San « UE « Ten Ueg « PHPEW « OO,» aiodesig « feupig ‘uuog « wepreisury » puPPBuy “WEYFUTION + OHTUO “SH UOC POL ON « PRUOHIE) FRY OTE « SHaSTEEssEH SUPER ANYaWNOO ONIHSTIENA AaTSaA\-NOSIGTY qumog Jo ruts] ap Jo Gysiennu any [sora &q SOON PIUONTT purrs] apoyy Jo Grssaaur) CAVORUNVEE “VW CNOWAVYE HOWTV Ud ‘a NHOL NOILLIGE QUHL VudaOTV UVANTTCongo: Black Dt Gries trary of Congres Caogingn-Pulcason Data Frigh, jn 8 nears JohnB.Faleih, Ramond A. Beare! ; eel ote by Vitor Kas edo Boe locks inde ISBN 0201526951 1. Al Lint. . Beaungal,Ramnond A. I. Kas, Vicor ML Tee, QAIBLED 1955 Sir. Seno sem cP (MATLAB ia ragiturd edenat of The Maho, Inc. Mary the esignatons wed by manufactures and elles to dings tel peas ae chimed as eadenars. Where thse designations appear in this ook, and Addon Wey ‘water of der cam, the deigaton hae been printed in intl exp oral ox Reprinted ith corrections, November 195 Copghe © 1995 by Adon Wey Pblehing Compan, Ine. All hts eed. No prt this publication may be reproduced, edn seni sen, or tanned, in | form or by ny mean, eleroni, mechanical, photocoing, raring, o there, ‘whoo the pr writen prison ofthe pulser: Pedi he Unie Sas of Aneta 16 PEK PREFACE (Our tet is designed for use in a first undergreduate course in linear alebra. ‘Because linear algebra provides the tools for dealing with problems in felds ‘ranging from forestry to nuclear physics, itis desirable to make the subject acoessible to students fom a variety of disciplines, For the mathemati ‘major, a course in linear algebra often serves as a bridge from the typical inluitive treatment of caleuus to more rigorous courses such as abstract algebra and analysis. Recognizing this, we have attempted to achieve an appropriate blend of intuition and rigor in our presentation, NEW FEATURES IN THIS EDITION + Brenly Paced Development: In our previous edition, asin many other texts, fundamental notions of linear algebra—including linear combinations, subspaces, independence, bases, rank, and dimension—were fist intro. uced in the context of axiomaticaly defined vector spaces Having easily ‘mastered matrix algebra and techniques for solving liner systems, many students were unable to adjust to the discontinuity in affcalty. In an tempt to eradicate this abropt jump that has plagued instructors fr years, ‘we have extensively revised the frst portion of our text to introduce these fundamental ideas gradually, inthe context of. Thus linear combinations ‘nd spans of vetor are discussed in Section 1.1 and subspaces and bases are introduced where they frst naturally occur in the study of the solution space of ahomogeneous linear system. Independence rank, dimension, and {inear transformation areal introduced befor axiomatic vector spaces are defined, The chapter daling with vector spaces (Chapter 3) is only half its length in the previous edition, because the definitions theorems, and proofs already given can usually be extended to general vector spaces by replacing “yestorsin R™ by “vectors in a vector space V.” Mos ofthe reorganization ‘of our text was driven by our desire to tackle this problem. 8‘uncomfortable working immediately in R* It is our experience that this ‘causes no dificult; students can compute a dot product af veetors with five ‘components as easily as with two components ‘+ Application to Coding: An application of matrix algebra to binary linear ‘codes now appears at the end of Chapter 1. exercise set includes an explanation of the procedures and commands in (MATLAB needed for the exercises, When performed sequentially through cot the ‘on MATLAB. typos in data entry. For example, the data ile for the MATLAB exercises for Section 1.4 is FBCIS4M, standing for Fraleigh Beauregard Chapter 1 Section 4. The data files are on the disk containing LINTEK, as explained in the next item, are supplied on the LINTEK disk. Many optional exercise sets include ‘problems to be done using LINTEK. ence FEATURES RETAINED FROM THE PREVIOUS EDITION ‘ined much more understanding of linear transformations by working ‘ith them over longer period of time. We have continued todo thsi the resent edition. + lgenvalnes and Eigenvectors: This opicisintroduced, with epplictions, in (Chapter 5. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors recur in Chapters 7, 8, and 9, 30 students have the opportunity to continue to work with them. + Summaries: The summaries at the ends of sections have proved very convenient for both scudents and instructors, so we continue to provide them, ‘Were not enamored with penil-and-paper computations involving complex numbers,wo rence + Denes Chart dependence hart immedi fllws hi ris, and isa valuable ai in constructing a yllabus forthe course, SUPPLEMENTS + Instructor's Solutions Mama: This manual, prepared by the author, is available to the instractor from the publisber. It contains complet solu- fom lndutng poo fr al ofthe execs + Stden?s Solutions Manoal: Prepared by the authors, this manual contains the complete solutions, cag ah fon he Tnstrcter's Solutions “Manual fr every third problem (I 4,7, etc.) in each exercise set. + LINTEK: This PC software, discussed above, is included with each copy of the text txts, ving Gunevesmoch tie-~but ofcourse, we made wp the problems! ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Reviewers of text manuscripts perform a vital function by keeping authors in touch with reality. We wish to express our appreciation to all the re- cetena on Sosa Unc se Mal Gu Clee ofS inion, ve wth 1 seknovlegs the cottons of reviewers te Uae lobe Mona Deaew Cavern; Del Sree Univenity of Maryland; James M. Sobote, University of Wisconsin—LaCrosse; Marvin ‘Zaman, Southern Tinois University. ace MeMahon of Adzn-Wesey, and copy editor Craig Kip for nlp inthe preparation of his edton Ce bead| DEPENDENCE CHART Catal Cre oA 116 => nme rorl103 2423 : SF ae as 31-34 | 35 ‘VECTORS, MATRICES, AND LINEAR SYSTEMS 1 ale 1.4 Yeatom in Btidemn Specs 2 sHEEEHEIEELS 12 TheNom and the Dot Product 20 | as 13 Mates and Thi Alga 33 | 14 Solving Stems of Linear Eqations $1 1.5 Laverses of Square Matrices 73 S152 1.6 Homogeneous Systems, Subspaces, and Bases 88 a3 53, 1.7. Application to Population Distribution (Optional) 102 | 1.8 Application to Binary Linear Codes (Optional) 115 I sales ao eaves ae DIMENSION, RANK, AND LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS 125 nana 214 Independence and Dimension 128 —— A mf 22 The Rankofa Matrix 136 23 Linear Rafrmations of uciean Spas 142 ‘24 Linear Transformations of the Plane (Optional) 154 iG oe 25 Lines, Plazes and Other Fats Optioa) 167 vill &xi conan © LINTEK Routines A-I3 D. MATLAB Procedures and Commands Used in the Exercises AIS ANSWERS TO MOST ODD-NUMBERED EXERCISES A-21 INDEX 4-53 VECTORS, MATRICES, AND LINEAR SYSTEMS We have al solved simultaneous linear equations—for example, ‘We shall call any such collection of simultaneous linear equations a near tem. Fang al solos of incase s fundamental ote sy of SIRE sdy of near yt ad thi stin is pred in toms of vectors and matrices, Sections 1.1 and 1.2 introduce vectors in the Euclidean work. Sections 1.3-1.6 introduce matrices and methods for solving linear systems and study solution sets of linear systems, 12 QWPTERY VECTORS MATCH, AND LNEAR STSTENS ‘VECTORS IN EUCLIDEAN SPACES el kno the pratt of two bai cima peton—samey thea fomally dine these operations an is th propre. Euclidean Spaces Let R be the set ofall real numbers. We can regard R geometrically as the ve denote by Band often eal the plane ‘To coordinatize space, we choose three mutually perpendicular lines as ‘coordinate ates through a point that we call the origin and label , 2s shown in Figure 1.2. Note that we represent only hal of each coordinate axis fo clarity. ‘The coordinate system in this figure is called a right-hand system because, ‘when the fingers of the right hand ae curved inthe direction required to rotate the postive x-axis toward the postive ais, the right thumb points up the ‘axis, as shown in Figure 1.2. The set of all ordered triples (4,5, ¢) of real numbers is Kuclidean 3spece, denoted RY, and often simply referred to as space. ‘Although @ Euclidean space of dimension four o more may be dificult for ‘serpin fs ntuple, rather tan differen ters. We wil fen denote an clement of Rt by (x, 3) and an element of R® by (&,% 7). LA VECTORS w eucupemn sms } ‘ cs FIGUREL.| gut 12 Rectangular coordinates in the plane. Rectangular coortnates in space The Physical Notion of a Vector Sa ieoune oneness ieee eect naeat tanner nate: yo epee pe ene ey el mee at ae ea VY tnt Sei ede pate SSeS entome es ee eeeI | 4 GER VECTORS, waTHCS, DINER SYSTEMS ‘in which the force is acting, and with the magnitude ofthe fee Such an arow is ‘Using a rectangular coordinate sytem in the plane, note that if we | consider a force vestor to start from the origin (, 0), then the vector is | completely determined bythe coordinates of the point atte tip of the arrow. | ‘Thus we can consider each ordered pairin Ro representa vectorintheplane | y Tanhiedy Ca as well asa point in the plane. When we with to regard an ordered pair as 2 icuei4 Figune 1.5 ‘red Te ver sun ad: ‘place an arrow over Xi, in such a vector isthe th eomponent of the vector. Even the real numbers in R 8 components is called a zero vector end ] whereas in Rt we have © = ” ta envi a vector in fe gecmetccally yan avirina figure, we having the force vectors F, and F as edges, as illustrated in Figure 1.5 It is say that the vector isin standard position it starts atthe origin. Ifwe draw an ‘atural to consider this resultant force vector tobe the sum F, + F ofthe two ‘original force vectors, and itis so labeled in Figure 1.5. a 2 Ply codons Int, ere ods of ley bag magician as Goin nth mage adden —in Grek ns For ual a tie Mean A " : 1 A= (12) a va 7 ! ‘soe Si ame ea nity no ie! la: shiomaas ra et Cf net lot Ties eof stn two maton vec wa rei om int ® ‘oc test and pretences. Om Same pte ost anil ary ot es of ton nina Nomo' in cre hom tba ; 2 ‘ty toler ilunndy wile Gage arcepesa ees dora “wo vew: ofthe sare mer of) the ple (2 (the eter v= 2 rans esas6 QMTERY VECTORS, MATRCES, AND UNEAR SISTES - ie i can vine bo eso wit itn eins and emanating fom tis The diferencoy —w of two victors in Ris Se repented pomtialy by the arrow from the tip ofw tothe tip of, as shown in Figure 8. Here y~' thn retorts when ded fon isle. The ached arom in Figure 1 shows v ~ w in standard postion. we ae pushing a body with a force vector F and we with to “double the at ert ++ w)—that i, we can Spiel aenions ing components. Wih tees finiomnies 38, we formally define some algebraic operations with vectors negative asin 4a 2, rosie ee eeeFIGURE 1.10 Computation of v + w in ‘The ciht properties ge in Theorem Lar gute esto pov, nd PXAMPLEL Lev [3 5,-t] andw= 4 10,7]in Compute Sr ~ 3 | leave most ofthe at exercises The poo in Examples 3 a4 we peal, SOLUTION We compute i EXAMPLE 3 Prove property A2 of Theorem 1.1, sowrion EXAMPLE 2. For vectors v and w in R* pointing in different direetions from the origin, | represent goometrically Sv ~ 3w. j SOLUTION This is done in Figure 11. | The snaloges of many familiar algebraic laws for adition and malipi- ‘cation of scalars alto hold for vector addition and scalar multiplication. For convenience, we gather them in a theorem. | | EXAMPLES soLUTION 3 oo} FIGURE 1.11 5v~3winEXAMPLE 5. SOLUTION Tho seomaricsgidcace of nukiptiatin of a vector by a wala, as | illustrated in Figure 1.9, leads us to this characterization of parallel vectors. We put v = rw and try to solve for r. This gives rise to four component equations: j 2=6, 123, 39%, -4e 1m, Becauser = {> Oita common sition tothe four equations, we concudethat vv and w are parallel and have the same direction. Linear Combinations of Vectors [Definition 1.1 desonbes how to add or subtract two vectors, but a8 we remarked following the definition, we can use these operations to combine ‘three or more vectors also, We give a formal extension of that definition. 4=1,0,0, j= 10,1,0) and k=(0,0,1), ‘VECTORS DEAN SES 11 uw » : i 1 x j cee at ( ae 4 o © FIGURE 1.12 (2) Standard bass vectors in (standard basis vectors in a shown in Figure 1.120) very vector in can be expressed uniquely as a linear combination of, j, and k. For example, we have (3, -2, 6] = 31-25 + 6, Form > 3, we denote the rth standard basis vector baving | asthe ih component abd ars ewbere, by Se aa component We thea ave BE Py by p DD =e, + bes to tty ‘We see that every vector in R* appears asa unique linear combination of the standard basis vector in Rt, The Span of Vectors Let be a vector in Rt. All possible linear combination of his single vector y se simply all posible scalar multpls rv fo all clas. I #0, all calar tltples of v fll a ine which we shall call the line along v. Figure 1.13(a) shows th line along the vector [~1, 2] in R while Figure 1.13() indicates the line along a nonzero vector vin ‘Note that the line along v lays contains the origin (the zero vector) beonuse one salar multiple of vis Ov = 0, na "Now let and wbe two nonzero and noaparalle vectors in All posible linear combinations of and war all vectors of the form r+ sw forall scalars 7 ands. As indicated in Figure 1.14 all these linear combination le plane ‘which we cll te plane spanned by v and w.PIAMPLE€ dees Ror 158) ececteenion red rmebicred reich SOLUTION ECG MAE EAR TEE 7 * . ) F a 1 i if | @ o rgune 1.15 (et and) eg anda b= @ ® } mt . + We now give an analytic analogue of Example 6 for two vectors in R?. froune 1.13 (@) The ive atong vin (8) The fn along v in EXAMPLE 7 Lety= (J, 3] and w = [-2, 5] in, Find scalars rand s such that rv + sw = SOLUTION 2, = [r~ 2s, 37+ 59, wesee that v + 59= {i 1] aad wal foo eguion -b=-1 Ir Ss 19 ‘are satisfied, Multiplying the first equation by ~3 and adding the result to the second equation, we obtain 0+ t1s=22, $0.5 2, Subsitting in the equation r— 25-1, we find that r= 3. ‘We note thatthe components ~1 and 19 of the vector [—1, 19] appear on ‘he right-hand side ofthe system of to linear equations in Example 7 If we replace ~{ by band 19 by, the same operations on te equation wllenble ‘5 to solve forthe sears rand sin tems of band b (ee Exess 42), This rc is, as column vectors rather than as row rectors. For example, if we writ the ‘vectors v and w in Example 7 as columns so that Hof14 OWPTER VECTORS MATIC, AND UNEAR SISTEM and also rewrite [-1, 19] as a column vector, then the row-vector equation rv+ w= [-1, 19] in the statement of Example 7 becomes t4-[a} Notice that the numbers in this column-vector equation are in the same | otto relative o eachother as they arin the sytem o linear equations. | operations are srmared in Theorem 11 Graphic itrpeations ae shown in Figures 1.6, 18, and 1.9. 