Time domain analysis 41 xe), K Xs) ‘adebsve Fig. 3.4 General second-order transfer function X(ge5is 1 wi) | ppereey Fig. 3.5 Example 3b) expressed as a transfer function. ‘Comparing equations (3.17) and (3.18), the transfer function G(s) is a att bste which, using the form shown in Figure 3.3, can be expressed as shown in Figure 3.4 Returning to Example 3.3(b), the solution, using the transfer function approach is shown in Figure 3.5. From Figure 3.5 Gs) = G.19) 5 XO = TTR 620) which is the same as equation (3.16). 3.4.1_ The impulse function ‘An impulse is a pulse with a width Ar — 0 as shown in Figure 3.6. The strength of an impulse is its area 4, where A= height h At G21) The Laplace transform of an impulse function is equal to the area of the function. The impulse function whose area is unity is called a unit impulse 6(?). 3.4.2 The step function AA step function is described as (1) = Bi step function »(¢) Position’ input. i/s for 1 > 0 (Figure 3.7). For a unit ; X(s) = I/s. This is sometimes referred to as a ‘constant42 Advanced Control Engineering oc) ea KN J Fig. 3.6 Theimpuse function Fig. 3.7 The step function 3. 3. The ramp function 1; Xi(s) = Ojs? for 1 > 0 (Figure 3.8). For a =. This is sometimes referred to as.a ‘constant A ramp function is described as x\(1) unit ramp function x() = #3 K(s) velocity’ input. 3.4.4 The parabolic function ‘A parabolic function is described as x(t) = K?- For a unit parabolic function x(t) = ?; Xi ‘constant acceleration’ input. Xi(s) = 2K/s? for # > 0 (Figure 3.9). 2/s°. This is sometimes referred to asTime domain analysis 43 Fig. 3.8 Theramp function Fig. 3.9 The parabolic function. 3.5.1 Standard form Consider a first-order differential equation dx AFP bo = ext) 3.22) Take Laplace transforms, zero initial conditions asXe(3) + BXo(3) = eX(s) (as + B)Xols) = eXils)44 Advanced Control Engineering ‘The transfer function is To obtain the standard form, divide by b ; § 00 = which is written K 6 =e 8.23) Equation (3.23) is the standard form of transfer function for a first-order system, where K = steady-state gain constant and T = time constant (seconds). 3.5.2_Impulse response of first-order systems Example 3.4 (See also Appendix 1, examp34.m) .d an expression for the response of a first-order system to an impulse function of a Sonn From Fg 310 ak aK XO) = = Gun (3.24) xeo=48 (1) 62 Equation (3.25) is in the form given in Laplace transform pair 5, Table 3.1, so the inverse transform becomes 3.26) The impulse response function, equation (3.26) is shown in Figure 3.11 k xo ists Fig. 3.10 impuse response of fest-order system.Time domain analysis 45 x) Fig. 3.11 Response ofa first-order system to an impute function of area A. 3.5.3 Step response of first-order systems Example 3.5 (See also Appendix 1, examp35.m) Find an expression for the response of a first-order system to a step function of height B. Solution From Figure 3.12 BK YT Nol) = 5 TH =P (ser aT om) 627) Equation (3.27) is in the form given in Laplace transform pair 6 Table 3.1, so the inverse transform becomes xo) = BK(1 =e!) 8.28) If B= | (unit step) and K = | (unity gain) then xolt)= (1-7) 8.29) ‘When time ris expressed as a ratio of time constant 7, then Table 3.2 and Figure 3.13, can be constructed, Table 22 Unit step response ofa first-order sytem 0 025 08 ams 1 Deer osmue mera xol_0_0221 03930527 0.62 070 0.865 0920 0950 098046 Advanced Control Engineering Moos ph Fle) an Fig. 3.12 Step response of fist-order system 3.5.4 Experimental determination of system time constant using step response ‘Method one: The system time constant isthe time the system takes to reach 63.2% of its final value (see Table 3.2). ‘Method two: The system time constant is the intersection of the slope at 1 = 0 with the final value line (see Figure 3.13) since 2a = ax. Aer Se=0-(-F)e 6.30) ee Glo=z ae=0 (31) This also applies to any other tangent, see Figure 3.13. 12 t + he 08. Jos. oat 02. (aE eee Number of Time Constants Fig. 3.13 Unitstep response oa fist-order system,‘Time domain analysis 47 3.5.5_ Ramp response of first-order systems Example 3.6 Find an expression for the response of a first-order system to a ramp function of slope Q. Solution From Figure 3.14 OK __OK/T_ _4,8, C__ SOFT) 86477) ean (See partial fraction expansion equation (3.13)). Multiplying both sides by FU+1/T), we get $F - as(s+3) +a(s+3) +08 Nols) 3.32) T 7, 7 OK 4 Age ms? ie, Rats Ase sb sce G33) Equating coefficients on both sides of equation (3.33) (): O=A4C G34) 6): o=Aep 635) ok _B O): Raz 3.36) From 3.34) From (3.36) B=0K Substituting into (3.35) 4 Hence from (3.34) C= OKT xno? K xis) Fig. 3.14 Ramp response of a first-order