 followed by pressing return key 8 = 2pk (zeros ples gain) followed by pressing return key Once transfer functions have been entered, we can combine them. Thus for to series components gl and g2 we can enter:246 Instrumentation and Control Systems engl ts? * is used for multiplication We can use the transfer function g to find the time response of a system. For the response to a unit impulse we use the command: impulse (g) followed by pressing return key For a unit step we use the command: step (g) followed by pressing return key ‘Where the input is not unit but some value & we enter the command as: ‘impulse (k*g) followed by pressing return step (k*) followed by pressing return key ‘As an illustration, for the second-order system: 2 Ge) = _ 2+ Yons tok with the natural angular frequency as 3 rad/s and the damping factor as 0.3, the output when itis subject to a unit impulse input can be obtained by the MATLAB program (the symbol * is used to indicate the term following isa power and the semicolon to separate rows in the program): Wa=3; Ze=03; num = Wn"2; den = [1 2*Ze*Wn Wa"2}; = tnum.den), impulse(g) 10.7.4 Simulink ‘Simulink is a software program that uses a graphical interface for modelling systems so that systems can be specified on screen by ‘connecting boxes rather than writing a series of commands. Sinmulink is started from within MATLAB by typing the command Simulink. This then opens Simulink and gives access to a number of Simulink libraries from which selections can be made. Thus, if the Continuous library is opened, the Transfer Fen entry in the library can be dragged by the ‘mouse into a modelling window. Other components can similarly be dragged from libraries and a graphical model of the system built up on screen, Figure 10.15 shows what the screen might look like for a first-order system. By double clicking on boxes, data values can be entered for a particular system. The model can then be run with the appropriate input by selecting parameters from the simulation menu. The ‘output response is plotted by using the command plot(t.y).‘System response 247 T Step Figure 10.15 Simulink screen Problems Questions 1 to 10 have four answer options: A, B, C or D. Choose the Correct answer from the answer options. 1. The Laplace transform of a step input of size Sis: As B ss C Sis D ss 2. The Laplace transform of the time function 2e™ is: A 2643) B 2-3) Cc M(s+2) D 3-2) 3 The Laplace transform of the time function ¢ €™ is: A. 3ets-3)1 B Mss +3)) Cc Ms-3F D Ms+3y 4 The time function corresponding to the Laplace transform 5/(s + 3) is: se Se™ 3c 3e* vou 5 Assystem has a transfer function of 1/(s + 3). When subject to a unit impulse input, the output of the system will have the Laplace transform A Me+3) B ss+3) C Msts+3)) D G+3y