3 To nometovstoe in ae poral if ne i er male ofthe hee aon ecb yg io ve Se aa ee ae eee dnp lor spac vl ie eosin wether pl eprint Continuing our geometric discussion, we expect that if, ¥, and w: ee and zeros forall otter edimponents. sdsaatats Rect tat Te? eau ta beer brent chee rere Yer adendiiedsetecsalprcraltecaa sepia! | sete eee ee ere eam ncumensannnIn Bxriss 21-30, idl alas, if ary ext, ‘uch tha the pve sttoment is ra Try to do Some of these protons without sng penal and we FIGURE 1.16 FIGURE 1.17 pa 3M. From (1,2, 3,4, 90 (-5, ~ ink! 35, Wit the linear tem, ss alinar sytem, 2% Make etorig Toc Fae, ‘Metin al nebes, t 1 The aon of vector ia Rs wef | only n= 1,2,0r3, BB 4s. option 1 of te routine VECTGRPH inthe “1b. Every ordered r-ruple in R° can be software package LINTEK gives rape ‘Viewed both as a point and as a vector. ‘Guizzes on addition and subtraction of —« Iivoud be impose dee addon Yorn, Work wt his Option | wai tpi eee we on at You consistently achieve a soe cf 2% or tee onthe gues <4 Wasnt ante yc insidard 4, Ragen ure dg Opin 2a in pesto aR hen he dom fom he rotie VECTGRPH, The gis is ine lp ofatothe tp ofbisa wanted aren near combiaaions in andre representation ofthe estar ab ‘qe t Bers 17-20. MATLAB, ‘The MATLAB exercises are designed to build some fait with this widely used Software as you work your way trough the text. Complete information canbe obtained from the manual that accompanies MATLAB, Some informatio is,18 CTR VECTORS, AUTRES, AO LNEAR SYSTENS salable onthe seen by typing np fllwed bya space andthe the word symbol aboot which you dese information ‘The software LINTEK dexigedexplicily fr this text does not oui a ‘mami, lnfrmation anlematical gen on he seen. Howeve, MATLAB is profesional designed program thats much more ovecul han | INTER. Aliough INTEK edna ste mater inthe tert te | MB. The rnpote¥ ofa vcr «i denoted in MATLAB by v. Compute rowpste sent woud be wel advised to invest he ext ine nes 0 | a= 58 and (2~ 7 How do hey compare? squire som faity with MATLAB, | M9, ‘yt compute w+ What happens, and nh? MATT za he en yao Te MATLAB "MIO. Ete ep: tose some of th thigs ht can be dose wing the colon. Use the colo i sateen! starting f= to gener the vector v= [-3-2 101 2, and then generate v2 = [1 47 10-13 16) simaly. Compute Sh exist th art) ad Sal tn fee oe at Ilustate the componeat values ofthe vector 2D, ig te ot oman pap of nonin MATLAB. Tie ey Nw enter that ype ad reste Ei yew ply acin. Then im god en ot copes ple th re iva ‘ML Compute 2a ~ 3b ~ 5. 4 Fothe pioly= Saat) - 2p) ave 3e oe Renenter M2. Compute 32 - 424 ~b) | ‘ous for mulation. M3. Attempt to compute a + w. What happens, and why? MA. Compute n+ vin ‘2 sort format 2 tong format rational (ration) format (MS, Repeat Exercise Md fr u ~ 37+ w by fis entering x = au ~ 3er + ‘and then looking a xin the diferent formats, pa20 GUT VECTOR, MATRCES, AND LREAR STSTEVS i ‘THE NORM AND THE DOT PRODUCT The Magnitude of a Vector ‘The magnitude yl of = [7] s considered tobe the length of the arrow in Figure 1.18. Using the Pythagorean theorem, we have b= Var @ 11 Represent the vector v = 3, ~4] geometrically, and fin its magnitude. The vector [3, ~4] has magnitude = VIFCH=VB=5 and is shown in Figure 1.19. 1a Figure 1.20, the magnitude ofa vector v= [yrs win RP appearsas scone 1.20 nna the length ofthe hypotemuse of right triangle whose aliade is and whose ue Bea Baines basen the x,xrplane has length ‘Vv + wf Using the Pythagorean theorem, aaa magnitude of 2, 3,4) wwe obizin The magnitude of a vector is also called the norm or the length of the I= Vere @ sector. As gtd ty ip (I) and (2) Get tre oes Poe ria +2 Represent the vector v = [2, 3, 4] geometrically, and find its magnitude. Ne Te very = 34s mame = VEY = VB end is represented in Figure 1.21. Ras allows. EXAMPLE 3. Find the magnitude ofthe vector ¥ = [ SOLUTION Weave FIGURE 1.18 FIGURE 1.19 ‘The magnitude of vin The magne of 3, ~4.EXAMPLE 4 SOLUTION VECTORS, MATRCES, AND LEAR SYSTES FIGURE 1.22 ‘he tangle inequaty Proofs of Properties 1 and 2 follow immediately fom Definition 15 and appears excises a the end of this section. Figure 1.22 shows why Property3 iscalled the triangle inequality; geometrically it states thatthe length of aside ofa triangle is less than or equal to the sum of the lengths ofthe other two sides. Although this seems obvious tous from Figure 1.22, we relly should proveit—at least for n> 3, where we simply extended our definition off for ‘vin or R without any further geometric justification. A proof ofthe triangle ‘inequality is given at the close ofthis section. Unit Vectors ‘A vector in R'is a unit vector iit has magnitude 1. Given any nonzero vector in RY, unit vector having the same direction as vis given by (I/D. Finda nit vector having the same direction a cof magnitude 3 having direction opposite to. Because fn] = VEF TF CSF = VIF, wesee that a= (1VTAYQ, 1,~3]is the unit vector wit the same diretion as y, and ~3u = (-3/V/14)2, 1, ~3] is the other required vector. © , 1, ~3],and find a vector ‘The twocomponent nit vectors ae precisely the vectors that extend from the origin tothe unit circle 2+ = 1 with center (0, 0) and radius 1 in (See Figure 123a) The three-component nit vectors extend from (0 0,0) tothe ‘unit sphere ia a illustrated in Figure 1.2300) ‘Note thatthe standard bass vectors and jin Ras wellasi,j and kin RY, are unit vectors. Infact, the standard bass vectors, ey... for Rare unit ‘vectors, because each ha zrosin all eomponents except for one component of 1. For this reason, these standard basis vectors are also called unit coordinate vectors. 12 WENCRM AND TE oT POUT 2B y x I h i S Y ® | o FIGURE 1.23, (2) Typical unit vector in) typical unit vector in, The Dot Product ‘The dot product of two vector is scalar that we will encounter ss we now ‘ty to deine the angle @ between two vectors ¥ = [yy %) and w= [yt + in RY, shown symbolically in Figure 1.24, To motivate the einiton of @, we will use te law of cosines for the triangle symbolized in Figure 1.24, Using ou definition ofthe om ofa vector in to compute the lengths ofthe ses ofthe triangle, the lw of cosines yields INP + Ie = Br P+ 2h fe (cos) o Penang gla ete ica gs SO MPH Oa mgt + 2B (C08 9. ‘er omputing the squares onthe righthand se of (and siping weak I Bl (608 = 940, +++ + HH, © FIGURE 1.26 The angle betwen v and w.24 HAPTER VECTORS MATRICES, AND LNEAR SSTENS ‘The sum of products of corresponding components inthe vectors v and w on the right-hand side of Eg, (5) is frequently encountered, and is given a special same and notation. 12 TWENORM AND TH DoT PcCUCT 25 Equation 7 gives a geometric meaning forthe dot product. ‘The dot product of two vectors is equal to the product oftheir ‘magnitudes with the cosine ofthe angle between them. ‘Veriiation of all ofthe properties in Theorem 1.3 is straightforward, as illustrated inthe following example, ‘Tho angle between nonzero vectors and wis ares), HISTORCAUNOTE. TeeSamarnexociis died Rapist Gy {9515 oem om pp 9, Hans Kana ns (2s od Tr ‘stv ey (6080). Expression (8) makes sense, provided that invi*" 2 sot we cn indeed compte the rccosie of (i Thisinguaty (9) is usually rewritten in the form [von SIMi In Sehrainey a ‘We obtained it by assuming that Figure 124s an appropriate epresetation forvectorsvand win. We give a purl algebraic roofofit a theend of hs section to validate the definition in expression (8). Find the angle 6 between the vector [1, 2, 0, 2] and [-3 1,1, 5] in Rt. ews} Vfeao- rae. Swat’ po sate tte cs ge oh ext (mg 29 Scare ws te lig ecin tn won tuttay eroiairaly pt s eed os quo shat sina ese25 our EXAMPLE 6 EXAMPLE 7 sowurion ecrons, we Verify the ‘Aum of squares is nonnegative and canbe zroif and oly each summand is ero, Buta rummand vis itelfa square, and willbe zero if and oalyify= (This completes the demonstration. © Its important to observe thatthe norm of a vector can be expressed in terms ofits dot product with itself. Namely, for a vector vin Rt we bave Whee a ating y= vy y= + sh we have Terentia to tye Equation 11 enables us to se the algebraic properties ofthe dot produt in ‘Theorem 1.3 to prove things about the nonm. This technique is illustrated in the proof of the Schwarz and triangle inequalities atthe end of this section. Here is another illustration. ‘Show that the sum of the squares of the lengths of the diagonals of a parallelogram in R® is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the sides. (This isthe parallelogram relation). ‘We take our parallelogram with vertex at the origin and with vectors v and w_ emanating fom the origi to form two sides, a show in Figure 1.25. The lengths ofthe diagonals are then + wl and fy ~ wl. Using Eq, (11) and properties ofthe dot product, we have ) = Yyew) + Orem) ‘The definition ofthe angle between two vectors vand w in R leads naturally to this definition of perpendicular vectors, or orthogonal vectors as they are ‘usually called in linear algebra. EXAMPLES. mn Y= 14,1, -2 land w= [3, -4, SOLUTION yew = (4X3) + (1X4) + (-292) + (1-4) = 0. Thsviw ‘Application to Velocity Vectors and Navigation The next two examples are concerned with another important physical vector Suppose that a ketch is sailing a 8 knots, following acourse of O10" (thats, 10° cas of or on byt hat ot cure etn inthe ton TT and speed ofa vessel over the bottom.)2 quem SOLUTION EXAMPLE 10 VECTORS, MATES, AND LEAR SYSTENS ‘The velocity vectors s forthe ketch and efor te current are shown in Figure 1.26, in which the vertical axis points due north, We find and eby using a calculator and computing 5 = [Bos 80, 8 sin 807 = [1.39, 7.88] and (© = [200s 20, 2 sin 207 ~[1.88, 0.684). By adding and¢, we find the vector v representing the course and speed ofthe ketch over the botiom—that i, the course and speed made good. Thus we have v= uae 8.56). Therefore, the sped ofthe ketch is = VETFF CHF ~ 9.16 knots, See 56) nit 90" arean[ $55) = 90° — 69" = 21% That i, the course is O21", = ‘Suppose the capiin of our ketch realizes the importance of keeping track of the current. He wishes to sil in 5 hous to harbor that bears 120° and is 35 12 TENOR AND WE DOT PODUCT 29 SOLUTION Ina vector digram (see Figure 1.27), we again represent the course and speed tobe made good by a vector and the velocity ofthe current by . The correct course and speed to follow are represented by the vectors, which is obtained by computing same = (7 cos 30", =7 sin 307 ~ (0, -3] ~ (6.06, ~3.5] - [0, -3] = [6.06, -0.) ‘Thus the captain should steer course 90° ~ arctan( 0,516.06) = 90° + 4.7° = 94.7 and should proceed at Ish = VEOGFF HOS} ~ 6.08 knots, Proofs ofthe Schwarz and Tiangle Inequalities ‘The proofs of the Schwarz and triangle inequalities illustrate the use of algebraic properties of the dot product in proving properties of the norm. ‘Recall Eq. (11): for a vector vin RS, we have nf = v+v. PROOF Becanse the norm of vectors real number andthe square ofa real ‘number is nonnegative, for any scalars rand s we have Irv sup = 0, a Using relation (11), we find that liv + suf = (71+ 5m) «(rv + sw) = PA) + 2am) + (+9) 20 foal ies of saa ands. Sting r= ww ands = ~(- mh te (re mFlee 9) = 260m) = (ww) Factoring out (w + w), we see that (or wow «my (V+ mp + (r+ Pw) ae wr WF 20, WFO. a {fw w = 0, then w = 0 by the positivity property in Theorem 1.3, and the ‘Schwarz inequality i then true becauseit reduces to 0< 0. f wif = w-w #0,30 QW VECTORS MAIS, AND UNEAR SYSTEMS ‘then the expression in square brackets in relation (13) must also be nomnega- ‘ive—that is, (+ FW) = (r+ WFO, 2A, Prove thatthe angle berwen two unit ‘rectors wand win RY is arccas(, +4). and so (romP = (7-0 -¥) = DEVE ‘Taking square roots, we obtain the Schwarz inequality. 4 ‘In Exercises 25-30 clas the vectors as ‘The Schwarz inequality can be used to prove the triangle inequality that ‘was illustrated in Figure 1.22. PROOF. Using properties of the dot product, a well asthe Schwarz inequality, ‘we have I+ wi 16, A nonzero veto perpendicular o both w andy 17, A nonzero vector perpendicular o both & adv Y= Dis tyes Wand w= [Ws My W]e vectors in RE ‘In Exercises 18-21, use properties ofthe dot ‘product and norm fo compute the indlated ‘quanis mentally, without pencil or paper (or cade)40, Matk each of the following True or Fale, a. Bvery nonzero vector in RY has nonzero 238, a, Anemer Exario 37 if ech half of the — EYEE) yestor of nonzero magnitude in Rt + Temupind fy + ym tent a Bera nonzero vector in R has exactly 2. Spor that wih of 10 bis mpended «2, Prow the indicate property of the dot 43, For vectors vand in Rs prove that y— oe espera = hr 45, Use vetor metodo pov that he | ingonals of hombs parallelogram with al sie) ace pepeniclr fv: Use a fq similar to Fg 1.25 and one ofthe prog exerci) 46, Use vector methods to rove that te MATLAB 12 TWENGA NO He OoT PRODUCT 3B noone 130 tamer +e midpoint ofthe hypotenuse.‘ayo; "gg “g syreysuoo pur ‘suamowryun a¢p Jo Syu3191200 217 30j SIH} poxduosgns +" Sx eke sualouyun qa suorenbo ze007]yez49s yo ce (Oy mem q = xy Aq woysKsseouT Jeu v aIouap 0} yeea TOMES] NSLS se2ay 2] 0} fea yworuaunoo ¥ st () uone}ou Ags SooswasTIBNOE Ora aK ®) 19 se mosis sou a ayoquts wom) Um a4 4 Ka par0R2p 9 vfs yea oxy say syssoo Jo soja CERO att Poe ‘SUADEAUN JP x sopo mo on kg pasonoy sy Gee sm “mess ony og} {osamgaoo a UENO Ya ago Aaa peryDeIg amNY Aq sIOUaP ST sr © FJ-EIE ‘sj worsKs swour] smn eyeLaaugge oF Kem Maen ZaMOTY. @ fe] E+E: ‘fpameo—oopenbo spas uwnjeo au vse pur suuouyuN 9 Ut oO 61 = x5 + "xg rat-'e ype wets sou» yA RD FH TT BONDMG WF AB a, = ny vopeION au. ‘VUEBDTY UBHL ONY SEDRLV a swaulop ua + ay poe az — ng omen aoe om POL, “AH soup or a pew zou oe 2p poy a TOP 1) ssojn ay uoaning ae 2x) Bugndaca Sq BUNS 300k 358) EV LIV vy eager equ aay op 1 Super unc o 2/08) ‘dees py rg pew aay sacepw aa 9g a ae 2 Fe oF HO WPS pos eBoy} 2 OF EE IMO“ ang sud pei) eam me 208 9 pm sous pre a sway Pes = faa 9 = 00 “SOON THE Snr or popete snowy ap Se 9 pw q wang me ay RAO) LH “por wag af ap pou yy pomopen nok ym Hy 5 CPUS PEC Ng Porw mawag (Eee) aoe SOD ct (yaaonrmanny(k + xyumspoe = Safe 2 wa, = Laem pone KE gH, Se MEDW ABU OW sou ET wn (x ppm to ea jo ronan aa sews not ppm se suopap a] EE 3980p pa fms yy on 0 ony Bo sou Lee om PROS wok ae hms a em 2 pow aero {9 "|—] po] soma ay a 089 Bp a fe copay aL Poe GV TLV oe 2 BTS sab ag sad ap por sa a 20 ey 9) I Pd uy no wat. "Log peep suy srg ap JID of pad es TION NOD ZOD 299 So EY LEVEY LIV\O CD 9 3A EPA IP PBN SOM tg AD UE NOK I SY LOAM Dv AR Ha TCTONY sams 99 Ha ay # Ape ea, ‘eon os 2 BVLLVN ay ow pgs GEE HD 306 AV LVA\EVLW ‘Somsspan om Amand a pv ST a SENN EA EO GV LVN RE 99 SA SPMD FTTONTY sama om YN EN le ef AE VL 1:4 por x uoboe wonng ara aro e982 AE Ta 5K Sp mom os sara josond oA poe gw ajo (woo, rm SR =a NE RE (Cmaresuee) C+ syne wx po x apa woaog te m1 (=) TONY TON 5 (00 = sp ‘su Sno 99 o> Bau [a IONE LVA\EV LEV s paciep ay Dy te sam ‘ood on 8 af Bla hey See 52 HOSY aR [Ba ip soesoud pon vom a PuE GY LIVI © 0 ep Ma SP BY IIVIEV LIVI omaspaes poms me AVL fora“ we EVIDVA Siam or seep mf ant een ‘am fea NOL soe 2h he pare F ‘ampere 20 AV IV a oe ee en mona eo ae Say uy ot mzoodne> jo equa as 9 Sop x hs ang 9 9 Sepa 25 (Can won pp or no ey Tay EOLA cao nota erpOa IT ZION Cd — By) (4g — nr) 205 py amuong weadog Hy Temoy yuo (q) pure yemIOG 120MS (®) 1a. sonpaid op 9p ands ‘pumumes BY IV seule 9 Ses, YW ‘Wel psa wv seuog m pooner om Seen, amg 29 Swarup po oso 3 (x » mje = xm abs 1B anu pada a pad wy poe q = xe fel“ “opm Sra Ag pogo ss ap pa masa at sama Pay 0 (x spss = ei oy poe =e “TW sos ont ong a8 9 pun fo pad np ‘at fo sasou andes -9f pp a Koo 920 a) won aso a ped Es ERAS goog ‘ems wou ney oD Se) "Oy wef Prono sou ur ay 30 pus (uns ot worRuode enep 2 om us oy 9 aba py aon pu 9m oy (=> au ga ory wo saa au om GY Dos poud ys -200ds » Sune fo ney 247 wy 128 of ams ag) pun & 0109 249 yam sor Buses yt aun pun q * 8 207 ‘Poued 24) Ym auop 39 09 oy 39601 * dom ca orn ana np ao pol 0 a9 ‘omar ae 2) 29 MOL SLMS WOE OY SDMIMK DIA hewnown VECTORS, WATCES, AND NEAR SSTEVS right ofthe equal signs. [Just look ahead at Eq (1) on page 54, Also a single linear equation in just one unknown canbe writen inthe form ax = B(2x™ 6, for example), and the notation x = b is suggestvely similar. Furthermore, ‘we will seein Section 2.3 that we can regard such an array A as defining a function whose value at x we will write as 4x, much as we write sin x. Solv- ing a linear system Ax = b can thus be regarded as finding the vector x such that this function applied to x yields the vector b. For all ofthese rea- Sons, the notation Ax = b for a linear system is one of the most useful nota- tions in mathematics. It is very important to remember that Ax is equal toa linear combination ofthe column vectors of 4, asillusrated by Eqs. 2) and (3}—namely, blel-=B=F4 o ‘The Notion of a Matrix ‘Wenow introduce the usual terminology nd notation for an arayof sumbers suchas the coeicient array 4 in Eq, (3). ‘A matriz is an ordered rectangular srry of numbers, usually enclosed in parentheses or square brackets. For example, 079 1-3] 14 ama 2t ‘are matrices. We will generally use upper-case letters to denote matrices. ‘The size ofa matrix is specified bythe