system (se ao Figure Al?)48. Advanced Control Engineering xxv) 0 4 2 3 4 5 "Number of Time Constants Fig. 3.15. Unitramp response ofa fest order system. Inserting values of 4, Band C into (3.32) OKT OK OKT s ts tee Xols) Inverse transform, and factor out KQ x(t) = KO(1- T+ Te""””) ‘If Q = | (unit ramp) and K = | (unity gain) then x(t) = t= T+ TedT 37 8.38) 6.39) ‘The first term in equation (3.39) represents the input quantity, the second is the steady-state error and the third isthe transient component. When time fis expressed as a ratio of time constant 7, then Table 3.3 and Figure 3.15 can be constructed. In Figure 3.15 the distance along the time axis between the input and output, in the steady-state, is the time constant. ‘Table 33 Unit ramp response ofa fist-ordr system ™ o1 2 3 4S xT 0 1 2 3 4 UT _0 0368 1.135 205 3.018 4007Time domain analysis 49 3.6.1 Standard form Consider a second-order differential equation xe d¥o ae + OG + exe = ent) 3.40) Take Laplace transforms, zero initial conditions as Xo(8) + DsXo(8) + C08) = eXi(s) (as? + bs + e)Xo(s) = eXi(s) G41) ‘The transfer function is att bste % G)=FO To obtain the standard form, divide by ¢ a= aha which is written as x Gs) yee (3.42) This cam also be normalized to make the # coefficient uni GAs) = (3.43) Feast ah Equations (3.42) and (3.43) are the standard forms of transfer functions for a second- order system, where K= steady-state gain constant, wy =undamped natural frequency (rad/s) and ¢ = damping ratio. The meaning of the parameters wy and ¢ are explained in sections 3.6.4 and 3.6.3. 3.6.2. Roots of the characteristic equation and their relationship to damping in second-order systems AAs discussed in Section 3.1, the transient response of a system is independent of the input. Thus for transient response analysis, the system input can be considered to be zero, and equation (3.41) can be written as (as? + bs + 2)Xo(3) = 0 If Xo(s) 4 0, then ae tbstc=0 G44)Discriminant Roots P > doc and 5 ceal (Overdamped nd unequal Transient Ce Response Pa dac 5, and real Critically And equal ‘Damped Transient Cw) Response P< doc sands; compler ——Underdamped Conjugate form This polynomial in sis called the Characteristic Equation and its roots will determine the system transient response. Their values are rb Vitae 2 Su G45) The term (6? — 4ac), called the discriminant, may be positive, zero or negative which will make the roots real and unequal, real and equal or complex. This gives rise to the three different types of transient response described in Table 3.4, ‘The transient response of a second-order system is given by the general solution oll) = Ae" + Be 3.46) ‘This gives a step response function of the form shown in Figure 3.16. ‘Underdamping (s: and se complex) cca damping (6; and 5, rel and equal) Overdamping (5, ands, real and unequal) Fig. 3.16 effect that roots of the characteristic equation have onthe damping ofa second-order system.‘Time domain analysis 51 3. Critical damping ‘When the damping coefficient C of a second-order system has its critical value C., the system, when disturbed, will reach its steady-state value in the minimum time without ‘overshoot. As indicated in Table 3.4, this is when the roots of the Characteristic Equation have equal negative real roots. Damping ratio ¢ ‘The ratio of the damping coefficient C in a second-order system compared with the value of the damping coefficient C. required for critical damping is called the Damping Ratio ¢ (Zeta). Hence Critical damping and damping ratio. cE G47) Thus =0 No damping <1. Underdamping ¢=1 Critical damping ¢>1 Overdamping Example 3.7 Find the value of the critical damping coefficient C, in terms of K and m for the spring-mass-damper system shown in Figure 3.17. LLLLILLLLLLLLL. ie Kr, , LI 0 Fe) m aft) | a 7 FO x0 Lumped Parameter Diagram Free-Body Diagram @ co) Fig. 3.17 Spring-mass-damper system.52 Advanced Control Engineering Solution From Newton's second law Drank, From the free-body diagram F(0) — Kxo(t) — Cxo(t) = mito() (3.48) ‘Taking Laplace transforms, zero initial conditions: F(s) — KX(s) — CsXo(8) = ms*Xo(s) o (ns +54 KX) = FO) 64) Characteristic Equation is m2 ++ K=0 ie #4£4 Ku and the roots are : nnai{Sey(Q) <8} os Also, for critical damping siving G31) 3.6.4 Generalized second-order system response to a unit step put Consider a second-order system whose steady-state gain is K, undamped natural frequency isi, and whose damping ratio is ¢, where ¢ < 1. For a unit step input, the block diagram is as shown in Figure 3.18. From Figure 3.18, Kui MPF 2G5+D) Xs) = 3.52)Time domain analysis 53 X@=us Ke a) Se2Guys + sue Fig. 3.18 Step response ofa