number of (horizontal) rows and the ‘numberof (vertical) columns that it contains, The matrix 4 above contains ‘wo rows and two columns and is called a 2 x 2 (read “2 by 2") matrix. Similarly, Bisa 4x 3 matrix. In writing the notation m x n o describe the shape of a matrix, we always write the number of rows frst. An n X m matrix has the same numberof rows as columns and is said tobe a square mauris. We recognize that a1 X nmatrx se row vector with n components, and an mi x 1 ‘matrix is column vector with m components. The rows of amatrixareits row vectors and the columns are its column vectors ‘Double subscripts are commonly used to indicate the location ofan entry in a matrix that is not a row or column vector. The fist subscript gives the ‘number ofthe row in which the entry appears (counting from the top), and the EXAMPLE 1 13 WARES M00 THER ALGERRA 37 second subscript gives the-number of the column (counting from the lef) ‘Thus an m x m matrix A may be writen as fay dp dy *** ay] i a Gy 7" Oy =| dx dy > Jes daa Op *** Oy fw want to express the matrix Bom page 36s [5 mould ave by = b= 2,by= 5.and so on ‘Matrix Mutiplication ‘We are going to consider te expression Ax shown in Eg, (3) tobe the product ofthe matrix 4 andthe column vector x. Looking back at Eg, (5) we see that such 2 product of a matrix 4 with a columa vector x should be the linear ‘combination ofthe column vectors of 4 having as coefficients the components inthe vectorx. Here isa nonsquare example in which we replace the vectorxof| ‘unknowns by a specific vector of numbers. ‘ite asa linear combination and then compute the product a ‘MISTORICALNOTE Tar seus racist eatoolin ebemsteallioatr sm 1D peer of ames esp Slee (1614-1857, Tae standard nrtechical meaning ser i plein which something ited proeacd or elope” Fer Siva, tent wich vatan “oon arangenen of term" waa at ont wish one col form vos ae les produce ceerninns Tas ter gant ome fom square matics, were us ‘wal kooms by hs ine anes Svs sonal ume was James Jspt) was tom ito Jets flyin ‘London, md mast bzome one of th upene ales ofthe azteca etary, Despite ving said fr several yeast Cambs Univer, he msn permed oa is degre there ecm be "profes the th in which the louder of Cristy was eae” ‘There, reseed his degers fom Tiny Clee, Den. In 1841 he seed pots atthe Unveriy of Vii he retained tee only sso tng, howe, is Sarr af sry prevent him rn ting note adem community. In 171 Be eae tothe United States to acre te ei of muthenaice tthe nonly opened Jains Topas ‘Unive Ta einen tie joan be pet about 10 years aa ate, ing which tie ‘met Aris Cay (te ot 3) and 5 yas Poe of Matic he Rye ‘Miltary Academy, Woolwich Sree was an vd poet prefing many of is mateatal ape with example of his wor. His mos eeowaed example was the “Roaind” poem, ‘Mine epic cchEae of which reed wits "Roind”38 COPTER 1 VECTORS MATICES, AND UNEAR SYSTEMS SOLUTION Using Ea. (5) asa gue, we find that ‘of A will have tobe equal tothe numberof components in the column vector b if we are to compute the product 4b. ‘We have illustrated how to compute a product Ab ofan mx n matix with fan n x I column vector. We can extend this notion to a product AB of an mx natrix A wit ann X s matrix B. ‘The prociuct AB isthe matrix whose jth column isthe product of A ‘with the jth column vector of B. LLeting bbe the th column vestor of B, we write AB = C symbolically as Because B has + columns, C has s columns. The comments after Example 1 ‘indicate tet the ft entry in the la column of ABs the dot product ofthe ith ‘ow of A with the lb column of B. We give a formal definition. EXAMPLE 2 SOLUTION EXAMPLE 3 SOLUTION 13 MARC AND THER ALGERIA 39 We illustrate the choice of row from 4 and column j from B to find the clement c in AB, according to Definition 1.8, by the equation ‘j= (ith row vector of 4) (th column vector of B). In summation notation, we have 64 daby + daby + ++ + ayy Soe o Notice again that 4B is defined only when the second size-number (the ‘numberof columns) of 4 isthe same asthe first size-mumber (the mmber of rows) of B. The product matrix has the shape (First size-number of) x (Second size-number of B), Let Abe a2 x 3 matrix, and let Bea 3x 5 matrix. Find the sizes of AB and BA, ifthey are defined. ‘The product is defined, because the left-hand ‘right-hand matrix i 3 4; the product will have size 2 x 4. The entry in the first row and rst column postion ofthe products obtained by taking the dot product ofthe frst row vector of the left-hand matrix and the frst column Yestor ofthe right-hand mati, a follows: (-2YA) + YB) + QX-2) = -8 + 9-4 = -3,40 cues EXAMPLE 4 VECTORS, MATRICES, AND LINEAR SYSTEMS ‘The entry in the second row and third column of the productisthe dot product ofthe seeond row vector ofthe left-hand matrix and the third columa vector of ‘the right-hand one: (02) + (641) + (-2Y8) = 8 +6 - 10-4, and so on, through the remaining row and column positions ofthe product. Fight such computations show that ‘Examples 2and 3 show that sometimes ABiis defined when Bis not. Even ifboth 4B and BA are defined, however, it eed not be true that AB = BA: Matrix mutipication isnot commutative, fo 2] -f0 0] salt] mw of ‘Compute AB and BA, 101 incouseonwith i 13° MARC AND THER AIGERA 41 SOLUTION We compute that ae-[i9 ash [Eh Of course, fora square matrix 4, we denote Ad by 4, dy fan s0 ‘on. Itean be shown that matrix multiplication is associative; that is, ABC) = (AB)C ‘whenever the product is defined. This is not dificult to prove from the matrix and 8 is any n X s matrix, we can show that (Other Matrix Operations Although multiplication isa very important matrix operation for our work, ‘we will have oocasion to add and subtract matrices, and to multiply « matrix42 GWTER VECTORS MATIC, AND UNEAR YSTENS by a scala, in later chapters. Matix addition, subtraction, end salar mul- tipcation are natural extensions of these same operations for vectors deen Sein hey a agin pormed on ens incoresponng 1 a-4ypt oe fo Sal[ts 4 SOLUTION The sum is the matrix EXAMPLE 6 Find SOLUTION The sum is undefined, because the matrices are not the same size, = Let be an m m matex, and let O be the m x n matrix all of whose entries are zero, Thea, A+O=044=4, ‘The matrix Os called the m x n zero mati; the sie of such a zero matrix is made clear by the context. EXAMPLE 7 Find SOLUTION Multiplying each entry of the matrix m4 6-10) Formats dan ot bean i, we eae he lire Bde A-~BoA+(-1)B ‘The entries in A ~ B are obtained by subtracting the entries of B from entries in the corresponding positions in 4. ea eee ahadee[is fh fat 22, SoUurion ef at EXAMPLE sowurion We have ‘Notice that the rows of A become the columas of44 omeren 1 vec, mooie, A UNEAR SYSTEUS EXAMPLE 10 SOLUTION A symmetric matrix must be square, Symmetric matroes arise in some applications, as we shall se in Chapter 8. Fill in the missing entries in the 4 x 4 matrix to make it symmetric. Because rows must match corresponding columns, we obtain 5-6-2 9] 6 3 1 210 4) gu 4-1 In Example 10, note the symmetry in the main diagonal We have explained that we will often regard vectors in R* as column vectors. I'a and b are two column vectors in R', the dat product ab can be written in terms of the transpose operation and matrix multiplication— namely, arb=ab=[o,a°° ‘Strictly speaking, ais a1 x 1 matrix, and ts sole entry isa b, Identifying 8 1X1 matrix with its sole entry should cause no difficulty. The use of Eq, (7) ‘makes some formulas given later inthe text much easier to handle. Properties of Matrix Operations For handy reference, we box the properties of matrix algebra and of the ‘algebra not involving matrix multiplication are essentially the same as the roofs ofthe same properties presented for vector algebra in Section 1. ‘We would expect this because thse operations are performed just on cor responding entries, and every vector can be regard as either a1 X moran nx Latin 13 MARCS AO THER LCE Properties of Matrix Algebra AtB=BtA Comumatatv lav of ston (A+ B)+C=A+ B+ C) Associative lam of aition A+O=044=4 4+ B)= rh +B oat or sition entity for matrx meiplieation ‘A ef dstrbtie la ‘Aight lstibatv aw AB + C)= AB + AC (+BC=4C+BC Properties ofthe Transpose Operation “yea “Transpose ofthe anspoe (41D) =A 1 BF Banapose of sum (AB = BAT Thames of prodect Provethat A(B-+ C)= AB+ AC forany mx nmatrix and any n xX smatrices Band C. Let A= [a], B = [land C= [eg]. Note the use off, which runs from 1 to m,28| both the second index for entries in and the firs index forthe entries in B and C. The entry in the th row and ith column of 4(B + C) is Baeo. ‘By familiar properties of real numbers, this sum is also equal to Jerks ac Sah Sac ‘which we recognize asthe sum ofthe entries in the fh row and lth columns of| the matrices AB and AC. This completes the proof. =(Compute the indicated quent, fit i defined. LM 208 BAtB 4B+C S.C-D 6 ue 1. AB a (yr 1. Anm x nmatrxis an ordered rectangular array of numbers containing rows and n columns. 2. An-m x | matrix isa column vector with m components, and 1 X n ‘matrix is a row vector with n components, 3. The product Ab of an m x x matrix A and a column vector b with 4. The product AB ofan mx nmatrix A and ann x smatrix Bis the mx s matrix C whose th column is 4 times the th column of B, The entry in the throw and th column of Cis the dot product ofthe th row ecto ofA and the jh column vector of B. In general, AB x BA 5, If4= [a] and B= (2) are maties ofthe same size then A + Bis the ab ob} 9. @eaysc) 40, (508) we Bucy GB. Q4- BD 14. 408 5M 16. BC md CB 19, Consider the ow and coloma vectors q x=[2, s-nwer-[) 3 (Compute the mari products xy and yx. ‘Fil inthe missing entries inthe 4 4 suatix IAB = Cand ito ofthe mations are square then soi the third. —h ABS Cand if Cis column vector, then sis Ab A= i then a= Fora integers n=2, , ft entering E = B and then using the colon to specify that ows 6 ‘tuough 1 of E are equal to Z Use the fact thet A@,:) ives the fh row oh.50 GIFT VECTORS MATRICES, AND UNEAR SYSTEMS 1M6. In mathematics, “mean” stands for “average,” go the meen of the numbers 2, 4 and 9s their average (2 + 4+ 9)/3 = 5: Ia MATLAB, eter telp mean fo see what that function gies, and then enter meao(A). Figure out away to. ‘nave MATLAB find the mean (everag) ofall 25 numbers in the matrix 4 Find that mean and write down your snever, compte the mean ofthe entre in F, and wre down your answer. Repeat this several times. "MA. Enter belp ones and read wha it sy. Wate down a statemert that you could cater in MATLAB to form fom the matrix F of Exercise MT 2 10% 10 ‘matrix G that has random entries from ~4 to 4. Using the ideas in Exercise M6, find and write down the mean ofthe entries inthe matrix G, Repeat this several times. [MATLAB bas th capability to daw surface graphs ofa funtion = fx, 9) nthe me ton, This provi exon sono he ue ‘memory ot ffm mats age than Your MATLAB wl ace. Eteag clear A will erase a matrix A from memory to fee up some space, and entering clear vil ease al data previo entered. We suggest hat you eater eear nom before proceeding. ‘MATLAB can draw a surace of: = fx y) over a rectangusr region a = x, ys dol th ylee by computing va? of fenton a pet on 2 pit i eet coordinates and coordinates of a rd of points inthe regon ~3 = x'= 3 and “2:5 = Beene he increments | andthe pncement is, we se hat both Xand Y willbe 9% 7 matrices Enter now «and thn eter X to ee that matrix X and silly vew the mai ¥. We have are the squares of the ens In A. Ths entering Z = X aX + a Y in MATLAB will produce a matrix Z whose entry ata poston comesponding io a grid point (xy) | By ¥1= meshdom(-~245, -2.525 ® 14 SOONG STIS OF NEAR EQUETONS St Entering mesh(Z) wil hen create themes graph ver he region asysi, Z=XaktVay, o ‘mesh(Z) ao (o see his graph MIO. Using the up arrow, modly a, () to make both the xinerement end the ‘Pincrement 02. After pressing the Eater key, use the up row to get Ea. 9) ‘and press the Botr key to form the larger max Z for these new pid ‘MIX. Chan E(B otha he an wil be -3 0, Wis also nonempty, so Wis a subspace of 4. Pchee gt alt ae 1%, span oF generate the subspace We will se in Section 2.1 that every subspace in R*can be described as the span of at most n vectors in R°. In particular, the solution set of a homoge- ‘neous system Ax = O can always be described asa span of some of the solution 1 0 3 vector. We illustrate how to describe the solution set this way in an example, 4=lo 1a}Be ullpace of A was readily found beens is in reduced roweeheon ta Seton 13 we empasod htforen mX n main and x ER the vector 4x linear combination of the column vectors of, In Section 1.4 We saw that thesystem 4x = bhasa solution fand only ifbisequaltosomelinear | combination of the column vectors of 4. We rephrase this criterion for existence ofa solution of 4x = bin terms ofthe column space of A. ‘Column Space Criterion A linear system Ax = bas a solution if and only if b isin the column space of 4, Bases ‘We have seen how the solution set of a homogeneous linear system can be expressed as the span of certain selected solution vectors. Look again at (mich shows he sation et fhe inert in Example 3 to be 1%) for he Thelas-wo component ofthese vectors are 1,0 form and, 1 form, These 18 HOMOGENEOUS SSTE, SUESACES, WD EASES 9B ‘to rete nd Bee erp lore pan of abe ‘Our discussion following Example 3 shows that the two vectors 3 3] -2 rail 1 ade form a ais forthe stn sae fhe homogenate te 9 ffm, ---s mis abasis for WY, then we have W= sp(w,, my...) 26 wl asthe niqueness requirement. Remember hat we calla yy standard basis vectors for. The reason for hiss that every element of can be expressed uniquely as 2 linear combination of these vectors, We call fejty + €) the standard basis for R°. FIGURE 1.36 ‘he plane Sem, wi)an ‘ ae 16 HoMoGious seve, suse AND BASS 95 ‘We would like tobe able to determine whether {m, Ws... mp isa basis for the subspace 17 = sp(v;, Win..., m7) of Rt—that is, whether the ‘uniqueness criterion holds. The nex theorem will be helpful. It shows that we need only examine uniqueness at the zero vector. In describing examples and stating exercises, we often write vectors in Rt 5 row vectors to save space, However, the vector b= Ax in Theorem 1.16 is ‘necessarily acolumn vector. Thus, solutions to examples and exercises that use results such 28 Theorem 1.16 are done using columa-vector notation, a8 our : text examples Om, + Ow, Ow, = 0, it follows that ; implies that each r| must be 0. EXAMPLE 4 Determine whether the vector ¥,= [l, 1,3} t:= [30,4], and v= [1, 4, ~1 Conversely, suppoe that Ow, + Om Oi the only Linear fecuceere Mean Osha s aL al combination ging te zero ver I we have to ine combinations | Seen eres |] so.urion Wemustsee whether th matrix A having andy as ola vectosisrow wodetant os ag, | [receive -> [Beoods]—> message shows the steps with which we are concemed. Errors could be caused at any stage of the process by equipment malfunction, human erro, lightning, sunspots, crosstalk interference, ec. Numeral apesrtatn of rfomatn Message Words and Cade Words ‘An algebraist refers toa sequence of characters from some alphabet, such as (01010011 using te alphabet B or the sequence of letters giypt using our usual letter alphabet, as a word; the computer scientist referstothis as airing. Swe16 QUT? Veco, ware ES AND UNEAR SITES 1.8 APPUCATON TO BNARY LEAR CODES (TONAL) 117 word is odd. Note that th result is a Sve-character code word 47% tebnitely containing an even number of 1's. Thus in Iusration 1, encoded word is changing a Single Oto | orasingle | to0, then the modalo2 sum characters wil te rater than O, andthe recipient wil recognize that there hasbeen an eror in transmitting the code word. * LUSTMATONT Suppose we wish messige wish to send OL asthe bi ‘ o inary ingleerror cou ead each carter so word: Ther iat of redndany, The next luton sore ors how ec sor ete achir the goal wing the esr wlonee ee error has beea comrnited. ee dion portion ofthe encoded word, and the final borat maancy porn cr priy-hetk porto. s ‘This amounts e fer O if the message word contains an to appending the character 0 ifthe mes even number of characters 1, and appending a1 ifthe numberof 1's in theILWSTRATION 3 Consider the binary words w= 11010011 and v: UT Patras beg Kae As, i= 5, wher Encoding to Enable Correcting 2 Single-Eror Tensmision ‘We now show how, using more than one parity-check equatioa, we can not only detect but actually correct single-error transmission of @ code word. ‘This method of encoding was developed by Richard Hamming in 1948, ‘Suppose we wish to encode the 16 message wards (Uf there were two such code words, the distance between them would be at ‘most 2) Tn order to detec the error in a single-rror transmission ofa code word, ‘including not only message word characters but also the redundant parity check characters, we acd to have each component in the code word appear Component x5 And appear in the paycheck equation 3 = Bt +3 +p The partyceek equations Brntats enti ad HRT Rt O hich we wil show accomplish our goa, lo sts this condition. a ‘Let us se how to get dlitance of atleast 3 between each pair ofthe 16 code wr. Of out, th dane ttmen any two ofthe rial 16 tance 2, have been encoded a8 0101110 and 0011100, which ae at distance 3,120 QUPTERY Veco, MaTRCES, AND Lea SYSTEUS 18 APPUCATON TO BNARY LNEAR CODES (OFTONAL) 121 Desoding a received word w by selecting a code word et minimum (0100, whic ders fromthe first four character ofthe recived word. On the disancs fom v Gn some oes more tan on cafe word mht be te other hand, if we receive the noncode word 1100111, we decode it as 1100, ‘minimum distance) is known 25 nearest-neighbor decoding. If transmission because the closest code word to 1100111 is 1100011. error are independent fom each other, it canbe shown that this is equivalent to whet is known as maximunliklihood decoding. Nain Tatraton tt ifthe code word 00101 ists ani ILLUSTRATION 4 theory shows that in transmiting a word oflengthn, the probability of no error is (1 — p)', rately 0.999, 0000999, and 0,0000004 Parity Check Matix Decoding ‘Youcan imagine that ifwe encoded al ofthe 256 ASCH character in an, 8) eee ‘er Thstation 4 Real that he pai HISTOWICAL NOTE Rewao ooo (91 tdi ineran te ques ocd See eae stimulated in 1947 when be was using an early Bell System relay computer oa weekeeds only ee (endian oy oe ean) Dey reese es ie tne alarm when it discovered an error so that an operator could attempt to correct it. On weekeads, Ge tana ww emt rar enn ed waaay poten hs aed sais sins tenes aie st snge-eror error and proceed tothe next one. Hansmming's frustration with this behavior of the machine grew ee : irene dsorer enor —it wed i imple ono dtacingcode—thermatbe my fort coe tem snd prod wth the sluton He therefore eri on this ca free yatta Gsorered see difet methods of ceing eecorecing codex. Hesse of pict ‘Wich thy iter He soi eneoc end te st elle ons caeed in dfferent equations. Tis allows us to identify the character ina sngle-ertor ‘waa fourdimensionlstepace of hat pee, ‘transmission easily.12 owner ILLUSTRATION 5 VECTORS, MATES, AND UNGAR SYSTEMS ‘We can be even more systematic. Let us rewnite the equations as AtRtHtHAO Mem TK tH =0, md BtytEtH AO ‘received word w a follows in the Hamming (7, 4) code of Mlustration 4, and be confident of detecting and correcting any single-position error, as follows, Parity-Check Matrix Decoding 1. Compute Hr. 2. IT iwi the zero vector, decode asthe first four characters of w, 3, If His the th column of H, then: 4. if)> 4, decode as the fist four characters of ceviche it or arc wih th fh hac 4 alae pike oi ‘nor the th column of H, then more than one error has been made: ask for retransmission, ‘Beoause this isthe third column of #7, we change the third character ia the ‘message portion 0110 and decode a 0100. Note that this is what we obtained in Mlustration 4 when we decoded this word using Table Ll. = 18 APPLCATON TO ANARY UNEAR CODES (ONAL) 123, Just as we did after Ilustration 4, we point out that f two erors are made in transmission, the preceding outline may lead to incorrect decoding. Ifthe ‘code word » = 0001011 is transmitted and received as w = 011001 with vo rors, then 1 Hw =|o|, H ‘which s column 2 of the matrix H. Thus, decoding by the steps above leads to the incorrect message word 0111. Note that item 4 in the ist above does not ‘ay that if more than one error has been made, then Hw is neither the 2ero ‘eetor nor the jth column of H, Lal | 1 Lette binary numbers | through 15 stand foc the eters AB CDEFGHITELM 8. Give the paycheck mati for this coe, 9. Use the par-heck matrix to decode the reosived words in Exercise 7. 10 Let w= 1101010111 and y= 0111001110, Find ‘ener acerca 1. Show tat fo word adton of binary words and oft sine leap eaves +7 rts cher 5 low many crors can always be detected nm Mary a is trnsmited and ‘ing this code? the received word i w, then the sum a+ 6 How many errors can alvays be corrected ven by word addition modulo 2s called sing this code? the err patter, Explain wy this is 7. Assuming tat the gven ord hasbeen eseritve name for this sum. recived, decode it sing nares-nlghbor 1, Stow that fortwo binary word of the same decoding, using your list of code words in length, we haved, ») = mtu ~ 9)124 QUITE VECTORS, MATRCES, AND UNEARSYSTEVS 4. ve the lowing prepet of te Towed fom thou in Ey muliyng by 2 sacri matt 17, Show tat in binary group code Che. ‘minimum ditance between code words is galt aims ih of be soa 8 Soot mena stew r i i i i r t | i i tt j Then use the fact hat m must be DIMENSION, RANK, AND LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS Given a finite set Sof vectors that generate a subspace W af RY, we would like ‘eatonships among the dimensions ofthe clum space, the row space and the mullspace ofa matrix. In Section 2.3, we discus functions mapping R* into that preserve, in 2 small as possible; see Exercise 21. Give the ‘standard generator matrix for your cade. 2S. The 256 ASCI characters are numbered from 0 to 285, and thus ean be represented by the 256 binary words in BF. Find 1 ~ 8 party-check equations that canbe used to form an (8) linear code that can be used 26, Let Ce an, iene code with pared matic We aoe ht = tego tera every subspace containing these vectors must contzin all ms125 lAMER2 ones nH, AKO LEAR TRAKEORMATONS Yiaar combinations of them, and consequently mast inclde every vector FY. We set ourselves te problem of fading a bai for W. «Ms nota basis for, Theorem 1.15 ro vector as linear combination of ‘i some nontrivial way. As an istration, supose that 4 i Im, ~ Se Sy = 0. ® Using Eg (1), we can express each of w,, wy and was a linear combination the other two. For example, we have Se oie Se worm | ry For convenience, we wll often drop the word linearly from the tems Linerly dependent anc linearly independent, and just speak ofa dependent ot independent set of vers. We wll sometimes drop the word eof and referto ‘Weelaim that we can delete w from ourlist mW... andthe remaining ‘willl span WY. The space spanned by the remaining w, whichis contained in FY, wll stil contain w, because w, = 6x, + 15m, and me have sen that isthe smalest space containing all the m, Tau the Veetor m,n the orginal it isnot needed ta span W. ‘The preceding illustration indicates that we can find basi 4, 6) in RE arising from our discussion of the solution set of Ax = 0. We state this : ‘ternative characterization asa theorem. lows us to spot that [4 0, 1} so we havea eaton lke Eq (1)—namely, 14, -61= (0,0) ‘Thus we can delete any one ofthe three vectors, and the rer still span W. For example, we can delete the vector [4 1 = sp(2, 3, [0, I). Because neither of these two rem: ‘bass for Y, which we realize is actully all and nonparallel vectors span o (inept vcs wa) dopant yaLi RORPREENCE A} DNENSON 129, Finding a Basis for W = spf, Way = WA) 1 For the matrix A whose th column vector is w, 2. Rowe-reduce Ato row-ehelon form H 3. The st ofall w such thatthe th column of H contains a pivot isa basis for F. Wetumto is for W= ‘i in eet Ae ear. 80(M Wo «sw | EXAMPLE 2 Find a basis for the subspace W’ of R® spanned by SOLUTION ‘esos yn and are tind and andepedent. We obtain, mo) asa basis for W. © ‘ie emphasize thatthe veclors retained are in columns ofthe matrix 4 formed a the start ofthe reduction process. A common err isto take instead the actual columa vectors coniining pivots in the ow echelon form H. There {sno reason even fo expect thatthe column vectors of Hi inthe column space ofA For example, nd atin [] it not inthe column pce of Note that we can est whether vectors in Rare independent by reducing 2 smatrx having them as column vectors. The vectors are independent if and nly if row reduction of the mat yields a marin with apo in every column I particular, vectors in are independent if and aly i ow10 own? EXAMPLE 3 SOLUTION DIMEN, RAK, AND LEAR TRARSORNUTIONS space of Ris far fom unique. In Example 1, er een aii OW + gm $88 + Bate ‘We comput xn, +n, +--+ 29, i temp oid dependence relation by multiplying the it euaion in Eqs. (3) by 3, the second by 21 ROBBEOKE HO OMEN 131 tc, and then adding the equations. Now the reultng sum i sure to be the 10 vector if the total coeient of ach won the right-hand side inthe sm ity + fig + + Rye =O, that m= k Therefore, E= ma 4s the til ofthe coral inde, we wll conse the numberof ‘dimension would not be: wl ddan i'n mtg Hoare feet people may come up with different bases, the preceding corollary is necessary in order to define dimension, ism, {1 . »€)+ Now R* cannot be spanned by fewer than n vectors, because a132 GWPTER2 DIMEN, RANK, AND LEAR THADGFORNATINS spanning set can always be cut down (if necessary) to form a basis using the technique bored before Example 2. Theorem 2.2 also tells us that we cannge find a set containing more than m independent vectors in R’. The same. 21 NOEIOEKE MO DMEASON, 133 bination of itself, because r0 = 0 forall scalars r. In view of our definition, ‘we have dim({0) = 0. ‘The construction technique in the preceding paragraph also shows that every independect sibit Sof vectors in & subspace W of canbe enlarged, if necessary, to become a bass for W. Namely, if Sis not already a bass, we choose 2 vetorin WY that snot inthe span ofthe vectors in S, enlarge S by this ‘vector, and continu tis process until 5 becomes a basis. If we know already that dim(WV) = K and want to check tata subset S independent set, then the preceding paragraph shows that Scan be enlarged, if necessary, to become a basis. But because Shas the right mumber of vectors for ‘a basis, no such enlargement is posible. ‘Wecollect the observations inthe preceding three paragraphs in theorem for easy reference, fom a basis for W, the column space of 4 and so dim(W7) = 2.» Js ee LS seas tt sw et eye EXAMPLE 5 sowution set Note that although sp(0) = (0), the zero vector is not a unique inear com:0th Et 43, 8 mbin Rs linearly dependent if there exists 4+ ram=0, with at least one 7, # 0. The ney indeed tif no such dependence relation exists, that linear combination ofthe wis the zero vector ony if all ofthe salar coeficients are 2eo, 2 Aes Beets rorce Wola ind ny Fe a i a pc ci mi Ain Exercise 12 In Execs 16-25, use the techie Utstrated 6. Let P7bea subspace uf aud let dim(W7) = kA subset Sof FY comaning exactly k vector is a basis for W if ether ‘a. Sis an independent set, or B. Sspans W, ‘That i, it is not necessary to check both conditions in Theorem 2.1 fora ‘basis Shas the right mmber of elements fora basis. 6, Argue geometially that every st of four nine! pore vector in tobe Gsnt vector in is dpendet. dependent. 2 Ghd went isdedear Ite 7-1 we he techie of ral |. Give a geometric criterion fora set of two. 2, described inthe box on page 128, to find detects eden Eb Afr he subspace pemmed by he Sen dependent. —_ “4. Give a geometric description ofthe subspace aR pevatet Ym ingle itive 7. eee itint nonzero vecor in tobe dependent. 21 ROBO MNO OMRON 135, <1 Ita tof nazero yes in Ris 0, roe a =e TE Frat aepes end e eae an ie eR aa ted on we ts. Prove that nbe hn Of he mata om meh <# Foralpotiveinegen and te 2. Wait x Iyer and bis 1X me © Mabon tamatenigetany ect, prove that isan x m mat of thot : number fom Oo te minimum of m sank mos one Let A bean m x nmatix. The dimension ofthe ow space of Ais equal to ae 28, Lat Abe an xr sr Prove that the the dimension ofthe column space of 4, and is called the rank of 4, | ___p Feral pstive integers andthe column space nd row seca (VA are the denoted by rank(4), The rank of 4 is equal othe numberof pols in sully ofan m x nate migh be any te row-echelon form H of 4. The nulity of 4, denoted by nullity(4), isthe ‘ube fom Ot 2 7A, Suppose that you ae wing computer seftware, each ne TINTER or MATLAB, thet dimension of the nllspace of 4—that is of te solution set of 4x = 0, 2. ‘eases forthe 1ow spuce, the column space, and the mullspace ofa matrix A can be found as described in a bo. in th text. 3 (Rank Equation) For an m x n matrix 4, we have ank(4) + mullity(4) = n, ar the matrices in Exercises 1-6, find (a the jig preter née oat Bead savocated augmented matrix [4 |b ofthe stem, In Exarises 14-16, et and C be matrices such ‘hat the prot AC is defined. 14, Prove thatthe column space of AC's ‘contained inthe column space of 4. 48 Isittue thatthe column space of AC is coniined inthe column space of C? Explain. 16, State the analogue of Exercise 14 concerning the ow spaces of d and C.The Notion of a Linear Transformation [Notice that for an m Xn matrix A, the function mapping x € Pinto Ax ia Rt satisfies the two conditions in the following definition (see Example 3). 25 NEAR TRANSFORMATIONS OF CLEEAN SHES 143, £ x 1 : « £ “N xl Y : » FIGURE 2.2 (4) The imoge of under f (the mene kage of K uncer f, ‘summands by induction—that i, for ym «7 ry We have ra) = nT) + Te) +++ + ATO. ‘Equation (1) is often expressed verbally a follows: ‘Linear transformations preserve linear combinations. Domaincer —E RangeokT Ze FicURE 2.3 he ner ansomaton Ti) = Ax144 OUTER? DIMEN, RIK, AND LEAR TRANFORVATONS EXAMPLE 1 SOLUTION EXAMPLE 2 souuri 23. UNEAR TANORMATION OF ICLOEAN SACS 1S ‘These are precisely the conditions for a linear transformation given in Defttion 23. ‘We claim that if 7: R*—> Ris linear transformation, then T-maps the aero wor ft th zero vero oft tere hat lr ‘tion of any vector by the zero scalar gives the zero vector, and property 2 ofthe. definition shows that 7 TO) = TO) = OT = 0. Show om Dtnitn 2.3 thatthe union TR» R eed by T= ni Looking back at Example 2 we see that, in column-vector notation, the because sin(n/4 + m4) WNV1+IVi= tnndsratear oR fo Ran be sibel a peidy we non ‘whose graphs are liner through the origi.» Example 4 shows that a linear transformation of R into R is completely {determined as soon as T(I) is known. More generally, 2 linear transformation Te Rt» Rrisuqulydetemind ty its values on any basis for 2 we DOW PROOF Let y SEL ren son fe hae nis oe exist unique scalar r,, Tht t+ tbe Wamoiaeie TO) = Theby + nbe +--+ + 1b) = 17) +70) ++ +170).23 LNA TANFORUATONS OF FUCIDEAN SES. 147 In row-vector notation, we have the formula Bex tr coins rs mig eine by ifort i ba Tip 2D) = x, + Bx x, Ax - 2a completely determined bythe vectors T(b) for i= 1, 2, . ‘Theorem 2.7 shows that if two linear transformations have the same valu at each bass vetor by then the two transformations have the same value af ‘each vector in Rand thus they are the same transformation. EXAMPLE 6 Find the standard matrix representation of the linear transformation T:Rt>R where Tibin Sp RD = by ~ 3h 25, — + Bay Bs — 45 +3 ~ a. B) SOLUTION We compute Te) =TQ, 1,2, 8] Te) = T(0, 1,0, ) = (1, ~1, -4} [-3,0,3}, Med = 710, 0, 0, 1) = [0,3, ~11. COROLLARY Standard Matrix Representation ofa Linear Transformation SO AEE, LSS ie Ltn RRO Let T: Rt» RY be a linear transformation, and let A be the mx 1 ‘matrix whose jth column vector is Te), which we denote symbolically s i: r +++ Tle). ‘Then T(x) = Ax foreach column vector x & Fe, Tle) = Using Eq. 2), we find that dal 8 PROOF Rett iar mis A dah fh cis of, Tish fv beaut, tower te Ey) ommend a epresentation. We give another example indicating how a linear transformation is fen e- the comment following this ‘theorem, we know that then T(x) = Tx) for every x € R*—that is, T(x) = Ax eae its domain. Note that the vectors a = [-1, 2] and v= [3, ~5] are two very x ERY. ‘nonparallel vectors inthe plane/and form a basis for R?. ‘The matrix 4 in Eq (2) isthe standard matrix representation of the linear EXAMPLE 7 = (+1, 2] and v = [3, ~5] be in RF, and let 7: R? > RY be a linear transformation T. ‘enduron ch a 0) = [-2,1, 0] and 7(v) = (5, ~7, 1] Find the standard matrix representation A of T and compute T(- EXAMPLES Let 7: (> R? be the linear transformation such that23° Wes TansroMUNS oF DEAN S143 EXAMPLE 8 Find the kernel ofthe near transformation 7: RR where Tx, x») abs 2px, + Aa SOLUTION We simply find the nllspace ofthe standard matrix representation A of T. 148 GUPTER 2. IMENEN, ta, 80 LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS Some Terminology of Linear Transformations ‘The matrix representation of a linear transformation 7: > Risa great ‘help in working with 7. Let us use column-vector notation. Suppose, for example, we want to ge of T—thatis, the set ofall lemenis of Re ‘the columa vectors of A where the coeficient of the jth column of A in the \ineas combination is x, the jth component ofthe veetorx. Thus the range of cya eames ost homogeaeoes Ener se isa subspace of Ry called the mae of is ‘matrix 4 This mullspace is often called the kernel of Tas well as the nullspace of 7, and is denoted ker), Let W be @ subspace of R. Then W = sp(by, By... b) where B = Bo basis for PY. Because T preserves neat combinations, we Thriby + by + +++ + rb) = ATI) + AT) + +++ + ATO). ‘This shows that TDW] = sp(T(b), T(by),... T¢o)) which we know is a subspace of Re. ‘We summarize the three preceding paragraphs in a box. Let T: Rt» R* bea linear trensformation with standard matrix representation A 1, The range TIR*| of Tis the column space of in R. 2, The kernel of Tis the mulspace of and is denoted ker(T). 