generalized second-order system for <1 Expanding equation (3.52) using partial fractions 4 Bsc Xs) raul Gr thastody (3.53) Equating (3.52) and (3.53) and multiply by 5(s? + 2Guys +42) Ku = AC? + 2Gops a8) + BP + Cs Equating coefficients @): 0-448 G's 0= 2nd +O @): Keak siving A=K, B=-K and C=-2G04K ‘Substituting back into equation (3.53) 1 {542 Hols) = x ~ {z + 2s + all Completing the square =k[t-{___$+ 2600 __ a ‘f; {a + Gun) +08 = all wx(t{_—_s+200__ 6s 5 [G+ Gun)? + (uv =@) The terms in the brackets { } can be written in the standard forms 10 and 9 in Table 3.1 ————: (5+ Gan)? + (us VI=@) Belen] ‘Term (1) =54 Advanced Control Engineering xt =~ (0% (ose T=B)— Gri on/ =A) )} -{ 2% Hee (ea(ovT=@))}] G55) ¢ Equation (3.55) can be simplified to give x= ah ~e04fom(envI=B)e+ (GS) sev =H] 50 When ¢=0 Xol0) = KU1 —e"{cosuiat +0}] = K{l — cost] 3.57) From equation (3.57) it can be seen that when there is no damping, a step input will cause the system to oscillate continuously at wy (rad/s). Damped natural frequency as From equation (3.56), when 0 <¢> 1, the frequency of transient oscillation is given by a= wavi-E 6.58) Where wy is called the damped natural frequency. Hence equation (3.56) can be written as sto = ft erfeouas ( as) 6.60) where tang G61) ‘When ¢ = 1, the unit step response is ol) = KIL eC + wn] 8.62) ‘and when ¢ > 1, the unit step response from equation (3.46) is given by 3.63)Time domain analysis 55 -y E ett) Fig. 3.19 Unit step response ofa second-order system. ‘The generalized second-order system response to a unit step input is shown in Figure 3.19 for the condition K = I (see also Appendix 1, sec_ord.m). 3.7.1_ Step response analysi It is possible to identify the mathematical model of an underdamped second-order system from its step response function. Consider a unity-gain (K = 1) second-order underdamped system responding to ‘an input of the form x(O=B 8.64) ‘The resulting output x0(1) would be as shown in Figure 3.20. There are two methods for calculating the damping ratio. ‘Method (a): Percentage Overshoot of first peak %Overshoot = x 100 3.65) B ay = BetFig. 3.20 Step response analysis. Thus, te Overshoot = "5 100 Since the frequency of transient oscillation is ws, then, a ou oe avi-e ‘Substituting (3.67) into (3.66) %Overshoot = e°*+/*VIFF x 100, %Overshoot = e6/ Vi (3.66) (3.67) 3.68) ‘Method (b): Logarithmic decrement. Consider the ratio of successive peaks a; and ay a, = Be“? ay = Ber?) A) oH om el-GaleDeGeBr/D) = eer = VIE 3.69) 3.70) G2)‘Time domain analysis 57 Equation (3.71) can only be used if the damping is light and there is more than one overshoot. Equation (3.67) can now be employed to calculate the undamped natural frequency 72) 3.7.2_Step response performance specification The three parameters shown in Figure 3.21 are used to specify performance in the time domain, (a) Rise time t¢: The shortest time to achieve the final or steady-state value, for the first time. This can be 100% rise time as shown, or the time taken for example from 10% to 90% of the final value, thus allowing for non-overshoot response. (b) Overshoot: The relationship between the percentage overshoot and damping ratio is given in equation (3.68). For a control system an overshoot of between and 10% (1 < ¢ > 0.6) is generally acceptable. (©) Settling time t: This is the time for the system output to settle down to within a tolerance band of the final value, normally between +2 or 5%. Using 2% value, from Figure 3.21 0.028 = Ber Invert 50 = es x0) eo ge Ma rt a) 2ors%ot Fig. 3.21 step response performance specication.58 Advanced Control Engineering Take natural logs In $0 = Gu! siving 1 4= (&) Ino G73) ‘The term (1/Gu) is sometimes called the equivalent time constant T for a second- order system, Note that In $0 (2% tolerance) is 3.9, and In20 (5% tolerance) is 3.0. ‘Thus the transient period for both first and second-order systems is three times the time constant to within a 5% tolerance band, or four times the time constant to within a 2% tolerance band, a useful rule-of-thumb. Transfer function techniques can be used to calculate the time response of higher- order systems. Example 3.8 (See also Appendix 1, examp38.m) Figure 3.22 shows, in block diagram form, the transfer functions for a resistance thermometer and a valve connected together. The input x(1) is temperature and the ‘output x9(¢) is valve position. Find an expression for the unit step response function when there are zero initial conditions. Solution From Figure 3.22 Xols) = Jee (3.74) = GTI TB ee) merc 67 Pstarce Theron = Xie + aes | xe Xie) Fig. 3.22 Block dagram representation ofa resistance thermometer and valve