3. If Wis. subspace of Ry, then T[F7] is a subspace of that is, 7 reserves subspaces. ‘Writing down and thea reducing the matrix. ‘Thus we find that ke(7) = sp((—4,-2, 1). Matrix Operations and Linear Transformations svn fl tobe able op ack an forth tw etwas and thi aoe near anim rank opeation, ‘rank(4) + nullity(4) = in(range 7) + dimeer(7) “The dimension of ange Ts cal the rank of incaled the mally of 7. ‘Ao, matrix muliptication and matic inversion have very siguif- cant anlogoesin tems of transformations. Let 7 R=» Rand R= "Now sappose that Aisthe m x nmatixasioiated with Tand that Bisthe ex m mats associated with Then we ean compute T'(Tta) a3 T(x) = Tx) = BA, But B(Ax) = (B4)x, Associativity of matrix multiplication 0 (I » Tx) = (Bd)x. From Example 3, we see that T'» Tis again a linear ‘transformation, and thet the matrix associated with it is the product of the ‘matrix associated with 7” and the matrix associated with 7, in that order. "Notioe how easly this follows from the associativity of matrix multiplication, rer 7 IN Lem nie : . eee,150 OUFTER2 DIAS, RN, AAO UNEAR TRANSFORMATIONS LWSTRATION 1 It really makes us appreciate the power of associativity! We can also show directly from Definition 2.3 thatthe composite of two linear transformationg is again a linear transformation, (See Exercise 31.) “Matric Mutpicatn and Composite Transformations ‘A composition of two linear transformations T and 7’ yields a linear transformation T"» T having as its associated matrix the rociuct of the matrices associated with 7" and T, in that order. horeairealoay Tin soca aetna ‘Thus, applied twioe—that is, 7+ 7—rotates the plane through 20, Replacing by 20in matrix (3), we find thatthe standard matrix representation for T=? must be EXAMPLES ‘Show thatthe linear trancformation 7: RY» R? defined by T(E, 2) coe ae @ bx, ~ 2x, + 3 x ~ 25 29; ~ 3 is invertible, and find a formula fr its sin 20 cos 20° (On the other hand, we know that the standard matrix representation forthe ‘composition 7» T must be the square ofthe standard matrix representation for T, and so matrix (4) must be equal to (cos 8 —sin 6] fcos @ ~sin 6] _ feos’? —sint@ -2sin Beos é] sin 8 cos4||sin @ cos 8] ~ | 2sin @cor 6 —sin'8 + cosa” Comparing the entries in matrix (4) withthe final rest in Eq, (5), we obtain the double ange trigonometric identities sin 20= 2 sin @c0s 0 and 00820 = cos" ~ sin", which we express in row notation as TGs, 5D) = Os #4 ~ 5 3 = 35 25 - = Too, we se that T+ Tis lo the identity transformation on In Exercise 3, we ask you to verify that T-(7(a) =x, asin Figure 25. ©23 UNEAR TNZORNUATING OF BXUDEAN SES 153, ‘in Brercses 13-18, the ven formula defines __e. An avertbe liner trensformation er transformation. Give is standard marx aon in ibs eis 1 Thoin math nate te tsdart pagent free eet linear transformations, 6 A linear transformation having an mx ‘uniquely determined by 71h), bd of ‘mapping Rint Rr then T(x) = T's) fecalxe Wifes nly £7) = 709 3. Let T Rt Reb lnearanfomaton Prove fom Definition 23 that Tira + sv) = rT\a) + s7() forall, ¥€R and all ‘Bxercte 33 shows that the reduced romecheion orm ofc mati is unique. 33, Let bean m Xn matrn with owechelon Erna Gino ei wage wy sot ‘In Exercises $12, assume that Ts 0 near axgeraton Ree o Example 7 fr Execs154 QUITE? OMELION, RANK, AND LEAR TRANSFORMATIONS be, 1E7\(7] has dimension dy show that, for 2 cach j B that preserve of all vectors in R—thet is, such that 7(x} = [xl] forall x € R’. We seuss such ideas further in Exercises 17-22. example illustrates that bases for Ré other than the standard basis can sefl. Find the standard matrix representation 4 forthe reflection of the plane inthe line y = 2, eth = 2 wih il te ey = 25 an et = [2 1 wii artognal oy eos SOLUTION 2 FIGURE 2.12 Reflection in the line y = 2x 24 NEAR TRANFONUATONS OF HE FANE (ORTON) 159 [Now (hb) is a basis for R, and Theorem 2.7 tells us that Tis completely determined by its action on this basis. To find 7(e) and T(e) for the column ‘vectors in the standard matrix representation A of 7, we fist express and e, seco tT i wee eo tes ‘The three parts of Figure 2.13 show that we can attain the reflection of the plane in the fine y = 2x as follows: First reflect inthe x-axis taking us from part (a) topart (t) ofthe figure, and then rotate counterclockwise through the ange 20, where @is the angle from the x-axis to the line y = 2x, measured counterclockwise, Using the double angle formulas derived in Section 2.3, we se from the righ triangle in Figure 2.13(a)24 LNEAR TRANSORUATONS OF HE FANE (PTENA) 161 | EXAMPLE 3 Describe geometrically the effect on the plane of the liner transformation T : where Eis an elementary matrix obtained by multiplying a row ofthe 2 x 2 identity matrix Iby -1. SOLUTION The mats obtained by multiplying the second row of by —1 is EXAMPLE 4 Describe geometrically the efect on the plane ofthe linear transformation T; where Eis an elementary matrix obiained by interchanging the rows of the 2% 2 identity matix J SOLUTION Here we have In Example 2, note that because we first reflec in the x-axis and then rotate through 26, the matrix forthe eecton isthe on on asi, which acs ona pines tice ater terete) fe eri wae Se amet 2% 2 elementary matrix corresponding to row scaling. SOLUTION The matrix H has the forma ei) = [or] ‘A Geometric Description of Al invertible Transformations ofthe Plane ‘We exploit matrix techniques to describe geometrically all invertible i ‘transformations ofthe plane into ite. Recall that every invertible matrinis + spceoion mais rotation mati, eeeee a eee raion woul ot ppeae it doce ere FIGURE 2 efecto a he ney =24 NEAR TRANSFORMATIONS OF HE PLA (OPTENAL) 163 addition of rx. For example, [1,0] is caried onto [1, ato [1,1 + 7, while [0, 0} and [0,1] are carried onto 162 CMETER2 —_CIMEION, Ra, 80 LNEAR TANSTORUATIONS [Exercise 10 deals with the cae of «horizontal shear.» ‘We have noted that a Samoa ais 48 avec and only iitis te Product of elementary matrices. We also know that a product of matrices 30) J-1 113 9 oi" oi foy Refecton Horizoatal expansion ining hrontal epson y tr of, flowed bya een Geometric Description of invertible Transformations of Rt A linea transformation T ofthe plane R into itself s invertible if and only if T consists ofa finite sequence of: Reflections in the vans, the yas, or the line y = x, ‘erticl or horizontal expansions or contractions; and Vertical or horizontal shears al | 1 r oe rate th * 1 ® ° (thew rT 99 =o (©) the vertical shear Ms YD = rx + yh < ovannies omer tenfi afi tensa 2.x 2 elementary matrix corresponding to row addition. ficuRE 2.15, Cort = [py] ntact 6) Te =P 7] apd hooray164 QWPTER2 OMEN, RANK, AND LEAR TRANSFORLATONS EXAMPLE 7 Illustrate the result relating tothe boxed description above forthe invert linear transformation T(x, y]) = [x + 2y, 3x + dy]. SOLUTION We reduce the standard matrix representation A of 7, obtaining Ez & & RoR- 3 RHR ROR - 28, |. Linear transformations of R into R? whose standard matrix represents tons have rank ess than 2 either collapse the entire plane tothe origin (the rank 0 case) or collapse the plane to a line (the rank I case), 2. A rigid motion ofthe plane into itself that leaves the origin fixed gives a linear transformation 7: R? -> Ri. Every such rigid motion is either & rotation ofthe plane about the origin, or a reflection in the a-axis (to tum the plane over) followed by such a rotation, 3. ‘The standard matrix representation forthe rotation ofthe plane counter ‘lockwise about the origin throvgh an ange @is Baer Solon 1 of Example 2 in the text. 17. Repeat Exercise 6 but ute the method for the ese m = 2 Solution 2 of Example 2 — a. Every rotation of the plane is incar ‘tansformation. bh very roution of the plane about the Brrr moton of he lane hat care thon into el ia near ‘tortion —£ Brey invert ier tnsfomation of the plane iid ton —t Ma near tnnfraton 7: Rt Risa motion of pan then fel =f foral x.165 UPTER2 —_DNERSON, RANK, AND LNEAR TRANSFORMATIONS bh The geometric fet o all invertible 19, Express both the lengh of vector v€ RE 25 UNE PANES, AND OTHER LAS (PCNA) 167 LINES, PLANES, AND OTHER FLATS (Optional) det ‘We tum to geometry inthis section, and generalize the notions of line inthe roduc, then it preserves length and ange ‘plane or in space and of a plane in space. Our work in the preceding sections ‘20, Suppose that 1: R?—»> R° preserves both ‘will enable us to describe geometrically the solution set of any consistent linear oa sen. The Notion of Line in Re Fr asomzro wor din we val the one ines bsp) (hy Compt te dat pd 7) 1) ‘by computing (45)749)] 23. This masz clinos en slgcbrac prot that rotation ofthe plane abot the origin isa linear transformation, et 7: ete anton tht rotate the plane rec hop ec aia 17, Ue th familar equation that esrb the Pith tech eto ee eae -€ RE can be written in the polar form ian earnatin 7 Leen apiecaleninmy ‘ecserves both kengih and ange, thea i also ‘vetor bas this form with r= 1] reser th dot product. 1 Far = fot esta, exprss 7) in 1B. Use alg properties ofthe dt product this polar form. ‘9 compute [iu — vf = (a ~ 7) «(a ~ ¥), and ‘c. Using column-vector notation and prove from the resuling equation that ¢ ‘ppoprite trigonometric identities, fad lear transformation 7: R—> RE that Amati 4 sah hat Tp) = dv. The reser length abo preserves the dot existence of such a matt A prove that product. Tis linear transformation. FIGURE 2.17 FIGURE 2.18 ‘Aline through the origin in Re. ‘Aline through the origin n25 UNS. LANES, M0 CHE RAS CTO) — 169 ‘In classical geometry, component equation for L are aso called parametic ‘equations for L, and the variable ¢ is @ parameter. OF course, this same parameter ¢ appears inthe vector equation also. © EXAMPLE2 Find a vector equation and component equations forthe line in B through (2,1) havin diection vector [3,4]. Then find the point on the lie having ~4 as its x-coordinate + SOLUTION Theline can be characterized asthe translate of sp([3, 4) by the vector [2 1), : and soa vector equation of the ine is fy] = 13, 4]+ 2,1) 168 CMPTER?.—_OMESON, nen, AND LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS FIGURE 2.19 FiGuRE 2.20 acee Geni ‘A gener lng Ln Re “ranlte off € | Jl = 2} n by, 4) cece mon theline ffm thse component equstins. node ond the pat. aie ee {ER | fx] <2} of Ry the vector B.-L 31=(-1,42, 1s indicated in Figure 221. We obtain tse a= ALL, 4,2) +B -1, 3] 4 Although our defition deine line tobe set of vectors itis us ‘ a ia Seer apnea ees throne 5a vector equation forthe line. The corresponding paramere (component) correspond to the components ofthe vectors. —— We can specify a ne Zin by svinga point (a, a. i Amott yet, ess. the trast ofthe sabopace st) he vesor a L= (id + a/R}, Wo can describe the line by or bythe exuations antl +a, na tht ‘Component equations of Z FIGURE 2.21 The line pasting through (2 ~1, 3) and (3.5)170 GUFTEL2 MBO, RANK, AO LNEAR TANCORATENS Line Segments CConside the tne in that passes through the two points a, a) (6, by... B). Letting and b be the vectors corresponding to these poi ‘we sor asin Example 5 that d= b~ a sa direction vector forthe line. veetor equation 25 UNS PLANS 280 OTHER LATS CPTONAL) 171 TABLE 2.1 x=Wtandb—ajta ‘when generalizing to higher dimensions, and describe a translate of a ‘dimensional subspace of R* for k < n as being “fia.” Let us give a formal definition. By choosing = 0,1 334 and 1, wo obtain coordinates ofthe points that divide the segment as required, as shown in Table 2.1. = 472 CoaeTeR 2 OMENSEN, RANE, AND LMEAR TRANSEORNATIONS 25 NES PANES, AD ORER LS (OFTONAL) 173 = td, ogee Se nr ae eet eae EXAMPLES Find parametric equations of the plane in R passing through the GLLDe 62,10) FIGURE 2.25 ‘ADfat int ‘Parametric equations obtained by equating components are xe st2dt me teh Zo 1 morse ttl “The Geometry of Liner Systems Tati henge mest cn tt et me HISTORICALNOTE Tueeavanavora rasan W appx arc ar 737 ine pape flay ‘rman (1678-72) He a eo amie be pln peso waite alone that tsi ote ange bets he lane andthe one cnr lan eat ih (at we cal tne, en) wat spometicehnigoer ava madeat andar aa profesor at mia schoo. Tei prob be ar . ‘ved nd to do with proedieeosig sls to make quel foriaton capable of eesscelog fa Exarapl 6; we ses iat cvery reer ceation ‘Sing epson Hom bth he view and the rsponer fh enon. Mong served te Fea Pero ert) represents a hyperplane—that is, an (n ~ 1)at in Re.174 own? EXAMPLE soLuTION 2m@5O% HANK 90 INR TASFORUTOS Solve the stem of equations H+ 2q- 2g tat Sa 25, + 84,— 3 ~ m+ Dy ~Br,~ By + 65x, — 5 = and write the solution set as a fat. Reducing the corresponding partitioned matrix, we have 12-21 3/4) fi 2-2 1 3y4 2 5-3-1 2]2/~J0 1 1-3-4 ol 3-8 6-1-5 0-2 0 2 4 |al 10-4 TU Ji] fi 0 0-1 3] 9) ~|0 1 1-3-4 Jol~Jo 1 0 -1-2 |-2), jo 0 2-4-4 Ja} fo 0 1-2-2 | 2] 1B, ~2, 2,0, 0] is a particular solution tothe given system, and 1,210} and d= [~3,2,2,0, frm abasisfor the solution space the corresponding homogeneous system. The solution se ofthe given syste isthe 2-atin with vector equation x= a +f, + ty which canbe wri in the fom me) Pp fea =| |-2} [a] | a ls)=] 2]+s[2)+e) a), x] | of la) | ol dl 1 : Inthe preceding example, we described the solution set of a system equations as a 2at in R'. Notice that the original form of the system represents an intersection of three hyperplanes in R'—one for each equation ‘We generalize this example tothe solution set of any consistent liner system, ‘Consider a system of m equations in n unknowns. Let the rank of coeficient matrix be r so that, when the matrix is reduced to row: tnanlte ofthis subspace and is an (n ~ rat in In particular, a sing consistent ner equation fas a5 its solution st an (n ~ I}ft in R. genera fe adjoin an additional near equation toa given linear system, we ‘expect the dimension ofthe solution fatto be reduce by 1. This isthe precisely hen the new system sil consistent and when the new equation. Independent of te others (inthe sense that yes a new nonzero row whe the augmented matrix is row-reduce to echelon form). 4 ‘Weave shown thata system 4x = bof m equations in n unknowns ha its solution st an (n ~ rt, where ris the rank of 4. Conversely it canbe EXAMPLE 8 SOLUTION 25 INES ES WO CTR TENA) 175 shown that a Kflat in R¢ is the solution set of some system of m ~ k linear equations in unknown, That Ffat ia Res the interseton of x — k hyperplanes, Thus thee are wo ways to view a eatin L. Asa translate of a k-dimensional subspace of ®t, described using parametric equations 2. As an intersection of m — k hyperplanes, described with a system of linear equations. Deseribe the line (If) in that pases through (2, ~1, 3) and (I, 3, $)in terms of (1) parametric equations, and (2) asystem of linear equations. (In Example 3, we found the parametric equations forthe line: merit, wet. ® (2) In order to describe the line with a system of linear equations, we eliminate the parameter t from Eqs. (3): = 7 Addfom dines the fit tothe weomé, 7 Sateac vice the tid fom the second. ‘This system describes the line as an intersection of two plans, Thelin can be represented asthe intersection of any two distinct panes, each containing the line. This is illustrated by the equivalent systems we have atthe various tages in the Gauss reduction of system (4) to obtain solution (3). medt-1, 1. The translate ofa subset Sof R'by a vector € Ris the set of all vectors in Rr ofthe form x + a forx € 5, and is denoted by S++ a 2. A katin Ris translate of k-dimensional subspace and has the form 42+ 90(G, ds... ), where ais a vector in Rand dd independeat vectors in RY. The vector equation ofthe eat is fa tay t+ + bi for scalars (in R. 3. Alin in Rt is Lat The line passing through the point «with parallel ‘ector di given by xa +t where runs through all scalars Perametric ‘uations of the line ae the component equations x, = a, + df for GB aePk 4. Letaand bbe vectors in BR Vetors to points onthe line segment from the tip ofa to the tip of bare vectors of the form x= (b— a) + afor O15 1 S.A plane in Rvs «2a; a hyperplane in Ris an (n — 1}176 cure {6 ‘The solution set ofa consistent linear system in Variables with coeficent ‘matrix of rank ris an (n ~ r)-fat in R. 7. Every keflat in R* can be viewed both as a translate ofa k-dimensional subspace and asthe intersection of n ~ k hyperplanes. ‘keeping with clase geomsry, many ofthe exerci: that flow are pirased in terms of obs rather than in terms of vcore. ‘In Exercises 1-6, sich the indicated ranlae ofthe set of Rn a appropriate fur 4, The translate ofthe ine x, = 2x, + 3 in FE bythe vector [~3, 0) 2, The rant of (| © R} in W by the vestoe[=1, -2} ‘3. The translate of fc R?| [xs 1 for = 1,2) bythe veto [1,2] 4. The translate of fe © | le = 3) bythe vest [2 3] 5. The tame off | f= 1) bythe ver 243] 6. The rane fhe plane x + x)= 2in RP bythe wecor 1,23) 1. Give parame equasns for the Hine in RE a= [-2,—1, 4) Sketch the ine in an sppcopriate figure, 9. Consider the ine in tht given by the equation dx, + dy ~ efor mumbers dd snd ein R, where d and dare not both aero. Find parametric equations ofthe ine. 10. Find parametric equations forthe line in Rt ‘through (5,1) and orthogonal othe Hine ih paranetr equtons x = ¢— 21, Brite 25 17. Find he pia in Ron the Hine sement joining (-2, 1,3) and (0, ~5, 6 tat is ‘eof fhe wey Eom (-2, 1,310 O50. 8, Fd the pont that vide the ine segment ‘areca © 134) 06 (-1, 2, 1,3) n into hee equal pes 1p. Find he midpoint of he line segment etme 21,3, 4,0) and (1,2, 3-1) am. ‘a, Find the interetion in RP ofthe ine given y nest nent and the plan with equation x, ~ 3x +25; 28, 11. Foca pir of points, od parmetc quis of thine cotenng them. 2 2,)adG,-Dink 1 G-LOad0,-3 -yine © @0,4)and (-1,5,~8)in 12, Foreach ofthe gen pis of Hines in serine wheter rin ey inte id te post of ‘etraoe vee cso meta 2, Find the intersection in ofthe Hine gen oy Reh yesh Ham and the pase with equation x, + 2x,= 10. 22, Find prametsc equations of te pan that pases through th unit ncrtinat points {10,05 (1,0), an 0,1) a 1B, Finda sng linear equation in thee vaca whose solution sis the plese in rere 2. Hi: We ugest wo general rethds of atc: (1) innate the aates rom your answer to Exercise 22, ave an ppropst ine yen ‘etal ths parialar answer can be found ty inspection} 14, Find paremetic equations ofthe plane in thn pases hough (1 0,0) (,f—1) ad 13, Find al points in common othe Hines in grea by x) =5~ 3g. 1+ tnd X= 146535325, 14, Find parametric equations forthe line in Gn. ‘through (-1, 2, 3) that is orthogonal to each 2% Find single near equation in three ofthe wo lines hving parametric equations ‘variables whose solution sets the plane in 2+ 34m = 4,51 ~ sand ReT~nya2t Mya et 15, Find the midpoint ofthe line segment joining cach pair of points. 2 (-2,4)and,~I)in =1, 6) and (0, ~3, ~1) in RE © (0,4, 8)and(-4,5,9)in 16, Find the pint in RY onthe Hine segment ining (-1, 3) and 5 that is twice as lowe (1,3) 2810 2, 9). verge 24, [Sete hint for Exe 23 26, Find a vector equation ofthe plane that pases through the pon (L, 21), (1,2, 3) nd 2,1, 4)in 17. Find a sng linear equation in thre ‘ables whose solution st is the pane in ‘erie 26 [See the hint for Exes 23] 28, Find a vector equation forthe plane in Rt that pases through the ois (2, 1,3) (61:2, thand@ 12,0) Nes PLANES, AND OTHER FLAS CTO) 17 2, Find a liner eytem with two equations in four variables whose solution sti the plane in Exercise 28, [Se the hint for Exercise 23] 30, Find 2 vostor equation ofthe hyperplane ‘that pases through the points (1,2, 1, 2,3 ,1,2.1,3,,0,3,1,2,00,0,0, 1,4, and (0, 0,0, 0,2)in 431. Find single linear equation in five variables ‘wow slution sti th hyperplane in ‘Borsise 30 [Se the hint for Exercise 23] {32, Finda vector equation ofthe hyperplane in through the endpoint of 6,» 433, Finda singe linear equation in sx variables whos solution set isthe Byperplane in rere 32, [Seth hint fo Exercise 23) In Bxarses 34-42, solve th given system of Tinear equations ond write the solution set as @ eft. Home 3 By- R= Bontin— But Tm +2 45-25 + = 36 at hy 2y Dat IH = tig t yo —6 3-3 t mn? By -By + 25 I~ Tye xn4 Ba 3myt 24K 8 By- ty t=O Bm ~iyt x6 2x Ht H—3qnO 9,~ y= = Ted MW. tm Sgt 52 3+ 65, ~ 8-278 QWPTER2 —_OMENSEN, AN, AND LNEAR TRANSFORMATIONS 4. y-3nt ytrme 2 W242 +4e,0-1 By by- =% oo 40, 2, ~ Smt 3~ M+ 15s, = 60 48, Matk cach ofthe flowing Tivo Flo. — Thesalaton set of liner equation fax, sd can be epded as hype cd ppg tomee ina sage point. © The intersection of two distinct Inyperplans in Ris ing if the intersection is nonempy. The Euclidean space R has no pyc istence, but exists ony in ou minds The Bualidean spaces WR, and R° hare se phy exten bet ony in 1. Ever plane in Ris a two-dimensional subspace of bh. Every plane through the oigia fa Risa ‘two-dimensional subspace of R. — {Every fat in contin the ovgin, fs Every fot in Resa trandateof ‘immensional subspace, VECTOR SPACES For the sake of efcency, mathematicians often study objects jus in terms of their mathematical stricture, deempbasizing such things as particular sym- bols used, names of things, and applications. Any properties derived excla- sively from mathematical trucare will hold forall objects having that structure. Organizing mathematics in this way avoids repeating the same in different contexts. Viewed from tis perspective, linear algebras {he study ofall objects tat havea etorspuce stitute. The Eudieau spas that we treated in Chapters 1 and 2 serve as our guide Section 3.1 defines the general notion of a vector space, motivated bythe familar algebraic structure ofthe spaces RY. Our examples focus mainly on spaces other than Rt, such as function spaces. Unlike the first two chapters in car text, this chapter draws on calculus for many ofits ilustrations. Section 32 explains how the Vinearalgebra terminology introduced in (Chapter I for carries over toa general vecor space V. The defitions given jn Chapters 1 and 2 for linear combinations, spans, subspaccs, bass, dependent vectors, independent vectors, and dimension can be lft mostly uachanged, except for replacing "R™ by “a vector space V.” Indoed, with his replacement, many of the theorems and proofs in Chapter 1 have word-for- ‘word validity for general vector spaces. Section 3.3 shows tht evry fnite-dimensional (eal) vector space can be be defined on ®t by the formala bolted btn 2+, 25) y+ (25+ DI) es +2045) Because the two colored scalars are not equal, we expect that > isnot ‘ssociatve. We can find specific violation ofthe esocative lav by chosing (QO, 1} + [0, OD + (0, 0] = [0, 4), 10.11¥ (0.915 (0,0) = (0,21 ‘Therefore, is not a vector space with these two operations. ‘We now indicate that vector addition and scalar toutpiction possess sill mre of the properties we are accustomed to expec. Ii important fo realize that everything has tobe proved using just the axioms Al through A4 and SI through $4. Ofcourse, once we have proved something fom the 31 VECTOR ces 185 This isa fine argument if Vis RY, but we have now expanded our concept of| vecior space, and we can no longer assume that v € Vis some ntuple of real ‘aumbers. [PROOF We prove only properties 1 and 4, leaving proofs of the remaining [Properties as Exercises 19 through 22. In proving property 4, we assume’ that ‘Properties 2 and 3 have been proved. “Turing to property {, the standard way to prove that something is unique is to suppose that there are two of them, and then show that they must be ‘equal. Suppose, therefore, that there exist vectors 0 and 0 satisfying Otay and Oby=r forall ¥. ‘Taking v= 0' in the first equation and v = 0 in the second equation, we obtain O+0'=0" and o+0=0 By the commutative law A2, we know that + 0" = 0+ 0, and we conclude that 0= 0 ‘Taming to property 4, notice that the equation Oy = 0 which we want to prove involves both salar multiplication (namely, Gv) and vector adtion (Gis en aditve concep, given by axiom A3). To prove relationship between these two algebraic operations, we must use an axiom that involves both of186 GUTRs vec sce EXAMPLE 7 SOLUTION them—namely, one of the distributive laws $1 or $2. Using distributive 82, we have for V, Or = (0+ Ov = Ov +O, By the additive identity axiom A3 and the commutative law A2, we know Ov= 0+ 0v=0v+0, ‘Therefore, Ov+ v= 0v+0, and, by property (3), we conclude that Ov = @. 4 ‘The Universality of Function Spaces (Optional) 1n Example 3, we showed thet the set Fof all functions mapping R into Risa vector space, where we dein for fg € Fand forr €R (F+ Be) =x) + ate) and Of fx) = fx. Note tha these definitions of adition and scalar multiplication for fun through, and show that Fis vector space. We show that this is the casein next example. 1 Fe the set fal el-valued fonctions ona (nonempty) se thats, et beth et ofall functions mapping Sinto R. For g © F et the sum f+ gof two functions fand g in Fbe defined by (F+ 243) = fle) + 269) forall x€ 5, and, for any scalar r, let scalar multiplication be defined by (Ae) = a) fora xs. ‘Show that F with these operations is a vector space. ‘The solution of Example 3is valid word for word if we replace each reference {Ro the domain by the new domain S. Thats, the functions map SintoBR vwelet x S rather than x € Rin this solution, © We now indicate way we headed this discussion “The Universality o Function Spaces” Let 5 = {1,2}, so that Fis the set of al fonctions 41, 2}intoR. Let us abbreviate the description ofa function fas[/(1),/t2)} a VecTORSGS 187 8] to denote the fumetion in F that maps 1 into ~3 we identify each vector [a,b] in with a [c, d] as the funetion g, thea sate and (ft 2Q)=/2)+eQ~b+d asthe function: defined in Example 7 gain corresponds to addition of matrices, and the same is tre for scalar multiplication. vector space Pof all pulyuouids in Exaniple2is not qute ‘Namely, iffissuch a function and iff) = a, form denote this function symbolically by a,x. We see that function addition and multiplication by a scalar wil produce precisely the addition and iplcation of power series defined in Example 4. We will show inthe next section that we an view the vector space P of polynomials as a subspace of P.. ‘We have now freed the domain of our function spaces from having to be the set R. Let's see how much we can free the codomain. The definitions (£80) = fo) + 26) and (2) = 11) {for addition and scalar multiplication of function show that we need a notion ‘of addition and scalar multiplication for the codomain. For function addition tobe associative and commutative, we need the addition inthe codomain to be associative and commutative. For there to be a zero vector, we need an additive identity tt’ call it —in the codomain so that we wil have a “zero ‘constant function” to serveas additive identity, et, Itlooksas though what we seed is to have the codomain itself have 2 vector space structure! This is indeed the case. If is a set and Vis a vector space, then the set F of all functions f: > V with this notion of function addition and multiplication by18 GWTRS veR ses ‘scalars again a vector space. Note that Ritselfis a vector space, so the set, functions f: S—> R in Example 7 is a special case of this construction, 8 ede wht ont ie en 1 The set R, with the usual aditon but wth sealar multiplication dened by rf, 9] = 2. Hlemeatary properties of vector spaces are listed in Theorem 3.1. 3. Examples of vector spaces include Ry, the space Ma, fall m x matics, thespace of al polyaomials inthe variable x, andthe spce of ll fonctions J: RR. Foral ofthese examples, vector addition and sealer muliplice tion ae the adaition and multiplication by areal number with which we are aeady familiar. 4 (Optional) For any st, the st ofl functions mapping Sato R forms a ‘vetor space withthe usual definitions of adition and sala oultpice- tion of functions, The Eucidean space R° can be viewed as the vetr space of functions mapping {, i [ay dy fy... i viewed 8, ample 7 bat with addtion dened by 3 843) = 20) + 240. 10, The set of a2 x 2 maces of the form fish where each x may be ay sealer. vier each x may be any slr 13, These (0 coming ely of the umber 0 14. Thee Q of al aoe! number, 15, The et Cofcomplx numbers hati C= (a+ bVAT |, bin Rh, space. 1. Explain why the restion [0,0] = [r= 1,0} (0,0 do not violate property () of Theor 3.1 > Mates multiplication i a vectorspece operation onthe st M, of all square "x n matics, © Mulplication of any vector by the aro scalar ala yields the ner veto. — 4 Maupication of nonzero vector by a nonzero scalar never yields the aero vector. + No veciorisits om adtve inven.22. RASC CONCETS OF VECTOR CES. 19t —t The zero veto is the only vector that scarcer 26-29 ar base on te optional its own additive inverse. subsection on the universality of fanction spaces, _—& Maltiptication of two scalars is of 0 ’ SR RAR MME NCOT) 5, ye aelnclaiet eral = fedoras rec —s Siicuesomtramerme raga SSesalinefony onbgictse ot fan Penman Sevcurai oiuitiesl” Sealer ue vee Soe ae he Beye ie ae 17, Repeat Exercise 26 forthe vector space M;, 1 Beye une Wii boniea oven saci ‘vector. ba 19, Prove property 2 of Theorem 3.1. space ¥.” Where we do make changes, then for te ee xn Linear Combinations, Spans, and subspaces ‘The major change from Chapter | is that our vector spaces may now be 0 Tange that they cannot be spanned by a file number of vectors. Eat Euclidean space Rt and each subspace of Be canbe spanned by ainite se ‘vectors, but this isnot the case fora general vector space. For example, nd] ‘peed aod of hs Pticnl i rahe taco gman (hi ‘Sein Inthe al dod fis, be tarnad vay om matbenaies and exablshd inset sm eaper ining.192 oR vec sacs 32° RASC CONCETS OF VECTOR S183 In general, we suppress Euclidean space illustrations here, because ti ‘That is, if Wis nonempty iid is closed under addition and salar multpica- scaly afm Chap ery to's sue to beet pas om ih We nese test for determining whether a subset is a subspace ofa vector space. |MWSTRATION 1 Let Phe the vector space of ll polynomials and et. M= {x32 )by this subse of monomials. Then P = sp(M), Our remarks above DeGaition 39 indicate that Pis not finitely generated. ILLUSTRATION 2. Let M, be the vector space of all m x m matices, and let be the se consisting of the matrices E, where Ey isthe m X n matrix having entry 1 in the ith row and jth column and entries O elsewhere. There are min of these aatrioes in the set E. Then M,, = sp(E) and is fnitely generated. every subspace, Recall always contains the origin ‘Theentire vector space V sass the conditions of Theorem 3.2. Thats, Visa subspace ofitsel. Other subspaces of Vae called proper subspaces. One such subspace isthe subse (0, consisting of only the aro veto, Weel 0} ‘the zao subspace of V. Note tha if Vis a vector space and Xs any nonempty subset of Y, thea s7(2) is a subspace of V, because the sum of two linear combinations of ‘We will alla subset W of Va subspace precisely when it sn closed under vector addition and scalar multiplication, just as i 1.16. However, we really should define it here ina diferent fashi ‘Theorem 3.2 are satisfied. A moment of thought shows that sp(X) is the smallest subspace of V containing al the vectors in X. [WUSTRATION 3 The space P ofall plynomils in x isa subspace ofthe vector space P. of power series in x, described in Example 4of Section 3.1, Exercise 16 in Section 311 shows that the set consisting of all polynomials in x of degre at most n, together with the zero polynomial, isa vector space P. This space P, is a subspace both of Pand of, = WUSTRATION 4 The st of invertible n x n matrices is nota subspace of the vector space M of all n x n matrices, because the sum of two invertible matrices may not be invertible; also, the zero matrix isnot inverible, = |MWUSTRATION 5 The set of all uppeririangularn x n matrioes isa subspace of the space M of all n x m matrices, because sums and scalar multiples of upper‘tiangilar tatrioes are agsin upper triangular. = scalar TWUSTRATION 6 Let be the vector space ofl functions mapping Rinto R. Because sums and ‘vector tht i space a in Definition 3.1 are sure tobe true forthe subset, because they hold in all of V194 QueTRs ecOR saces Ris also a subspace of F, Because every differentiable function is continuo ‘wosee that Dis lsoa subspace of C. Let D,be the set ofall functions B into that have derivatives ofall orders. Note that D. is closed addition and scalar multiplication and isa subspace of D, C, and F. = 32 PASC CONCETS OF VECTOR SACS 195 |WUSTRATION 8 ‘The subset (cn, oos', I} ofthe vector space F of all functions mapping R. into Ris dependest. A dependence relation is Uintx) + tet) + (-1)1 = 0. ‘sin’, cox, cos 2x} is dependent, because we ave the EXAMPLE 1 Let Fbethe vector space of all functions mapping Rinto R. Show that the set ox = a — Thus 29+ (Yes) + fall solutions in F of the difeential equation tft isa subspace of F. SOLUTION Wenotethat the zero function in Fisa solution, and so the set Sis nonempy, Iffend gare nS, then ("+ f= and g' + g= 0, andso(f+ ay" + ‘under addition. Similarly, (of + f= 1f" + of=r( J" +f) closed under scalar multiplication, Thus Ss a subspace of. focal vou yce Vis independnt We ase fo ets a ae ed {in function space inthe next two examples. “The preceding example is a special case of «general theorem stating ‘how that cn , cos 3} san independent st of functions inthe space Ff all factions mapping Rt into R. ‘We show that there s no dependence relation of the form (sin 2) + s(cos x) = 0, o ‘where the O on the right ofthe equation isthe function that has the value O for all x. IFEq, (1) holds forall x, then setting x = 0 and x = 3/2, we obtain the linear system 1Q)+5(1)=0 Setting r= 0 ‘This wil lead to 2 homogeneous system of k equations in the k unknowns isto» «Fe f that system has only the zero solution, then the functions are independent. If there is a nontrivial solution, we can't draw any conclusion. For example, substituting x = O and x= ain Eq, (1) in Example 2 yields the system. (0) +5=0 Setting s= 0 } of monomials inthe vector space P ofall ste 1(Q)— 80, Seting x = =196 GTS VECTOR aces EXAMPLE 3 sowurion ‘hich has a nontrvalsolution—for example, r= 10 and s = 0, This because we just chose the wrong values for x. The values O and 3/2 for x demonstrate independence, as we saw in Example 2, Show thatthe Functions e* and e*are independent inthe vector space Fo functions mapping Rint R. ‘We set up the dependence relation format re + set =0, and try to determine if we must have r = s = 0 Ilustrating a di ‘technique than in Example 2, we write this equation and its derivative: ret se¥=0 ret + 2se!= 0. piercing ‘ Setting x = 0in both equations, we obtain the homogeneous linear system r+ smo r+2s=0, ‘which has only the trivial solution r = s = 0, Thus the functions are independent. the system has only the zero solution, the functions are independent. If there ‘are nontrivial solutions, we can't come to a conclusion without more work. (mW --- ib to be a basis for the subspace ifevery vector in can be expressed uniquely a. ‘our text. Fora general vector space, we may need an infinite st of vectors to {orm a basis; for example, a bass forthe space P ofall polynomials isthe st 32 BASC CONCEPTS OF VECTOR ACES 197 {l, x 3%,...5 4,.-.} of monomials. The following definition takes this possibilty into account. Also, because a subspace ofa vector space is again a ‘ector space itis unnecessary now to explicitly include the word “subspace” in the definition, 'monomials isa bass forthe vector space forthe vetor space P, of formal power sein nue in Example 4 of Section 3.1, besa a sees 3 a cannot be expressed sa finie sum of scalar multiples ofthe monomials unless all but finite number ofthe cocficiens a are 0, For example, 1 +.x + 3° + 2° +... isnot finite sum of monomials. Remember that all linear combina- Va sb + byt + oy @ ‘Uniqueness asserts thats, = foreach i,‘Teorera 22 on age 130, whith we ean reste for geeral ver spate ‘ther than for subspaces of RY. “Ae a iigo ane hI fC Ener PROOF The proof is the same, word for word, as the proof of Theo- rem 22. & It snot suprising thatthe proof ofthe preceding theorem isthe same as ‘that of Theorem 2.2. The next section will show that we can expect Chapter 2 = sto be valid whenever we deal just with finitely generated vector ‘Pere same arpuments as those inthe cooly o Thorem 22 gives the following corollary to Theorem 3.4. COROLLARY Imasiace of Dimension for Finitely Generated Spaces ‘Lat V'be a finitely generated vector space. Then any two bases of ¥ have the same numberof elements. We can now rewrite the definition of dimension for finitely generated set E of matrices F, in Musration 2 is a bass forthe vector space M., of all m x n matrices, so dim(M,,) = mn. = By the same arguments that we used for R* (page 132), we see that for a finitely generated vector space V, every independent st of vectors in Vcan be enlarged, ifnecesary, toa basis. Also, if dim(V) =f, then every independent set of k vectors in Visa basis for V, and every setof& vectors that span Vis a basis for V. (See Theorem 2.3 on page 133) Determine whether $= {I~ x,2 ~ 3x, x+ 2x*}is bass forthe vector space ‘of polynomials of degree at most 2, together with the ero polynomial20 GMs vec sacs SOLUTION EXAMPLES SOLUTION We know that dim(P; basis if and only if 1. A subset W of a vector space Vis @ subspace of Vif and only if itis ‘onempty and satises the two closure properties: 1+ wis contained in F forall vectors v and w in W, and vis contained in W for all vectors vin Wand allselas r. (1 = x) + (2 ~ 3x5) + t+ 2x) = 0 (4291 + (Cr+ oes (30+ 2p = 0. Because {I, x, x} is independent, this relation can hold if and only if 3 A reo pcs fly gree i 7 = fr sme at X = {te ty» nb containing only afte numberof vector in V. 4: Avet ot tor ina vor pace is lineal depend i ee xis dependence relation MMe tna, atleast one 4 0, indy e Tine re 8 set Xs ical independent if 20 such dependence retin xs and oa ner combination of veto in S. Ase Bof vecor ina vector space Vis a basis for Vif B spans Vand is indepeadcat. (6 A.subsetB ofnonzero vectors ina vector space Visa basi for Vifandonly if every nonzero vector in V can be expressed asa linear combination of| vectors in Bin a unique way. 7. Xs a finite eet of vectors spanning a vector space V, then X can be ‘reduced, if ecesary, toa bass for V by deleting in turn any vector that ‘can be expressed as linear combination of those remaining 8, Ifa vector space has a finite basis, then all bases for V have the same numberof vectors. The numberof vectors in a bais for Vis the dimension of F, denoted by dim(P), 2 The allowing ae env for nvcors in ¢ vor syuce ¥ where inh) = The vector ae inca independent b. The vectors generate V ‘as only Uc Uivial soluion. Thus no dependence reation exists, 2nd so. 5am independent et wit he necessary numberof vector, ad it hs Find a basis fr the vector space P, (polynomials of degree at most 3, and 0) containing the polynomials + 1 and x* - 1, First we observe that the two given polynomials are independent because neither isa scalar multiple of th other. The vectors RELS-L Lae ener bras the nt our ofthese frm a bass fo P, We can ede 1-6, determine whether the indicated the vector space P of ll polynomial with Shes tee = ie eee sa aubspace ofthe given vector space coeficients in R lage y-He-y ad eake syste, a, ate eee eet 1 The set of al polynomials of degree greater together wth the zero polynomial in the ‘than 3 together with he zero plyaomil in ‘vecor space P of ll polynomials in x202 qurmRsvectoasace ‘3. The set of al functions fsuch that f() = 1 in the vector space F ofall unetions mapping R ino R 4. The set of all functions f such that (0) = 0 in the vector space F of all fanetions mapping R into R 5. The set ofall fnctions fim the vector space W of difereniabe functions mapping R to (ee Tustaton 6) suc that (2) = 0 6, The set ofall functions fin the vector space Wel derentable fenatons mapping R Jno (fee Masttion 6) sock that fs deiravesof loner 1, Lat Fe the wetor spa offuneons szaping int Show tht 1 s(n, co's) natin all omstnt fens, 1 spins, cos consis the faction este, hen st of fncions inthe vector Space Fis Independent deen. Minx e083) 1A Ve ayecor pce Mat ea of te Ls Sowa eo ae Etre tere et of wor in fee base fre mbopce Be eo ‘In Exercises 20 and 21, determine whether orn the given se of vector i bai forthe indicated vector space. i Bveryindependent subset ofaitely 97 Letty snerted Yer space Visa part of some bass for ¥. — i hay vo bassin finite dimensional eeepc Vee an eer of ‘technique to find a bai forthe subspace se + Ite x= 3e-6, Beet hx) sniquely asa lncar combination of ‘eco in , then Sis an independeat st204 Gums vec ces “4M. Abomogencons linear miborderdiferental In Erereies 43-45, we your knowledge of ‘uation has the form calulus and the solaion of Exercise 41 to ‘at ten eto he gen foe HOM + ly 0+ + Sty + Seton Yael eee ne Sosy + ayo. ‘rllons wiht having had a ee ‘Show thatthe set ofall solutions ofthis ferential equation, using the hints equation hat ein he pce Foal Singin maping Rit Risa bsp 0 ering ee pe tt te ia rere ional vector space, ad let B = (b, by... b,) be & basis for V. By Theorem 3.3, every vector vin F canbe expressed inthe form ‘COORDINATIZATION OF VECTORS ‘Much ofthe work inthis testis phrased in terms ofthe Euclidean vector’ spaces RY for n = 1, 2,3...33. COORDNATZATON OF VECTORS 207 206 GueTR3 VECTOR SHES {or rr, and 1, We find the unique solution by a Gauss—Jordan reduction: EXAMPLE 1 Find the coordinate vectors of {1, ~1] and of [—1, ~8] relative tothe ord basis B : To find [-1, Bly we must find r, and ry such that [1 1, (1, 2) Eguating components ofthis vector equation, system nt pect nt tne 8 Tesaaon oft gem isn = r= 3,0 nebare[-h =2 Figure 3.1 indicates the geometric CCoordinatization of a Finite Dimensional Vector Space We can coordinatize a fnite-dimensional vector space V by selecting an wash tab t ess tab, Tew = FSD ttt Gt SyEXAMPLE 3 Determine whether x - 3x + 2, 3x! + Sx ~ 4, and 7x? + 21x - 16 ap 33, COCRORUATTON OF VECTORS 209 SOLUTION We take B = (2, x, 1) as an ordered basis for P, The coordinate vectors relative to B ofthe given polynomials are ‘which i the sum of the coordinate vectors of v and of w, Similarly, for scalar f, we have ‘We can determine whether the pelyzom lependent by determining ‘whether the corresponding coordinate vectors in R are independent. We set vp the usual matrix, with these vectors as column vectors, and then We rowreduce it, obt Because the third col bas no pivot, these thre coordinate vectors in Rare dependent, and so the three polynomials are dependent. © Continuing Example 3, to further illustrate working with coordinates in Ps, we ean reduce the fal m to ‘fw imagine a partition between the socond end third columns, we See that ‘an be renamed by its coordinate vector [7,21, ~16) = ~2[1, -3, 2] + 33, 5-4). Vee ets + +5 iy Og) ‘lative to B. The adjective isomorphic is wsed throughout algebra to signify that two algebraic structures are identical except in the names of thls elements, For a vector space V isomorphic to a vector space W, all ofthe algebraic properties of vectors in V that can be derived solely from the axioms of a ‘ecor space correspond to identical properties in WW. However, we cannot Thus Trt + Dix — 16 = ~292 — 3+ 2) + IGE + Se 4), EXAMPLE 4 It can be shown thatthe set {1 sin x, sin 2x, .. sin nx is an independent subset ofthe vector space F of il functions mapping Rinto R. Find a bass for the subspace of F spanned by the functions + 3sin 2x — sin 3x + 5 sin 4, x 4 sin 2x — sin dx. La) = 3 sin 2x ~ sin dx, SOLUTION We see that all these functions le in the subspace W of F given by W= spl, sin x, sin 2, sin 3 id we take B= (1, sin x, sin 2x, sin 3x, sin 43) ‘independent in the vector space P, of polynomials of degree at most 23A UNeAR TANORMATINS 213 | LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS ‘Linear transformations mapping R* into Re were defined in Section 2.3. Now tons ina acl ating Fol ha a linear transformation 7: R°—> Ris a ‘function that satisies Ta + ¥)= Te) + To) o Example S shone how owe linear algebra ‘era he pmo 7) = 2 + ® relat basis B= (et sx— x 1+2)i6 (3 1.2) ‘14, Repeat Exercise 11 using the polynomial 22, Let V’be 2 nonzero finite-dimensional vector Linear Transformations T: V—> V" slgsbra method indicated in Exercise 13. spe: Meath fe along 15, Repeat Exe 12 nn te See a Tie wcorme Fi tomotie Bal 5 shoe how tsar fe dion (ogee tl feet oes particular. We sate er ser? tac anak things herein the language of incr transformation. Fora linear transforms- 0, Fats bps fF coordinate veo with respect o any 9 sacred by the fnctions| ”EXAMPLE 1 sowur TON. Let T: D+ F be defined by T{/) = /, the derivative off Using the familiar rales Let Fe the vectors “zara nti FR» sad et Deis spc all diferentiable functions. Show that differentiation is tion of D into F. (ftyaftg and (fy =rF) for diferentiation from calculus, we see that Tt = (tay =f +e = TU) + Te) and Te) = FY =f) = TY) Let Fe the vector space ofall functions: RR, and lt cbe in R, Show tat Se cobain fin + Rchenl by TH) = Sd wich maps each function fin F into its value at , is a linear transformation. HISTORICAL NOTE Tas cova ors aean sarmrvTon dat tak we he gah eam. ut it wat nia pyc aoa edt eng with Yet hat he eno EXAMPLE 3 SOLUTION SOLUTION 3A UNEAR TRANSORMATONS 215 © SOLUTION. We show that 7 preserves addition and scalar multiplication. I fand g are function inthe vector space F, then, evaluating f+ g atc, we obtain, + aXe) = flo + a0. =a) Definition of 7 shows that 7 preserves scalar multiplication. Let Cy be the vector space ofall continuous functions mapping the closed interval a = x < b of R into R. Show that T: Cs R defined by TU) = [to dei tineartaastomation, From properties ofthe defite integral, we know that for g€ C, and forany ic es ru+o=[umsanae [roars [amare y+ me wi mun =[ ge és=r[ pe dx = 21Y). This shows that Tis indeed a linear transformation. Let Ce the vector space of all continuous functions mapping R into R. Let cnn Chiaod Ti [8 ow tae ‘transformation. ‘This follows from the same properties of the integral that we used in the ‘is actually a subset of the vector space of differentiable functions mapping t sie Paes Sire ile a hho a Sa caes.24 UNGAR TRNORMATONS 217 SOLUTION Because for the zero constant function we have 7(0) = 2(07) + 3(0') + 3° = 2(0) + 3(0) + x = 2, and » is nol the zero constant function, we se that T does nt preserve 2er0, and so itis nota linear transformation. = 26 wrens vec secs EXAMPLE 5 Let D. be the space of functions mapping R into R that have derivatives all orders, and let a, a}, a... , a, € R. Show that T: D, -> D, defined Tif) = af" Q) + "+" + a) + a) + ate) ea ransom tion SOLUTION This fellows fom the fact that the th derivative of a sum of functions it sum oftheir th decivatives—thatis, f+ )¥(x)=/"(x) + ga) —and thay tt derivative of 1) fx) toeter withthe fact hat 7) is defined ty 1 linear combination of these derivatives. (We consider flx) to be the Oth derivative) © ‘Note that the computation of 7[f) in Example 5 amounts to the! satunin uty Gon oe eae ee vith constant cocticints ay tor tay" +a" + ay= a) ust as fra linear transformation 7: R'—> R" discussed in Section 2.3, a linear transformation of e vector spaces determined by it action on any basis for the domain. (See Exercises 40 and 41 as well.) Because our bases here may be infinite, we restate the result and give the short proof, foc y= fo). Ths, ving hs ferential equation amousts to fig al (SED, such that TU) = 22). Properties of Liner Tansormations ‘The two properties of linear transformations in our next theorem are useful ‘The next theorem also generalizes reslts that appear in the text and exercises of Section 2.3 for linear transformations mapping R* into B*. THEOREM 3.7 Presenation of Subspaces | EXAMPLE 6 Let Dbe the vector space of all differentiable functions and F the vector space of all functions mapping R into R. Determine whether T: D> F defined by TY) = 2°) + 3/3) + > is a linear transformation.218 cwres vee sacs ROOF 1. Because 7(0) = 0', we need only show thet 7[W’] is closed under addition and under scalar multiplication, Let TIw,) and T(w,) be Vector in T07), whee w, and w, ae vectors in Then Ten) + Tw) = Te, + m3, by preseraton of addition. Now w, + wis in W because Wists. ‘under addition, and so T(m, + w,)is in T[W]. This shows that T[W | is under vector addition, Iris ny scalar, the rw is in TF, and Tm) = Then). This shows that rT{w,) is in T[W], and so T[W’] is closed under ‘multiplication. Thus, T[W] is a subspace of ¥*. 2 Notice that © € T~{W"] Let andy be any vectors in T"[17) so thy Tq) and Tx) are in W”. Then n ty) = Te) + Te) is also in the subspace WY”, and s0¥, know that ‘The Equation Tx) = b Let T: ¥-> V'" bea linear transformation. From Theorem 3.7, we know that ker(7) = T~'{(0}] is a subspace of V. This subspace isthe solution st of the ‘homogeneous transformation equation T(x) = 0. The structure of the sotution| set of T(x) = b exactly parallels the structure ofthe solution set of 4x = b eseribed on p. 97. Namely, Solution Set of Tx) = b Let T: ¥-+ "be linear transformation and let Tip) = b for a particular vector p in ¥. The solution set of T[x) = b is the set fpth[he ker), ‘The proofs essentially the same as that of Theorem I.18; we ask you to write it out for this case in Exercise 46, This boxed result shows that iT ker(T) = {0}, then Ta) = b has at most one solution, and so T's ne--one, meaning thal (x) implies that, = Conversely, i is one-o-ong, then T(x) =O has only one solution—namely, 0—s0 en(T) = 0), We bor ths fact. ris im T“[W"], For any scalar 7, we EXAMPLE 7 sowuTiON 34 WEAR TANOANITINS 219 Condition for T to Be One-to-One A inear transformation Tis one-to-one if and ony if ex(7) = 0}. ‘The differential quation y*— 4y= xis inearwith constant coefficients and is thatthe kernel ofthe transformation TY/) =f" ~ 4fis ‘two-dimensional, We can check that the independent functions, (note that the second derivative of —} is 0). Thus the general solution of this R of Example 2, where TU) = flo) for some fixed cin R, is invertible, ‘Consider the polynomial functions fand g, where f(x) = 2x + and g(x) = 4x ~c. Then TY) = Tl) = 3c. IT were invertible, there would have tobe a linear transformation 7: R—» F such that 7") is both fend g. But ths is impossible.»Ty)=¥ and Tis iver, ‘would have to be a linear transformation 7: ¥" + ¥ such that isthe unique vector in V such that Ty) = (Fo TY) = TQ") = TH =v" and (PT) = PTW) =) =, ‘hich shows that T'» 7" i the identity map of ¥” and that 7"! + isthe identity map of ¥. It only remains to show that J" is indeed a linear transformation —tha i hat PtH = TG) + TG) and MYrr) = TH) ‘Tis ire val or Reson a poea, 3A NOM TRANSMIS — 221 forall, and yin V” and forall sala. Let andy be the unique vecorsin , Remembering that T~'» Tis the identity Tg, + ¥) = PT) + Teg) = MCW, +) V described in Definition 3.10 is unigue. This transformation 7~*is the inverse transformation of T. at Die the wer pce of ite fncion nd Ft tr nce factored as (x) = x(x); because T(x) = oz, we see that T maps Pent W. ‘Thus Tis an invertible linear transformation. © ‘somorphism ‘An isomorphism is a linear transformation T: + V that is one-to-one and onto V'. Theorem 3.8 shows that isomorphisms are precisely the in- ‘ually the same as RY for some n. We are now in a position to state this ormally."ulin, Moreover, Tis one tone, bese he enor uniquely determines ¥, and the range of Tis all of Rt Therefore, isomorphism. 4 ‘The isomorphism of V with Re, described in Theorem 3. is by no mean ‘nig. There sone suc isomorphism fer each choice ofan ordered ‘ia vans ¥" be vector spaces of dimensions m and m, respectively, ‘Theorem 3.9, we can choose ordered bases B for V and B' for vinta — + ninky 7" vin —— vsti @ viny maby bys inv [+ vin ny = (ay in a” an bar oo o 3.2 qual sin shows that the renaming preserves vector adton. (6) The equa sign shows that the eraming preserves scaler multipction. 34 UNeAR TanscmTONS 23, illustrate shorty. This matfx changes if we change the ordered bases Bor BA. ‘00d deal of the remainder of our tert is devoted to studying haw to choose B and B' when m = n so that the square matrix A has a simple form that illuminates the structure of the tratsformation T. This is the thrust of Chapters 5 and 7. ‘Matrix Representations of Transformations In Section 2.3, we saw that every linea transformation 7: > R* can be ‘computed using its standard matrix representation 4, wire is the m Xn matrix having as jth column vector Te) Namely, for this metrix A and any ‘column vector x E RY, we have T(x) = Ax. trasernson 2 7-AY" anda cho foe bos Band en gta linear transformation T:R’—> Re suc that for € V we hae T(t) = Ts ‘This transformation T hasan mx standard matrix representation whose th columa vector is T(e). Now es the coordinate vector, relative to B, ofthe th ‘vector b, inthe ordered basis B, so T(e) = T((b),) = 71h)». Thus we se that the standard mati representation of Tis24 qwTm3 vec cs EXAMPLE 8 SOLUTION EXAMPLE 9 SOLUTION Let Pb tho subspace spin x cos x sn, cos) ofthe vector space D of relatveto B,B' where B = B' ada rearn ston Det nec derivative of | ‘Sfs) = 3 sin x cos x ~ 5 sin + 7 costs, We find that Tien x 008 x) = ~sin'x + cos'x. so Tin x08 Xp = [0,—1, 1}, Tisinix) = 2sin x0osx so Tiin'a)y = 2,0, 0), and Tyeass) = ~2sinxeosx 50 Toor}, = [-2, 0,0) ‘Using Eq. (8), we have : Thus f(x) = ~24 sin xe0sx—3 sin'x + 3 cos. Letting be the vector space of polynomials of dere at mot we noe Tito Pend by Tes) = e+ 1 2s near wanatormato, Fi the matrix representation A of T relative to the ordered bases B = (x, x, 1) Br = (2,2 1) for and B, respectively. Use d to compute Ti) He) 258 Te 1k We compute Tee) = (e+ Ie OF = et Dot at yaw — ae +4, Ta) =(e4 fen 2a F—x-2, and T= Gt Max h, 2}, and Tp = (0, 0, 1, Ie Thus Tp(x)) = Sx! 20s +25" +52 Let Vand Y” be n-dimensional vector space with ordered bases Band B respectively. Theorem 3.8 tells us that a linear transformation 7: VV" i invertible if and only if it is one-to-one and onto ¥”. Under these stances, we might expect the following tobe true: 34 NEAR RASFORMATINS 225 Matrix Representation of T- ‘The matrix representation of 7! relative to Bis the inverse of, ‘the matrix representation of T relative to BB". This is indeed the case in view of Theorem 3.10 and the fact that linear transformations of Re have this property. (See the box on page 151.) Exercise 20 gives an illustration ofthis. 1 is important to ote thatthe matrix representation of the Hiner transformation 7: > "depends oa the particular bases Let V and ¥" be vector spaces, and lt Tbe a function mapping V ito V 1. The function Tis linear transformation iit preserves addition and scalar smukiplication—that i, if Th +1) = TM and Try) = TM) forall vectors, and vin V and for scelar rin R. 2. If Tis a linear transformation, then 7(0) = 0" and also Tip, ~ ¥) = 7) ~ Te). 3. A function 7: Rt» Ris linear transformation if and only if Thas the form T[x) = x for some m x mn matrix A. 44. The matrix 4 in summary item 3 is the standaré matrix representation ofthe transformation 7. 5S. A linear transformation T: V— ¥" is invertible if and ‘one-to-one and onto ¥”. Such transformations are isomorphis 66. Every nonzero fnite-dimensional real vector space Vis isomarphic to R, where n= dim(7), Now let T: > V" be a linear transformation, 7. If Wis a subspace of ¥, then TUW] isa subspace of VIF W” is a subspace of V", then T~[W7"]is a subspace of V.pepe DAY on bere pee eds 0 pec an la 7 "Be the ner trenformation having the giver mtr: 7 perma ngtin mint Bd 10, 1f7:7-+ 7" isalinear transformation and Tlp) =, then the solutions mx nat A having Tat column eter We ave Ty = ‘and determine wheter the ransormation invertible Let D, be the vector space of functions mapping Rin at hve erat ofl oe: Semin > Deo fern 7) ~ jl Fone of ea fi a sto Daf the given diferent equation Se Mucvation 1 34 UNeAR TRANORWATONS 227 «Noting that 7+ 7 = Di find the sooo eat of 9+ ae + by 1 following the provedure in summary item Hand 1 finding and then squaring the mati 4, 1 Uae dio cmpute Me ~ 5+ &x— 25, Let Vm sin, coe) and et 7: V+ Vbe eined by thing Second derivatives.228 cums vecroR secs ‘Taking B= B= (inte cose, ind Ain two 38, Foe Wand Bin Exercise 31, ad Mesa bom) ir 7-= howe matrix repress 35 RNERFRODUCT ACES (ORTONA) 229 vauiwtohispednt wioainY, —. I'Vanl 7am te nied oct i in Exercises 43 and 44 and have ordered a od, epee oe the eect of Ton te basi vectors in B. 21 Let Wm seb estos of the vector space of al eave fontons vith domain Ry and et B= (ce, Find he matrix representation delat to ‘Bol he lineartasformation T:W > WF delet by TUN = Di) + 2040) +f. 28, For W and Bin Beri 27, find th marc representation 4 of tenes trasformation TW W dened by TU) = f= de 29, Fee Was Din Ease 2, nd Tlae + bo + ce for he ica ‘enitenaton Zvi as erie 43 and 44 show that the set LY, V) of ‘5, Repeat Exercise 5, but this ine make range) = V fore traneformation T that is ‘ot one one. I. Let be the subspace ssn 2, cos 2) of te eae pao aaa tons INNER-PRODUCT SPACES (Optional) In Section 12, we introduced the concep ofthe length ofa vector and the angle between vectors in Leng and angle are defined end computed in Rt using the dot product of vectors. In this section, we discuss these notions for more general vector spaces. We start by recalling the properties of the dot ‘product in Ri isted in Theorem 1.3, Section 1.2.35 WERAROOUCT HCE ORTON) 231 ‘The sum ofthe righthand sides of the last two equations equals the righthand side of the fst equation. This establishes property P2. Properties ofthe Dot Product in R* {at and be ator in and tr be any sarin The 3: We compute Commatatne ln} Hanoy ne: Tiansn, we inro cx kaneis ore) 6 ‘Determine whether Ris an inner-produc space when, for v= [jn] and w= Dis mi ne deine {8,9 = 2am, ~ Se. SOLUTION A-solution similar tothe one for Example | goes along smoothly unt we check property P, which fis ExAMPLE3 Delernine whether the spice Py ofall polynomial factions wit ra Coeff and domain 0 x= I's an inneeproduct pace for pan gin Pa we define af reads. SOLUTION We check the properties for en inner product. Pl: Cleary (p, )= (gp) because EXAM Determine whether R* is an inner-product space if, for v = [) Lm, wi), we define J nvanee ff anmeree 2: For polynomial functions p, g, and h, we have SOLUTION We check each ofthe four proper PI: Because (y, m)= 2, + Siu and because (wv) = 2ny + Su the fi property holds. P2: We compute (1+ 9) = 2a + 7) + Sd + (0.9) = Jay + Sry (am) = 2m + Sigh coat o= [ atexas) + wands =f meoaec + [rented ~@.9 +0035 RNERAROOUCT SACS ORTENAL) 233 ‘Recall that in RY we can visualize the vector y — w geometrically as an row reaching fom the ip ofthe arow representing wo the tip ofthe arow ‘seeing shat yw te dite eter tet fv andthe io 22 QWs ecm sce PB: We have rf rovaarde [recone ~ [ mmtannes, i EXAMPLE 4 In the inner-product 80 P3 holds. és Because (p,p)= fa) cand because (92 Ofar lls, weer (p, 7). Lay dre 0. Now p(x} isa continuous nonnegative polynomial function a canbe zero nly tate umber of pins ules isthe nero It follows that o.9=f mone, (a find the mapsitue ofthe polynomial px) = x + 1, and (2) compute the stance da, x) from 3" to x. ton [ nora, SOLUTION. Forpart (a, we have unk p(s the 2 polynomial, This establishes P4. Because al four properties of Denton 3.12 hold the space Py is an inner-produet space with he given inner product. ‘Wemention that Example 3s avery famous inner produc, andthe same definition 4 (a= [ noecae aves an inner product on the space C, of ll continuous real-valued functions ‘With domain ofthe interval 0 $x = 1. The hypothesis of continuity is essential forthe demonstration of as ishownnavane clas. Of use, the is nothing unique about the interval 0== x's I. Any interval a= x = bean be ‘ed ins plae The choice of interval depends on the application, Therefor, de 3) = VB. eine pout wel in Ean 4 we at ean ot i Magnitude ‘The condition (1,7) = Oin the definition ofan inner-prodet space allows usto define the magnitude of a vector, just as we did in Section 1.2 using the dot product. Figure 3.3, Thenotion (sed in Example 4) of distance betnee functions over an interval is very important in advanced mathematic, where itis used in approximating a compliceted function over an interval as closely as possible by a function that is easier to handle. ‘This definition of norm reduces to the usual definition of magnitude of ‘vectors in R* when the dot product is used. Tha is, ly] = "Vv ¥.EXAMPLE 5: SOLUTION EXAMPLE 6 SOLUTION FIGURE 3.3, Graphs of x and» overs x 1. Itis often best, when working with the norm of a vector ¥, to work with IP = (,7)andt introduce the radical inthe Sal stages of the comprtatio, ‘Let V be an inner-produet space. Verify that = Int= Hi for any vector vin V and for any selarr, Weave rein) in mee jag heme = Five. (On taking square roots, we have ry] = [Iv ‘The property of norms in the preceding example can be useful in computing the magnitude of a vector and in establishing relations between ‘magnitudes, as illustrated in the following two examples. Using the standard inner product in find the magnitude of the vector Y= (6, ~12, 6,18, 6), Because v = ~6 the property of norms in Example 5 tells us that 2, 1,3, I = 6VTB = 24, 35 INSEROOUCT SACS (OPTOMA) 235, “The Schwarz and Tangle Inequalities ‘In Section 1.2, we defined the ange @ between two nonzero vectors ¥and w in Robe ie Co ‘The validity of this definition rested on the fact that for v, w € R', we have Iv+W1Dilnd Schwarz egality or. Thisis indeed the case. Just replace every occurence, suchas ¥°W, ofa

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